UNIT - 1

Electrical Drive

Definition: The system which is used for controlling the motion of an electrical machine,
such type of system is called an electrical drive. In other words, the drive which uses the
electric motor is called electrical drive. The electrical drive uses any of the prime movers like
diesel or a petrol engine, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and
electrical motors as a primary source of energy. This prime mover supplies the mechanical
energy to the drive for motion control.

The block diagram of the electrical drive is shown in the figure below. The electrical load like
fans, pumps, trains, etc., consists the electrical motor. The requirement of an electrical load
is determined regarding speed and torque. The motor which suited the capabilities of the
load is chosen for the load drive.

Parts of Electrical Drive

The main parts of the electrical drives are power modulator, motor, controlling unit and
sensing units.Their parts are explained below in details.

Power Modulator – The power modulator regulates the output power of the source. It
controls the power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor transmits the
speed-torque characteristic required by the load. During the transient operations like
starting, braking and speed reversing the excessive current drawn from the source. This
excessive current drawn from the source may overload it or may cause a voltage drop.
Hence the power modulator restricts the source and motor current.

The power modulator converts the energy according to the requirement of the motor e.g. if
the source is DC and an induction motor is used then power modulator convert DC into AC.
It also selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e., motoring or braking.

Control Unit – The control unit controls the power modulator which operates at small
voltage and power levels. The control unit also operates the power modulator as desired. It
also generates the commands for the protection of power modulator and motor. An input
command signal which adjusts the operating point of the drive, from an input to the control
unit.

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Sensing Unit – It senses the certain drive parameter like motor current and speed. It mainly
required either for protection or for closed loop operation.

Advantages of Electrical Drive

The electric drive has very large range of torque, speed and power.

Their working is independent of the environmental condition.

The electric drives are free from pollution.

The electric drives operate on all the quadrants of speed torque plane.

The drive can easily be started and it does not require any refuelling.

The efficiency of the drives is high because fewer losses occur on it.

Choice of an electrical drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important factors
are:

1. Steady state operation requirements: Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed

regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty cycle, quadrants of operation, speed fluctuations if
any, ratings.

2. Transient operation requirement: Values of acceleration and deceleration, starting,

braking and reversing performance.

3. Requirements related to the source: Type of source and its capacity, magnitude of
voltage, voltage fluctuation, power factor, harmonics and their effect on other loads, ability
to accept regenerated power.

4. Capital and running cost, maintenance requirement and life of operation.

5. Space and weight restriction if any.

6. Environment and location.

7. Reliability.

What is an AC Drive?

The type of electric drive which is used for controlling the speed of AC motors (especially 3-
phase induction motors) is known as AC drive. The operation of an AC drive can be
described in the following steps −

Step 1 − AC drive converts input AC supply into DC using rectifier circuit.

Step 2 − Inverts the DC back to the AC using inverter circuit to control the speed of the AC
motor.

AC drive is also known as variable frequency drive (VFD) because it changes the frequency of
the AC supply to control the speed of the AC motor.

What is a DC Drive?

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A type of electric drive which is employed for controlling the speed of a DC motor is known
as DC drive. The DC drive converts the input AC supply to the DC supply output using the
rectifier circuit to control the speed of the DC motors. The DC drives are of two types viz.:
analog DC drive and digital DC drive.

Speed Torque Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Motor:

The circuit equation of a Speed Torque Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Motor whose
armature, having a total of Z conductors, is wound for 2P poles (the brushes divide the
winding into 2a parallel paths), is

Where E is the back emf of the armature given by

From Eqs (1.1) and (1.2) we get

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The torque developed by the motor is given by

Substituting for Ia in Eq. (1.3) from Eq. (1:4) we have

When Td = 0 the corresponding speed N0=Va/(KeΦ) is the no-load speed. The motor
speed decreases as the torque developed increases, resulting in a drooping characteristic.
The speed-torque curves are shown in Fig. 1.3. The figure clearly shows a speed drop of 2 to
3% as the torque varies from no-load to full load.

