PROFESSIONAL AND BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION

This new edition of Professional and Business Communication is an ideal core com-
munications textbook for students on business, management, and professional
courses preferring a practice-focused and colloquial approach that combines
accessibility with key theory. Techniques and processes detailed in the book
include planning and preparing written communication, effective structures
in documents, diverse writing styles, managing face-to-face interactions, using
visual aids, delivering presentations, and organising effective meetings.
The third edition of this popular text has been thoroughly revised and updated
to cover the dramatic shifts in communication practices that have been driven
by remote working and increased technology use. It explores the current and
likely future impact of these changes on communication practices, both for good
(borderlessness; flexibility) and bad (isolation; burnout; fatigue) and looks at con-
temporary trends and future developments. This edition has also been revised to
include even more examples, cases, tasks, activities, and discussion topics, with
pedagogical features designed to aid international students. This popular text
(and the accompanying website) will continue to support students on business,
management, and professional courses for years to come.

Peter Hartley is Visiting Professor at Edge Hill University, UK, National

Teaching Fellow, and an independent educational consultant, with longstanding
interests in communication and organisational behaviour and the application of
new technologies in both educational and commercial organisations.

Helena Knapton is Learning and Teaching Lead in the Faculty of Education as

well as a Senior Lecturer in Education delivering on the PGCertHE at Edge Hill
University, UK. Her main research interests are graduate employability and the
development of professional identity amongst academic colleagues, particularly
those who are new to Higher Education.

Susie Marriott is Senior Lecturer in Marketing and Director of Employability

& Enterprise in the Business School at Edge Hill University, UK. She also works
as co-creator of live projects with third sector clients to simulate brand and social
marketing campaigns for both Undergraduate and Masters programmes.
With specialist expertise in assistive technologies, she is co-ordinator for
Supporting Learners with Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD) across the
Business School.
PROFESSIONAL
AND BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
Personal Strategies for
the Post-Digital World

Third Edition

Peter Hartley
Helena Knapton
Susie Marriott
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only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2001
Second edition published by Routledge 2015
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550
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CONTENTS

Acknowledgments x

Introduction 1
Introduction 1
Do we need another book on professional and business communication? 2
Our aims 3
Why do we need to ‘rethink’ communication? 4
Communication working well? 7
Improving communication – using evidence and research 9
What does communication involve? 11
How this book is organised 14
And finally 14
References 15

PART 1
HOW WE UNDERSTAND AND ANALYSE THE WAYS WE
COMMUNICATE IN ORGANISATIONS 17

1 Developing your communication: Deciding where to start 19

Introduction 19
Reviewing your objectives and goals 20
Adopting learning strategies to improve your communications:
review, plan, and improve 25
Choosing appropriate communication tools 32
References 35

2 How should we analyse communication? 37

Introduction 37
Communication and action 37
Different views of communication 39
Analysing communication 40
And so to basic principles 44
v
References 50


Contents 3 What does communication mean? 51
Introduction 51
What are the different codes we use to communicate? 52
Understanding human language 53
Nonverbal codes 58
Possibilities offered by new technology 64
References 65

4 Communication context 1: organisational culture and structure 67

Introduction 67
Organisational culture and communication 68
Major models of organisational culture 71
Results 73
Contrasting different models of organisational culture 74
How can we define organisational structure? 81
References 86

5 Communication context 2: The new technology landscape 88

Introduction 88
Key phases of workplace development linked to technology 89
Technology roles 90
Important technology trends 94
Key issues and questions 94
And finally 109
References 110

PART 2
PRESENTING INFORMATION: EFFECTIVE METHODS AND MEDIA 113

6 How should we plan and organise professional written

communication? 115
Introduction 115
How effective is written communication in your workplace? 116
Where do you start? 117
Why is structuring information so important in professional
communication? 122
Defining objectives 124
When the objective is to persuade 125
Methods and principles for structuring information 128
Structuring devices in written documents 136
Matching structure to objectives 137
References 139

7 What is an effective writing style? 140

Introduction 140
What do we need to “fix” in business writing? 141
vi What is “good style” in professional writing? 143
 The rise of Plain English 149 Contents
Developments in plain language 150
But is Plain English always the answer? 152
Applying plain language strategies 153
References 161

8 Effective design and visual aids 162

Introduction 162
Why is effective design and layout now such an important aspect of
effective writing? 163
Making documents accessible to all readers 164
What are the main design features of business documents? 165
What do business writers need to know about typography? 166
Page layout and document structure 169
When and how do you need to incorporate a visual aid into a business
document? 172
Presentations 187
References 188

9 Effective documents 189

Introduction 189
Underpinning principles 190
Other general considerations: 192
Document designs reflect organisational structures and culture 192
Different types of documents 194
Email 194
Reports 198
Types of report 199
Report style 203
Letters 203
Fax 206
Writing online 207
Effective communication in the online world 207
How to write a blog 209
References 212

PART 3
EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL AND GROUP COMMUNICATION 213

10 Effective interpersonal communication: Defining interpersonal

skills in an information age 215
Introduction 215
What does effective interpersonal communication involve? 216
What do we mean by interpersonal skills? 218
What are the most important interpersonal skills? 220
Nonverbal communication 221
Using assertive behaviour 229 vii
Popular theories to improve your communication 230
Contents Can we believe this (and any other) popular theory? 232
The role of new technology in interpersonal communication 233
Becoming “mindwise” and putting the skills together 233
References 239

11 How do interpersonal skills work in practice? 240

Introduction 240
Conversations in the office – the case of the missing service engineer 241
Thinking about difference 247
Supportive communication 247
Managing difficult conversations 248
When organisations provide the script… 249
Communication and interviews 250
Communication in the selection interview 251
When cultural differences make the difference 256
Organisation and structure in the selection interview 257
Overall structure 257
Question sequences 257
Communication and feedback in the appraisal interview 259
Defining the skills of feedback 261
References 263

12 How can we organise effective meetings? 264

Introduction 264
What sort of meetings are these? 265
What makes meetings effective? 270
Developing and reporting the agenda 272
Planning more effective meetings: procedures and techniques to consider 276
Structured problem-solving 279
Encouraging group innovation 281
Changing decision-making 281
Comparing group methods 282
Virtual meetings 282
References 285

13 Effective presentations 287

Introduction 287
Why are oral presentations important? 288
Planning the presentation 290
Presentation as process or event? 291
The importance of structure in presentations 293
Critical issues and skills in presentations 297
Presentation technology 299
Reflecting on your use of software like PowerPoint 300
Alternative presentation strategies 301
Using visual slides which engage the audience 302
Virtual presentations 303
viii References 307
14 Effective teams 308 Contents
Introduction 308
We need a team! 309
What makes a team? 309
Group and team processes 312
Group development 312
Understanding leadership 315
Leadership and management 318
Problem-solving and decision-making 324
Communication and decision-making 324
Inter-group relationships 326
So how can we develop more effective teams and working groups? 328
New technologies and team behaviour 330
Final words on self-managed teams 332
References 333

PART 4
FUTURE-GAZING 337

15 Change and future-gazing 339

Introduction 339
What are the different types of change? 340
Strategies for change 343
Evolving scenarios and the implications for communication 345
References 348

16 Planning your future 349

Introduction 349
Proactive professional development 351
Recognising your own professional and personal boundaries, (public
and private spheres) and managing your digital ID 353
Final words on the future 359
References 359

Index 361

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to previous co-authors: Clive Bruckmann (first edition) and Peter

Chatterton (2nd edition). Clive sadly passed away before the second edition was
planned; we wish Peter well in his retirement and look forward to his memoirs.
Thanks to Dawne Irving-Bell for assembling the current team. And thanks to
all her colleagues in the Centre for Learning and Teaching at Edge Hill University
for their support and expertise over the years.
Thanks to all the staff at Routledge for their support, expertise, and patience.
Thanks to all our former and current colleagues and students, too numerous
to mention, who have inspired us and asked all the awkward questions which we
have tried to answer in this book.
This book is dedicated to the next generations of future communicators: espe-
cially Jasmine, Jenson, Jackson, Eddie, Alexander, Gregor, Phoebe, Finlay, and
Sophia.


INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Communication is complex and always affected by the social context so we can-

not offer a definitive approach which will always work (beware any books or
courses which do offer this!). We can offer you approaches and techniques which
have been shown to increase your chances of success.
Throughout this book, we invite you to apply our ideas to your own situation.
An obvious exercise here is to consider how many of the principles we offer apply
to your organisation, and to what extent. For example, what evidence do you
have that your senior management are committed to fostering communication?
If not, then what effect does this have on the rest of the organisation?
We analyse how people communicate within business and professional organ-
isations and how this communication is changing.
This book aims to help you reflect upon and improve the way you communi-
cate in professional and business settings.
We are confident it will help if you identify with at least one of the following
descriptions.
Are you:

• an undergraduate or postgraduate student aiming for a career in business or

a professional context?
• an undergraduate or postgraduate student with ambitions to work for your-
self and/or assemble a portfolio career?
• working in an organisation in the early stages of your career?
• someone who has been working in organisations for some years and wants to
refresh your ideas on “good communication”?
• managing a team in an organisation?
• wondering how new technology is reshaping communication in organisations
like yours and thinking about how you need to respond?
1

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-1
 We have also developed a website to give you:
Introduction
• updated comments and suggestions for each chapter.
• further links and sources.

Technology is changing so fast that no book can be completely up-to-date.

Make sure you check the website when you are following up specific ideas.

Do we need another book on professional

and business communication?

Yes.
For six reasons:

1 The legacy of the pandemic.

As well as the devastation and personal loss many of us experienced, the pan-
demic forced us all to change our professional and working practices. The long-
term effects of these changes are not yet clear. We identify significant changes
and discuss developments which have yet to be fully resolved. For example, many
organisations have now embraced virtual or hybrid working and abandoned tra-
ditional offices; others have insisted that their staff return to the workplace; oth-
ers have moved to flexible arrangements with different degrees of staff choice
(see Chapter 5).

2 Ever-increasing pace of change.

Even before the pandemic forced “overnight change”, we experienced increasing

pace of change in the social and economic climate and in the use of computer
technology. Analysing detailed economic changes is beyond the scope of this
book but we highlight relevant aspects of the general economic/social context –
this obviously influences organisational communication.

3 Further development of new computer technology.

We emphasise the potential of new technology. As this book was going through
final editing and production, we saw major developments in applications sup-
ported by artificial intelligence (AI), including the main office software we all use
everyday (see the website for updates). Other claims regarding a new phase of
computer applications – “the Metaverse” – mean that we must all develop a more
2 sophisticated understanding of computer technology and its applications.
 There are also significant differences in different parts of the world. For 
example, which country is widely acknowledged as the ‘world leader in high- Introduction
tech mobile money’? See our answer on the website.

4 The need to review and revise basic principles.

You can find fundamental principles in virtually every textbook on communica-

tion – but do these need refining or updating in the light of new technology?
For example, how do you define an “audience”? Nowadays anything you
say in public or at a meeting could be on the internet in a matter of minutes
thanks to social media and smartphones. You have always had to assume that
you are talking to multiple audiences, as there will be sub-groups in any
audience, but now you also have to consider that some of these will not even
be in the room.
As speaker or workshop leader, this gives you both challenges and opportuni-
ties. For example, you can use the “back-channel” or chat function to increase
dialogue between presenter and audience. Only a few years ago, many organisa-
tions invested in special handsets – “clickers” – so that the audience could respond
to questions and see results onscreen. Now you only need software available to
anyone with a suitable laptop, tablet, or smartphone.

5 Information and communication overload.

The notion of information overload is not new but the growth of new communi-
cation channels has made this problem much more serious. How can we manage
this, both for ourselves and for the people we work with?

6 Online media are not the “answer to everything”.

We did consider moving this text to online media. In the end, we decided on a
combination of book plus online support. This combination offers some advan-
tages in terms of flexibility and access, although we may not be able to say that
with quite the same conviction in a few years.

Our aims

We offer you suggestions and techniques to improve the way you communicate.
Communication is complex and always affected by the social context so we
cannot offer a definitive approach which will always work (beware any books or
courses which do offer this!). We can offer you approaches and techniques which
have been shown to increase your chances of success. 3
 We analyse how people communicate within business and professional organ-
Introduction isations and how this communication is changing. Previous editions of this book
had a sharper focus on commercial ‘business’ organisations – we have broadened
the scope of this book for a couple of reasons:

• our main ideas and principles apply equally to non-commercial and voluntary
sectors, and to small, medium and large enterprises (SMEs).
• organisations have tended to converge in the way they operate, especially
when it comes to new technology. For example, Microsoft 365 is now used
by corporations and businesses of all types and sizes, by educational institu-
tions at all levels (all staff and students), and by individual professionals.

We focus on communication by individuals and groups within and across the

organisation and do not say much about external communication (advertising,
public relations etc.). But all the principles we discuss can be applied to both
internal and external communication. For example:

• we emphasise the importance of understanding how different audiences may

have very different perspectives on the same message.
• we highlight the importance of plain/clear language.
• we underline the significance of careful planning and a clear strategy in for-
mal communication.

Why do we need to ‘rethink’ communication?

The world has changed dramatically since the last version of this book (Hartley
and Chatterton, 2015). Apart from unforeseen catastrophes such as the pan-
demic, the global economic crisis, and the war in Ukraine, advances in technol-
ogy have brought fundamental changes in the ways we live and work.
Consider the following headlines – all paraphrased from radio and news
broadcasts over a couple of days in late 2022. None of these would have made
immediate sense to readers of our previous editions:

• Facebook and the true meaning of “meta”.

• Cryptocurrency firm going green.
• Nano ink solar cells allow tech to charge in any light.
• Smart glasses allow deaf people to “see” conversations with subtitles.
• Meet the metaverse: creating real value in a virtual world.

All these stories have important implications for business and professional communi-
4 cation and activity. How many did you recognise? See the website for further details.
Among the most important trends are:
Developments in computing power and applications 
Introduction
Developments in areas like machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) mean
that we can no longer regard computers just as “fast number crunchers” or just as
devices to support ever-expanding communication networks. They are develop-
ing new capacities and potential with implications for all of us, as illustrated by
the recent book which explains ‘how computers have become creative writers’
(Sharples and Pérez y Pérez, 2022)

The continuing growth of mobile computing

Industrial experts in 2012 forecasted that internet traffic would “grow four-fold
over the next four years” fuelled by the growth of mobile computing. This rate of
growth has accelerated – see the statistics in Chapter 5.

The rise of social media

Many organisations now take social media very seriously as they recognise
opportunities for new relationships with their customers and their staff. For
example, consider recent trends in television advertising, especially around
major holidays – the focus is no longer to sell products but to persuade the
audience to go to the relevant website where the “real” promotion of the
product is located.
Growing sales of televisions with built-in internet forces further changes.
This is an example of the ‘internet of things’ – internet connections are built
into devices to enable data communications and new facilities. And we now have
the “internet of bodies” promoted as a major growth area for the next decade
(see Chapter 5).
The growth of social media has also seen a corresponding growth in people’s
willingness to share much of their lives online. Does this mean that we have to
modify our approach to personal relationships?

But not everything has changed

While we have experienced dramatic change, we must also remember important
principles which have not changed. We can explain this by revisiting two exam-
ples from our first edition in 2000:

• in a business speech, Gerald Ratner described some of his company’s cheaper

jewellery products as “crap”, suggesting that others would not last as long as
a supermarket sandwich. He did not anticipate reports in the national press
the following day. The immediate effect on sales was actually positive – cus-
tomers looked for cheap bargains – but the publicity created an image which 5
the company could not counteract when the economy dipped. People did not
 want to buy from a store with a reputation for “cheap rubbish”. Sales slumped
Introduction and the company never recovered.
the irony was that Ratner had used these remarks before in speeches, and
been quoted in the financial press. But this time his comments made the
front pages of popular newspapers. As he later reflected: “Because of one
ill-judged joke, 25,000 people lost their jobs” (quoted in Tibballs, 1999,
page 192).
in the next few years, the phrase “‘doing a Ratner” became a popular descrip-
tion of a senior executive making ill-judged comments with damaging con-
sequences. Ratner did manage to “rise again” through a new company – you
can find him on YouTube discussing his experience.
• the British railway company claimed that many trains were having trouble
with the “type of snow” falling at the time (1991). This was technically true
– weather conditions were very unusual. But this became a newspaper head-
line – “British Rail blames the wrong type of snow”. This phrase stuck in the
media and public consciousness. The company should have realised that this
sort of explanation would not be taken seriously by a public already critical of
the railways’ poor punctuality and reliability.
Moving onto the present day – this phrase is still used and recognised in the
UK as the classic example of a lame excuse.

These examples show the long-lasting impact of careless communication. They

still work as examples of important communication problems. And they illus-
trate important principles which are independent of technological change, for
example:

• if your message can be captured or summarised in a memorable phrase. This

may “stick” for a very long time.
• messages are simplified and generalised as they are passed on. Ratner made
his “crap” comment about one of his brands but all his brands suffered the
same fate by association.
• messages are always interpreted in context, as illustrated by the changing
reactions to Ratner’s description and the general dismissal of the “wrong
snow” explanation.

If these events happened today, the overall impact and damage to reputation
would be similarly memorable. But it would happen much quicker – initially
through social media. Ratner’s quotes and messages would be on the internet
while he was talking, never mind the next day. And he would not have been able
to repeat his remarks and go unnoticed. The same would happen with the railway
6 example. We would doubtless be able to enjoy online videos of both Ratner and
the railway spokesperson as they unwittingly placed foot in mouth.
 Recent examples illustrate the power and speed of new media. In his book 
and TED talk, Jon Ronson provides case studies of individuals who sent (what Introduction
they thought were) private messages which were shared and went viral. Their
messages were widely condemned for their insensitivity, resulting in loss of jobs,
careers, and personal reputation, most of which could not be “rescued” (Ronson,
2015). A recent example was widely publicised as we were revising this chapter:
after a TV interview described as “robust”, the presenter used a swear word to
describe the politician in an “off-air remark”. This clip appeared on YouTube and
the presenter was suspended (Youngs, 2022).
We said in previous editions that the boundaries between internal and exter-
nal communication are sometimes difficult to draw. This is even more complex
today. For example, we have all taught in higher education institutions for many
years. We are now very conscious that anything we say and/or do in the class-
room could be available for public inspection at any time, thanks to the mobile
phone. We know examples of serious misuse, including some staff being bullied
online by students. While new media offer major advantages, they also offer new
opportunities for negative and abusive behaviour.
We also said in 2000 that the most important external communicators in
any company are the employees, as they determine the company image in their
interactions with customers. This is still true.
We are not concentrating on “corporate communication”, where managers
take responsibility for strategic planning, managing company identity, and pub-
lic relations. This perspective tends to concentrate on communications manage-
ment. We shall refer to these issues but we are concentrating on communication
as a process in which all employees participate.

Communication working well?

If good communication is important and can offer tangible benefits, then why can
we find so many examples where it does not seem to work effectively? Why do so
many organisations seem to ignore longstanding research into leading companies
with reputations for effective communication?
Back in 2000, we found research consistently highlighting factors listed below
(e.g. Tourish, 1997):​

Are these factors still the key ones?

More recent research offers similar recipes but would highlight the significance
of new technology to both enable and influence the impact of communication.
And a key development is the degree of interactivity available. Social media allow
a much greater degree of two-way/multiple-way communication and this pre- 7
sents challenges and opportunities for organisations.
 Table 0.1 Factors in effective organizational communication
Introduction
Factor Explanation Our comment

Management Senior management must commit to the This is still a very

commitment importance of communication and act important factor.
accordingly.
Other levels of management must
share this commitment. All managers
must act in ways which confirm their
communication.
Communication training is given high
priority and is well supported.
Two-way There must be an effective balance The focus on action is
communication between downward and upward still critical here.
communication. Surveys of employee
opinion must lead to action plans and
visible results.
Face-to-face Wherever possible, communication This is now more complex
communication is delivered face-to-face to allow for because of the growth of
immediate feedback and discussion. virtual interactions, as we
discuss later.
Messages are Management recognise what information Again, this factor is
well-structured to employees need to know and make still critical. And we
meet the audience sure that they receive it in the most now have many more
needs appropriate form. channels available.
New technology is Many companies have made an enormous The technology
used to speed up investment in new technology which landscape is now more
communication. enables them to spread messages very complex as we see in
quickly across dispersed sites and offices. Chapter 5.

Throughout this book, we invite you to apply our ideas to your own situation.
An obvious exercise here is to consider how many of the principles above apply to
your organisation, and to what extent. For example, what evidence do you have
that your senior management are committed to fostering communication? If not,
then what effect does this have on the rest of the organisation?
Organisations may ignore communication because it is time-consuming and
sometimes difficult, especially when the organisation is going through a bad time.
Again, an example from 2000 is still depressingly topical. A major British retail chain
responded to a significant drop in profits by dramatic cost-cutting and management
redundancies. Staff were quoted as “furious” at the “insensitive manner” in which
this was done; the process was described by one as “barbaric”. Assuming this press
8 coverage was fair comment, what effect did this have on the long-term development
of relationships and communication in that company? What if the press coverage was
not representative of staff feelings? Does the company have effective internal com- 
munication which could counteract the public criticism? Introduction
In the late summer and autumn of 2022, UK media focused on the aftermath
of the death of Queen Elizabeth II and the accession of King Charles III. One
sub-story that received attention was the fate of staff employed from Charles’
previous title and position. They received emails about likely redundancies dur-
ing a thanksgiving service for the late Queen, while many were preparing for
the Queen’s funeral. A typical UK media headline was “‘King Charles’ staff left
heartbroken after they’re axed during church service for the Queen” (from The
Sun). The timing of this announcement was described as “heartless”.
Although communication is important, we must always recognise that it is not
a universal cure. We cannot turn a message about redundancy into good news by
changing the words or tone. But organisations should respect their employees and
treat them fairly and honestly – communication can either support or destroy
these obligations.

Improving communication – using

evidence and research

In this book, we show how communication can “work” not just by analysing what
happens when people communicate within organisations but also by suggesting
techniques and strategies which can make communication more effective. This
makes two important assumptions, that:
• we know enough about what happens in different types of organisations.
• techniques and strategies which work in one situation can be applied equally
well in others.
Unfortunately, we can question both assumptions.
We try wherever possible to back up claims with research evidence, but there
is not enough research on everyday events in organisations. Some important pro-
cesses are under-researched. For example, do we know enough about the organi-
sational politics which can affect organisational change and development? This
has important implications for communication (Buchanan and Badham, 2020)
– the success or failure of a proposal at a business meeting may depend more on
political manoeuvring than on the clarity of the proposal!
There are also problems with the balance of research in some areas. For exam-
ple, Steve Duck suggested that researchers have been less willing to look at the
negative side of (personal) relationships. We need to know much more about the
impact of events such as deception, hurtful messages, gossip, boring communi-
cation, and so on (Duck, 2010). There is now much more research on this but
there are still important gaps and limitations. On a broader scale, we can find 9
much more research on large organisations in western cultures than on, say,
 small businesses in Asian cultures. These imbalances make it difficult to general-
Introduction ise. Problems of generalisation also apply to techniques and strategies.
Because of these limitations, you should approach all the recommendations in
this book as hypotheses – as generalisations to be tested and not as absolute or bind-
ing truths. Even findings which are based on fairly substantial evidence are never
100% reliable. For another longstanding example, John Kirkman researched
the reactions of scientists to papers which were rewritten using the plain lan-
guage principles which we summarise and review later in this book. The sci-
entists clearly preferred the rewritten examples, feeling that they were “more
interesting” and also that the author had a “better-organised mind”. Although
this positive reaction was strong, it was not universal – nearly 70% agreed that
the rewritten examples were better and 75% agreed that the author was better
organized. (Turk and Kirkman, 1989, page 17ff). In other words, a small but
significant minority did not agree with the changes.
Deciding what is appropriate language is not just a simple technical problem –
all sorts of social issues and pressures may be relevant. We know one consultant
who produced a beautifully written plain language report for a major national
organisation. He was asked to revise it to make it look “more complicated” and
“academic” so it would “impress” the government department who commis-
sioned it. These issues of context and audience will recur regularly as we look at
different types and levels of communication.
Consider your context and situation carefully before you apply techniques or con-
cepts from this (or from any other) text on communication. You should also try to
check the most recent research – many topics we cover in this book are both contro-
versial and subject to social change. For a simple example, suppose you are chairing a
meeting and one of your colleagues takes out their smartphone to respond to a text.
Is this appropriate behaviour in this context? A survey of American business profes-
sionals we came across in 2015 found very different reactions, depending on age and
gender. Men were much more likely to judge it as “OK” than women; older profes-
sionals were more likely to see this behaviour as “rude” or “unprofessional”. Have
social norms changed on this?
Apart from changes in expectations and behaviour over time (which we
expect will become more frequent), there is a final very good reason for treating
all our statements and suggestions as hypotheses to be tested in your context.
Superficial appearances which organisations present may be misleading –

the world of business isn’t always what it pretends to be. Things aren’t as rational, well-
organised and well-oiled as we’re told they are.
(Vermeulen, 2010)

10 You can say the same for all organisational sectors. We may assume that others
are behaving openly, sensibly, fairly, and honestly – but these are assumptions
that we need to check. Discrimination of various sorts can easily be found in 
many workplaces. For example, Buchanan and Badham described “sex-role ste- Introduction
reotyping, the systematic underestimation of women, and the resultant hostility”
as “widespread” behaviour in organisations (Buchanan and Badham, 2008, page
151). How much change has there been?
Sheryl Sandberg, CEO of Facebook, often asks the audience at her talks
whether they have been called “too aggressive” at work:
I’ve never seen more than 5% of men raise their hands. Every woman I know, particularly
the senior ones, has been called aggressive at work.
(quote from an interview in The Guardian Weekend, 5/4/14)
Sandberg’s bestselling book – Lean In – offered suggestions to women on how to
overcome such structural biases in the workplace (Sandberg, 2013, 2014). At the
campaigning website – http://leanin​.org – you can find the report of “the largest
study on the state of women in corporate America”. The 2022 edition:
focuses on how the pandemic has changed what women want from their
companies, including the growing importance of opportunity, flexibility,
employee well-being, and diversity, equity, and inclusion.
There is evidence of positive change but we cannot afford to be complacent (as
in debates in the UK over “everyday sexism” – Bates, 2014) or any other area of
social discrimination.

What does communication involve?

As we see in Chapter 1, communication can be defined in rather different ways.

For example, we can define it as:
shared meaning created among two or more people through verbal and nonverbal
transaction
(Daniels and Spiker, 1994, page 27)

This emphasises sharing ideas and/or information. Ideally, at the end of the pro-
cess, all parties involved share the same ideas and information. What are the
important factors which will either assist or detract from achieving this goal? We
emphasise some important factors which are often neglected in practice, includ-
ing for example:

Assumptions and expectations

Throughout the book, we aim to identify biases which can distort our thinking 11
and “myths” about communication and behaviour in the workplace. Fortunately,
 there is a growing literature on these topics (e.g. Carvill and MacRae, 2023)
Introduction which we should all put on our future reading list.

Purpose and strategy

The “art” of communication is finding the most effective means of sharing ideas
and information. We need to study how people choose and develop strategies
and tactics for sharing ideas and information. Implicit in this is the idea of a
communicative purpose or objective, such as informing or persuading. Many
problems in communication arise from unclear or inappropriate purposes or
strategies.
We also need to consider how these purposes are expressed. For example,
objectives may be found in the organisation’s mission statement. Is a mission
statement the best way of expressing objectives in a way that the employees will
accept and understand? Again there are longstanding issues here. Some organisa-
tions have explicitly rejected mission statements. One British Vice-Chancellor
suggested that

although universities should be run in a business-like way… there are some business
techniques that we should tear up into shreds. Mission statements, for instance, are an
abject waste of time. We were just as effective before we had one.
(Times Higher, July 24th 1998)

Eden and Ackermann (2013) found similar concerns with mission/vision state-
ments in the business world:

the last two decades have seen managers being bombarded with vision
statements and mission statements and the requirement for vision and
mission statements, with many of these statements being regarded as a
joke by them and others in the organisation as they provide little in the
way of guidance.

Alongside concerns that many mission statements are rather idealised statements
which could apply to virtually every organization and that others are hopelessly
unrealistic, they found that

a careful analysis of statements of purpose (mission and vision statements)—

particularly those more detailed versions—demonstrates incoherency, ema-
nating from unrecognised conflict between aspirations, opaque reasoning,
and incompatibility of goals statements—where some are aspirational and
12 others’ statements of what currently exist.
As with any specific example of communication, we need to ‘look behind’ the 
words on the page to uncover the underlying reality. Think about your own Introduction
organisation:

• does it have a mission or vision statement?

• what is it and what does it really mean?
• does it make a difference?
• who is it aimed at?

We may be less than impressed with some organisational mission statements but
we must not underestimate the importance of shared values across the organi-
sation (Ingram and Choi, 2022). New technology can offer opportunities here
– enabling organisations to gain contributions and commitment through a more
interactive and collaborative process.

Social and cultural background

Cultural and social differences affect the way we interpret what communication
means. Some degree of common background is essential for exchanging mes-
sages. Sometimes, practical problems crop up because the communicators fail to
establish this common background.

Codes
A code is a coherent set of symbols plus the rules you need to structure
a message. Our language is the most important code we use but gestures,
illustrations, and mathematics are all codes that have important roles in
communication.

Situation and relationships

Situation is the context in which a message is sent and received, with both phys-
ical and relational aspects. For example, communication in a lecture room is
influenced both by the layout of the room and by the relationship between the
lecturer and the students.
We always interpret communication in terms of the relationship we have
with the other person. In many organisations, status relationships are particu-
larly important. For example, consider the message: “Please bring me the Smith
file”. Imagine the different ways this could be delivered through intonation (and
perhaps without the “please”?) The meaning of a message depends on the rela-
tionship between the people involved.
Reviewing these and other factors, this book aims to highlight different reac-
tions and potential ambiguities which affect our communication. 13
 How this book is organised
Introduction
The structure of this book reflects how we think professional and business com-
munication is best understood and how you can improve it.
Chapter 1 suggests you start by NOT thinking about communication itself – com-
munication is always a means to an end. If you do not have some idea about where
you are heading in personal and professional terms then you are unlikely to choose
the most effective communication methods and approach. So, we start by consider-
ing more general goals and objectives. You need to understand your own approach
to communication and how you can best develop your capacity and understanding.
Then you need to develop a more detailed appreciation of what communica-
tion means and what it involves. This is what Chapters 2 and 3 are about. As well
as looking at how we can define communication (and the practical implications
of that), we investigate the factors which comprise communication in more detail
and suggest overall principles which we feel are critical aspects of communica-
tion for people working in modern organisations.
Communication always takes place in a specific organisational context.
Chapters 4 and 5 explore what this means in organisations by looking at different
forms and levels of social context, and in ways that technology has developed.
The dominant form of communication in many organisations is written, whether
it ends up as a paper or online message or as the text in an oral presentation. That is
the focus of Chapters 6–9. As well as looking at practice and research on the advan-
tages of plain language, we look at how effective design can influence how documents
are understood. We also look at how documents can be best organised and look at the
range of documents which are now used in most organisations.
Communicating face-to-face (whether in person or online) is often as impor-
tant, if not more important than, written communication, and that is the focus
of Chapters 10–14. After defining the major interpersonal skills, we look at how
these can be used in a range of contexts, including formal presentations. We look
at group dynamics and team development and suggest ways to improve formal
and informal meetings, both face-to-face and online.
Chapter 15 raises issues of organisational change as they apply to all forms and
types of communication.
Chapter 16 concludes the book by offering suggestions on how you can
use our ideas to support your own personal and professional development in
communication.

And finally

14 We make numerous references to websites and web resources. As many of these

change frequently, we have only included web references in this print copy
where we are confident that the website will have a reasonably long shelf life. All 
weblinks quoted in this book were checked at the end of January 2023. Introduction
On the website, you will find further notes and updated and expanded links/
websites wherever we have found new materials. We look forward to meeting
you there to carry on our discussion.

References
Bates, L. (2014) Everyday Sexism. London: Simon & Schuster.
Buchanan, D.A. and Badham, R.J. (2008) Power, Politics and Organizational Change: Winning the turf
game, 2nd edition. London: Sage.
Buchanan, D.A. and Badham, R.J. (2020) Power, Politics and Organizational Change, 3rd edition.
London: Sage.
Carville, M. and MacRae, I. (2023) Myths of Social Media: Dispel the Misconceptions and Master Social
Media. London: KoganPage.
Daniels, T.D. and Spiker, B.K. (1994) Perspectives On Organisational Communication, 3rd edition.
Madison, WI: W.C.B. Brown and Benchmark.
Duck, S. (2010) Human Relationships, 4th edition. London: Sage.
Eden, C. and Ackermann, F. (2013) Problem structuring: On the nature of, and reaching
agreement about, goals. EURO Journal on Decision Processes. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
and EURO – The Association of European Operational Research Societies. http://link​
.springer​.com​/article​/10​.1007​%2Fs40070​- 013​- 0005​- 6​/fulltext​.html.
Hartley, P. and Chatterton, P. (2015) Business Communication: Rethinking Your Professional Practice for
the Post-digital Age. London: Routledge.
Ingram, P. and Choi, Y. (2022) What does your company really stand for? Harvard Business Review,
November–December, pages 41–47.
Ronson, J. (2015) So You’ve Been Publicly Shamed. London: Picador.
Sandberg, S. (2013) Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead. London: W H Allen.
Sandberg, S. (2014) Lean In: The Graduate Edition. London: W H Allen.
Sharples, M. and Pérez y Pérez, R. (2022) Story Machines: How Computers Have Become Creative
Writers. London: Routledge.
Tibballs, G. (1999) Business Blunders. London: Robinson.
Tourish, D. (1997) Transforming internal corporate communications: The power of symbolic
gestures and barriers to change. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 2(3), pages
109–116.
Turk, C. and Kirkman, J. (1989) Effective Writing: Improving Scientific, Technical and Business
Communication, 2nd edition. London: E and FN Spon. Close.
Vermulen, F. (2010) Business Exposed: The Naked Truth about What Really Goes on in the World of
Business. Harlow: Pearson.
Youngs, I. (2022) Channel 4’s Krishnan Guru-Murthy suspended for insulting minister. BBC
News. https://www​.bbc​.co​.uk​/news​/entertainment​-arts​- 63331322.

15
PART 1

How we understand
and analyse the ways
we communicate in
organisations

17


Chapter 1
Developing your communication
Deciding where to start

Introduction

You want to improve your communication – where do you start?

We suggest you do not start by focusing on specific details of communication
itself. To make a significant change, you need to decide on your overall career and
personal goals. Then we suggest you work on your professional development in
ways which will enhance your communication. We suggest you should:

• become self-sufficient in your learning and personal development.

• adopt a self-critical approach to your own and your organisation’s behaviour.
• be proactive – search for systematic research to analyse human behaviour and
communication.
• avoid the many myths about organisational life/behaviour which are available
online and across the media. We aim to “explode” as many of these myths as
we can in this book.
• self-monitor, i.e. understand (and manage) how you behave and present your-
self. Pay special attention to your digital identity.
• review and expand the range of communication tools you use.

We cannot give you all the answers to effective communication because (as we
illustrate in every chapter) the world is changing too fast and we cannot know
the specific circumstances of your organisation. For example, different responses
to online working and office work following the pandemic had very different
longer-term effects on different organisations.
Our aim is to provide useful ideas and techniques you can use as the spring-
board to personal change.
Firstly, you need to step back and reflect upon your overall aims and priorities.
This chapter suggests three starting points – three distinct but interrelated
aspects of communication and learning: 19

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-3
Part 1 • reviewing your personal objectives and goals.
How we • adopting learning strategies to improve your communications, including
understand and learning from others.
analyse the ways
we communicate • reviewing (and deciding on) the tools and enhanced skills you need to sup-
in organisations port your continual professional development.

We suggest you consider these topics in the order presented here but this does not
mean you should do them in a rigid sequence. Throughout this book, we empha-
sise the advantages of continuous review/reflection/revision, and the need to be
both open and flexible. Your plan should be a starting point and not a straitjacket.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ suggest how to review your current approaches and perspectives as the first
step to improving your communication.
■ suggest some tools and opportunities to consider as you review your learn-
ing approach and compile your personal development plan.

Reviewing your objectives and goals

Virtually every book on Business Communication/Skills emphasises the impor-

tance of goals and objectives. But different authors use these terms differently
and also focus on different levels (e.g. compare our approach with other leading
business texts such as the series by Bovee and Thill (2022)).
One common approach is to identify characteristics of goals/objectives which
help us achieve them – SMART goals – which are:

• Specific (so we have clear targets to aim for).

• Measurable (so we know when we have achieved them).
• Achievable (within the resources and constraints we have).
• Relevant (so we are aiming for something meaningful).
• Time-defined (so we know when to stop).

Of course, you need to break down goals into their component parts. We recom-
mend ideas from John Kay (2011). He distinguishes between high-level objec-
tives, intermediate goals, and basic actions, where:

20 High-level goals are typically loose and unquantifiable – though this does not mean it
is not evident whether or not they are being achieved.
 1
Developing your
communication

Figure 1.1 Objectives, goals, and activities

You can translate this hierarchy into personal individual terms – see our example
in Figure 1.1. If your high-level objective is “being an effective manager” then this
must be broken down into goals which relate to both productivity and social rela-
tionships (where it is useful to use the SMART criteria) and then specific actions.
There are two other important points to highlight from Kay’s analysis:
• problems are often best solved indirectly or “obliquely” as we live in unpre-
dictable and fast-changing environments.
• objectives, goals, and actions must be constantly reviewed to ensure that they
retain their importance and relevance. Becoming an effective manager is not
something which can be defined just once as it will change. See the website
for further discussion.
Figure 1.1 also introduces our approach to concept mapping.
We use and recommend this approach to our own students because it can help
you make sense of an area by defining and linking concepts. Maps drawn in this
way can be read by others so it can kick off useful dialogue. Concepts are shown
in boxes which are linked to make propositions, as in –

high-level objectives …
must be translated into …
goals …
which can be achieved through … 21
activities.
Part 1 This illustrates how you can “read” this map (and other maps we have included
How we in the book).
understand and The overall structure of a concept map depends on what you want to dem-
analyse the ways
we communicate onstrate – here we have included two maps side by side – the abstract approach
in organisations on the left hand of the page and practical illustrations on the right. All the dia-
grams we use in this book are available to download either as image files or in
their original format (using Cmap software available from https://www​.ihmc​.us​
/cmaptools/). On this website, you will also find links to tutorials and examples
so that you can use this software effectively. It is both very useful and very easy
to learn. And you can find a map online explaining why one of us uses this tech-
nique (Hartley, 2022).
Returning to goals and objectives, can we accept Figure 1.1 and move on?
You may like to consider this question for a few moments.
There is one major problem with this analysis so far – it does not include
any analysis of the starting point or the broader social context in which you
operate.
For example, in Figure 1.1, the activities of regular team meetings and weekly
progress summaries seem to support the goals. But they could be counter-pro-
ductive. If deep-seated personal conflicts already exist between group members,
then regular meetings may offer more opportunities to “fight”. Conflict may need
to be resolved or at least weakened before meetings can become amicable and
productive.
As a result, we created Figure 1.2 – this includes several review loops,including:

• reviewing the present situation in relation to the original goals.

• defining the gap between what is happening now and what you would like to
see happen.
• suggesting activities which will “plug this gap”.

Reflecting on the future of work

Consider general social economic and political trends which may directly
affect your longer-term future. For example, one leading UK researcher on
the future of work, Professor Lynda Gratton, suggested five major forces
changing the way we work and three recommended shifts to deal with these.
(Gratton, 2014) The forces are: technology; globalisation; demography and
longevity; society; and energy resources. The three shifts are summarised in
Table 1.1.​
In subsequent publications, Gratton has discussed different permutations of
work based on different combinations of place and time supported by technology
(Gratton, 2021) and offered a four-step process for redesigning work:
22
• “understand what matters”.
• “reimagine the future”.
 1
Developing your
communication

Figure 1.2 Revised model of objectives, goals, and activities

Table 1.1 Recommended responses to the future of work

You need to You need Because (rationale)

shift from to shift to

“shallow “serial There will be fewer jobs requiring very general skills.
generalist” master” You will need in-depth knowledge and skills in a number
of areas.
These areas will change over time.
“isolated “innovative You will need to develop networks of colleagues who can
competitor” connector” provide support and expertise when you need it.
“voracious “impassioned You will have the opportunity to engage with more
consumer” producer” meaningful work and find a better work/life balance.

• “model and test ideas”.

• “act on your ideas”.(Gratton, 2022, pages 16/17)
As with many of the approaches suggested in this book, this is not recommended 23
as a rigid sequence, but organisations should cover all this ground. Grattan has
provided a workbook and other resources to support this process (www​.hsm​
Part 1 -advisort​.com ) and has also written about broader implications of current social
How we changes such as the longer working life (Scott and Grattan, 2020).
understand and Our recommendations in this book reflect these trends and other suggestions
analyse the ways
we communicate on the likely stages or shifts in the workplace.
in organisations
Ways of setting those long-term improvement goals
There is no one best way of doing this. Here are some suggestions to get you
started:

1. Find approaches that suit your lifestyle and personality.

We introduce ways of reviewing important personality characteristics
below.
2. Select evidence-based techniques.
For example, based on research, Wilson (2011) recommends private reflec-
tive writing over a period of days as a very powerful technique for working
through difficult experiences. Some forms of writing have more impact than
others. When reflecting on unpleasant or very negative experiences, you
need to adopt a perspective which gives you “some distance from the event”
and which enables you to “analyse why the event occurred” (page 57) – a
“step-back-and-ask-why strategy” (page 58).
3. Avoid self-help recipes which simply reflect the style or perspective of the
author.
Numerous books and online sites offer the promise of immediate and dra-
matic change. While some are strongly based on research evidence (e.g.
Beattie, 2011; Wiseman, 2012; Burkeman, 2011) many simply offer “‘reme-
dies’ (which) make people feel good but don’t cure what ails them” (Wilson,
2011, page 42).
4. Consider a programme which gives you responsibility but also offers tools
and social support.
See some suggestions and further discussion on the website.

BOX 1.1 PRACTICAL TIPS ON GOAL-SETTING

Be realistic
Be realistic about your goals; recognise that you will need practice, time, and
repetition.

Prioritise your goals

Prioritise goals that will be of most use to you and work on these first before
24 moving on to the others. To get started, it is a good idea to focus on just one goal.
 1
Phrase your goals to be achievable and practical Developing your
communication
Use our model (Figure 1.2) or a similar approach to avoid very open-ended
goals. Select more focused goals.

Plan “small steps”

Once you have identified an achievable goal, create “small steps” – regular, prac-
tical, and achievable activities that you can undertake to reach the goal.

Adopting learning strategies to improve your

communications: review, plan, and improve

An underpinning principle for this book is that “communication can always be

improved”. This might appear obvious but is often neglected in practice. We
suggest a “review, plan, and improve” philosophy based on “continuous improve-
ment” approaches used in many organisations. Reviewing the impact of your
own behaviour on others (including the influence of your own assumptions and
possible prejudices/stereotypes) is key to this, as is seeking out feedback to help
inform your strategies and plans.
This sort of approach is not new and you may think we have simply repeated
existing wisdom. However, two aspects are often neglected:
Do not regard review, plan and improve as separate or discrete stages
We advocate continuous review – keeping alert at all times for feedback which
suggests that all is well or not so you can respond flexibly and immediately.
For example, as experienced teachers/lecturers we always try to gauge the
atmosphere in the teaching room. In one session, one of us noticed an especially
“flat” atmosphere in a lecture room:

Rather than battle on, I stopped and asked the group if everything was ok. I then dis-
covered that this was the fifth time they had been “introduced” to this topic. None of my
previous colleagues had noticed.

We must update our approaches to reflect the opportunities and challenges of

the post-pandemic and digital world. For example, see below on the concept
of “digital identity” that people acquire as they engage with digital media (e.g.
social networks) and how such digital identities influence communications, in
both positive and negative senses.
With these caveats in mind, you can use the “review, plan, and improve” cycle 25
in your daily practice.
Part 1 Self-review
How we
understand and Reviewing your own skills is harder than it first appears. This is perhaps not
analyse the ways surprising as our education systems typically see assessment and feedback as
we communicate
in organisations
something “done” to students, rather than students being in the driving seat of
self-assessment and review (happily this is changing).
Moving into the workplace, there may be CPD (continuing professional devel-
opment) programmes and appraisals as well as opportunities for feedback from
supervisors, managers, and colleagues, However, these often do not address
communications skills or follow the philosophy of regular small improvements.
Performance review which relies on the “annual appraisal interview” is very far
from the process we are proposing.
The capability of “self-review” is one that all professionals should develop.
There are a number of ways of doing this – see the website for further sug-
gestions – but consider the objectives in Table 1.2 as a starter for ten. Think
of a recent situation you have been in and rate how well you did against each
objective.

Table 1.2 Reviewing your objectives

Objective Rate
your
skill

There is a clear purpose to my communication 1 2 3 4 5

I have taken steps to understand my target audience and listen to their 1 2 3 4 5
perspectives
I understand the specific social, cultural, historical, and technological context 1 2 3 4 5
to the communication
I have evaluated several options for achieving my purpose and selected the one 1 2 3 4 5
most likely to succeed
I've tried to ensure that there is consistency between what I say, my 1 2 3 4 5
behaviour, and my body language – as well as no ambiguity
Where feasible, I've looked for non-verbal clues to see how my 1 2 3 4 5
communication has been understood and interpreted
I have taken steps to get feedback to see how well the target audience has 1 2 3 4 5
understood the communication and how they interpreted its meaning
I have followed through on promised actions 1 2 3 4 5

26 I keep up-to-date with new forms of digital communications and have spent 1 2 3 4 5
time using them in order to assess their value
 In a perfect world, you will have rated yourself as 5 on all these characteris- 1
tics. If you have, then we respectfully suggest that you are fooling yourself. Ask Developing your
a friend or colleague to rate you on the same basis and compare your results. You communication

are much more likely to end up with a variety of scores and this gives you some
ideas for priorities and immediate action.

Personality analysis
We are not always good at making judgements on how others see us. Our
behaviour and body language give off all sorts of clues to our personalities
and we may not be fully aware of the impressions we are presenting to others
(see Chapter 10).
Many psychological studies show that we often misjudge our own personal-
ity and capabilities. For example, are you a good multi-tasker? Judging by their
behaviour, many people seem to think so. But recent research suggests that very
few of us can effectively multi-task. Most of us would be more effective if we
deliberately focused on one thing at a time.
Think about your fundamental personality characteristics. Large organisa-
tions often employ a range of personality tests in their staff recruitment and
continual professional development (CPD) programmes. Many tests are now
available online and it is possible to use these to help in the analysis of your per-
sonality and your team abilities. However, we suggest a word of caution. Ideally,
tests should be overseen by a skilled psychologist, particularly in the analysis and
interpretation of results.
Test results are best used within a context of “review, plan, and improve”,
though sometimes they are used in less positive contexts, e.g. for staff screening.
There are also complex issues in terms of how people respond to and act on the
results. For instance, our response to tests can be influenced by the “authority” of
the tester. There is the risk that we only hear what we want to hear. We can also
take the results too literally – becoming “dependent” upon the personality traits
revealed by the test and abandoning attempts to improve areas of “weakness”.
Bearing these health warnings in mind, there is value in considering broad
aspects of your personality without professional support. But always “check”
your results with close friends and colleagues. We suggest three specific areas
to pursue:

1. Overall personality measures

One particularly important dimension is introversion-extraversion where:

introverts and extroverts differ in the level of outside stimulation that they need to func-
tion well 27
(Cain, 2012, page 10)
Part 1 This leads to differences in behaviours such as preferred work practices and
How we decision-making.
understand and Susan Cain argues that:
analyse the ways
we communicate
in organisations
many of the most important institutions of contemporary life are designed for those who
enjoy group projects and high levels of stimulation
(op cit, page 6)

In other words, our school and workplaces explicitly favour extravert personali-
ties. As a consequence, they lose valuable contributions from more introverted
people who have to adapt to be successful. She also emphasises the importance
of recognising your own tendencies and working to accommodate these (Cain
et al., 2016).