In dc machines the armature mmf reacts with the field mmf this reaction is known as the
armature reaction. When the effects of the armature reaction are neglected, the flux per
pole of the motor is constant and is independent of load. In normal construction the brushes
are placed in the neutral zone. The armature reaction, though cross magnetising, is followed
by demagnetisation due to saturation. The effect of demagnetisation on the field flux due to
armature flux is clearly shown in Fig. 1.3. The speed drop from no-load to full load decreases,
improving speed regulation.

The effect of additional resistance in the armature circuit is depicted in Fig. 1.4. Speeds in the
range of zero to base speed may be obtained. With a suitable value of ra very slow speeds
are possible, at the cost of efficiency.

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The speed-torque curves for a smooth variation of armature voltage are shown in Fig. 1.5.
They move along the Y-axis (speed axis) following changes in the armature voltage. The field
winding of the motor is supplied from a separate source. The smooth variation of armature
voltage brings about speed control in the zero to base speed range very efficiently. The
motor operates in a constant torque mode. This method of controlling the speed of a
Separately Excited DC Motor using variable voltage to the armature is employed in Ward
Leonard control.

The effect of the variation of field current on the speed-torque characteristic is shown in
Fig. 1.6. The field current is decreased to achieve speeds above base speed when the
armature voltage reaches its rated value. The flux weakening mode is best suited for
constant power applications, since the armature current may be maintained at its rated
value. The torque decreases. In the flux weakening mode the motor cannot be used to
drive constant torque loads as the motor draws increased currents as the speed
increases. This mode is employed to obtain speeds in the range of base speed to twice
base speed. The highest speed attainable by flux weakening is limited by commutation.

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The armature current can remain constant in the complete range of speeds from zero to
twice base speed. Constant torque and constant power modes are shown in Fig. 1.7. The
operation depicted in Fig. 1.7 is possible with shunt motors also by means of a variable
resistance in the field circuit.

Closed Loop Speed Control of Multi Motor Drives:

When mechanical part of the load is of large physical dimension it becomes desirable to
share the load between several motors. For example a rotary printing press usually has
several printing stations which are mechanically coupled by a long drive shaft. Each
section (printing station) is driven by its own motor, which carries most of its load. As
load requirements may be different, the motor ratings may also be different for each
section, although all of them must run at the same speed. Once it is ensured that torque
requirement of each section is met by its own driving motor, the drive shaft has to carry
only small synchronizing torque. Sections (n — 1) and n of such a multi-motor drive arc
shown in Fig. 3.6(b). Section n is coupled to Section (n — 1) by clutch Cn-1, and so on. A
suitable Closed Loop Speed Control of Multi Motor Drives scheme is shown in Fig.
3.6(a). It consists of one common outer speed-loop and one inner torque control loop
for each section. As all sections run at same speed, one speed control loop is enough:
Speed feedback may be obtained from a suitably placed speed sensor. The common
speed controller, through gain constants K1,K2, . . .Kn, sets reference torques for the
closed-loop torque control of sections 1, 2, . . . , n respectively; thus ensuring that the
torques are shared in proportion to motor ratings.

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Such multi-motor drives are also employed in electric and diesel electric locomotives,
rapid transit vehicles and some paper machines. In a locomotive because of different
amount of wear and tear, all wheels do not have the same diameter. Therefore, for a
given speed of train they would revolve at different speeds. Consequently, the driving
motor speeds will also be different.

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In multi-motor drives discussed above various sections of drive are mechanically
coupled through a long shaft. In other class of multi-motor drives, which are employed
in continuous production processes, various sections are not coupled through a long
shaft.

Continuous hot strip rolling mills, fibre spinning mills and paper mills without
mechanical drive shafts are examples of such multi-motor drives. Figure 3.7 depicts an
n stand continuous hot strip rolling mill. Red hot strip simultaneously passes through all
rolling stands. Rollers of each stand, are driven by its own individual motor.

In this scheme ratio of successive reference speeds remains fixed, i.e.

8
where K1, K2, . . , Ku are constants. For any r th rolling stand

As the command reference speed ω*m is changed, all other reference speeds ω*m1 . . .
ω*mn will also change in proportion to ratios given by Eqs. (3.2). With ω*m held
constant, if the speed ratio of any successive stage is altered, it will affect the reference
speeds of all succeeding stages but not of preceding stages.