2. Mindset
Carol Dweck popularised this term. Her studies focused on differences between
the fixed mindset – “believing that your qualities are carved in stone” – and the
growth mindset – “based on the belief that your basic qualities are things you can
cultivate through your efforts” (Dweck, 2008, pages 6 and 7). Her studies show
the potentially damaging impact of fixed mindset. She offers tools and techniques
to support change to the growth mindset:

seeing things in a new way. When people … change to a growth mindset, they change
from a judge-and-be-judged framework to a learn-and-help-learn framework.
(page 244)

James Reed and Paul Stoltz (2011) claim to have found the mindset which
top employers really want. They list “Top 20” mindset qualities – the top six
being honesty, trustworthiness, commitment, adaptability, accountability, and
flexibility.

3. Team roles
Various inventories claim to establish how you operate in teams – one of the most
well-known is the Belbin test, discussed in detail in Chapter 14.

Feedback from colleagues

Feedback from colleagues – if it is candid, open and honest – can help you review
your communication capabilities. While formal organisational appraisals can
28 provide useful feedback, in practice they are often infrequent and only provided
by a few colleagues. Many organisations now prefer “360-degree feedback” 1
which aims to provide useful feedback from a range of colleagues. However, all Developing your
these processes are “done to you” rather than proactively seeking out feedback. communication

One advantage of more proactive approaches is that feedback can be timed

when you need it. For instance, you could ask colleagues/friends to identify
examples of when you are good and not so good at communications – as they
happen. There are caveats though – for instance, any feedback you receive must
be interpreted in context. Will they be open and balanced in their comments? As
feedback, your colleagues may tell you what you want to hear, so you must stress
that you would really like candid and honest feedback.
This discussion assumes you are ready and able to accept feedback. Useful
advice on this comes from Heen and Stone (2014). They suggest six steps to
becoming better at taking feedback on board (explanation and our comments in
the parentheses):

• “know your tendencies” (you may have a particular pattern in the way you
receive comments which will get in the way of considering them fully, e.g.
going on the defensive and arguing back).
• “disentangle the ‘what’ from the ‘who’” (consider both the content of feed-
back and the relationship you have with the “giver”).
• “unpack the feedback” (make sure you really understand what they are saying
– clarify any general, possibly vague, comments).
• “ask for just one thing” (feedback on specific areas can be really useful).
• “engage in small experiments” (make small changes and see if they work in
the desired direction).

Spontaneous or unrequested feedback from colleagues can also be useful but this
may be clouded with self-interest. Their motivation might be more to do with
boosting their own self-worth or political/personal agendas.

Your digital identity

Nowadays, anyone can create their own identity on the internet which may be
far removed from their real identity – fraudsters regularly take advantage of this.
This criminal activity has significant implications for everyone: do you know who
you are dealing with online?
And how are you perceived online?
People make assumptions about who you are based on the clues and trails you
leave online, e.g. your profiles on social networks, your postings on social media,
what you say in discussion groups, what’s been published about you on websites
etc. All these help others to build a picture of your personality, traits, prefer-
ences, and attributes – in other words, your digital identity. 29
Part 1 But there will be other information online that you have no control over. And
How we there are two unfortunate consequences here:
understand and
analyse the ways
we communicate
• information that builds up about you is created in an unplanned, haphazard
in organisations way, and sometimes without any control from you.
• it is often very difficult (and sometimes impossible) to get rid of unwanted
information about you, e.g. on social networks.

So, your digital identity – how others perceive you online – is not completely
under your control and there are serious consequences/implications for your
professional life. For example, employers and job recruiters will actively research
your digital identity and base decisions on what they find.
You can influence your digital identity and the first step is to review what this
currently is by searching for all online references to yourself. Check social net-
works such as Facebook and LinkedIn etc. as well as websites, discussion groups
etc. Remember to look for images, audio, and video as well as text. Then, review
the postings as if it were another person.
Box 1.2 gives some practical suggestions on this.
Perhaps the most important (and safest) overall principle is to treat every digi-
tal communication – including every email and every Facebook entry – as poten-
tially a public message. Are you happy to make this information known to the
world at large?
If you are in any doubt about the importance of being careful, look at the case
studies in the book we have already mentioned by Jon Ronson (2015) – a joke in
poor taste can destroy your professional career if it goes viral.

BOX 1.2 MANAGING YOUR DIGITAL IDENTITY:

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS
■ develop your social media strategy by thinking of yourself as a “brand”.
■ what are your key attributes that you want to convey?
■ choose social media.
■ which social media apps/blogs suit your “brand”?
■ claim your IDs
■ claim your unique ID at sites even if you don’t use it.
■ in choosing an ID, make sure it aligns with your “brand”.
■ have separate private and professional accounts.
■ look out for changes in privacy/copyright settings/terms of service/preference
settings. Social media sites can change their privacy settings from time to time
and are not always good at proclaiming this. Bear in mind copyright terms, e.g.
30 Google Docs claim certain rights to use anything in your online documents.
 1
■ be selective in choosing “friends”. Developing your
■ don’t automatically accept all “friend/colleague” requests. communication
■ follow netiquette.
■ be vigilant for fraudsters, scammers, and bullies.
■ engage on a regular basis.
■ always respond to feedback/messages unless they are obviously spam or
malicious.
■ keep others informed of your progress, news, and ideas.
■ use the network to share your professional news and ideas, while avoiding
blatant self-promotion.

Developing your digital literacy

Higher education in many countries is now working hard to develop the con-
cept of digital literacies, equipping graduates with digital skills, though there
is still some variation in their definitions and very different interpretations by
employers on graduate digital skills. Some employers still talk in limited terms
(being able to use word-processing and/or spreadsheets etc.). Others demon-
strate more sophisticated understanding – wanting their graduates to apply key
management/professional skills in the selection, adoption and application of new
technologies. Some go even further – wanting graduates to have the skills to
“influence” colleagues in the strategic/operational adoption of new technologies.
So-called “digital influence” has been identified as a key skill for managers in the
next few years.
Our model of digital literacy below reflects this position and suggests that we
need to give graduates far more than expertise with a few mainstream software
packages to prepare for employment.​

31
Figure 1.3 Overall model of digital literacy
Part 1 You can see that this model emphasises that we need to develop an overall
How we understanding of technology to underpin our skill development. Then we must
understand and apply this both to our own development and working with colleagues and the
analyse the ways
we communicate broader organisation. And all of this must be self-critical and ethical. Figure 1.4
in organisations offers a more detailed version. How far do you “tick all the boxes”? How would
you assess your digital literacy against this recipe?
There are other models of digital literacy and this term is debated/contested.
Perhaps the best known across UK Higher Education comes from Jisc (2014)
which suggests seven elements:

• media literacy.
• communications and collaboration.
• career and identity management.
• ICT literacy.
• learning skills.
• digital scholarship.
• information literacy.

This model is obviously tailored for the educational institutions that Jisc serves
but certainly all of these elements are both valuable and useful.
For a good example of research which explores these arguments, see work by
Ibrar Bhatt on adult learners coming to terms with the technical and academic
demands of their college environment (Bhatt, 2012). He illustrates how specific
learners

successfully make the link between their own everyday digital literacy practices and the
requirements of their course.
(op cit, page 289)

If we add “and/or organisation” to this last sentence then this is something we

all have to do.

Choosing appropriate communication tools

We now have many tools (possibly too many?) we can use to communicate! This
can be a good thing as we can pick the tool that best suits the specific situation,
but it can mean we don’t fully explore the strengths and weaknesses of each
tool. We highlight useful tools in later chapters. For the moment, consider the
range of tools you are currently using and ask yourself whether this range is the
most effective for your development. Box 1.3 shows how even a very simple task
32 like taking notes can now be done in a variety of ways using different mixes of
technology.
Figure 1.4 Detailed model of digital literacy
1

33
communication
Developing your
Part 1
How we BOX 1.3 HOW DO YOU TAKE NOTES?
understand and
analyse the ways Every manager and every professional in organisations has to take notes in meet-
we communicate ings, presentations, interviews etc.
in organisations
What is your preferred technology?
The following list suggests possibilities and we return to some of these in
later chapters. The most effective method will depend on your working style, your
budget, and your organisational context. The most important thing is that you use
an approach and tools which make the best use of your time. It is worth experi-
menting with different methods until you find the best ones for you:

■ pen and paper, using a dedicated notebook (and perhaps a favourite pen?).
■ pen and paper using a planning/diary system like Filofax.
■ pen and paper plus software, as in the Moleskine system.
■ speech recognition technology, either individually in Microsoft Word or
using a tool on the web such as Otter​.​ai or the speech recognition functions
in software such as Microsoft Teams.
■ handwriting recognition directly onto tablet such as iPad.
■ notetaking application on smartphone/laptop/tablet (e.g. Evernote) which
can synchronise notes across devices.
■ Concept mapping (e.g. Cmap on PC or Mac – or on the web, or on iPad).
■ Sketchnoting or other visual method.

New learning paradigms using digital communications

A few years ago, a Motor Company HR executive told us that:

the half-life of an engineering degree is getting shorter and shorter – graduates therefore
need to regularly update their skills, knowledge and capabilities on an on-going basis via
lifelong learning and continuing professional development (CPD) approaches.

The emergence of the internet and low-cost computing which is helping to change
the CPD paradigm from one of teaching (something “done” to the learner) to
concepts such as self-directed learning and assessment. Organisations are chang-
ing their CPD approaches and techniques, particularly in how they are using
digital technologies to support their CPD strategies.

Using this technology re communication

34 The main implication of this explosion in technology is that we should be
taking full advantage of it to support our own professional development in
communication. For example, we can write our own development plan using 1
free/open source software or commercial software, much of which is modestly Developing your
priced. communication

We return to this topic in Chapter 16 and there is also more information on

the website.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ review your more general goals and objectives as a starting point for review-
ing your communication.
■ self-review is a key capability that all professionals should develop.
■ feedback from colleagues and co-workers can be especially valuable but
make sure that it is helpful and focused.
■ you need to review and manage your digital identity as best you can.
Find the tools and new technologies which can best support your profes-
sional development – choose the ones which suit your context and give you
the necessary support.

References
Beattie, G. (2011) Get the Edge: How Simple Changes will Transform Your Life. London: Headline.
Bhatt, I. (2012) Digital literacy practices and their layered multiplicity. Educational Media
International 49(4): 289–301.
Bovee, C.L. and Thill, J.V. (2022) Business Communication Today, 15th edition. London: Pearson.
Burkeman, O. (2011) Help! How to Become Slightly Happier and Get a Bit More Done. Edinburgh:
Canongate.
Cain, S. (2012) Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking. London: Penguin.
Cain, S. with Mone, G. and Moroz, E. (2016) Quiet Power: Growing Up as an Introvert in a World That
Can’t Stop Talking. London: Penguin.
Dweck, C.S. (2008) Mindset. The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballantine.
Gratton, L. (2014) The Shift: The Future of Work is Already Here. London: Williams Collins.
Gratton, L. (2021) How to do hybrid right. Harvard Business Review, May–June, 2021, pages 66–74.
Gratton, L. (2022) Redesigning Work: How to Transform Your Organisation and Make Hybrid Work for
Everyone. London: Penguin.
Hartley, P. (2022) Concept mapping using Cmap. National Teaching Repository. Poster. https://doi​
.org​/10​.25416​/NTR​.21379242​.v1.
Heen, S. and Stone, D. (2014) Thanks for the Feedback: The Science and Art of Receiving Feedback Well.
London: Portfolio Penguin/Viking.
Jisc. (2014) Developing Digital Literacies. https://www​.jisc​.ac​.uk​/guides​/developing​-digital​
-literacies.
Kay, J. (2011) Obliquity. Why Our Goals are Best Achieved Indirectly. London: Profile Books.
Reed, J. and Stolz, P.G. (2011) Put Your Mindset to Work: The One Asset You Really Need to Win and
Keep the Job You Love. London: Portfolio Penguin. 35
Ronson, J. (2015) So You’ve Been Publicly Shamed.
 Scott, A.J. and Gratton, L. (2021) The New Long Life: A framework for flourishing in a changing world.
Part 1
London: Bloomsbury.
How we
understand and Wilson, T.D. (2011) Redirect. The Surprising New Science of Psychological Change. London: Allen
analyse the ways Lane.
we communicate Wiseman, R. (2012) Rip it Up: The Radically New Approach to Changing Your Life. London: Macmillan.
in organisations

36
Chapter 2
How should we analyse communication?

Introduction

Many popular guides to “improving your communication” (and some management

training courses) do not spend enough time considering what is meant by “com-
munication”. We neglect this at our peril. Our understanding of what communi-
cation “is” influences how we act and how we analyse situations. It is important,
both practically and theoretically, to work out what communication involves.
So this chapter looks at how we define communication and how we can best
understand the way communication “works”.
We argue that you need to examine communication from two contrasting
perspectives – analysing the process and interpreting the meanings. You always
need to integrate these perspectives to decide what is happening.
We conclude with some basic principles which inform the rest of this book.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ show how our personal definitions of communication influence how we act.

■ review popular models of communication and explain why we recommend a
more complex approach.
■ introduce our approach and suggest basic principles.

Communication and action

Deciding what we mean by communication is not just an academic exercise. As human

beings, we act on the basis of our perceptions and beliefs. So if we have a particular
view of human communication then we will act on that view. If we have a faulty view,
then our behaviour may cause problems. An example of how managers act upon their 37
perceptions and cause problems will make this point clearer.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-4
Part 1 Consider Fred Davis, recently promoted telecommunications manager, who
How we is responsible for implementing a new communication system (phone/voicemail/
understand and email) in a large organisation.
analyse the ways
we communicate We used this case in previous editions of this book, as originally described by
in organisations Finn (1999), based on experiences with organisations implementing new tech-
nology. We are using it again to highlight the fact that some issues and problems
are almost timeless – in today’s world, Fred would (hopefully) consider different
technologies but this would not resolve his difficulties. The problem here is not
the technology – it is Fred’s approach. He would suffer much the same problems
whatever technology he decided upon.
Back to the actual case – Fred was not having a good time:

• senior management were unhappy with the new system.

• 700 complaints were received in its first week.
• less than half the employees turned up for training sessions.
• some units within the organisation cancelled the system and opted for dif-
ferent solutions.

What made it especially frustrating for Fred was that he could not see where he
had gone wrong. The changeover went smoothly from a technical perspective,
and the system could achieve everything management requested – but only if
people used it properly.

What was Fred’s problem?

His main problem was failure to manage, based upon his perception of his role
– how to act and communicate as a manager. He sees himself as an expert and
a “doer”. He makes decisions on his expert knowledge and then concentrates
on making those decisions happen. During the planning and installation, he
arranged everything in precise detail. What he did not do was communicate in
any meaningful way with prospective users of the new system. He did not make
sure that the users knew:

• exactly what was happening.

• why it was happening.
• how they could benefit from the new system.

The new system could have worked if he had built a consensus within the organi-
sation to support his plans. Of course, such communication would have slowed
him down. But a system which is not used cannot be effective. In terms of the
approach which we advocate, he failed on both counts – he did not consider the
38 process of communication and he did not think about the meanings which others in
the organisations could read into his actions.
 Unless managers like Fred reconsider their role very quickly, their careers 2
will come to an abrupt end. How should
In the same way that we all have views about how to manage, which may be we analyse
communication?
more or less effective, we also have views on how to communicate. In other
words, we have an implicit view or theory of communication.
Compare Fred’s approach with the strategy used by the developers of the
Post-It note. This originated because scientists at 3M had developed a glue which
was not very sticky. Rather than throw their hard work away, the originator
took time to investigate possible uses for a “temporary” glue. He developed some
trial products and gave them to colleagues to try. They clamoured for more so
he developed a business plan which showed demand for the product. A new and
very successful product line was launched.

Different views of communication

Different views of communication have very real practical consequences, so what

are the main differences? Philip Clampitt (2016) suggests managers typically use
one of three different approaches to communication: the “arrow”, the “circuit”,
and the “dance”.
Arrow managers believe that communication operates one way, as in firing an
arrow. If your aim is good then you will hit the target. If you have a clear message
then you will communicate. On the positive side, arrow managers spend time work-
ing out their ideas, making sure that their messages and instructions are as specific as
possible. However, it can be very dangerous to see your listeners as passive processors
of information. It is also very difficult to construct messages which are unambiguous.
In contrast, circuit managers concentrate on communication as a two-way
process, emphasising the importance of feedback. They emphasise “good listen-
ing” and trust in relationships. Clampitt argues that this also has weaknesses.
Circuit managers can overemphasise agreement and fail to recognise real dif-
ferences in views. Circuit managers may assume that disagreement is caused by
poor communication and that more communication will almost automatically
lead to agreement. More communication is necessary but it needs to focus on how
and why we have different opinions and values.
Clampitt concludes (and we agree) that the metaphor of dance is the most
appropriate way of describing communication. He highlights similarities between
communication and dance, including:
• both have multiple purposes.
You can dance to entertain others, to impress your partner, to express your-
self, and so on. In the same way, you can communicate for different reasons
– to inform, to persuade, to impress etc. 39
• both involve the co-ordination of meanings.
Part 1 Co-ordination is an obvious feature of dance – you have to know what your
How we partner is going to do next! When we communicate we also have to recog-
understand and nise how other people see the situation, recognise what they are doing, and
analyse the ways
we communicate respond accordingly.
in organisations • both are governed by rules.
Rules apply to different types of dance: e.g. what steps to use, how these
steps are organised. Similarly, different rules apply to different communica-
tion situations. Most importantly for both dance and communication, rules
can change over time and be negotiated by the participants.

This analysis has very important practical implications – these different views of
communication influence how we behave. In similar situations, these different
types of managers will respond very differently. And this is why it is important
to think very clearly about how we define communication and what that defini-
tion involves. How we think about communication always influences what we do.

Analysing communication

We suggest that you think about communication by putting together two dif-
ferent perspectives and working out if this is creating any gaps in understanding
between the parties involved:

• define the process: examine major components of the communication pro-

cess and the sequence of events which is taking place.
• interpret the meanings: investigate the social and cultural context, and the
historical background, to see how the participants interpret what is going on.

Once you can identify any differences in perceptions, you can develop your com-
munication hypotheses and an appropriate action plan – as in Figure 2.1.
These two perspectives – process and meaning – are a simplified version of
communication theory. You can find much more complicated accounts from
scholars which you may wish to follow up – details on the website. But we want
to home in on what we think is one of the most fundamental distinctions which
causes practical difficulties – between an approach which assumes the impor-
tance of “the message” and an approach which focuses on “meaning”. In the rest of
this chapter, we shall explain these different perspectives and show how you can
put them together to arrive at a clearer picture of what communication involves.

Communication as process

40 Many management texts use a model of communication first popularised in the

1950s – developed from work on telecommunications systems. It shows how
 Understanding
communication
2
How should
we analyse
communication?
Codes involves Understanding the
social and political
context

Media including
Defining the Interpreting including
process meanings Recognising
participants’
expectations and
Feedback assumptions
leading to

Hypothesis

which inform your

which you can

use to refine Behaviour

which generates

Feedback

Figure 2.1 An integrated approach to analysing communication

information is transmitted from source to destination and analyses what can

affect the quality of the information during this process. The model became very
influential with researchers in human communication who saw communication
as essentially a one-way process – information passing from Sender to Receiver.
The most important early development added a feedback loop. Various authors
have added slightly different emphases but this basic model is still very common.
For example, Bovee and Thill (2014) talk about different meanings which people
can take from the same message and offer an eight-step process model which
includes the following main concepts:

Codes
A code is a set of symbols plus the rules to create a message. For example, a lan-
guage code consists essentially of a list of words, and a set of rules for preparing
a text. These rules are the grammar or syntax of the language.

Encoding and decoding

Encoding means using a code to structure a message in a particular way.
Decoding is the reverse – we use our knowledge of the code to work out what 41
the message means.
Part 1 Media/channel
How we
understand and This is the physical system which carries the message from sender to receiver.
analyse the ways Some texts use “channel” for this concept and there is often confusion as to what
we communicate
in organisations constitutes a medium or a channel. Bovee and Thill use both concepts to distin-
guish between the “ form a message takes (such as a Twitter update) and the channel
as the system used to deliver the message (such as the Internet)” (op cit, page 49).

Feedback
Feedback refers to any signals which are received by the sender.
One concept which you can see in some process models is “noise” – usually
defined as any random input which distorts, or which interferes with the trans-
mission or reception of a message. This was a very important component of early
models of communication systems when we were trying to understand electronic
communication. We have reservations about using this concept in human commu-
nication on the grounds that factors like loss of concentration are not really random.

Limitations of the process approach

The process approach has been fiercely criticised. We would highlight three criti-
cisms which have very real practical implications:

• it does not take sufficient account of social or historical factors.

• It seems to assume that the meaning of an event is “given”, as opposed to
being “negotiated” between the participants.
• it does not take account of business realities – it suggests one sender and one
receiver whereas most business communication involves “multiple senders
and multiple receivers”.
(Waller and Polonsky, 1998)

One response to these criticisms is to create a more complex model (as Waller and
Polonsky did). But more complex models still imply that there is one central message
which we can define unambiguously. This approach is not sufficient – we also need
to emphasise the social and cultural background and look at how meaning is devel-
oped and negotiated through interaction – we need to interpret the meanings.

Interpreting the meanings

In order to fully understand how people communicate, we need to understand
not just the immediate background but the much broader social context and his-
tory of their relationship. Not only do we have to examine how people come to
42 agree on what is happening, but we also have to look at how they feel about events.
The following examples illustrate some of this complexity.
The case of the confused trainees 2
How should
A colleague was invited to run residential training events for managers in a large we analyse
manufacturing organisation. He came back from the first event very dispirited, communication?
complaining he could not understand the reactions from the managers, who
were supposed to be very committed to personal development. There seemed to
be at least three different reactions:

• some managers looked really interested and spent the weekend frantically
scribbling notes.
• some managers seemed overanxious and did not seem to be concentrating
on the events.
• some managers seemed to see the event as a “bit of a holiday”.

At the next event, he asked the managers why they had come and found that none
had been told why – their “commitment” was a senior management assumption.
As a result, they had “worked out” the meaning based on their own experience.
Three different meanings emerged:

• one group thought it was a test which would influence their next promotion/
regrading – they were the “scribblers”, trying to impress the trainer.
• another group were worried that they were there because of problems with
their performance. They were not participating – too busy working out
where/how they had failed.
• the third group saw the event as reward for good behaviour which need not
be taken seriously.

Our colleague was only able to communicate with these groups after these
expectations and assumptions had been revealed and discussed. Training could
not begin until the participants had negotiated the meaning of the event.

War in the training room

Another colleague was invited by the head of a local college to run a staff work-
shop on effective communication. The head insisted that staff had requested this
event. But, arriving at the training room, our colleague’s first impression was of
unease and tension. He delivered a session which usually received very positive
feedback but was unable to achieve any real dialogue with the staff who attended.
At the coffee break, he started to talk to one of the more friendly participants
and eventually discovered what was going on:

• staff had definitely not requested the event! They were involved in a longstand- 43
ing and bitter dispute with the head over staffing and workload.
Part 1 • this event was seen as the head asserting his authority.
How we • the head was seen by staff as dogmatic, authoritarian, and insensitive.
understand and
analyse the ways
we communicate
Our colleague later discovered that the head felt that the staff were lazy and
in organisations incompetent. He had inadvertently put himself in the firing line. The training
session was a complete waste of time – it only intensified the conflict. Our col-
league retired hurt.
In both these cases, communication depended upon a complicated history.
People had developed shared meanings over time which meant that communica-
tion was based on very different assumptions and expectations. Potential conse-
quences in both situations were further misunderstanding and possible conflict.
If we look at the way people develop shared meanings, then we can also
look at the way people express those meanings. In the last decade, organisa-
tional researchers have become very interested in the way people in organisa-
tions tell stories, tell jokes, and use metaphors to describe what is going on in
their organisation. These stories and metaphors can provide very useful insights
into the way people typically behave and communicate in that organisation.
Storytelling has now become a useful technique for uncovering organisational
dynamics as well as being recommended to managers as a useful if not essential
skill (Denning, 2011):

stories can be used to create change, build culture, disseminate learning, and capture
knowledge.
(Hutchens, 2009)

And so to basic principles

Principle 1: You can improve (but not guarantee) your

chances of “success” in communication if you have
clear purpose(s) and select appropriate strategies.
Your chances of effective communication can be improved if you can decide what
you really want to achieve and then selecting the best strategy to make this hap-
pen. But this cannot guarantee success and there is no “one best way” which will
work all the time.
One of our starting points is the fact that humans are always interpreting the
meaning of events on the basis of the information available. Whatever our mes-
sage it will have some effect on our audience and we should at least be clear in our
own minds what outcome we wish to achieve. If we are unclear then our audi-
ence will be more so.
44 We can also cause difficulties in two ways – by having vague or inconsistent
objectives and/or by choosing an inappropriate strategy.
Principle 2: Always question your assumptions. 2
How should
We have ample evidence to support Hans Rosling’s assertion that we analyse
communication?
you (and almost everyone I have ever met) do not see the world as it really is.
(Rosling, 2018, page 17)

Rosling’s book demonstrates how we are all susceptible to biases in our thinking
and misperceptions and suggests ways of countering these. A similar argument is
presented by Bobby Duffy:

Our misperceptions are often biased in particular directions.

(Duffy, 2018, page 18)

The good news is that we can become aware of these biases and overcome them
– but only if we spend some time questioning and checking our assumptions. Try
the self-test in Rosling’s book as a starter (op cit, page 3ff).

Principle 3: Communication always

means more than “the message”.
To communicate effectively, you need to anticipate how “messages” will be interpreted
in context. And there is never “just one message”. No matter how simple the situation,
you can always think of a number of different messages which can be exchanged. You
need to consider the meanings which will be “taken” from your behaviour. Ambiguity
is an inherent feature of both language and nonverbal communication.
Ambiguity can be worse if some forms of digital communications are used
as there can be less opportunity to interpret meaning through signals which we
take for granted in face-to-face communication, e.g. voice tone, body language
etc. Hence it is important to ensure clarity and use of plain language when using
digital forms like email or social media platforms.
And this also suggests some very simple approaches we can use to support
this principle:

• recognise that ambiguity is an inevitable feature of human communication.

• look for feedback and check understanding.
• accept that others’ interpretations are legitimate.
• realise that discussion is essential to arrive at clear, shared meaning.
• recognise that some forms of digital communication provide limited oppor-
tunities for effective discussion and interpreting messages through non-ver-
bal cues.
45
Do these approaches characterise everyday interactions in your organisation?
Part 1 Principle 4: Communication is always based in a
How we specific social, cultural, and technological context.
understand and
analyse the ways We need to recognise the constraints which influence communication because of
we communicate
in organisations
the social, historical, and technological contexts in which it occurs, and respond
accordingly. We will criticise attempts to provide guidelines or techniques for
communication which ignore the context. For example, many management texts
endorse the values of assertiveness without referring to the research which shows
that assertive behaviour may be seen as aggressive or inappropriate in certain
cultural settings or by certain individuals.
This principle is very important in a situation of change. Management who
wish to introduce new processes or procedures should be sensitive to the mean-
ing of the existing patterns of behaviour.

Principle 5: Communication and action must “match”.

Your verbal and nonverbal communication must express the same meaning if
you are to be believed. If your body language contradicts what you say then the
other person will have to choose which channel to believe. Early research sug-
gested that the nonverbal channel would always be believed and many popular
handbooks simply repeat this conclusion. We now know that it is more compli-
cated but we do know that we are very sensitive to this sort of ambiguity. If your
speech and body language do not agree then this will almost certainly be noticed
and interpreted by your audience.
Linked to this idea is the oft-quoted statement that “you cannot not commu-
nicate”. In other words, failing to act can be seen as meaningful. For example,
how do staff feel about the Chief Executive who always stresses the importance
of communication in public meetings and media interviews but who never con-
tributes anything to the staff blogs or newsletter?
And this suggests how to follow this principle – act in the way that you say
that you do. Of course, there may be some issues of interpretation and these
should be sorted out as soon as possible. The management team who announce
an “open door” policy to employees should clarify what they mean with some
examples or through discussion. It is very easy to set up expectations with a
snappy slogan which makes claims which are obviously over-optimistic when you
consider their likely interpretation by the audience.
The use of email and social media in organisations makes this even more
important – it is so easy for anything that is digitally distributed to reach large
audiences instantaneously and for large groups to discuss what you have said and
done (or not done) – even if they were not part of your intended audience. It is
best to assume that anything/everything that you say or send electronically can
46
reach people who you did not intend to communicate with.
Principle 6: Communication can always be improved. 2
How should
Although we accept that some people are inherently more skilled in their com- we analyse
munication, we can all improve our skills with the right coaching or preparation. communication?
As we said in the previous chapter, if you believe that communication can be
improved then you will devote time to at least some of the following activities:

• reviewing the impact of your own behaviour on others.

• requesting feedback from others.
• developing strategies or plans to improve your communication.
• developing your digital literacy, including the ability to choose the appropri-
ate means of traditional or digital communications for a specific context and
audience.
• developing your skills in self-review.
• trying new techniques and reviewing their effectiveness.

Principle 7: Communication is a fundamental

management responsibility (which we must all share).
If management do not accept responsibility for the quantity and quality of com-
munication (both traditional and digital) in the organisation, then who will?
Management must take responsibility – but this does not absolve us all from our
responsibility to behave effectively and ethically.
This principle can be translated into practice in various ways. For example,
we can ask how far the behaviour of managers at all levels throughout the organi-
sation reflects concern for and commitment to communication.
This has been a longstanding concern for organisation theorists. Our first edi-
tion referred to Werner David’s (1995) five fundamental steps:

• making a senior manager formally responsible for “linking every employee

into the communication network” (page 4).
• systematic training in communication.
• building the organisation’s communication network to use all the available
media, ensuring it is especially sensitive to information which indicates the
need for change.
• continually monitoring the network to make sure it works effectively.
• costing communication so that its effectiveness can be measured.

As with all general strategies, there are possible pitfalls. For example, the notion of
making one senior manager “responsible” could lead to other managers “leaving it to
him or her” rather than taking equal responsibility. Costing is difficult to organise
and monitor. Furthermore, these ideas were developed in 1995, before the advent
47
of social media and mobile devices. We now work in a world where business and
Part 1 technology are tightly integrated, allowing individuals to communicate in a multitude
How we of ways with large audiences – both within the boundaries of “corporate” systems
understand and and externally with the world at large. This places an even greater need for manage-
analyse the ways
we communicate ment to take responsibility and balance open communications with communication
in organisations protocols that address corporate needs relating to e.g. confidentiality, intellectual
property, privacy, data protection, and other compliance agendas. At the very least,
the fundamental steps listed above need to be enlarged with, for example, systematic
staff training in digital literacies and the development of communications protocols
for staff. Although we have reservations about some aspects of David’s approach, we
wholeheartedly agree with the overall concept – management in every organisation
should have an explicit strategy which is regularly reviewed.

Principle 8: New media can and should

enhance communication.
We now have a wider choice of communication media than at any time in his-
tory. These media can make a profound and positive impact if they are carefully
introduced and maintained.
We discuss various aspects of new media throughout the book, including:

• use of social media, such as blogs, wikis, social networks etc. For example,
tools such as Twitter can support teams in sharing ideas and information,
building knowledge-bases and task management.
• the potential of all these technologies and media to support cost-efficient (or
“lean”) ways of working and new business relationships e.g. global teams.
• application of real-time conferencing (e.g. audio/video/web-conferencing)
to enable meetings which might otherwise be too expensive to sustain.

All of these examples depend upon management strategy – they must invest to
provide the facilities and then commit to sustain its appropriate use.
We do not have to look far to find examples of computer failures and their
repercussions. But we can learn from the mistakes of the past and devise effec-
tive ways of using new technology to augment human aptitudes. The same is true
of communication in general. Reflecting on some of the problems and pitfalls of
human communication in organisations can show us how to avoid them, provid-
ing we are prepared to take responsibility.

Principle 9: Digital literacy should be a core

part of staff professional development.
Digital communications are now so integral to business operations and work-
ing practices that “digital literacy” must be considered a prerequisite for staff
48
development.
 Professional development in organisations has to place more emphasis on: 2
How should
• self-directed awareness and learning about new technologies – particularly we analyse
communication?
awareness of the capability and potential of new technology.
• forensic ability in finding, analysing, using, and managing information.
• effective practices of digital communication, e.g. collaboration and partici-
pation in networks, sharing, facilitation, mentoring, coaching, critiquing,
group learning etc.
• effective practices of critical reading, creative production, persuasion, argu-
ment, expressing, and sharing ideas.
• knowing how to choose and apply technologies to cost-effective business
practices, e.g. project management, product innovation, sales and market-
ing, finance, lean working, teamworking – with an understanding of broader
contexts.
• ability to influence colleagues and the organisation to adopt appropriate com-
munication technologies.

Principle 10: The ability to influence has become a

key communication skill in modern organisations.
Most current working practices are predicated on teamworking with the days
of the isolated lone-worker long gone. To be an effective teamworker requires
specific communications skill to influence others towards achieving goals.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ our understanding of communication influences the way we behave.
■ some managers define communication as a linear process which may or
may not incorporate feedback. This definition is not sufficient and can be
misleading in many situations.
■ you can analyse human communication from at least two different perspec-
tives – the process perspective and the interpretive perspective.
■ the process perspective emphasises the way messages are constructed and
delivered, and the various factors which influence how those messages are
received.
■ the interpretive perspective emphasises the meaning which we perceive in
situations. This meaning is often the result of complicated historical and
cultural processes.
■ we need to consider both process and interpretive perspectives when we
examine specific examples of business communication. And we need to
define both the intended and the received meanings. 49
Part 1 References
How we
understand and Bovee, C. and Thill, J. (2014) Business Communication Today. London: Pearson.
analyse the ways Clampitt, P.G. (2016) Communicating for Managerial Effectiveness, 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA:
we communicate
in organisations Sage.
David, W. (1995) Managing Company-Wide Communication. London: Chapman and Hall.
Denning, S. (2011) The Leader’s Guide to Storytelling: Mastering the Art and Discipline of Business
Narrative, 2nd edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Duffy, B. (2018) The Perils of Perception. London: Atlantic Books.
Finn, T.A. (1999) A case of telecommunications (mis)management. Management Communication
Quarterly 12(4): 575–579.
Hutchens, D. (2009) Applications of narrative and storytelling as an organizational discipline.
http://www​.davidhutchens​.com​/Biz​%20Writing​/articles​/organizationalst​.html.
Rosling, H. (2018) Factfulness: Ten Reasons We’re Wrong about the World – And Why Things Are Better
Than You Think. London: Sceptre.
Waller, D.S. and Polonsky, M.J. (1998) Multiple senders and receivers: A business communication
model. Corporate Communications 3(3): 83–91.

50
Chapter 3
What does communication mean?

Introduction

You cannot transmit your mental images, ideas, and feelings directly to another
person, unless you believe in telepathic communication. We have to translate
or encode our thoughts so that others can receive and interpret what we think.
Encoding is the focus of this chapter – we need to understand the variety of
codes we use in everyday communication. For example, we use both verbal and
nonverbal codes every time we talk and we need to consider how much scope
there is for ambiguity and interpretation. If we can anticipate how other people
will interpret what we say and do, then we can make our communication more
effective. And we now have a growing range of new media which we can use to
reinforce, extend, or replace our face-to-face contact.
Of course, we also need to bear in mind the implications of the last chapter
– communication is not just the transmission and reception of information. No
matter how carefully we feel we have “encoded our message”, we need to be
aware of all the factors which can influence how other people will interpret our
behaviour.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ introduce the range and variety of human communication codes.

■ explain why we need to think of human language as a collection of multiple
and overlapping codes.
■ examine the nature and scope of nonverbal communication, and its relation-
ship with language.
■ identify practical implications for the appropriate use of language and non-
verbal codes in professional business communication. 51

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-5
Part 1 What are the different codes we use to communicate?
How we
understand and There are several ways of categorising the different codes we use when we com-
analyse the ways
we communicate municate with each other. A typical example comes from Ellis and Beattie (1986)
in organisations who identified “five primary systems of communication” in face-to-face interac-
tions (page 17):

• verbal, i.e. the words, clauses, and sentences we use in speech and writing.
• prosodic, i.e. the stress and pitch patterns such as pauses and intonation
which we use in speech and which are “linguistically determined” – we use
them to punctuate the speech and make its meaning clear. Ellis and Beattie
use the simple phrase, “old men and women” as an example. Leave a silent
pause after “men” when you say this sentence, and it changes the meaning.
• paralinguistic, i.e. all the pauses, “ums”, “ahs”, and other sounds which are
not “real” words.
• kinesic, i.e. all the ways we move our bodies during communication, includ-
ing posture, gestures, and so on.
• standing features, i.e. more static nonverbal features such as appearance, ori-
entation (the angle at which you stand to the other person), or distance.

There are important issues with this (and with all other systems of) classification:

• does this mean that the different systems “work” in different ways?
• do we somehow interpret or process them differently?
• do the different systems have different functions?

These issues have important practical implications. For example, what do you
attend to when you are meeting someone for the first time? Do you concentrate
on what they are saying or on some aspect of their nonverbal behaviour? How
would you give them some clues that you liked them – what signals would you use?
As we see in the rest of this chapter, these questions are not always easy to
answer. For example, based on more recent research, Beattie suggested that ges-
ture is one code with particular characteristics. In an important recent book,
Nick Enfield offers an analysis of language which is compatible with the notion of
“communication as dance” from the last chapter:

Language is our most important tool for achieving social coordination, and using lan-
guage is itself a coordination game.
(Eindhorn, 2022, page 27)

We return to these issues later. We start by examining the distinction between

52 verbal and nonverbal codes while emphasising that the most important issue is
how they work together to create a particular meaning.
Understanding human language 3
What does
We follow Michael Clyne’s suggestion (1994) that language has four main functions: communication
mean?

1. our most important medium of human communication.

2. a means of identification. We use language to express our membership of
social groups, which may be national, ethnic, social, religious etc.
3. a means of intellectual development. The way that children develop their
language skills is very strongly related to the way they experience their sur-
rounding environment. In adulthood, we use language to develop new ways
of thinking and new concepts.
4. an instrument of action. Much of what we say is directly linked to what we do.
When we promise or apologise, we are not simply passing on information.

This book concentrates on function (1), but we must not forget the practical impli-
cations of the other functions. For example, people who concentrate on function
(2) often have very strong views on what language use is appropriate in each situa-
tion. Function (4) causes difficulties if we do not recognise the action implications
of what we say. This may be especially important in cross-cultural encounters.

Language and social identity

You can see the importance of language as a symbol of broader social identities
in the following examples:

• U.S.English is the campaign in the USA which aims to make English the
“official language of the United States” (www​.usenglish​.org).
• the Académie Française attempts to protect the French language from “for-
eign” words and expressions (https://www​.academie​-francaise​.fr).

These movements (and other similar ones) often claim that some varieties of
language are inherently inferior. They try to define one version of language as
the ideal or standard. They face serious challenges on both these counts. All
languages grow and develop. Any attempt to “police” a language which does not
recognise these processes is unlikely to succeed.

Codes within language

Language does not just deliver information – it can convey various levels of
meaning depending on the situation. In even a simple conversation, there may be
several different codes which we can recognise:
53
A: “I’m getting an error message – could be a driver problem”.
Part 1 B: “OK, Bones, what are you going to do about it? They’re all supposed to have
How we the 3.5 upgrade”.
understand and A: “Obviously, you need to try it on the other two machines first”.
analyse the ways
we communicate
in organisations In this brief conversation between two people trying to get a computer pro-
gramme to work, we see various codes at work:

• technical jargon, as in “driver problem.”

• the joke based on a Star Trek character (as this comes from the first Trek
generation, this might be a clue to the age of the characters).
• the private joke over who does what – “obviously you” do this. (You can imagine
different ways of saying this – it could be a “put-down” rather than a joke.)

All of these depend upon their relationship. B would have adopted a very differ-
ent tone with a relative stranger or a new boss.
This illustrates Kurt Danziger’s view that all communication simultaneously
works on two levels:

• presentation of information (he calls this “representation”).

• presentation of a particular relationship which is implied in what is said and
how it is expressed (he calls this “presentation”).
(Danziger, 1976)

He shows how certain individuals are very conscious of this distinction and may
manipulate what they say to entrap the other person. His examples include sales
representatives and interrogators! This is not the same as the distinction between
verbal and nonverbal codes as we usually express a relationship both verbally and
nonverbally. One very important practical implication here is that we need to
review both what we communicate and how we do it. We need to establish the
appropriate relationship.

Language variety
We need to introduce three main concepts: register, dialect, and accent. All of
these have important practical implications – for example, people have expecta-
tions about the “correct” register for particular occasions and make judgements
about the people they meet on the basis of their dialect and accent.

Register
Different groups use different subsets of their language to suit their purposes. So
54 we can identify the characteristics of different subsets or registers. For example,
one early study of scientific reports found common features which were very
rare in everyday conversation, such as compound nouns, passives, conditionals, 3
and so on. What does
Without going too far into linguistic technicalities, you can recognise main communication
mean?
features of different registers. The important implication is that certain registers
are accepted as the norm in certain situations even if they are not very “efficient”
(see the discussion of Plain English in Chapter 7). If you select the wrong regis-
ter, you can easily create the wrong impression.

Dialect
A dialect is a language variety which is characteristic of a region or a socioeconomic
group. In the UK, for example, there are a wide variety of regional dialects such as
Cockney (London), Scouse (Liverpool), and Doric (North-East Scotland).
Over the years in the UK, there has been considerable pressure to achieve
“Standard English”. Despite growing acceptance of regional dialects, many people
still consider some dialects “better” than others. This is also true in other parts of
the world with other languages – we cannot look at the way language is used with-
out investigating the opinions people have about language variety. We can illustrate
the problems this may cause by looking at the impact of different accents.

Accent
Accent is often confused with dialect because a non-standard accent is often asso-
ciated with a non-standard dialect. Accent refers to the distinctive pronuncia-
tion which characterises a group or a geographical area. In an area like the UK,
accents tend to be regional.
Research confirms that certain accents are more highly regarded than others,
and some organisations are deliberately selecting staff to deal with customers
based on these perceptions. This preference for certain accents varies from coun-
try to country and group to group. Of course, many people deliberately cultivate
an accent as a means of reinforcing group or cultural identity.
The great danger in our attitude to people with an accent that differs from our
own is that we stereotype them with attributes that have little or nothing to do with
ways of speaking. For example, we may consider people less well (or better) educated
merely because they speak with a different accent. Of course, people may also dis-
criminate against a particular accent to discriminate on racial or class grounds.

Structural features of language

Every language has certain structural features which has implications for how we
communicate in (and how we learn) that language. For example, if I tell you “it
rained last night” then you have no way of knowing from this whether I know this
because I was there, or because I heard the weather forecast or from some other 55
source. If I was speaking to you in the Hopi language then my source would be
Part 1 clear from what I said. Their language specifies context as well as the event or
How we information.
understand and Among the most interesting features of the English language are:
analyse the ways
we communicate
in organisations Expanding and developing vocabulary
Many English words in dictionaries are virtually extinct as far as everyday use
is concerned. Does it matter if we no longer use terms such as “velleity”, “apo-
siopesis”, or the “myoclonic jerk” (Bryson, 1990, page 60)? The British media
regularly debate which new words should be recognised in the next edition of
the Oxford English Dictionary.
The important principle for our purposes is that new expressions appear all
the time in various ways:

• we borrow words from other languages, such as “ketchup” from China.

• we put new meanings into old words. An obvious example here is “gay”.
• we add or subtract parts from old words, usually by abbreviating them.
Sometimes, we can take a longstanding word (such as political) and add to it
to create a new expression. According to Bill Bryson, the word “apolitical”
appeared in 1952 (ibid, page 76).
• we create new words, usually by making some analogy. We now talk of poli-
ticians talking in “sound-bites” (short snatches of political rhetoric) – a phrase
first popularised during the 1988 American elections.

Multiple meanings for words

An example here would be “set” with 58 uses as a noun, 126 uses as a verb, and
ten uses as an adjective. Many other words have multiple meanings – we have to
work out what they mean from the context.

Variety in pronunciation
The English language has more sounds than many others, a particular problem
for language learners, especially when they find that many spellings and pro-
nunciations do not match (e.g. how would you pronounce “chough”?) There are
changes in pronunciation which seem to reflect changing fashion and the obvious
variations in dialect. These variations can be quite dramatic.

Variety in spelling
According to linguistics expert David Crystal,

56 English spelling is difficult but is not as chaotic as is often claimed.

(Crystal, 2013, p.6)
He explains how several historical changes to English spelling – understanding 3
these provides important clues to accurate spelling and explains many seeming What does
inconsistencies. communication
mean?

Flexible syntax
UK English has rules of grammar but no formal ruling body to enforce them (see
Box 2.2 for related issues). Although some rules are more “powerful” than oth-
ers, they may all change over time.
The important practical implication is that we cannot simply rely on a diction-
ary to choose effective language for a given situation. We need to assess both situ-
ation and context. For example, how do we know when a word or expression has
become sufficiently accepted so it can be used, especially in more formal situa-
tions? This depends on the audience. For example, are they familiar with expres-
sions which arise from popular culture? In a business document, would you use
any of the following phrases which we found in British daily papers – “trial by
Tik Tok”; “road rage’; “spin doctor”; “trend towards retro”; and “prosecution
of spam king”? Or do you have an audience which is openly hostile to “trendy
catchphrases” or to Americanisms? There is also the question of business jargon.
We have several guides to jargon which has gone “past its sell-by date” and is best
avoided (e.g. Taggart, 2011).

Speaking vs writing
There is a longstanding academic debate about the differences between spoken
and written language. The following table gives some common distinctions.​
This comparison uses analysis from the Linguistics Society of America (e.g.
see Baron, 2008). But how far are these differences affected by context? And

Table 3.1 Spoken vs written language

Characteristic Spoken language Written language

universality everyone can speak, if some problems of literacy

they are physically able systematically exclude certain
individuals and groups
complexity tends to be less complex often uses complex sentences and
using simpler sentences expressions
rate of change more likely to change and less change, likely to change much
at a faster rate slower
formality likely to use many likely to use more official terms and 57
colloquial terms avoid slang
Part 1 what about new media which seem to muddy the distinction between spoken
How we and written language?
understand and
analyse the ways
we communicate
in organisations
Is online language written or spoken?
Text messages are written messages but often read more like a conversation.
Naomi Baron concludes that instant messaging is more like speech than text in
terms of overall characteristics, but she found some interesting gender differ-
ences to complicate the issue, e.g. that females tended to use a style more similar
to their writing style.
This debate has important practical significance when we consider the impres-
sions we make on each other. We return to this issue in Chapter 9.

Nonverbal codes

When the media talk about nonverbal communication or body language, they
often focus on what is known as kinesics. Signals studied under this heading
include facial expression, eye contact, gesture, and body posture.
Much of this communication is unconscious. The face in particular signals
a wide range of emotions and there seems to be a range of “basic emotions”
which are very similar across many cultures. Several classic studies suggested
six fundamental emotional states: happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger,
and disgust/contempt. (Ekman, 1992) Many training courses and resources
use these categories to help you interpret emotions “correctly”. However,
this was challenged by recent research by Rachael Jack and colleagues at the
University of Glasgow (Jack et al., 2014). Their research suggests four “bio-
logically basic emotions” and a hierarchy which has developed over time to
signal other emotional states. For example, they suggest that fear/surprise
is one basic category. These two emotions can be confused by viewers as
they start from the same bodily movement – raised eyelids – but then are
distinguished by different following movements. The same applies to anger/
disgust – starting from the nose wrinkle.
These researchers continue to explore how individual facial movements com-
bine to signal different emotions, and how they are perceived. We do not yet
fully understand how this works:

the specific facial signals that drive (i.e. explain) these perceptions are unknown.
(Liu et al., 2022)

58 The important practical consequence of this is that we may need to re-examine

some training methods to give more sophisticated insight into how we judge
emotional states. And it is worth questioning your own assumptions about the 3
meaning of nonverbal signals. What does
There is an enormous amount of research on different nonverbal signals. This communication
mean?
has focused on how different signals are used and what they usually mean. For
example, eye contact signals interest and helps to control social interaction.
Body posture often signals the attitude towards the interaction, whether it be
tense, relaxed, interested, or bored. Gestures are often used for submission.
Sometimes gestures become ritualised, as in an army salute. Body posture can
also become ritualised as in bowing, kneeling etc.
For the rest of this chapter, we shall highlight important practical aspects of
nonverbal codes.