In scheme of Fig. 3.9, reference speeds are generated in parallel and are given by

where K′1, K′2, . . . , K′n are constants. Here reference speed of any section can be
changed independent of other sections by changing the gain constant associated with it.

UNIT - 2

Four Quadrant Operation of DC Motor

Four Quadrant Operation of any drives or DC Motor means that the machine operates in
four quadrants. They are Forward Braking, Forward motoring, Reverse motoring and
Reverse braking.

A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and Braking. A motor drive capable of
operating in both directions of rotation and of producing both motoring and
regeneration is called a Four Quadrant variable speed drive.

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In motoring mode, the machine works as a motor and converts the electrical energy into
mechanical energy, supporting its motion. In braking mode, the machine works as a
generator and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and as a result, it
opposes the motion. The Motor can work in both, forward and reverse directions, i.e., in
motoring and braking operations.

The product of angular speed and torque is equal to the power developed by a motor.
For the multi-quadrant operation of drives, the following conventions about the signs of
torque and speed are used. When the motor is rotated in the forward direction the
speed of the motor is considered positive. The drives which operate only in one
direction, forward speed will be their normal speed.

The rate of change of speed positively in the forward direction or the torque which
provides acceleration is known as Positive motor torque. In the case of retardation, the
motor torque is considered negative. Load torque is opposite to the positive motor
torque in the direction.

In the I quadrant power developed is positive and the machine is working as a motor
supplying mechanical energy. The I (first) quadrant operation is called Forward
Motoring. II (second) quadrant operation is known as Braking. In this quadrant, the
direction of rotation is positive, and the torque is negative, and thus, the machine
operates as a generator developing a negative torque, which opposes the motion.

The kinetic energy of the rotating parts is available as electrical energy which may be
supplied back to the mains. In dynamic braking, the energy is dissipated in the
resistance. The III (third) quadrant operation is known as the reverse motoring. The
motor works, in the reverse direction. Both the speed and the torque have negative
values while the power is positive.

In the IV (fourth) quadrant, the torque is positive, and the speed is negative. This
quadrant corresponds to the braking in the reverse motoring mode.

Applications of Four Quadrant Operation

1. Compressor, pump and fan type load requires operation in the I quadrant only. As

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their operation is unidirectional, they are called one quadrant drive systems.

2. Transportation drives require operation in both directions.

3. If regeneration is necessary, application in all four quadrants may be required. If not,

then the operation is restricted to quadrants I and III, and thus dynamic braking or
mechanical braking may be required.

4. In hoist drives, a four-quadrant operation is needed.

Performance of Chopper in Steady State Condition:

Assuming Steady State Condition of the chopper, we have during TON

The solution of Eq. 3.89 is

where Io is the current at the starting of TON. At TON = aT, the current is

when the thyristor is OFF, free wheeling takes place and the operation is described by

which has the solution

Again taking t = 0 at the start of TOFF, at the end of TOFF = (1 — a)T the current is

Using these equations

The value of Ia can also be determined. The difference Ia – lo gives the peak to peak

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amplitude of the ripple superimposing the average dc current.

The amplitude of the ripple depends upon the time ratio a. Figure 3.82 depicts the
variation of load current for different values of a. It can be seen from the figure that the
ripple amplitude is maximum at a = 0.5 and decreases for both a > 0.5 and a < 0.5.
These can be derived for d.c. series motor assuming it to be an R-L load using the above
equations. For a separately excited motor, the back emf has to be considered. Assuming
no losses in the motor, E = aVd. In this case,

solving which we get

The current at the end of TON = aT is

from which

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The solution for i shows a linear variation of current. The ripple superimposing the
average dc current becomes triangular. The peak value of the ripple is

The rms value of the current

From Eq. 3.100, we can see that the ripple has a maximum amplitude at a = 0.5. The
ripple makes the load current discontinuous at very low values of load current. This
lower limit of load current is influenced by the type of load. For R-L loads one can go
down to very low values of current if the time constant is sufficiently large. For the back
em( loads discontinuous operation occurs early. The lower limit of load current is high
in this case.

The ripple in the load current can basically be reduced by increasing the chopper
frequency and by introducing an extra inductance in the load circuit.