Nonverbal codes may contradict the verbal

Often body language contradicts a spoken message – we say that the sender does
not “mean what he says” and is insincere. This raises another fundamental question
which we return to later – how far can you become skilled at reading body language?

Nonverbal messages may be very important

Many popular books about nonverbal communication (NVC) make strong claims
about the “power” of NVC. This is a longstanding issue. For example, Judi James
(1995) suggested that certain research did “discover exactly what it is that con-
tributes to the total message” (page 9), as follows:

• verbal – 7%.
• tone of voice – 38%.
• visual – 55%.

These statistics come from the 1960s and are typically used to support claims like:

• “most of the messages in any interaction with another person (face to face)
are revealed through body signals or ‘bodytalk’” (Borg, 2013, page 61).
• “eye contact can account for as much as 55 per cent of information transmis-
sion in a given conversation” (Dutton, 2011, page 72).
• “we as human beings pay more than 90% attention to body language and tone
of the voice more than the actual words” (Harappa Education, 2020).

Unfortunately, this does not reflect how NVC really works in everyday practice –
we explain why in Chapter 10. Also see the website for further analysis.
Even though subsequent research paints a much more complicated picture,
this finding is still regularly repeated, often without any attempt to suggest 59
reservations.
Part 1 Do not rely upon these statistics, which are actually difficult to interpret.
How we Research has shown that nonverbal signals can be very important, but they may
understand and not be so dominant in every situation. We must always consider the relationship
analyse the ways
we communicate between words and nonverbal cues.
in organisations

Nonverbal communication cannot be avoided

You cannot avoid sending nonverbal signals. In the UK, avoiding eye contact
usually signals that you do not wish to communicate. Eye contact, a smile, or a
handshake all signal varying degrees of willingness to communicate.

Much nonverbal communication is culture-bound

Some nonverbal behaviour appears universal but the expression of less intense
emotions and general social feelings is much more culture-bound. For example,
in many situations in British and American culture, failure to “look a person in
the eye” is interpreted as shiftiness. But in many African and Hispanic cultures
averting the eyes is a mark of respect for a person of higher status. Similarly, the
American “OK” hand sign has an obscene or vulgar meaning in other countries
as diverse as Brazil and Greece.
As a result, we now have “dictionaries” of nonverbal signs and guides to “cor-
rect” nonverbal expression in a range of cultures. There are obvious problems
with all these generalisations, including whether they apply equally across the
culture. There are also problem of deciding which rules are current, which are
changing, and which are really important. For example, in the 1990s, we came
across the recommendation that, in England, “men’s shirts should not have pock-
ets” – which meant that one of us had to buy a new wardrobe! We can only guess
what this guidance would have made of current trends towards open-necked
shirts by many managers and executives.
But how can we make sense of these differences? McDaniel (1997) argued
that nonverbal behaviour reflects or represents dominant cultural themes. He
used the example of Japanese culture where there are several clear themes,
including social balance and harmony, strong group and collective loyalty, for-
mality, humility, and hierarchy. He showed how Japanese nonverbal behaviour
at the time both illustrated and reinforced these cultural themes. For example,
the Japanese tended to avoid direct eye contact except “unless a superior wants
to admonish a subordinate” (page 259). Thus, the typical behaviour reflected
the norm of humility – this norm was only broken to reinforce another cultural
theme, hierarchy.
As McDaniel acknowledges, this form of analysis is easier in cultures with
very strong themes such as Japan. It is more difficult in more diverse cultures.
60 And we have the problem of measuring cultural themes.
The meaning of nonverbal behaviour 3
depends on the context What does
communication
Even within one culture, we cannot expect particular nonverbal signals to mean?

mean the same thing in different situations. For example, Mark Knapp and
Judith Hall (2010) reviewed research on nonverbal signals associated with
dominance. A non-smiling face is seen as dominant but does this mean that
dominant people smile less? Some studies have found that dominant mem-
bers of a group smile more! They suggest that people who are trying to achieve
dominance use a different set of nonverbal signals from those who have
already achieved high status.

You can improve your interpretation

of nonverbal communication
It is possible to improve your skill in interpreting body language. One key prin-
ciple here is to look for “leakage” where the other person tries to control their
expression in certain parts of their body but the true emotion “leaks out” else-
where. I may feel very angry and put on a poker face but you may be able to spot
anger in my gestures, or the way my foot is furiously tapping, or some other
“leak” which I cannot control. Linked to this is the notion of “micro-expressions”
– small and very quick changes of facial expression or bodily movements which
are claimed to reveal the “true” emotion that you are feeling.

How nonverbal signals can communicate

(or not) in everyday work situations
One point we will repeat as it is so important – you should interpret commu-
nication in a holistic way – interpret the total picture before you, looking at all
the verbal and nonverbal codes together. However, there are situations where a
specific nonverbal code can have particular significance.

Paralinguistics can provide very useful clues

In work situations, paralinguistic messages can be the most important. When
someone says “everything is going well”, hesitancy in the voice may show that
everything is not going well.
The reverse can also happen. You may have a good proposal to put forward
to management. If your behaviour is badly affected by nerves, then the proposal
may come over as uncertain and hesitant. As a result, you may not be taken seri-
ously. If you have an important verbal message to put across, you need to ensure
that paralinguistic messages support, and do not detract from it. 61
Part 1 Appearance
How we
understand and Dress also has a cultural dimension and can sometimes be a source of discord or
analyse the ways discrimination. Certain groups signal their affiliation through clothes. Examples
we communicate
in organisations are the turbans of Sikhs and the yarmulkes of certain Jewish groups. In addition,
minority groups may have their own dress codes which clash with prescribed
codes. As dress can be a source of miscommunication and friction in organisa-
tions, management should develop a sensible policy which should be reviewed
regularly as attitudes and fashions change over time.

What our clothes say about us

What we wear has symbolic influence on the way we are perceived – for example,
it can affect perceptions of students for lecturers and vice versa. At work, the way
we dress is often a mixture of tradition and organisational culture. Historically,
men in business organisations always wore a suit and tie – business wear contin-
ues to be dominated by this approach. The shift to a more casual approach has
generated online tips for how to dress appropriately, such as:

the dressed down version of business professional, which means you can keep the suit
but lose the tie, wear dress pants with a blazer, or wear a wider variety of more casual
clothes, such as chinos, sweaters and cardigans.
(Van Tongeren, 2020)

The online move due to Covid has extended the discussion about what level of casual
dress is acceptable at work (Shaw, 2022). Where the casual business look is accept-
able, personal preferences come into play. For example, at a recent planning day held
away from the office, one colleague was still in a suit and tie, whereas another ditched
the tie, wore jeans but was still wearing his trademark waistcoat. Another was wear-
ing an unironed T-shirt and chinos. Certain fields have very specific rules about busi-
ness dress; in the City some firms not only require staff to wear a suit and tie but
where suits should be bought, to reflect the status of the organisation.
Work by Maran et al. (2020) has shown that leaders can influence their impact
on their organisations by having the “right” mix of formality and informality in
what they wear. CEOs of major organisations dressed in ways that carried sym-
bolic associations with characteristics such as leadership, charisma, and aptitude,
and therefore influence. Their research used drawings of middle-aged men in
different styles of dress reflecting the fact that other considerations are at play
for women in leadership, revealing the increased levels of complexity for women
when choosing what to wear at work (Brescoll, 2016).
New members of staff may receive guidelines – a business dress code – reflecting
62 expectations that are appropriate for the organisation and culture. This is particularly
obvious where a uniform is required, such as airline staff, or in a profession such
as law or health. In the UK, where an organisation uses a dress code, Government 3
guidance (2018) requires it to go beyond having codes for both men and women. What does
Reflecting the Equality Act 2010, the guidance indicates that dress codes for men and communication
mean?
women should be equivalent, even if they are not identical. This guidance was devel-
oped following widespread media coverage and the petition resulting from Nicola
Thorp’s claim that she was dismissed because of refusing to wear high heels whilst
working as a receptionist in London (Ridley, 2016).
Whilst the law may be clear about the expectation of equivalence for men
and women in respect to their dress in the workplace, there are other, less clear
factors at play. The way that women are perceived can often be related to the
way they dress and the expectations of those that they work with (by both men
and women) and the work by Brescoll (2016) indicates that stereotypes continue
to influence the ways in which women are perceived. As a result, leadership
programmes specifically aimed at women will often provide guidance on how to
navigate the landscape by the choices we make, e.g. wearing clothes that reflect
the role you want rather than the one that you are in; when interviewed by a
woman, wear an outfit that positively mirrors their own dress code.

Eye contact
Barbara Shimko surveyed 38 general managers of fast-food restaurants about
their employment practices and found 9% of applicants were rejected because of
“inappropriate eye contact” (Shimko, 1990).
This study illustrates how people in organisations have norms and expecta-
tions about nonverbal behaviour. People who want to gain entry to a particular
organisation may have to comply with these norms to get through the selection
procedure. Posture may be very important here – often seen as a strong indicator
of a person’s attitude to the situation and audience. In high-stakes situations such
as job interviews, the interviewee is unlikely to create a good impression with
an “over-relaxed” posture. In superior-subordinate interactions, the subordinate
who wants to impress will probably try to take up a posture that is slightly more
rigid than the power-holder. Of course, there are dangers here – an over-rigid
posture can signal lack of confidence.

Personal space and distance

The effect of personal space and distance in communication is complex and depends
on several factors which include: the social relationship, the situation; the status rela-
tionship; and the culture. One widely-quoted formula from Edward Hall identified
four distance zones for middle-class Americans (Hall, 1959).

• intimate – physical contact to 45 cm. 63

• casual-personal – 45 cm to 120 cm.
Part 1 • social-consultative – 120 cm to 365 cm.
How we • public – over 365 cm.
understand and
analyse the ways
we communicate
In cultures which follow this pattern, business interactions tend to take place at
in organisations the casual-personal or social-consultative levels. But expectations of the type of
interaction influence the distance – if we expect an unfavourable message, we
will distance ourselves from the sender. So, depending on the level of formality,
we tend to alter the distance to where we feel comfortable.
One general rule is that the person with power or status controls the interac-
tion distance, particularly in intimate and casual personal interactions. In your
organisation, is it acceptable for a manager to pat someone on the back as an
accompaniment to encouragement or praise? And would the reverse be resented?

Possibilities offered by new technology

We now have new ways of communicating which can augment the codes we use
in face-to-face contact. And new methods/media are appearing.
Nancy Baym (2010) suggests that we use “seven key concepts” to differentiate
between the new forms, as summarised in the following table​
We shall look at these characteristics in more detail in later chapters. For the
moment, we suggest some important implications:

• we now have techniques which allow us to make contact and reinforce rela-
tionships with relatively few limitations of time and place.
• continuous access to mobile contact brings potential issues. We must think
about how much access people have to us.

Table 3.2 Key concepts for communications media

Concept Meaning

interactivity the forms of interaction which are supported

temporal the timing involved – for example, asynchronous or synchronous
social cues the range of cues available such as facial expression
storage how do you keep the messages?
replicability can you save and pass on the message?
reach size of the audience you can reach
64
mobility portability
• we can use asynchronous media when we want to plan our message and when 3
we might need a fairly quick response. What does
• we can also keep records and store certain conversations where we need to. communication
mean?
Of course, you must then think about how and where any records are stored.
• we need to think very carefully about the best media for particular forms of
communication.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ we use a variety of codes to communicate, including verbal and nonverbal
codes.
■ social rules and expectations are associated with these codes, and they influ-
ence how the codes are interpreted (e.g. perceptions of accent).
■ our communication will reflect our attitudes and feelings and we need to
make sure that we do not send out ambiguous or misleading signals.
■ although there have been exaggerated claims about the importance and
meaning of nonverbal communication, we must make sure that our nonver-
bal signals create the appropriate relationship.
■ all human codes are fuzzy and potentially ambiguous. As a result, we always
need to consider their meaning in context.
■ we must pay attention to the whole range of communication codes when we
try to detect emotional states such as deception.
■ we need to think about both the potential and drawbacks of new technologi-
cal methods.

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66
Chapter 4
Communication context 1: organisational
culture and structure

Introduction

This chapter introduces two interdependent characteristics of organisations

which have profound implications for the ways we communicate: culture and
structure. We introduce these separately while offering examples which suggest
how they interact and influence our communication. In Chapter 5, we attempt
to define what we call the “new technology landscape” and show how that also
interacts to create the overall context for communication in all organisations.
Notions of organisational culture have been prominent in management litera-
ture since the 1980s. One impact of the pandemic was to revitalise the need to
investigate and influence organisational culture, especially given debates and dif-
ferences over virtual and homeworking. One well-publicised example is Google’s
redesign of their base office in London and their work on “inclusive meeting
rooms for hybrid working” (BBC Business News, 2022). Other organisations have
radically downsized their office space to support increased homeworking while
facing challenges on how to inculcate and maintain effective business cultures.
Organisational structures have also seen considerable change and innovation.
The pandemic accelerated the trend towards “flatter” organisational structures
with fewer levels in the hierarchy. And this begs the questions – do particular
organisational structures encourage organisational communication? Have tradi-
tional hierarchical structures “had their day”?

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ explain what we mean by organisational culture.

■ explain major dimensions of organisational structure.
■ discuss important relationships between these factors. 67

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-6
Part 1 Organisational culture and communication
How we
understand and Definitions of organisational culture usually echo definitions of national culture,
analyse the ways
we communicate talking about typical or traditional ways of thinking, believing, and acting. They
in organisations include the ways that ideas and behaviour patterns are shared by members of the
group, and the way these are learnt and adopted by new members.
Consider how you feel when you join a new organisation. You are very keen to
find out “the way they do things round here” and you probably behave cautiously
to make sure that you do not offend anyone by breaking one of the “unwrit-
ten rules”. What can add to the complexity of adapting to a new organisation is
that there can be a variety of subcultures to negotiate. These can reflect differ-
ent approaches in the various departments of an organisation or it could be that
within an international business there are differing national cultures at play.
The shift to working from home, or hybrid working, has made it more dif-
ficult to identify what the dominant culture is and, for new members of staff, to
find out “how they do things round here”. So how can we assess the nature of an
organisational culture?
Compare the two lists of components in Table 4.1 (adapted from different
definitions in Senior et al., 2020, page 135).
Although they have a lot in common, there are important differences between
these two lists:

• List A covers more of the ways that culture is communicated (myths, heroes
etc.) whereas List B focuses more on underlying principles (e.g. how far the
organisation uses teams).
• List A focuses more upon informal characteristics like jokes and stories,
and also highlights the historical dimension. List B includes many formal
organisational rules, e.g. the reward and promotions criteria. It also
focuses on notions of identity, the degree to which employees identify
with the organisation as opposed to identifying with their job or profes-
sional background.

You can use lists like this to develop a checklist to review your own organisation
and compare different organisational cultures (Senior et al, 2020, page 136).
Both the above lists are long and detailed. Which aspects should we concen-
trate on? How do we decide what is most important? And what details should
influence our interpretation?

Levels of organisational culture

Edgar Schein (2009, 2010) suggests three levels:
68
• “artefacts” – visible structures and processes in the organisation.
Table 4.1 Components of organisational culture 4
Communication
List A List B context 1

Brown (1995, p8 cited in Senior et al., 2020, Robbins and Judge (2013, cited
page 135) in Senior et al. 2020, page 135)
Ingredients of culture Characteristics of culture
Artefacts Innovation and risk taking
Language in the form of jokes, metaphors, stories, Attention to detail
myths and legends
Behaviour patterns in the form of rites, rituals, Outcome orientation
ceremonies, and celebrations
Norms of behaviour People orientation
Heroes (past and present employees who do great Team orientation
things)
Symbols and symbolic action Aggression
Beliefs, values, and attitudes Stability
Ethical codes
Basic assumptions about what is important
History

This includes: the language people use; stories circulating around the organi-
sation; rituals and ceremonies; and the organisation’s environment (including
buildings and space allocation).
• “espoused values” – values which the organisation claims to follow, as
expressed in the organisation website, annual report, mission statement etc.
• “basic underlying assumptions”.
The third and deepest level includes all the taken-for-granted beliefs which
are the real source of values and actions within the organisation. These may
be accepted subconsciously or unconsciously.

One obvious implication is the potential for important differences between what
an organisation says it does and what it actually does. The organisation that claims
to value and support its employees on its website may be extremely ruthless
when it comes to hiring and firing people. Although Vishal Garg apologised for
the way he fired 900 staff over Zoom, the contrast between his method and the
words of apology was stark, and this was widely reported.
If an organisation operates on the assumption of “survival of the fittest” 69
whereas the mission statement portrays a “happy family”, what will employees
Part 1 believe? They will believe the actions and not the rhetoric. For an interesting
How we contrast between managers on a central component of organisational culture,
understand and see Box 4.1.
analyse the ways
we communicate
in organisations
BOX 4.1
The boss wants us back in the office!
The debate about how much employees can work from home has intensified since
the pandemic receded and restrictions were lifted. But this is not a new argument
as this example from 2013 illustrates: a leaked internal email from Yahoo to all
employees proclaimed that

communication and collaboration will be important, so we need to be work-

ing side-by-side. That is why it is critical that we are all present in our
offices.

This created an embarrassing wave of publicity for the company. If you Google
“Yahoo no work from home memo”, you can read over a million results, including
the full text of the memo. (e.g. at https://allthingsd​.com​/20130222​/physically​
-together​-heres​-the​-internal​-yahoo​-no​-work​-from​-home​-memo​-which​-extends​
-beyond​-remote​-workers/ )
A recent “post-pandemic” example would be the typewritten note (on official
notepaper) that appeared on the desks of many UK government employees from
their newly-appointed boss. The note read:

“Sorry you were out when I visited.

I look forward to seeing you in the office very soon”.

This was widely reported and commented upon, both in mass and social media.
It was described as “crass and insulting” (by a union official) and as part of a
“culture war” about virtual and homeworking (McGarvey and Blake, 2022).
This followed earlier reports that:

Civil servants must stop working from home and return to the office to
ensure government buildings are at full capacity
( https://www​.bbc​.co​.uk​/news​/uk​-politics​-61145692)

This very definitive ruling contrasts with the range of options for flexible work-
ing which have been offered in other organisations – see later chapters and the
70 website for further examples.
Over the next few years we are likely to see more developments here, both in 4
terms of organisation cultures and the technologies available to homeworkers. Communication
And we can expect to see further arguments within organisations about the context 1

appropriate location for specific job roles and the associated working conditions
(as in the law firm which announced that staff could work from home if they
accepted a 20% pay cut (Meierhans, 2022)).

Culture’s consequences
Culture can have very clear and important practical consequences. Philip
Clampitt (2017) suggests four key consequences:

• impact on economic performance and productivity.

• influence on how the organisation both analyses and solves problems.
• influence on how the company responds to change.
• the profound impact on employee motivation.

But how do workers/staff experience the culture?

Rick Delbridge (1998) worked on the production line in two factories: one
Japanese-run and one British operation trying to introduce Japanese methods.
He found dramatic differences between the espoused values (e.g., worker par-
ticipation, open communication, etc.) and the actual practice. For example,
“counselling” sessions with workers who were having difficulties turned out to
be one-way communication from management to “do better”; there were also
“team meetings” where only managers spoke. Although this reference is dated,
similar differences in perception are still commonplace.

Major models of organisational culture

Different models have emerged from research and business consultants. We offer
a couple of popular examples below (see more examples on the website).

Quinn and Cameron’s Competing

Values Framework (2011)
Quinn and Cameron identified two key polarities to describe culture and its
impact on organisational effectiveness:

• internal focus and integration v external focus and differentiation.

• flexibility and discretion v stability and control.

This creates four dominant business cultures – Clan, Adhocracy, Hierarchy, and 71
Market – with the following characteristics:
Part 1 Clan Culture
How we
understand and This organisation aims to feel like a family, and communication is a key prior-
analyse the ways ity. It is most effective with small businesses and start-ups and allows for market
we communicate
in organisations growth. However, as it grows, the lack of structure makes communication more
difficult. On the other hand, with remote working, this culture can work where
communication is continuous, and staff have autonomy to work independently
and in response to their local situation.

Adhocracy Culture
This culture celebrates innovation and adaptability, usually associated with risk-
taking at the forefront of their individual industry. To be successful, this organi-
sation needs to be tied to market growth.
Businesses set up by Elon Musk can typify this company culture and we wait
to see the long-term outcomes at Twitter! This book went into its production
cycle only a few weeks after Musk bought Twitter but he had already introduced
major cultural and structural changes which led some commentators to question
the company’s long-term future. According to press reports, Musk “fired half of
the workforce including top management, and is ruthlessly changing the culture
to emphasize long hours and an intense pace” (Dang et al., 2022). Other reported
changes included Musk’s demand that staff return to the office and stopping free
meals for staff. Many Twitter users abandoned the platform and alternatives like
Mastodon reported significant new enrolments. See the website for our update
and further comments on these developments.

Hierarchy Culture
Where the organisation is well-structured, where processes align to key
objectives, this can provide a strong sense of stability. However, it can hin-
der change if there are few opportunities for collaboration or genuine com-
munication between levels of the organisation. This is often found in public
sector/government departments, or government-funded organisations such as
schools.

Market Culture
The clear objective is usually profitability, so everything is seen in terms of
(financial) costs and benefits. Individuals within the organisation exist to achieve
this overarching objective. Where this works well, employees are motivated by
external drivers (profitability) and are focused on achieving this.
Problems can arise if objectives create clashes with important values. A
72 recent example was the decision by the pharmaceutical company AstraZeneca to
withdraw dapagliflozin, the type 1 diabetes drug, from treating certain type 2
diabetes patients. Some charities objected that this was a decision driven by com- 4
mercial factors rather than patient interest. This would reflect a market-driven Communication
culture where the focus is on much larger patient groups – more profitable than context 1

the benefits to individuals.

In other organisations, this “market” approach is used to encourage internal
competition between employees. This can lead to burnout and low staff retention
– apart from the senior roles where financial rewards are high (Mahase, 2022).

Culture styles (Groysberg et al., 2018)

They identified eight culture styles based upon two dimensions that apply to all
organisations:

• the nature of people interactions.

• responsiveness to change.

Caring
This emphasises relationships between its members with a strong emphasis on
teamwork and mutual support.

Purpose
The organisation focuses on sustainability, and global communities. Leaders empha-
sise the shared ideals of the organisation and its contribution to the greater good.

Learning
In this workplace, innovation, knowledge, and new ideas are welcomed and
encouraged.

Enjoyment
This is characterised by fun and excitement. There will be a sense of playfulness,
stimulation, and spontaneity.

Results

Achievement, target-setting, and internal competitiveness characterise the cul-

ture within a results-driven organisation.

Authority
Within this culture, the competitive element is seen in the achievement of con- 73
trol and dominance over others.
Part 1 Safety
How we
understand and In an organisation with a strong culture of safety, the environment will be pre-
analyse the ways dictable, people will be risk-conscious and plan ahead, seeking to anticipate
we communicate
in organisations change in order to feel protected.

Order
This culture focuses on rules. A desire to fit in is often reflected in the hierar-
chical structures that develop. Employees are expected to co-operate with the
traditional ways of working.

Contrasting different models of

organisational culture

One common theme is that certain cultures are more (or less) suited to a particu-
lar social and economic environment.
One influential management text took this further to say that some cultures
were inherently better than others (Peters and Waterman, 1982). They claimed
that effective organisations shared specific values, including a “ bias for action”
and “closeness to the customer”. Unfortunately for this analysis, some of the
organisations they labelled as successful went on to struggle. Vermeulen (2010)
suggested that only three or four of the organisations listed in 1982 had main-
tained excellent ratings.
This raises the question of how/whether a specific organisational culture can
be maintained over the long term, especially during periods of economic and
social change. A recent example is Netflix in 2022 – a very distinctive culture
suddenly faced with serious and growing economic pressures – see Box 4.2.