Motor Rating Various Duty Cycles:

From the point of view of calculation of motor rating various Motor Rating Various Duty
Cycles can be broadly classified as:

Continuous duty.

Fluctuating loads.

Short-time and intermittent duty.

Continuous Duty:

Maximum continuous power demand of the load is ascertained. A motor with next
higher power rating from commercially available ratings is selected. Obviously, motor
speed should also match load’s speed requirements. It is also necessary to check
whether the motor can fulfil starting torque requirement and can continue to drive load
in the face of normal disturbances in power supply system; the latter is generally
assured by the transient and steady-state reserve torque capacity of the motor.

Equivalent Current, Torque and Power Methods for Fluctuating and Intermittent
Loads:

This method can be employed for duties (iii)-(viii). It is based on approximation that
the actual variable motor current can be replaced by an equivalent Ieg which produces
same losses in the motor as actual current. This equivalent current is determined as
follows:

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Motor loss P1 consists of two components constant loss Pc which is independent of load
and consists of core-loss and friction loss; and load dependent copper loss. Thus for a
fluctuating load (Fig. 4.3(a)) consisting of n values of motor currents I1,I2, . . . , In for
duration t1,t2, . . . ,tn respectively, the equivalent current Ieq is given by

If the current varies smoothly over a period T (Fig. 4.3(b)), Eq. (4.16) can be written as

Implicit in above analysis is the assumption that heating and cooling conditions remain
same. If motor runs at a constant speed throughout this operation, heating and cooling
conditions will, in fact, remain same. If speed varies, constant losses will marginally
change.

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Short Time Duty:

In short time duty, time of motor operation is considerably less than the heating time
constant and motor is allowed to cool down to the ambient temperature before it is
required to operate again. If a motor with a continuous duty power rating of Pr is
subjected to a short time duty load of magnitude Pr, then the motor temperature rise
will be far below the maximum permissible value θper and the motor will be highly
underutilized (Fig. 4.4). Therefore, motor can be overloaded by a factor K(K > 1) such
that the maximum temperature rise just reaches the permissible value θper as shown in
Fig. 4.4.

When the duration of running period in a Motor Rating Various Duty Cycles with power
KPr is tr, then from Eq. (4.9)

Note that θss is the steady state temperature rise which will be attained if motor
delivers a power (KPr) on continuous basis, whereas the permissible temperature rise
θper is also the steady state temperature rise attained when motor operates with a
power Pr on continuous basis. If the motor losses for powers Pr and (KPr) be P1r and
P1s, respectively, then from Eq. (4.7)

and Pc is the load independent (constant) loss and Pcu the load dependent loss. Then

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Substituting from Eq. (4.27)

Substituting from Eqs. (4.26) and (4.28) into Eq. (4.25) gives

Equation (4.29) allows the calculation of overloading factor K which can be calculated
when constant and copper losses are known separately.

Intermittent Periodic Duty:

During a period of operation, if the speed changes in wide limits, leading to changes in
heating and cooling conditions, methods of equivalent current, torque or power,
described in the previous section cannot be employed. This section describes methods
useful for such cases.

Let us consider a simple intermittent load, where the motor is alternately subjected to a
fixed magnitude load P′r of duration tr and standstill condition of duration ts (Fig. 4.5).
As motor is subjected to a periodic load, after the thermal steady-state is reached the
temperature rise will fluctuate between a maximum value θmax and a minimum value
θmin. For this load, the Motor Rating Various Duty Cycles should be selected such that
θmax ≤ θper, where θper is the maximum permissible temperature rise of the motor.

From Eq. (4.6), temperature at the end of working (or running) interval will be given by

16
and fall in temperature rise at the end of standstill interval ts will be

where τr and τs are the thermal time constants of motor for working and standstill
intervals. Combining Eqs. (4.30) and (4.31) yields

For full utilization of motor, θmax = θper. Further θper will be the motor temperature
rise when it is subjected to its continuous rated power Pr. Form Eq. (4.7), ratio
θss/θmax will be proportional to losses that would take place for two values of load. If
losses for load values Pr and P′r be denoted by P1r and P1s, then

From Eqs. (4.26), (4.28), (4.32) and (4.33), overloading factor K (= P′r / Pr) is given by

K can be determined from Eq. (4.34) subject to maximum current limitation of dc

motors and breakdown torque constraints of induction and synchronous motors. As
explained earlier, when constant and copper losses are not available separately, α is
replaced by zero in Eq. (4.34).

Load Equalisation in Electrical Drives

Definition: Load equalisation is the process of smoothing the fluctuating load. The
fluctuate load draws heavy current from the supply during the peak interval and also
cause a large voltage drop in the system due to which the equipment may get damage. In
load equalisation, the energy is stored at light load, and this energy is utilised when the
peak load occurs. Thus, the electrical power from the supply remains constant.

The load fluctuation mostly occurs in some of the drives. For example, in a pressing
machine, a large torque is required for a short duration. Otherwise, the torque is zero.
Some of the other examples are a rolling mill, reciprocating pump, planning machines,
electrical hammer, etc.

In electrical drives, the load fluctuation occurs in the wide range. For supplying the peak
torque demand to electrical drives the motor should have high ratings, and also the
motor will draw pulse current from the supply. The amplitude of pulse current gives
rise to a line voltage fluctuation which affected the other load connected to the line.

Determining The Moment Of Inertia Of Flywheel

The moment of inertia of a flywheel can be found by considering a model of the same
flywheel and analysing the equations and the work done on and by it.

17
The flywheel is made out of large circular ring wheels with a robust axle protruding
along either end. The shaft is supported by two permanent supports and is placed on
rolling elements. Also on the shaft or the axle, there consists of a little peg. The mass is
carried by one end of a string that is lightly coiled all around the peg.

The moment of inertia of a flywheel is based on some assumptions we will determine in

this article and by considering the same flywheel during the derivation.

Initially let us have a look at the formula for the moment of inertia of a flywheel. It is
given by the equation,

Where,

I is the flywheel’s moment of inertia, m is the mass of the ring, N determines the rotation
of the flywheel, n determines the winding numbers, h is the weight assembly’s height, g
is as we all know the gravity value i.e., (9.81 m/s) and r is the axle’s radius.

Moreover, it is also determined by the expression,

Derivation

For derivation let us initially discuss the diagram of a flywheel and consider a few
parameters and annotations which are needed during the derivation.

Ploss=mgh

At the same time when the weight came down to a new height the flywheel and the axle
rotated which increased the kinetic energy of the system. The equation for which is
written as,

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Where,

I is the moment of inertia and is the angular velocity of the flywheel.

Moreover, when the flywheel gained kinetic energy the weight coming down also gained
some kinetic energy which is expressed as,

Now,

According to law of conservation of energy,

Ploss= Kflywheel + Kweight + Wfriction

Substituting the values of the attributes in the above equation, the equation becomes as,

Where v is the linear velocity of the weight coming down

Where v is the linear velocity of the weight coming down

UNIT - 3

DC Motor Speed Control using Chopper

In many different applications it is required to control speed of DC motor. Some of the

examples are

· In treadmill machine it is required to vary the speed of motor that used to roll the
belt

19
· The speed of DC motor used in railway engines (traction) has to be varied

· E-bikes, e-bicycles, e-scooters also runs on DC motor and to vary their speed it is
required to control speed of DC motor

· DC motors are also used in portable sewing machine, drill machine etc, in which
speed control of motor is provided for different operation

One of the popular methods of speed control of DC motor is using chopper. Chopper is a
device that gives variable DC output from applied fixed DC input. It simply chops fixed
DC and generates variable DC. Let us first understand how it generates variable DC.

Block Representation of Chopper circuit used to control rotation of DC Motor

As shown in figure the chopper supplies fixed DC voltage to motor. When chopper is ON
motor gets supply but when chopper is off motor does not get the supply. So as shown
in figure let us say chopper is on for Ton time and it is off for Toff time. So depending

20
upon the Ton and Toff time the DC voltage applied to motor is

Vdc = [Ton / (Ton + Toff)] × Vfixed

But Ton + Toff = Ttotal

So Vdc = [Ton / Ttotal] × Vfixed

Here Ton / Ttotal is called duty cycle. So as duty cycle is more the average DC voltage
supplied to motor is more and so speed of motor is increased. So as duty cycle is varied
by varying on and off time of chopper, the speed of motor can be varied.