BOX 4.2
How will the Netflix company culture develop?
Reed Hastings is Netflix co-founder and CEO; Erin Meyer is a leading business
academic. Their co-authored book (Hastings and Meyer, 2020) examines the
Netflix company culture from their different perspectives.
Hastings claims that the culture he initiated is both distinctive and successful:

a culture that valued people over process, emphasized innovation over effi-
ciency, and had very few controls.
74 (page xiii)
 4
You can find detailed descriptions of the culture on the company website (https:// Communication
jobs​.netflix​.com​/culture) and in the original internal slides which he later posted context 1
on the internet in 2009 – the Culture Deck. The slides have received a lot of
attention over the years, and there are numerous commentaries online including
the article on their development by Patty McCord who was involved at the time
as Chief Talent Officer for Netflix (McCord, 2014).
Meyer starts the book by voicing scepticism and by highlighting aspects of
the culture deck which contradict what is often regarded as good organisational
practice, e.g. Netflix does not have a policy on holiday/vacation entitlement:

I loved the Netflix Culture Deck for its honesty. And I loathed it for its content.
(page xiii)

By the end of the book, she offers a positive perspective, arguing that Netflix
have successfully demonstrated that:

you can offer a culture of freedom and responsibility, choosing speed and
flexibility, and offering more freedom to your employees.
(page 269)

This book was published when the company was experiencing significant growth
and economic success. For a useful summary of how the organisation developed,
see Kobiruzzaman, 2022)
In 2022, circumstances changed – Netflix lost subscribers and the share
value dropped. Media analysts suggested that the company would have to change
to maintain its market leadership. The next few years will decide whether this
unconventional culture is strong enough to survive the economic downturn. See
the website for further sources/updates.

Values and organisational culture

Another important question is how far the organisation culture is related to broader
social and political issues and values. One controversial proposal is that many modern
organisations are taking on the values of efficiency and predictability first promoted
in the American fast food industry. Box 4.3 looks at this in more detail.

BOX 4.3:
The McDonaldization thesis
George Ritzer introduced the term “McDonaldization”, suggesting that many
organisations have adopted four major principles which are taken to their logical 75
Part 1
How we extreme in fast food chains and which are increasingly adopted by online organi-
understand and sations (Ritzer, 2019):
analyse the ways
we communicate ■ efficiency.
in organisations
■ accountability.
Fast food restaurants use exact measures of ingredients/helpings and
emphasise speedy delivery to the customer.
■ predictability.
The products in New York will be exactly the same as the ones in London or
Paris, and they will be the exactly the same tomorrow as they were today.
This predictability also applies to workers’ behaviour and the scripts which
service staff have to follow.
■ control.
Technology is used to control both staff and customer. One example is recent
developments in the use of robots to prepare fast food (Michaels, 2022).

Although he notes some advantages, Ritzer suggests that McDonaldization can

have negative and dehumanising consequences. He concludes that customers do
not recognise some of the factors which make the organisation inefficient from
their point of view. For example, many of these systems make the customers do a
lot of the work; they may also be rather expensive; they may create a lot of waste
in packaging etc. He is also very critical of their values, accusing them of double
standards. Whereas those at the top of the organisation value their own free-
dom, they simultaneously “want to control subordinates through the imposition
of rational systems” (op cit, pages 123/124). There are echoes here of debates
about homeworking.
This work received very powerful reactions, not least from the organisations
who are obvious targets of his criticism. See our website for further debate. For
the moment, we emphasise possible conflicts between value systems which are
highlighted by Ritzer's analysis.

Multiple co-existing cultures?

In the discussion so far, we have implied that a single organisation fits one cul-
ture. This is one problem with some cultural models – the assumption that the
organisation is one unified whole. A number of factors argue against this:

• some cultures are stronger than others.

• employees’ acceptance of the general culture can vary.
76 • different parts of the organisation may reflect different cultures.
• cultures can and do change.
Another possible misconception is that culture only develops in large organisa- 4
tions. In fact, we can observe and analyse culture in organisations of all sizes, Communication
including the very small. context 1

How is organisational culture

communicated and expressed?
Early research on organisational culture tended to focus on management
attempts to communicate corporate values to their employees. But, of
course, this may not accurately reflect what happens in the workplace. As
a result, researchers have paid increasing attention to the ways in which
organisational culture can be revealed in more personal communication. For
example, there is research on:

• stories people tell about the organisation and about heroes in the organisation.
• slogans, catchphrases, and graffiti in the organisation.
• jokes and metaphors which people use to describe their experience of the
organisation.

This research can uncover values which are accepted by the members of the
organisation and also conflict which may exist between subgroups. A few exam-
ples to illustrate:

The power of metaphor

Smith and Eisenberg (1987) concluded from employee interviews that two
fundamental metaphors represented the Disney approach: Disneyland was
a “drama” and a “family”. Employees saw themselves as “actors” putting on
“costumes” to act out a “show” for their “audience” (customers). The family
metaphor described management/worker relationships and attitudes. When
management responded to increasing competition by adopting hard eco-
nomic measures, the workers felt that this was “a breach of Disney’s caring
philosophy” (page 374).

Lists versus stories

Another continuing theme in the literature on organisational culture is the com-
parison between organisations. Browning (1992) suggested two broad types of
cultures, identified by their preference for lists or stories. The “lists” organisation
tends to issue written lists to staff to tell them what to do and how to do it. This
reflects organisational values such as maintenance of standards and accountabil-
ity. The “stories” organisation relies on face-to-face interaction and storytell-
ing to communicate to staff. This is an organisation which values humour and 77
performance.
Part 1 Cultural differences
How we
understand and Much of the research to date on organisational stories has looked at Western
analyse the ways organisations using English as the dominant language. In other cultures, members
we communicate
in organisations of the organisation may have different ways of expressing themselves through sto-
ries. For example, whereas stories in UK or US organisations often use images,
jokes, and metaphors drawn from popular television programmes, films, and
music, a study of storytelling in a Malaysian organisation found that most stories
used traditional legends and historical characters (Ahmed and Hartley, 1999).
The one major exception was a story in several parts which also used Power
Rangers characters to comment on current management preoccupations.

Analysing your organisation’s culture

A range of factors influence the culture which an organisation develops.
Practical tools and techniques you can use to analyse your organisation’s cul-
ture can be found in the work of analysts we have already cited, such as Schein
and Schein (2017), Senior, Swailes, and Carnall (2020) and Cameron and Quinn
(2011). There are also online inventories such as OCAI (based on Cameron and
Quinn). You need to consider whether you are comfortable in your organisation’s
culture and what this means for your communication.
Does your organisational culture inspire commitment and excellence?, as in
Box 4.4.
Or does it enable negative or even immoral behaviour?
Uncovering negative information about your organisational culture can be a
very difficult experience as we see in Box 4.5.

BOX 4.4
When culture goes right
In the book, Shoot for the moon, Richard Wiseman (2019) analyses the cultural
factors which enabled the relatively young and inexperienced team – Mission
Control in NASA – to successfully send the first human to the moon.
He suggests eight principles and associated techniques which were critical to
their ultimate success, which we summarise in the table below with comments
from our perpective.​
Wiseman suggests that we can all learn from this example and apply the same
techniques. As the book concludes,

against all the odds, they got there. You can, too.
78 (op cit, page 246)
 4
Table 4.2 Cultural analysis of NASA Mission Control Communication
context 1
Principle Our comment

Passion Members of the team had a strong sense of purpose and were
strongly committed to what was an extremely ambitious goal given
the technology of the time.
Innovation Many original ideas came out of the project in addition to fulfilling
the objective of reaching the moon.
Self-belief Team members family believed that they could achieve the goal
within the time scale although many independent observers felt it
was impossible.
Learn how to fail Not every aspect of the project was successful – astronauts died in
the Apollo 1 fire. This did have the knock-on effect of making team
members much more open about their mistakes.
Responsibility There was a very strong sense of mutual responsibility.
Courage The group had to “find the courage to stop talking and start acting”
(page 242)
Preparedness Planning was very thorough, including the contingency plans.
Flexibility Members of the team responded flexibly to changes

BOX 4.5
When culture goes wrong
Three examples will illustrate how disastrous this can be for the organisations
and individuals involved:
The previous edition of this book described the experience of Michael
Woodford, following his appointment as President of the Japanese Olympus cor-
poration. His attempts to investigate serious fraud in the company were thwarted
by senior managers. Eventually, he was dismissed by the Board – pressures to
conform and maintain group solidarity outweighed ethical considerations. His
account of this process (Woodford, 2012) is a fascinating if depressing insight
into corporate chicanery (and a very good read) – see further details and links
on the website.
Yorkshire County Cricket Club was once lauded as the most successful cricket
club in England and Wales, with players regularly representing England and
with frequent County Championship wins (33 at the last count). However, the 79
Part 1
How we testimony of Azeem Rafiq to a parliamentary committee exposed endemic racism
understand and within the club – and in the sport. Moreover, it exposed a reluctance to address the
analyse the ways
we communicate issue comprehensively. The Yorkshire CC investigation into the allegations (August
in organisations 2021) failed to recognise the embedded racism in the club and led to: the resig-
nation of the chairman, Roger Hutton, and other senior figures; major sponsors
withdrawing their support; and removal of the right to host England matches.
Our third example is also ongoing – the experience of a large group of sub-post-
masters and sub-postmistresses who worked for the UK Post Office. They worked
essentially as independent traders, often combining their post office business with
other compatible enterprises, e.g. newsagent. They were convicted of fraud after
shortfalls were discovered in their accounts following the installation of a new com-
puter system from Fujitsu called Horizon in 1999. This has now been described as:

the most widespread miscarriage of justice in UK history.

(Peachey, April 2022)

Key facts include:

■ between 2000 and 2014, the Post Office prosecuted 736 sub-postmasters
and sub-postmistresses – an average of one a week.
■ consequences for these individuals were life-changing and always seriously
damaging, ranging from fines to jail sentences to bankruptcy and (in at least
one case) to suicide.
■ the shortfall in accounts is now recognised as a “glitch” in the computer
software.
■ prosecutions have now been squashed.
■ claims for compensation and redress continue in the courts.

So far, nobody at the Post Office or Fujitsu has been held accountable
(Peachey, April 2022)

There is a very detailed account of this sad story on Wikipedia (“British Post
Office Scandal”) and also an excellent book by Nick Wallis, the journalist who
first investigated the case and brought it to the attention of the British public
(Wallis, 2021).
We cannot help thinking that all this could have been avoided if there had
been a different culture in the Post Office (e.g. trusting employees and properly
investigating the causes of errors) and a different structure (e.g. the accused
staff had no easy means of communicating with others in the same position). It
also happened at a time when informal contact between Post Office employees
80 was more limited (before the explosion of social media).
How can we define organisational structure? 4
Communication
The most common way of representing the structure of an organisation is the context 1

organisation chart and a simple example is given in Figure 4.1. But what does this
tell us? The vertical dimension shows the hierarchy and status relations; and the
horizontal dimension shows the range of activities which the company is involved
in. In this example of a manufacturing company, these activities include produc-
tion, research and development, finance, marketing, and so on.
This diagram is one way of representing an organisation, and it can be criti-
cised. For example, it provides an image of the organisation as a well-ordered
system with clearly structured authority relations. This can be very misleading.
If management see the organisation in this “clear-cut” way then they may imple-
ment policies which do not work because the organisation does not actually
work that way.
One major issue with the standard organisation chart is what it does not tell
you much about how the organisation functions. For example, what does it tell
you about the main processes and systems?
Different ways of representing organisation structure are not just matters of
technical detail. They represent fundamentally different approaches and different
theoretical assumptions. If you review some of the classic texts on organisations,
you will find very different starting points. These range from the organisation's
contribution to the wider society, through approaches based upon how power
and authority is organised, and on to approaches which reflect how the organisa-
tion is structured to meet the demands of its environment. One very influential
management text argued that:

all theories of organization and management are based on implicit images or metaphors
that lead us to see, understand, and manage organizations in distinctive yet partial
ways.
(Morgan, 1997, page 4)
Chief
executive

Sales Human Finance Production

department resources department manager
manager manager manager

Sales Personnel Public Accounting Divisional Divisional Engineering and

representatives department relations unit staff head head development
manager

Product
supervisors Product Product
supervisors development
engineers

Production Production
staff staff 81
Figure 4.1 Simple organisation chart of a manufacturing company
Part 1 As our main purpose is to focus on communication, we will not provide detailed
How we analysis of different theories and metaphors. See Stanford (2022) for an excellent
understand and and detailed introduction to organisation design. She suggests five fundamental
analyse the ways
we communicate principles which you can apply to your organisation to assess the quality of its
in organisations structure – that organisation design should:

1. be “driven” by “the organisation’s purpose, strategy, and operating model”.

2. use “systems thinking” to plan the connections between different parts of the
organisation.
3. use “strong, thoughtfully used, future-oriented mindsets and methods”.
4. involve “social interactions and conversations as much as formal planning”.
5. be “a fundamental continuing business process, not a one-off repair job”.

The examples in Box 4.5 of “culture failure” can also illustrate structural problems.
For example, in the case of the Post Office, what were the lines of communication
between the individual post offices and the computer support? Why did no-one
consider the possibility of computer error before so many lives were ruined?
Different structural perspectives have important implications for the role
of communication. We can illustrate this by offering three different ways of
describing the organisation's structure:

• as a set of stakeholder groups who are connected through communication.

• as a set of managed subsystems.
• as a command hierarchy which can be realised in different ways.

Defining the stakeholders

Stakeholders are usually defined as:

“people who have an interest in the organisation, which may cause them to seek to influ-
ence managers’ actions”.
(Stewart, 1991, page 80)

Other commentators have argued that this model of business communication

is much more relevant to modern organisations because they need to consider
much more than simple economic motives. They must consider broader issues
and implications – an obvious example is the current pressures on all organisa-
tions to improve their environmental credentials. So, communication with both
suppliers and the local community must forge long-term relationships for the
common good.
If you adopt this view of an organisation’s structure, then you will con-
82 sider communication primarily in terms of the links and quality of connections
between the stakeholder groups.
Defining the organisation’s subsystems 4
Communication
The executive group is responsible for maintaining a number of communication context 1
systems. These systems are interdependent, but they are described independently.
If you adopt this view of an organisation’s structure, then you will consider
communication primarily in terms of how the executive group manages and/or
controls these different communication systems.
Defining the command hierarchy
We have already suggested there are different forms of hierarchy in modern organ-
isations. One fairly typical set of definitions came from Andrews and Herschel
(1996). They suggested six prominent forms of organisation, as in Table 4.3.
Stanford suggests that three important trends are making these traditional
structures less popular: rapid pace of change; growth in knowledge-based work;
and employee demands/aspirations for more meaningful work. Organisations
are moving towards less hierarchical structures (see the discussion of self-man-
aged teams in Chapter 14). Examples are agile, holacratic, and network struc-
tures (see Stanford, op cit, pages 83ff).
Defining structures within structures
Although broad characterisations are useful, few organisations (especially larger
ones) conform entirely to a single basic structure. Large organisations often
include a mix of:
• line structure.
Table 4.3 Forms of organisation

Structure Important features

traditional centralised Strong control from the senior management group and a very clear
hierarchy
centralised structure
with decentralised
management
divisional form Senior management devolve authority in different ways. Within
a divisional structure, the organisation has a central office which
decentralised co-ordinates and controls but the main work of the organisation is
structure carried out in its divisions.
matrix A dual command structure – employees report to senior staff in
terms of their specialist role
“type D” “distributed work arrangements” mean work is distributed between
the organisation “core” and peripheral units. This often involves 83
external subcontracting and use of communication technology.
Part 1 This is based on the idea that at each level people control and administer
How we the work of a group in the level below them. Over the last 20 years, many
understand and organisations have restructured, reducing layers of middle management
analyse the ways
we communicate (downsizing).
in organisations • staff or functional structure.
Here, management includes both specialist and functional managers, each
one instructing workers on an aspect of their work. A version of this was
advocated by one of the early management theorists, Frederick Taylor,
usually associated with breaking down manual tasks into small functional
tasks. He actually suggested that management should also operate in this
way, but this was successfully resisted by the management of his day –
they did not wish to lose their power base and simply applied his logic to
the workers. Matrix management is probably the most common example
of this form.
• committee structure.
Clubs and professional organisations are often run by committees which try
to operate on democratic principles. Decision-making is usually by major-
ity vote, though they often try to achieve consensus. Traditional universi-
ties, for example, often operate on a system of interlocking committees, and
membership of these committees is often determined by status or invitation.
Increasing managerialism in higher education has weakened these structures.
Most business organisations appoint committees for co-ordination and spe-
cial purposes. Although committees can work well with a good chair, they
are often associated with bureaucracy and inefficiency.

A further range of complexities have implications for communication:

• distinctions between employment and representative roles.

• the nature of advisory roles.
• the role of informal communication.

This raises important issues about how we define the “real” organisation struc-
ture. And we can also look at the relationship between structure and culture.

Complexities within structures: the growing organisation

Sometimes textbooks give the impression that these issues of culture and struc-
ture are only relevant to large firms. In fact, structure is just as much an issue for
a small and developing company although there are obvious differences in scale.
Structure becomes especially important when the company tries to grow.
Consider the case of a small service organisation set up by two partners. How
84 many extra staff can they recruit before they need to establish a layer of man-
agement? What if they decide to open a second site? How will this be managed?
This development might also create strains in the relationship between the two 4
partners. At the start, they may be able to share the work out equally and not Communication
worry about specialisation. But once they have a significant workforce, then they context 1

will have several additional concerns. For example, how will they deal with the
complexities of employment law and welfare rights? Will they employ some advi-
sory staff or will they ask some outside firm to handle these aspects? All of these
are critical issues of organisation structure. And will they be able to retain the
positive “team culture” they started with?

The “informal organisation” and “grapevine”?

Many authors distinguish the “formal” organisation from the “informal” organi-
sation: the formal organisation is expressed in the organisation chart; the infor-
mal organisation is the network of personal relationships which co-exists.
Communication across this informal organisation is often dismissed as low
quality – a mixture of leaks, rumour, and speculation. However, sometimes very
accurate information (and sometimes very embarrassing to management) can
reach employees through this network, which can be defined in various ways.
Traditional definitions include the grapevine, the “old boy” (sic) network, and
company social gatherings. Nowadays the influence and speed of social media are
likely to be more important.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ you need to understand the culture (or multiple cultures) within your organ-
isation to anticipate how colleagues and management will respond to par-
ticular messages and ways of working. There are different definitions of
organisational culture which reflect different perspectives on organisational
behaviour. The link between organisational culture and the organisation's
overall success or effectiveness can be difficult to define.
■ organisational culture can have very significant impact on both employee
communications and on their well-being. The example of McDonaldization
demonstrates both the power of particular principles/ideas and their prob-
able negative effects on employees.
■ the conventional organisational chart is not the most informative way of
defining how an organisation actually works. You need to look more care-
fully at the working relationships between individuals and between groups
and take account of the power dynamics within the organisation.
■ you need to consider the way you define your organisation’s structure and its
implications for communication. 85
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Technological Society. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
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.bbc​.co​.uk​/news​/business​-59980216.
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Cameron, K.S. and Quinn, R.E. (2011) Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the
Competing Values Framework. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
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cooking​-robots/​#more​- 669.
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.uk​/news​/business​-56718036.
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87
 Chapter 5
Communication context 2
The new technology landscape

Introduction

Rapid advances and improvements in hardware and software have turned some
very long-established ideas from computing into everyday realities which most
of us can afford.
These fundamental ideas are now practical methods and procedures which
we take for granted. For example, developments in portability and computing
power enabled entrepreneurs, like Steve Jobs, to add more and more facilities to
our devices. Can you remember when a mobile phone simply made phone calls?
These fundamental ideas also suggest ways that electronic communication
will further develop:

• remote/distant operation.
• sharing resources.
• flexible messaging.
• information organised as a web of associations.
• exchange of all types of information (provided computers and networks share
standard rules, usually called protocols).

The pandemic speeded up all these developments. Organisations had to change “over-
night” to respond to lockdown. So we can anticipate further developments along the
lines that we come back to when we attempt to “future-gaze” in Chapter 15, including:

• better ways of representing information and analysing data.

• different ways of accessing and exchanging information.
• more flexible messaging and communication.
• further integration of functions and facilities, within and between devices.

However, we cannot anticipate gradual rate of change. We are persuaded by

88 Azeem Azhar’s arguments that “we are undergoing another period of dramatic

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-7
transformation” (Azhar, 2021, page 3). This means exponential rather than grad- 5
ual growth across a wide range of new technologies: Communication
context 2

we are living in an era when technology is getting better, faster and more varied at a
greater speed than ever before.
(Azhar, 2021, page 13)

We need to anticipate this rate of change by developing a “digital mindset” –

determining and adopting the new applications which best suit our objectives
and context.

Key phases of workplace development

linked to technology

The world of work is changing and computer technology is at the heart of this
change. We can illustrate that with Julia Hobshawm’s characterisation of the
four phases of work (Hobshawm, 2022):​
Hobshawm identifies six “shifts” which characterise Phase 4:

• “Placeless, Timeless”.
Organisations have to decide how and where work will be undertaken in
future.
• “Worker Beings”.
New identities for workers are emerging, e.g. as they adopt hybrid work.
• “The Productivity Puzzle”.
Workers are pressing for more meaningful and inherently satisfying work.
• “New Networks”.
New networks are enabled by technology and are changing power relation-
ships in organisations.
• “Marzipan Management”.
Management have to change to adapt to these new realities.
• “Social Health and Well-being”.
Workplaces must “embrace…social health” (page 10).

We agree with this analysis, with one caveat: we see Phase 4 as a transition
period of disruption and change. Organisations must decide how (or how
far) they are going to incorporate techniques like hybrid working and other
recent developments, such as the use of new technologies like AI (Artificial
Intelligence), VR (Virtual Reality – where you enter an environment which
is completely computer-generated) and AR (Augmented Reality – where
a layer of computer-generated imagery is superimposed on the real world 89
Part 1 Table 5.1 
Four phases of work
How we
understand and Phase Key characteristics include: Use of technology
analyse the ways
we communicate
in organisations 1. “faith in corporate institutions Computer technology was
“Optimism Years” ran high” largely restricted to “data-
1945–1977 Major investments in office spaces crunching” applications.
and buildings
2. “an intermediate phase” where The internet and social
“Mezzanine Years” office work loses some of media appear and increase
1978–2006 its attractiveness and where in their application and their
communication technology acceptance (e.g. Facebook and
becomes more important Twitter).
3. “the beginning of the end for the Smartphones and laptops
“Co-Working office” enable mobile and virtual
Years” working.
2007–2019
4. Much if not most office work can The use of “collaboration
“Nowhere Office be done anytime and anywhere technologies” like Zoom and
Years” Teams grows exponentially to
2019ff respond to the pandemic.

around you). We highlight important developments in these technologies

when we return to them later.
We anticipate Phase 5 will emerge over the next few years, characterised
by different solutions to these issues across different work sectors. We have to
decide how to respond to other major developments which we discuss later in
this chapter – especially the calls for a “digital mindset” and the growth of “expo-
nential technologies”.

Technology roles

Many commentators identify the key change as the way that computers and com-
munication systems have combined. Other important processes have emerged
from this combination/integration:

• technology has developed new roles.

• technology is “embedded”.

Changing roles

90 In an influential earlier book, Shoshana Zuboff identified three key processes

(Zuboff, 1988).
Automating 5
Communication
Computers can obviously automate processes. The example of the store checkout context 2
suggests a second main function: they can monitor and control processes. One chal-
lenging implication of computer control is the role of the human operator. An
obvious example is the self-driving car.
When computers do take charge of a process, you have to consider what hap-
pens if something goes wrong. The oft-quoted near-disaster at Three Mile Island
is one illustration of what can happen when human operators do not fully under-
stand how the system works. The operators’ actions very nearly caused a major
disaster. These events are still being revisited, as in the 2022 Netflix docuse-
ries (Meltdown: Three Mile Island) although this may not offer the complete story
(Clute, 2022).