The given circuit demonstrates one of such chopper circuit using Zero Cross Detector
(ZCD), timer IC NE555 and darlington amplifier TIP122 used as chopper device. The
circuit chops rectified DC output and varies the speed of DC motor.

Circuit Description

· 230V @ 50 Hz AC is applied at the primary of transformer T1 (0-12 VAC, 500 mA).

It’s secondary is connected with AC input terminals of bridge rectifier BR1.

· Rectified output is given to base of transistor Q1 through voltage divider formed

by resistors R1 (1K) & R2 (1K).

· Collector output of Q1 is fed to base of transistor Q2 through R4 (470Ω). Q1 and

Q2 both are connected in switch configuration as shown.

· The output of Q2 is applied at the trigger input of NE555 chip U1. It is configured
in monostable mode. Timing components RV1 (10K pot) and C1 (1 µF) decides width of
output pulse

· Output of U1 is applied to base of darlington transistor TIP122 through current

limiting resistor R6

· The DC motor is connected between rectified output and collector of TIP122. The
emitter of TIP122 is connected to ground

Circuit Operation

Let us understand the circuit operation with the help of waveforms at different points A,
B, C, D, E and F

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Timing Diagram of Signals at various stages of the chopper circuit

· Step down transformer T1 steps down 230 VAC into 12 VAC as shown as
waveform 1 above figure at point A

· This AC input is given to bridge rectifier. Bridge rectifier will produce rectified DC
output as shown in second waveform if above figure at point B

· This rectified output is given to base of transistor Q1. Because transistor Q1 is

connected in switch configuration, when the input at the base becomes lower than 0.7 V
it comes into cutoff and produces very short duration positive pulse at point ‘C’. That is
shown as 3rd waveform in figure

· As this positive pulses are given to Q2 which is again connected in switch

configuration, it will produce negative pulse at point ‘D’ of same width of positive pulse.
This is shown as 4th waveform

· These negative pulses are applied to trigger input of NE555 chip connected in
monostable mode. So it will generate high output every time when it gets this negative
pulse. Its time period can be varied from 0 milisecond to max 10 milisecond using 10 K
pot

· As per the waveforms given in below figure let us understand 2 different cases
with pulse width of NE555 3 ms and 8 ms

· As shown a second waveform in above figure, the NE555 will generate high output
when gets negative pulse at its trigger input. For first case the width of pulse is 3 ms

· Because this pulse is given to base input of TIP122, it is turned ON till pulse is high.
When TIP122 is ON the motor gets chopped rectified output as shown in 3rd waveform
in figure. Out of total 10 ms time, the motor gets DC waveform for 3 ms only

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· So average voltage applied to DC motor is less (as shown in waveform) and its
speed is also less

Timing Diagram of Output Waveforms from the Chopper Circuit

· Thus as time period (width of output pulse) of NE555 is varied from 0 ms to 10

ms, it gives chopped rectified DC wave to motor that will vary its speed from min to
max.

Torque Speed Characteristics of Induction Motor:

From Eq. 1.27 it can be observed that the maximum torque is independent of rotor
resistance. However, the slip at which the maximum torque occurs changes with rotor
resistance. When the rotor resistance is increased, so is the slip for maximum torque,
and the stable operating slip range of the motor increases. Typical Torque Speed
Characteristics of Induction Motor for different values of rotor resistance are shown in
Fig. 1.22. From the figure it is seen that the starting torque can be increased by
increasing the rotor resistance. The maximum torque occurs at starting if the rotor
resistance is increased to a value.

23
 If the
stator impedance is neglected the rotor resistance needs to be increased to a value
equal to the rotor leakage reactance. If the rotor resistance is increased beyond this
value the starting torque decreases. The breakdown torque occurs at slips greater than
one (in the braking region). The starting current decreases and the starting power
factor is better at increased’ values of rotor resistances. The full load slip changes,
facilitating speed control in a limited range when the rotor resistance is varied.
However, efficiency is impaired at high rotor resistances due to increased losses. Rotor
heating is present in an inherently high-resistance rotor.