Integrating
Computer technology can also integrate processes in new ways. Commercial
examples of data integration include the ways that retailers and social media apps
develop customer profiles. This enables them to send you targeted advertise-
ments and promotions. And we are all familiar with messages from retailers like
Amazon – “people who read/watched X also liked Y”; “And here is how you can
access Y…”

Informating
Another critical process is what Zuboff calls ”informating”. This is based on the
notion that computers generate a lot of additional information as a by-product of
their main function. An example of how this can be used to control and monitor
workers’ performance would be the computerised phone system used in a call
centre. Management can discover at the press of a key exactly how many calls any
operator has dealt with and how long they took. The quality of service provided
in a phone call can be difficult to measure, so these crude statistics may be used
(perhaps unfortunately for the customer) as measures of productivity.
More recently, Zuboff has become especially interested in the “surveillance”
implications of technology development and we introduce some of her concerns
in Box 5.1.

BOX 5.1
Who or what is watching you?
Zuboff continued to develop her ideas about informating as she investigated
the ways that companies like Google collect and use data on individuals. This 91
Part 1
How we data-gathering accelerated with the development of Web 2.0, and Zuboff became
understand and increasingly concerned by the ways that these companies were generating more of
analyse the ways
we communicate what she called “behavioural surplus” – “where surveillance capitalism begins”.
in organisations She explains this as follows:

“More behavioural data are rendered than required for service improve-
ments. This surplus feeds machine intelligence - the new means of produc-
tion - that fabricates predictions of user behaviour”.
(Zuboff, 2019)

These predictions are now “monetised” – sold on to other businesses. The more
that you as a customer use the service the more surplus is generated for the
machine intelligence which can then generate more accurate predictions.
Zuboff is not optimistic:

It is assumed that we will accede to a future of less personal control and

more powerlessness.
(op cit, page 516)

Although some of her ideas have been criticised (e.g. Gall, 2020), her work
has been important in highlighting possible dangers in the practices of large
tech companies who have achieved near-monopoly positions in their respective
markets.

IT is embedded
Microprocessors in many domestic appliances enable functions which were
not feasible before digital technology. Combining computer and communica-
tions technology means that devices can offer new functions. Manufacturers
and retailers are anxious to promote the “Internet of Things” where house-
hold devices are linked through an internet connection. This also has some
downsides – hackers may be able to break into your home network through
the fridge or microwave!
Linking sensors to computers which can communicate offers new possi-
bilities, including the car which diagnoses its own breakdown and contacts the
breakdown service. In a previous edition of this book, we noted the opening of
Amazon’s store for “wearable technology”. This is still a category you can search
for on the Amazon website. Although the listing is dominated by smartwatches
92 and their accessories, we note an increasing number of other devices like VR
headsets. It will be interesting to see what this list contains in another five years.
 After becoming accustomed to developments in the “Internet of Things”, 5
we are now seeing products and services advertised under the “Internet of the Communication
Body”. In an article from the World Economic Forum, Xiao Liu defines this as: context 2

collecting our physical data via devices than can be implanted, swallowed or simply
worn, generating huge amounts of health-related information.
(Liu, 2020)

The obvious example of this which we are all familiar with is the fitness tracker,
either as a separate device or as a built-in component of your smartwatch. A
range of new devices is now appearing such as the “smart toothbrush” as well
as more sophisticated sensors such as those for diabetics which integrate with
smartwatches to provide detailed monitoring and support. Liu points to the
advantages of this emerging technology as well as highlighting major challenges
such as regulatory protections and cybersecurity. For example, a range of regula-
tions cover “sensitive data” which your doctor will be able to access –

but today, all sorts of seemingly non-sensitive data can also be used to draw inferences
about your health, through data analytics.
(Liu, op cit)

See Box 5.2 for an example of a major UK initiative which illustrates processes of
integration using advances in sensors and data analytics. Although this example
focuses on specific issues in health and social support, the underlying ideas and
approaches have much wider application and potential.

BOX 5.2 BIG DATA AND OLD AGE

The UK Dementia Research Institute (DRI), a partnership between Imperial
College and Surrey University, aims to “use a range of approaches - from artifi-
cial intelligence and robotics to sleep monitoring - to enable people with demen-
tia to live safely and independently in their own homes” (Meredith, 2019). The
technology includes a wide variety of sensors, from motion sensors to smart plugs
to sleep mats. Sensor data is integrated with other sources such as regular health
checks. This integration allows the system to spot changes in behaviour and rou-
tines which can indicate problems. The system can then initiate an appropriate
response, such as alerting emergency health services. This sort of initiative would
not be possible without the technological development discussed in this chapter.
Another recent example of the extension of sensor technology into our every-
day lives is the introduction of “crash detection” on the Apple Watch and iPhone
in 2022. 93
Part 1 Important technology trends
How we
understand and An obvious way to start a discussion of technology futures is to reel off a few
analyse the ways
we communicate statistics, which invariably involve staggeringly large numbers. For instance, the
in organisations US National Science Foundation predicted that five billion people would be using
the internet by 2020; Eric Schmidt from Google predicted that everyone would
be online by then.
Our trawl of internet data in September 2022 came up with the following
statistics (from Statista Research Department unless otherwise credited).
You may wish to find the statistics which apply when you are reading this to
see the rate of change:

• 4.9 billion internet users worldwide (5.25 billion, over 66% of the world’s
population, according to broadbandsearch​.n​et)
• China is the world leader in terms of a number of users – 1.02 billion in July
2022, mostly accessing the internet through mobile phones.
• The region with the “highest internet penetration rate” is Northern Europe
(98%). The global rate is 63%.
• The most common language used on the internet is English.
• Over 84% of the population in the USA are mobile internet users.
• The average daily time spent on social media worldwide is 147 minutes.
• 92% of the UK population are “recent internet users” (Office for National
Statistics), including 99% of adults aged 16 to 44, and 54% aged over 75.
This proportion of older users is nearly double what it was in 2013.

Of particular interest is the rise of mobile communications in developing coun-

tries – where the desktop PC seems to have been “bypassed” in favour of mobile
devices. Also of interest is the uptake of the internet by children.

Technologies for the next decade

One useful set of predictions comes from the latest edition of The McKinsey
Technology Trends Outlook (McKinsey, 2022, available at: https://www​.mck-
insey​.com​/capabilities​/mckinsey​-digital​/our​-insights​/the​-top​-trends​-in​-tech).
These are summarised in Table 5.2 below.

Key issues and questions

As well as worrying about general factors that can derail computer applications
which we highlight in Box 5.3, we suggest a number of key issues and questions
94 which we all need to consider as we move forward.
Table 5.2 Technology Trends (adapted from McKinsey 2022) 5
Communication
Trend Meaning Our comment context 2

“Applied AI” and Using machine learning to solve Investment in this will continue
“industrialising problems and make decisions. to grow and we can expect to see
machine Improving the efficiency of major advances in the technical
learning” machine learning processes. capacity.
“Advanced Advances in the speed and This will certainly develop
Connectivity” quality of connections. further but we have concerns
about increasing the divide
between different sectors of the
population with different access.
“bioengineering” Further convergence between This will continue to grow along
biological and information the lines of the development we
technologies. outlined in Box 5.2.
“clean energy” The search and drive for cleaner These are all trends which we as
energy sources to respond to individuals (and all organisations)
climate change. need to worry about and try to
act upon.
“mobility” Improvements in efficiency and For example, can we make
sustainability of transportation. choices in favour of more
“sustainable Transforming consumption to sustainable consumption both at
consumption” address climate issues. home and work?

“Web3” and The next generation of internet We discuss these in more detail
“Immersive- development. later in this chapter.
reality Using “sensing” technologies These technologies are strongly
technologies” to offer different views of the linked in notions of the
environment through VR and AR. metaverse.
“cloud and edge Distributing computing The increasing distribution of
computing” workloads across data centres data will place more emphasis on
issues of cybersecurity.
“trust These are the technologies
architectures and which will persuade us to trust
digital identity” the organisations which have
our data.
“space Developments in satellites and The developments in these areas
technologies” other space-related technology should enable organisations to use
more reliable software on more
“quantum These are promised to deliver powerful computers.
technologies” “exponential increase in
computational performance”
“next-generation Tools such as “AI-enabled
software development” are promised
development” to help in the development of
95
better software.
Part 1
How we BOX 5.3
understand and
analyse the ways The computer is in charge: nothing can
we communicate go wrong, go wrong, go wrong…
in organisations
While the technology has developed at an astonishing rate, the human capacity to
manage it has not advanced at the same rate. Back in 1996, Stephen Flowers ana-
lysed “failed” computer systems and highlighted several common factors, many of
which relate to communication. These factors are still relevant and include:

■ “hostile culture”, where staff feel unable to comment openly on errors and
possible problems. Staff may still try to continue a project which is failing
rather than admit the problems. And this will usually make things worse in
the long run.
■ “poor reporting structure”, a situation where senior management do not
have a clear idea of the progress of the computer project.
■ “technology-focused developments”, where system design has focused on
technological possibilities and has ignored important human factors.
■ “poor consultation” with users and other stakeholders.

The case of the UK Post Office (see Chapter 4) illustrates the fact that these
problems are still with us.
Another example of a system that does not yet seem to have fulfilled its
promised outcomes is the “Common Platform” which was introduced to support
the Law Courts in England and Wales in the UK. The idea of having one system
where legal staff can access all the details of all past and present course cases
is obviously useful – but what happens if it does not work effectively all the
time? Missing data can have horrendous implications for individuals who may be
wrongly imprisoned or released, and this sort of problem was publicised in pro-
fessional publications and in the mass media in 2021 and 2022 (Fouzder, 2021;
Harte and Robinson, 2022).

Exponential growth as the future for computing?

We have become used to advances in computer technology which follow “Moore’s
Law” which suggested that the number of transistors we could place on a silicon
chip would double every two years, with a corresponding increase in computing
power. While this has been a reasonably accurate prediction, and although some
manufacturers have exceeded this rate of growth, there are concerns that we are
approaching the limits of our manufacturing ability (Hughes, 2022).
96 Azeem Ashar suggests we are now in a different era – what he calls the
“Exponential Age”. This is characterised by exponential growth in the power and
capacity of computer technology. Unfortunately, this is happening alongside 5
much slower change in our responses to this technology growth. As a result, Communication
he discusses the “widening gulf between technology and our social institutions” context 2

(Ashar, op cit, page 10).

Computer technology as a neutral tool?

This is another issue that Azeem Ashar raises, highlighting quotes from indus-
trial leaders such as Google’s Executive Chair in 2013, Eric Schmidt. Schmidt
argued that “The central truth of the technology industry…(is)…that technology
is neutral but people are not”. (Ashar, op cit, page 5). In contrast, we agree with
Ashar’s perspective:

Technologies are not just neutral tools to be applied (or misapplied) by their users. They
are artefacts built by people. And these people direct and design their inventions accord-
ing to their own preferences.
(Ashar, op cit, page 6)

Unfortunately, a growing number of examples demonstrate that many technolo-

gies, including computer systems and software tools, are designed with “built-in”
biases and limitations which are not recognised by the designers, including:

• the algorithms in recruitment software which discriminate against women

(O’Neil, 2016).
• the car safety systems based on the male body which can cause serious harm
to female passengers and drivers (Criado Perez, 2019).

Learning from the pandemic?

Many organisations learned that they did not need a central office or location to
operate effectively and have abandoned their previous premises in favour of vir-
tual and homeworking. They have adopted various strategies to provide sufficient
social interaction to keep staff committed and involved.
We all learned to use meeting software like Zoom or Teams but not neces-
sarily very well. We discovered some of the disadvantages of this software (e.g.
“Zoom fatigue”) which we also discuss later in this book.
A Microsoft survey in 2022 revealed strong disagreement between staff and
senior management over the value and future of hybrid/virtual working. Based
on a survey from over 20,000 people in 11 countries and other data sources, they
found very different perspectives which you can see in the following quotes:

85% of leaders say the shift to hybrid work has made it challenging to have confidence 97
that employees are being productive.
Part 1 The majority of employees (87%) report that they are productive at work.
How we
understand and 73% of employees say they need a better reason to go into the office than just company
analyse the ways
we communicate expectations.
in organisations (all three quotes from Work Trend Index, 2022, where you can also find a
link to the full report)

The robots are coming (or are they?)

Automation through computer technology will continue to expand. But how will
this eliminate or modify human jobs? Daniel Susskind argues that:

In the next 100 years, technological progress will make us more prosperous than ever before.
Yet that progress will also carry us towards a world with less work for human beings.
(Susskind, 2021, pages 237/238)

This will create three major problems which society will need to resolve: ine-
quality; political power; and “meaning” (how do people find meaning in their
lives without work as a central core?) (page 238). His book was written before
Russia invaded Ukraine and so does not take account of either the terrible dam-
age caused by this conflict or the restructuring of international relationships
which is ongoing as we write. He does offer some convincing data to support
his central argument but the upheavals caused by the conflict in Europe and its
economic impact do have implications for technological progress which are dif-
ficult to assess at the moment. We think the trends that Susskind identifies will
continue but probably at a different and much slower pace.
A different perspective is offered by Paul Daugherty and H. James Wilson
(2018). They argue that the most successful companies now and in future will be
those that adopt a new “organisational mindset”. This is:

a radically different approach toward business by re-imagining work around the miss-
ing middle, wherein people improve AI and, in turn, smart machines give humans
superpowers.
(2018, page 13)

They offer numerous examples of organisations that are already taking advantage
of the creative power of human operators allied to the processing power and
precision of machines controlled by AI. For example, Daugherty and Wilson
describe the experience of Mercedes who replaced some of their robots on the
production line with a human plus robot combination (what they called “cobots”)
in order to produce more individually customised cars. This combination of the
98
human making the choices and the robot doing any repetitive or high precision
tasks (and also the heavy lifting) proved more efficient than either robot or 5
human on their own. Communication
Whatever the future, this trend must be taken very seriously by organisations context 2

looking to their future survival.

The need for a digital mindset?

Daugherty and Wilson suggest five steps to “reimagining business processes”
(op cit, page 153), recommending that organisational leaders need to “imagine a
blended culture of people and machines” (op cit, page 166). Leonardi and Neeley
also present a convincing case for developing a “digital mindset” which for them
means “redefining fundamental views of approaching three key processes:

• collaboration.
• computation.
• change.
(Leonardi and Neeley, 2022, page 10)

Under the heading of collaboration, they point out that we need to develop a
better understanding of the ways that machines such as chatbots work so that we
do not make mistakes by treating them as humans. We also need to make more
effort to work with real humans when a major proportion of our work is virtual
or online – they talk about “cultivating your digital presence”.
Under the heading of computation, they highlight the increasing use of data
analytics but emphasise that this must be done carefully (and that we need to
develop a more sophisticated understanding of statistical methods and analysis).
They warn against applications which have not identified possible limitations or
even unintended bias in the results and outcomes, such as the gender bias found
in facial recognition software. As with many examples we mention in this book,
we always need to identify and interrogate the assumptions that are built into the
design of the systems we use.
Under the heading of change, they recommend a stronger emphasis on cyber-
security and privacy and encouraging digital experimentation. They talk about
“creating a learning agenda” across the organisation which “helps you experiment
intentionally rather than willy-nilly” (op cit, page 149).

Welcome to the metaverse?

In 2021, Facebook announced its new brand identity – Meta – claiming that:

The metaverse is the next evolution in social connexion and the successor to the mobile
Internet. 99
(https://about​.facebook​.com​/what​-is​-the​-metaverse/)
Part 1 Since then other influential tech companies have agreed that the future of the
How we internet and our online communication will involve this new concept and
understand and approach, and there are now some very enthusiastic advocates. In a book subti-
analyse the ways
we communicate tled “A guide to limitless possibilities in a Web 3.0 world”, Cathy Hack and her
in organisations two co-authors suggest their individual perspectives on this development before
offering a more formal definition as follows. The metaverse is:

• “a convergence of our physical and digital selves”, or

• “like a parallel, immersive world that blurs with the real one where people
assume one of multiple identities”, or
• “the next generation of consumer engagement: an immersive experience
with a self-sustaining, community-driven economy at its centre”.

They then offer a “consolidated” definition:

The metaverse represent the top-level hierarchy of persistent virtual spaces that may
also interpolate in real life, so that social, commercial, and personal experiences emerge
through web 3.0 technologies.
(Hack et al., 2022, page 9)

This definition may not help you if you have not already come across some exam-
ples of new applications. And this is part of the reason why other technology
commentators are more sceptical of this development. For a recent description
of its potential which raises important questions for the future, see Wakefield
(2023) and our update on the website.
What we can say is that we can expect significant development in the technol-
ogies which underpin the metaverse such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented
reality (AR) alongside ways of merging these technologies into our routine com-
munications (see Box 5.4 for a few recent examples).
We can also suggest that trends in the application of these technologies
need to be monitored by everyone who is interested in the future of our online
communications.

BOX 5.4 FUTURE TECH IN THE METAVERSE?

While, at the moment, we are a little sceptical about some of the hype attached
to the metaverse, we can find an impressive range of applications at the website
of the virtual reality society (https://www​.vrs​.org​.uk). And we are convinced that
the next decade will bring dramatic developments in computing, due to the expo-
nential increase in computing power we mentioned earlier and clever integration
100 of different functions and services. We can also see computers advancing in areas
 5
which make distinctions between human and machine abilities more difficult to Communication
define. A few examples to illustrate these trends: context 2

Computers as storytellers
Consider the following start to a short article:

Since the earliest days of writing, authors have had to spend a lot of time think-
ing about how to get people to read their books. AI storytellers will make this
task much easier by generating material that is automatically appealing.

This extract from the book by Sharples and Pérez y Pérez (2022) may not seem
especially remarkable until the authors reveal it was entirely composed by com-
puter software after being supplied with the prompt “describe a future with AI
story generators”. Their book discusses the history of this technology and specu-
lates on its future. We have already seen examples of the same software generat-
ing student assignments good enough to achieve pass grades at university. So will
this technology replace human storywriters? They anticipate that this technology
will move from a research exercise to practical applications in support of human
activity. It will enable tasks such as summarising large quantities of digital text,
or perhaps acting as a set of tools to support writers.
This debate over the future of this type of software ‘exploded’ over the inter-
net and social media at the end of 2022 when OpenAI​.c​om released ChatGPT
and made it freely available. Instead of producing the list of websites you expect
from a ‘traditional' websearch, ChatGPT produces a coherent text which answers
the question or prompt you have given it.
Following significant investment in the OpenAI company, Microsoft announced
new initiatives in March 2023 – ‘Copilot’ and ‘Business Chat’ – which embed AI in
their office software. In the same week, Google announced their “new era for AI and
Google Workspace.”
This will affect all of us in some way: from students looking for help with
assignments, to software engineers producing code, to managers drafting a quick
press release or planning a presentation or reviewing email threads or meeting
minutes, and so on. Many educators are concerned about implications for plagia-
rism and academic integrity while some have already built it into their assign-
ment tasks. As this development is moving so fast, see the website for updates.

Seeing a conversation?
Xrai Glass in the UK have integrated speech recognition software into spectacles
so that anyone wearing them can “see” the conversation presented through AR
in front of them (https://xrai​.glass​/about). An early user with hearing disability 101
Part 1
How we described them as “life-changing” on a recent radio programme. These sorts of
understand and devices will become more effective and more affordable in the next few years.
analyse the ways
we communicate
in organisations

How fast are organisations really changing?

Although advocates of new organisational forms may offer persuasive examples, we
cannot assume that all organisations are so progressive. Nor can we ignore the politi-
cal implications of new forms of working. In our previous edition, we noted a more
pessimistic picture which was painted in papers from the annual International Labour
Process Conference (Thompson and Warhurst, 1998). Although mentioning some
areas and examples of positive change, these papers suggested that claims of “revolu-
tionary” and “wholesale change” were exaggerated.
These concerns are now 25 years on, but we can still see them alive and kick-
ing in many current organisations. We list them in the table below with a com-
ment against each about current and future relevance:​

Table 5.3 Have companies progressed?

The concerns Our comments

Much “knowledge work” is in fact This is still true. Some organisations have
extremely routine and repetitive. automated many of these routine tasks
(not always successfully as anyone who has
negotiated automatic answering services will
testify).
Organisations may wish to ensure We see many organisations still adopting
consistency and “quality” by using strong strategies like McDonaldization.
control principles akin to the ideas of
“McDonaldization” (see Box 4.3).
Some modern human relations practices This is echoed in modern criticisms of some
which claim to “empower” workers are organisations’ attempts to improve “staff
devices “to achieve nothing less than the wellbeing” through courses and training while
total colonisation of the…workforce” ignoring the everyday staff issues re workload
(page 7). etc.
“most companies…remain traditionally Again we still see examples of this.
managed, wedded to a low-trust,
low-skill, authoritarian route to
competitiveness” (page 9).
Relatively few workers are currently This has changed. But are most organisations
able to take advantage of the flexibilities taking full advantage of these flexibilities?
102 which are offered by information and
communications technologies.
Will there be unforeseen effects or outcomes? 5
Communication
If organisation cultures, structures, and technologies do change (if only partly) in the context 2
ways advocated in our previous sections, then organisational communication must
also change. For example, if we assume a broadly networked organisation with lots of
external links and sub-contracting, then the managers in the “core” of the organisa-
tion will have to adopt a much more trusting, co-operative, and less directive style.
There will also be increased needs for horizontal co-operation and the need to man-
age the growing importance of teamwork.
But there are inherent contradictions which are difficult to reconcile. Fisman
and Sullivan (2014) argue that, by providing more information to everyone in
the organisation, computer technology enabled the flattening of many corporate
hierarchies. At the same time:

improved communication systems…actually push decisions back up the hierarchy.

(op cit, page 259)

When the boss is available 24/7 on her mobile then why do I need to take respon-
sibility to make that decision? The answer to this question depends on the broader
organisational culture.

How much disruption can we anticipate?

The word “disruption” is often associated with the emergence of technologies
that create major and sudden changes in how we work, learn, and live. Digital
photography and video is such an example. Technologies now commonplace on
smartphones and tablets disrupted many businesses, such as Kodak, which did
not adapt its business quickly enough (Mui, 2012).
Crowdfunding is an example of one of the more truly disruptive examples
of the use of social media. This includes peer-to-peer funding, based on col-
laboration/community membership, shared knowledge, and transparency, to
support the development of innovations and ventures, including those focused
on socially good projects such as micro-loans in developing countries, and
charity-donation communities. More recently, online companies have started
up to support new ventures in different markets such as the creative industries
(e.g. music, film, and publishing) and health sector, which could begin to shape
investments in these sectors – and bring with it a “power of the people”, e.g.
ethical perspectives.

Divergence, convergence, and divergence?

The number of options for online communications is growing e.g. email, discussion 103
groups, social networks, blogs, and wikis – combined with the growing availability of
Part 1 low-cost media devices and the ability to manipulate and store multimedia informa-
How we tion online. The rapidity of change is also remarkable. For example:
understand and
analyse the ways • writing before Musk’s takeover, Quinn (2022) noted that Twitter (created in
we communicate
in organisations 2006) had 396.5 million users, with 66% of larger organisations (more than
100 employees) using it for marketing. It will be interesting to see how (and
how fast) these figures change.
• in 2014, Facebook took over the WhatsApp messaging app, founded in 2009.
• Facebook now has 2,920 million monthly users; WhatsApp has 2,000 mil-
lion; and TikTok has 1,000 million (Statista, January 2022).
This trend will continue, presenting users with rich but complex environments
in which to communicate where for some, there are just too many choices to
cope with. Such trends illustrate “divergence”, where innovative technologies
introduce new ways of doing things. Alongside this, we also see technology con-
vergence – technologies merging into new forms that bring together different
types of media and applications. Convergence can be seen in computers, mobile
phones, tablets, and TVs. For example, TVs include network connections for
internet access. Another example would be the 2022 e-reader from Amazon –
the Kindle Scribe – which is no longer just an e-reader. It “was designed for
note-taking and journaling, with the stylus designed to feel like a real pen in use”
(Bedford, 2022). So, we have a convergence of facilities previously associated
more with tablets than e-readers into one device. If you are a consumer then you
now have to decide whether you want a multi-purpose device or one that offers a
more specialist experience for notetaking and annotating such as the reMarkable
2 which claims to be “the only tablet that feels like paper”.
Converging technologies bring both positives and negatives. For some, devices
such as smartphones enable just one device to be carried allowing users to e-mail,
text, use social networks, listen to music, use e-books, watch videos, and make phone
calls. Others find that a single device can rarely be fully effective for all these differ-
ent uses. For example, the small screens on smartphones can be a limitation which
manufacturers are attempting to resolve by increasing size, hinged screens etc.
There is another downside to convergence: it can begin to stifle innovation
and lead to a lack of variety and in some instances can encourage monopolistic
practices. The future trend is therefore likely to be one of periods of divergence,
convergence, and then more divergence alternating cyclically.