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Effect of Voltage Variation in Induction Motor:

The speed-torque characteristic of an induction motor can be modified by Effect of

Voltage Variation in Induction Motor. Typical Torque Speed Characteristics of Induction
Motor when supplied from variable voltage at rated frequency are given in Fig. 1.24(a).
They are based on the fact that the induction motor torque (at a given slip) varies as the
square of the voltage. The slip for maximum torque is independent of voltage. The full
load torque occurs at different slips when the voltage is varied. This renders the speed
control of induction motors feasible over a limited range by supply voltage variation.
However, the torque capability of the motor decreases at low voltages, because of
reduction in the air gap flux. The power factor decreases. The motor draws heavy
currents to develop a given torque at low voltages. The current drawn at different
voltages is shown in Fig. 1.24(a), along with the torque developed at rated current at
different voltages.

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Pole Changing in Induction Motor:

The speed-torque curve of an induction motor can be modified by an armature winding

reconnected to give different sets of poles. When the number of Pole Changing in
Induction Motor, so does the speed. The type of connection decides the permissible
loading at constant torque or constant power. This method of Pole Changing in
Induction Motor is suitable for squirrel cage motors as their rotors can adopt to any
number of poles. No reconnection of the rotor winding is required. If, on the other hand,
a slip ring rotor is used, it must be reconnected to different sets of poles. The
consequent pole winding is employed for reconnection. The coil pitch effectively
changes at different speeds.

Injection of Voltage into the Rotor Circuit:

The torque-speed characteristic of an induction motor can be modified by injecting a

voltage into the rotor circuit (wound rotor) of an induction motor. The voltage injected
must be at slip frequency. If the voltage injected opposes the rotor voltage, the effective
rotor current decreases, which instantly affects the torque. The reduced torque cannot
drive the load. The rotor speed decreases to a value which ensures sufficient induced
rotor voltage and hence rotor current to drive the load. If, on the other hand, the
injected voltage aids the rotor voltage, it results in an increased rotor current. The
increased torque developed accelerates the rotor to a speed at which sufficient rotor
current flows to drive the load. The speed torque curves for the two cases are shown in
Fig. 1.30. For comparison, the torque-speed curve of a short circuited rotor with zero
injected voltage is also shown. From the figures it can be inferred that it is possible to
change the torque capability of the motor by changing the injected voltage. When the
injected voltage opposes the rotor current torque capability decreases, whereas it
increases when the injected voltage aids the rotor voltage.

26
Variation of Supply Frequency:

The speed of a synchronously rotating magnetic field is a function of supply frequency.

Therefore, by varying the supply frequency the synchronous speed and hence the rotor
speed can be varied. To avoid saturation due to an increase in the flux at low
frequencies, the applied voltage to the motor is also varied so that the flux remains
constant at its rated value at all frequencies. To achieve this a simple method is to vary
both voltage and frequency so that V/f is constant. The torque-speed curves with
constant V/f are depicted in Fig. 1.31.

There is a depletion of torque at low frequencies. The motor has reduced torque
capability and overload capacity. This is because of the dominant effect of stator
resistance at low frequencies.

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 v

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 v

The resistance drop become appreciable as compared to the applied voltage. This
causes a depletion of flux, whose constancy cannot be maintained at low frequencies.
The torque developed with V/f constant is

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To have the same torque and overload capacity at all frequencies it is necessary to
compensate for the stator (resistance) drop in order to keep E/f constant. V/f is no
longer constant since it increases as the frequency decreases. The torque developed in
this case is given by

Torque Speed Characteristic of an Induction Motor

Torque Speed Characteristic is the curve plotted between the torque and the speed of
the induction motor. We have already discussed the torque of the induction motor in
the topic Torque Equation of an Induction motor. The equation of the torque is given as
shown below:

At the maximum torque, the speed of the rotor is expressed by the equation shown

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below:

The maximum torque is independent of the rotor resistance. But the exact location of
the maximum torque Ʈmax is dependent on it. The greater, the value of the R2, the
greater is the value of the slip at which maximum torque occurs. As the rotor resistance
increases, the pullout speed of the motor decreases. In this condition, the maximum
torque remains constant.

UNIT - 4

What is a Three Phase Inverter : Working & Its Applications

An inverter is a power electronic device, used to change the power from one form to
other like DC to AC at the necessary frequency & voltage o/p. The classification of this
can be done based on the source of supply as well as related topology in the power
circuit. So these are classified into two types (voltage source inverter) and CSI (current
source inverter). The VSI type inverter has a DC voltage source with less impedance at
the input terminals of an inverter. The CSI type inverter has a DC current source with
high impedance. This article discusses an overview of a three-phase inverter like a
circuit, working and it’s applications.

What is Three Phase Inverter?

Definition: We know that an inverter converts DC to AC. We have already discussed

different types of inverters. A three-phase inverter is used to change the DC voltage to
three-phase AC supply. Generally, these are used in high power and variable frequency
drive applications like HVDC power transmission.

In a 3 phase, the power can be transmitted across the network with the help of three

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different currents which are out of phase with each other, whereas in single-phase
inverter, the power can transmit through a single phase. For instance, if you have a
three-phase connection in your home, then the inverter can be connected to one of the
phases.

Working Principle

A three-phase inverter working principle is, it includes three inverter switches with
single-phase where each switch can be connected to load terminal. For the basic control
system, the three switches operation can be synchronized so that single switch works at
every 60 degrees of basic o/p waveform to create a line-to-line o/p waveform including
six steps. This waveform includes a zero voltage stage among the two sections like
positive &negative of the square-wave. Once PWM techniques based on the carrier are
applied to these waveforms, then the basic shape of the waveform can be taken so that
the third harmonic including its multiples will be canceled.

Three Phase Inverter Design/Circuit Diagram

The circuit diagram of a three-phase inverter is shown below. The main function of this
kind of inverter is to change the input of DC to the output of three-phase AC. A basic 3
phase inverter includes 3 single phase inverter switches where each switch can be
connected to one of the 3 load terminals.

Three Phase Inverter Applications

The applications of this type of inverter include the following.

These inverters are utilized in variable frequency drive applications

Used in high-power applications like HVDC power transmission.

A three-phase square wave inverter is used in a UPS circuit and a low-cost solid-state
frequency charger circuit.

What is Slip Ring Induction Motor and Its Working

An induction motor is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. It is most widely used for industrial applications due to its self-
starting attribute. Slip ring induction motor is one of the types of 3-phase induction
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motor and is a wound rotor motor type. Because of various advantages like low initial
current, high starting torque, and improved power factor, it is used in applications that
require high torque, cranes, and elevators. The rotor windings consist of more number
of windings, higher induced voltage, and less current compared to the squirrel-cage
rotor. The windings are connected to external resistance through slip rings, which helps
to control the torque/speed of a motor.

What is a Slip Ring Induction Motor?

Definition: A slip ring induction motor is referred to as an asynchronous motor as the

speed at which it operates is not equal to the synchronous speed of a rotor. The rotor of
this type of motor is wound type. It comprises of a cylindrical laminated steel core and a
semi-closed groove at the outer boundary to accommodate a 3-phase insulated winding
circuit.

Construction

Before we discuss the working principle of slip ring Induction motor, knowing the slip
ring induction motor construction is important. So let’s begin with the construction
which includes two parts: Stator and Rotor.

Stator

Rotor

Stator

The stator of this motor comprises of various slots that are arranged to support the
construction of a 3-phase winding circuit connecting to a 3-phase AC source.

Rotor

The rotor of this motor consists of a cylindrical core with steel laminations. Besides this,
the rotor has parallel slots to accommodate 3-phase windings. The windings in these
slots are arranged at 120 degrees to each other. This arrangement can reduce noise and
avoid irregular pausing of a motor.

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Working of Slip Ring Induction Motor

This motor runs on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. When a
stator winding is excited with an AC supply, the stator winding produces magnetic flux.
Based on faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the rotor winding gets induced and
generates a current of magnetic flux. This induced EMF develops torque that enables the
rotor to rotate.

However, the phase difference between the voltage and current do not meet the
requirements to generate high starting torque as torque developed is not unidirectional.
The external resistance of high value is connected with the circuit to improve the phase
difference of a motor. As a result, inductive reactance and phase difference between I
and V is reduced. Consequently, this reduction helps the motor to generate high stating
torque. The slip ring induction motor diagram is shown below.

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35