Anytime, anywhere communications

The year 2014 was a turning point:
Americans used smartphone and tablet apps more than PCs to access the Internet last
104 month – the first time that has ever happened.
(O’Toole, 2014)
This trend will continue, thanks to several technological developments, 5
including: Communication
context 2
• the growth in both mobile phone data networks and wireless networks.
• having said that, there are several problems associated with mobile phone
data networks from reliability in access (using data networks on trains
remains a less than satisfactory experience) to issues associated with interna-
tional roaming and billing (we still hear of mobile phone customers unwit-
tingly running up bills in the thousands of pounds when on an overseas trip).
• availability of low-cost connected consumer devices (e.g. smartphones, tab-
lets, laptop computers).
• cloud computing, where data and software applications are stored and used
in the cloud.

This will not always provide a single approach to computing – there will be times
where people do not have access to a broadband connection and will need to
use their offline computer to work. To this end the concept of synching is often
adopted, where resources stored in the cloud can be synched to local computers.
The need for such synching capability is likely to persist for some while until
telecommunications companies can provide comprehensive coverage with the
same reliability as a data connection through landline and at sensible costs for
international travelers.

Computing as ubiquitous utility?

The concept of computing as a ubiquitous and reliable utility will drive demand
for connectivity, especially for those in remote rural areas and those on the move
(both nationally and internationally). It will also (hopefully) reduce the “digital
divide” in respect of access.
The utility concept also implies further integration of computer processors
into a whole range of devices, many of which will be small and inexpensive and
focused on common-place functions and linked to the internet. Home automa-
tion systems are an example, which provide facilities to remotely control dif-
ferent devices in the home, such as the heating, lighting, home alarms, security
devices, and curtain-closing. Some of these developments will be supported by
legislation, e.g. recent Scottish laws requiring domestic fire alarms to be elec-
tronically linked.

The intelligent web and smarter devices?

Increasingly, devices connected to the internet will be designed to be smarter
and to support humans in decision-making and some will include sensors to help 105
input local data. Our everyday devices will get “smarter”.
Part 1 “Intelligent agents” is another fast-developing concept and application,
How we designed to make computing easier. For instance, they can monitor how you use
understand and the web and what you search for and then make suggestions for future searches
analyse the ways
we communicate that are more personalised to your online history. There are of course issues
in organisations associated with such technologies, for instance, users do not know what “deci-
sions” the intelligent agent is making on their behalf. However, there are some
very useful examples of “smart” devices e.g. low-cost car satellite navigation sys-
tems, which can be used not just to help drivers navigate, but will also take data
from a range of sources, such as traffic density and flow and recommend opti-
mum routes that will meet driver preferences, e.g. fastest and least hassle route.
Overall, this leads to a future where people are more connected to devices which
are aware of their contexts and location. But even these may have unforeseen
complications – for example, the suggestion based on some evidence that drivers
of “very safe automatic cars” can adopt a riskier driving style.

The future for big data?

According to SG Analytics in 2020,
more than 2.5 quintillion bytes of data are generated every single day.
You should be able to find a more recent estimate – this figure will certainly have
grown!
This is definitely big data - which IBM define as:
datasets whose size or type is beyond the ability of traditional relational databases to
capture, manage and process the data with low latency.
(IBM. See at: https://www​.ibm​.com​/analytics​/big​-data​-analytics,
As a result, we need new data analytic techniques to make sense of this data.
Such data comes from a wide range of sources – not just from computers, but also
from devices, sensors, audio, video, and so on – and a vast array of sources. Out of all
this comes both opportunities and threats in respect of analysing this data and making
use of it. Companies use data analysis tools to build up pictures and trends e.g. how
their customers use products. This can all be fed back into product development.
Credit card companies build very detailed profiles of customer buying habits and tel-
ecommunications companies keep track of how individuals use the internet. From an
individual perspective, all this can be both good and bad. Systems can be designed to
help individuals make choices from huge ranges of possibilities, drawing on patterns
of behaviour of both the individual and others. However, not everyone will be happy
with this and the collection of such data can be used for purposes that individuals may
not welcome, such as junk mail.
106 However, the more worrying area of concern is when different systems are
joined together enabling the joining up of “big data”, e.g. linking surveillance
camera networks with facial recognition systems, tracking of devices (such as 5
mobile phones) and purchasing/travel data – allowing those with access to these Communication
different systems to comprehensively intrude into an individual’s working and context 2

social life. There are positives, of course, e.g. the ability for Government health
departments to spot and predict health trends and generally for Government
departments to target services more towards community needs. However, there
have been numerous examples where both companies’ and Government depart-
ments’ rhetoric about data privacy and security are not matched by practice or
adequate procedures and this rekindles the concept of Big Brother watching
over us.
A useful introduction to this area is by Victor Mayer-Schonberger and
Kenneth Cukier (2013). They suggest that big data “represents three shifts in
the way we analyse information that transform how we understand and organise
society” (page 12):

• we can now analyse and integrate more data than ever before.
• the availability of these enormous datasets means that we do not have to be
as precise or as exact with specific details as we did when we were only using
small datasets.
• the final shift is what they call “a move away from the age-old search for cau-
sality” (Page 14).

Using big data allows us to reveal previously hidden patterns and correlations
which we can then investigate to discover what they mean. Of course, we need
to be very careful in interpreting the meaning of any correlation. We need to
beware of spurious correlation where a direct link or strong association does not
mean that we can easily work out what causes what. How would you explain the
very strong relationship between the per capita consumption of cheese in the
USA and the number of people who died by becoming tangled in their bedsheets?
See the “spurious correlations” website for this and other examples – http://
www​.tylervigen​.com

The future is open?

Openness is a growing movement in the area of technology and education which
has certain characteristics associated with it, such as those described by Educause:

• the use of open standards and interoperability of systems.

• open and community source software development.
• open access to research data.
• open scholarly communications.
• open access to, and open derivative use of, content (often referred to as “open 107
educational resources” (OERs).
Part 1 For a practical example, we mentioned MOOCs (massive open online courses)
How we in Chapter 2 and these are based on open approaches. There is insufficient space
understand and in this book to fully explore the pros and cons of open approaches particularly
analyse the ways
we communicate in relation to how such approaches will evolve over time. However, at the very
in organisations least, it is an important aspect of being a good communicator that developments
in open approaches are monitored to identify how effectively such approaches
can be exploited in communications and education.

How green is your computing?

The commitment to carbon neutrality by various governments and by many
organisations has significant implications for the devices we buy and the ways
we use them.
For example the McKinsey management consultancy has its own policy state-
ment – https://www​.mckinsey​.com​/about​-us​/environmental​-sustainability
– and has researched other organisation strategies such as the use of quantum
computing. They suggest that:

Quantum computing, an emerging technology that uses the laws of quantum mechanics to
produce exponentially higher performance for certain types of calculations, offers the possibil-
ity of major breakthroughs across sectors
(https://www​.mckinsey​.com​/featured​-insights​/themes​/how​-quantum​
-computing​-could​-change​-the​-world)

We still have a long way to go. The Electronics TakeBack Coalition in the USA
offers some sobering statistics. For example:

in the US, we throw away over 3 million tonnes of e-waste every year. Only 15% is
recycled.

We are concerned that many manufacturers (and consumers) still don’t generally
seem to have an appetite for such green approaches. Some of the most popular
electronic devices (e.g. tablets and smartphones) seem to be manufactured with
obsolescence in mind (e.g. through the use of sealed cases and batteries and com-
ponents that cannot be replaced). This has been a regular criticism of Apple –
many of their devices are difficult if not impossible for anyone other than Apple
to adapt or repair. Their initiative to provide more access to repair resources may
change this – we will wait and see.

The dark side of technology?

108 Whilst all the trends in technology are driving greater social interaction across
the world – and this can be very positive for communications – it is not set in
stone how such interactions will continue. We have already mentioned the dra- 5
matic changes at Twitter following its sale to Elon Musk (Chapter 4) and specula- Communication
tion about its future. We wait to see the long-term impact of these changes on context 2

both its users and its commercial future.

There is no shortage of evidence of problems in digital social interactions – cyber-
bullying, criminal activity, non-stop spam, cyber-terrorism etc. Advances in AI have
enabled the production of “deepfake porn” at a fraction of the costs of this technology
only a few years ago. Victims of tragedies such as mass shootings have been pursued
and abused online by so-called “disaster trolls” which adds an extra unwanted dimen-
sion to their grief and suffering. So all the positive moves towards sharing and interac-
tion could be disrupted by unforeseen events: for instance, increases in crime against
children on the web could start to affect the culture of sharing and openness. Social
resistance could develop as quickly as social interaction has developed!

And finally

As well as these broad changes in technology, we suggest you review your per-
sonal use of technology to decide whether it fully supports your future plans. An
exercise we do with student groups is to ask them to prepare a “technology map”
to see if they are equipped for the task they have taken on – and you can use this
exercise as an individual (Hartley et al., 2022).

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ following the pandemic we may well be entering a new phase in our use of
computing technology in the workplace, taking advantage of developments
in computing power, portability, and communication across networks.
■ these developments support new applications which take advantage of the
fundamental characteristics of computing technology, e.g. automating,
informating, and integrating.
■ in the next few years, we foresee further rapid development, especially in
integration and embedding.
■ there is a fair degree of consensus on the most important and likely trends
in specific areas such as AI, VR, and AR.
■ there are important concerns which we all need to take into account such as
digital security and privacy.
■ there are also worries that many organisations are not taking full advantage
of the opportunities offered by technological development.
■ we also need to worry about the implications for climate change in the ways
that we (and our organisations) both adopt and use computer technology. 109
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Clute, E. (2022) Three mile island true story: Biggest things the documentary leaves out.
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Possibilities in a Web 3.0 World. New Jersey: John Wiley.
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Bloomsbury Academic.
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Basic Books.
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www​.sciencefocus​.com​/future​-technology​/moores​-law/.
Leonardi, P. and Neeley, T. (2022) The Digital Mindset: What it Really Takes to Thrive in the Age of
Data, Algorithms, and AI. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press.
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https://www​.weforum ​ .org​ /agenda ​ /2020​ /06​ /internet ​ - of​ - bodies ​ - covid19 ​ - recovery​
-governance​-health​-data/.
Mayer-Schonberger, V. and Cukier, K. (2013) Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We
Live, Work and Think. London: John Murray.
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111
PART 2

Presenting information:
effective methods and
media

113


Chapter 6
How should we plan and organise
professional written communication?

Introduction

This chapter invites you to consider your approach to professional written com-
munication and start thinking about the choices you must make when you choose
different forms, styles, and channels for your written documents, both printed
and online.
We start by examining different approaches to writing – we summarise the
various stages or steps that have been identified as important and discuss whether
these should be followed in a specific order.
We highlight the way that structure affects our perception and how the organ-
isation of a document influences how readers respond to it. This reinforces the
need for clear objectives, and we suggest ways in which these might be prepared
and phrased. Finally, we discuss different methods and techniques for planning
the structure of documents and show how particular structures can support spe-
cific objectives.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ review different approaches to writing and suggest that you decide which
approach suits you best.
■ explain why organising and structuring information is so important.
■ discuss how to establish clear objectives.
■ explain different methods and principles for structuring information and
show how these can be used to plan documents.
■ show how we can also use these principles to organise information at dif-
ferent levels.
■ show how the structure of a document can and should support its objectives.
115

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-9
Part 2 How effective is written communication
Presenting in your workplace?
information:
effective
­methods and All documents would have clear and appropriate purposes. These purposes
media would normally include most, if not all, of the following, and would be to:

• inform (providing the necessary information for effective decisions).

• educate or guide (proving the opportunity for staff development).
• motivate (providing the incentive for action).
• influence (persuading readers to act in certain ways in the future).

The documents should achieve this by:

• explaining clear and appropriate aims and objectives.

• demonstrating awareness and understanding as to who receives the
communication.
• providing the right level of facts, information, and data.
• presenting appropriate findings and analyses, conclusions, and recommenda-
tions to guide the reader.

Such documents would deliver their messages, without unnecessary length, and
without any confusing information that is difficult to read and/or understand.
Unfortunately, we have yet to find an organisation where this is always the
case.
When we talk to colleagues in various organisations, the more common pic-
ture includes:

• documents which do not appear to have any clear purpose.

• documents which confuse (and often) annoy their readers.
• writers who are not really sure (or confident) about their audience(s) or their
own purposes.

Box 6.1 includes a few real examples which illustrate what and how things can
go wrong.

BOX 6.1
Nothing can go wrong?
The following quotes are from staff and individuals experiencing communication
issues – illustrating ideas discussed later in this chapter. They are all real events
116 but we have left them anonymous:
 6
we received the ‘consultation paper’ from senior management which set out Professional
only one option for a new structure. This led us to question what they meant written
communication
by ‘consultation’ and created very bad feeling towards senior management.

our working group had to review and to report on the committee structure.
We struggled to present this until someone suggested a diagram showing
links between committees (we happened to use Cmap). This revealed one
longstanding committee, chaired by a senior manager, which did not appear
to have any useful links with any other parts of the organisation! It was
disbanded shortly afterwards.

I was discharged from hospital but did not receive any information as to
how to manage my condition. I had to try to find it out for myself when t
got home. I found conflicting advice on the internet. In contrast, my friend, a
cardiac patient, received a ‘discharge summary.’ Luckily, the nurse explained
this to her as it is written for doctors with lots of technical jargon, and
pointed out really helpful online information from British Heart Foundation.

Where do you start?

Many books on professional writing start by offering advice on the most appro-
priate writing style which we talk about in the next chapter. We suggest a dif-
ferent starting point – taking a step back to reflect on your approach to writing
and the way you organise information. This raises questions about what sort of
document is needed (including all the possibilities now offered by online media)
and we focus on that in Chapter 9.
Our starting point is represented in the following quotes from well-known
British researchers and consultants in communication:

the real effort in writing is in the thinking required for planning and preparing.
(Turk and Kirkman, 1989, page 126)

Planning comes first...Many authors reckon the best way to start is not to write but to plan.
(Cutts, 2020, pages 1,2)
This idea is not new but is often ignored.
Kirkman and Turk go on to propose three critical steps which we reflect in
this book:

• planning.
• organising the material. 117
• choosing the best way to express yourself.
Part 2 This puts the initial emphasis on planning and preparing.
Presenting
information: How do you plan and prepare?
effective
­methods and Is there a best way of going about this process? For example, we have already
media
emphasised the importance of clear objectives. A document, whether paper or
online, can be beautifully written but if it does not have clear objectives and
does not satisfy the needs or expectations of its readers then it is not going to be
effective.
Martin Cutts recommends two useful starting points:

• the “core statement”.

• This is a “rigidly constructed sentence in seven segments” which includes the
intended audience, the main topics, and the purpose (this is the verb in the
sentence such as “analyses”, “evaluates” etc.). (Cutts, op cit, page 4)
• the “horizontal document plan”.
• This translates the core statement into a series of boxes where you make a
note of possible topics (Cutts, op cit, page 5ff).

What are the best steps or stages for

effective professional writing?
Another common recommendation is that writing is best achieved through a
definite sequence of steps. Different writers use different labels for the steps,
but their ideas are often very similar, as Table 6.1 shows. These recommenda-
tions can be applied to both word-processed/printed and online documents.
Stages of testing and maintenance are also often added to the timeline for online
documents.
Figure 6.1 offers our interpretation of these stages in terms of the main tasks.
You can use this as a checklist for any/every document you have to write – have
you answered all these points in every document you write?

Should we always follow these suggested

steps in the same order?
Is this advice supported by research evidence?
Can we assure success by following these steps?
As with most aspects of human communication, reality is more complex than
some of the advice. In one of the most accessible and interesting reviews of what
we know about the writing process, Mike Sharples concluded there are three
“core activities” in writing – planning, composing, and revising – but the “flow
of activity…is not just in one direction” (Sharples, 1999, page 72).
118 His model is reproduced in Figure 6.2. It shows a flow of material in a clock-
wise direction – from notes and plans to draft to final copy – and a flow of ideas in
Table 6.1 Stages of the writing process 6
Professional
Authors written
communication

Chartered Management Bovee and Thill, Timm and Bienvenu,

Institute, 2015 2014 2011

Steps involved Define the purpose Decide what you Define the context
in creating and objective want to say (including your
business objectives)
documents
Gather and organise Consider your
the information media, source, and
timing options
Structure Research Select and organise
information your information
Write Write your draft
Include graphics Write your draft
Review what has been Edit and revise Deliver your
written message
Check Evaluate feedback
for continued
success

Figure 6.1 Key tasks in professional writing 119

Part 2 REVISE PLAN
Presenting
information: Contemplate New ideas Contemplate
effective
­methods and
Interpret Specify Interpret Specify
media
Notes and plans
Annotate and edit to be revised Generate
TEXT, NOTES or PLANS NOTES and PLANS

New ideas New ideas

COMPOSE
Notes and
Draft to be Contemplate plans to guide
revised composing
Interpret Specify

Generate
TEXT

Figure 6.2 
Sharples’ model of writing as creative design (Sharples, 1999,
page 72)
the opposite direction. For example, reading a draft may generate an idea which
alters the plan.
Sharples also reviewed specific studies on the impact of the initial planning
phase, as well as looking at some of the methods we cover in this chapter. He
concluded that “time spent on planning is time well spent” (page 88) but that
there are different ways to plan. You need to find the combination of methods
that best fit your situation rather than relying on a single “model approach”, as
per Table 6.1 above.
We can extract practical conclusions from this brief review:

• it is important to develop plans and objectives.

• this does not mean that you have to write in a rigid sequence of steps.
• you should continually review your initial plans and objectives as your writ-
ing develops.
• you need to find an approach to planning and organising your writing which
suits you.

An important research finding is that writers have very different ways of

approaching all three main components of the writing process, and we sum-
marise some important differences below.
120 We can apply these conclusions equally to writing online content, although
you also need to consider specific characteristics of online media. There are now
many online sources offering useful advice here and we have listed some on the 6
website, including suggestions about ChatGPT and similar software. Professional
written
communication
Are you a bricklayer or an oil painter?
Several research studies have tried to investigate the main strategies used by
writers. Sharples identified major studies which came up with very similar
results (Sharples, 1999, pages 114ff). Table 6.2 below highlights major differ-
ences between strategies:
Some writers seem to use one strategy almost exclusively; some writers adopt
different strategies for different tasks. We can find examples of successful profes-
sional authors who use each of these strategies. The key to successful writing is
being aware of what you need to produce rather than following a specific process.
As Sharples concludes:

Being a writer is, above all, having control over how you write and trust in your ability
to make progress.
(Sharples, 1999, page 128)

We have included some comments on our own collaborative writing process

later (see Chapter 16) to illustrate the point that you can use technology in very
different ways to achieve the same outcomes. This account of our process is
already out-of-date as we expect to be able to work very differently when the AI
developments from Microsoft and Google become part of our everyday experi-
ence (see website for update).
Table 6.2 Writing strategies (taken from Sharples, op cit)

Writing strategies

“Watercolourist” “Architect” “Bricklayer” “Sketcher” “Oil painter”

Tend to write “in Make detailed Build the text Produce rough Start by
one pass” from plan up, sentence plan drafting
mental plan by sentence rather than
planning,
working
from broad
headings
Tend to review and Do a draft, Revise on Make frequent Review
revise on screen then print out. screen as they revisions and drafts on
rather than print Revise paper go review/revise paper
out drafts version and both on screen
then return to and from paper 121
computer draft
Part 2 Planning is more than the text
Presenting
information: Another important point which is not always emphasised is that planning should
effective not just be about the words or the text – it should consider the whole of what we
­methods and
media
call “document design”. You need to consider four interlinked aspects which will
create the finished document:

• style of writing, i.e. choice of words, jargon, the way you address the reader,
and so on. We cover this in Chapter 7.
• layout and design, i.e. the design of the page, whether printed, online or
both, and the use of any visual aids such as illustrations or diagrams, and so
on. We cover this in Chapter 8.
• the way the information is structured, which is the focus of the rest of this
chapter.
• choice of media. For example, it is not enough to simply think of the distinc-
tion between print and online. There are different possibilities depending on
which type of print or online document you may choose and we say more on
this in Chapter 9.

One advantage of a clear plan is that the completed document should be easier to
understand from the reader’s point of view.

Why is structuring information so important

in professional communication?

We know from decades of research into human perception, cognition, and

memory that our brain continuously anticipates, organises, and reorganises the
information it receives (we introduced the idea of the brain as an “anticipation
machine” in Chapter 1). A lot of the time we are not conscious of the amount or
extent of this processing. As a result, we can be misled by the way information is
presented. A few examples will illustrate this:
in his summary of research on human decision-making and problem-solv-
ing, Scott Plous (1993) described research where students had to comment
on film clips of road accidents. When he asked how fast the cars were going
when they “smashed”, students estimated an average speed which was 30%
higher than students who were asked about the speed when the cars “hit”.
Students who were asked about “smashed” cars were also likely to “remem-
ber” a week later that the accident involved broken glass – something which
was not on the film clips. In other words, these students had not just remem-
bered – they had reconstructed an image of the accident based on the notion of
122 a “smash” and subconsciously exaggerated elements of what they had actually
seen.
 Other research demonstrated the power of suggestions in particular formats 6
of questions – for example, it makes a difference to people’s estimates if you ask Professional
“how long was the movie?” rather than “how short was the movie?” (Plous, 1993, written
communication
pages 32ff and 66ff).
More recent studies have emphasised the way we actively construct our
interpretation of events. For example, we can be influenced in our thinking and
judgements by perceptual biases such as priming, anchoring, and framing.

Priming
Imagine you have volunteered to participate in a psychology experiment. Your
first task is to assemble four-word sentences from a set of five words. You are
then asked to walk to another room to do another task. Suppose the words that
you were using in the first task contained a lot of words relating to old age and
getting old. Would that influence your later behaviour?
The short answer is “yes”. Researchers compared the behaviour of partici-
pants who worked with a lot of “elderly” words and those who did not. They
measured the time it took them to walk to the next room and discovered
that those participants who had been “primed” to think about associations
with old age walked more slowly down the corridor. This classic experiment
and other similar studies are discussed in detail by Daniel Kahneman (see
Kahneman, 2011, Chapter 4).

Anchoring
Anchoring is a similar process. You subconsciously use an estimate that you
already have in your mind to make a decision or solve a problem. Again, the best
way to understand this is through an example. Consider your response to the
following two questions:

• is the height of the tallest redwood tree more or less than 1,200 feet?
• what is your best guess about the height of the tallest redwood tree?
• is the height of the tallest redwood tree more or less than 180 feet?
• what is your best guess about the height of the tallest redwood tree?

These are variations of the same problem – how tall is the tallest redwood
tree?
But the first variation gives you a much bigger anchor – 1,200 feet – and
this has a significant impact on the way that most people answer the question.
When these questions were presented to different visitors at San Francisco
Exploratorium, the answers were 844 and 282 feet respectively – in other
words, the average answer added over 50% of the anchor figure (Kahneman, 123
2011, p.123ff).
Part 2 Framing
Presenting
information: The way that we introduce a topic or an argument – the way that we “frame”
effective it – can have a powerful impact.
­methods and
media
The way in which we frame an issue largely determines how that issue will be understood
and acted upon.
(Scott, 2013)

This quote starts the article by Scott which provides a very detailed analysis of
the framing techniques used by Barack Obama in his Nobel Prize acceptance
speech.
Another research area which demonstrates the “power” of framing is the work
on “attentional blindness”. If you are focusing on one particular task or object then
you may well not notice other changes in your environment, no matter how unu-
sual or unexpected these changes may be. You can be attentionally blind not just to
what you see but also to what you hear and also to physical touch. And you can test
yourself to demonstrate this process using examples we discuss on the website.

Practical implications?
The important practical implication of these studies is that we have to be very
aware of possible interpretations which our readers may make and which could
be avoided by different structuring.
Our retention and understanding of messages depend on how they are pre-
sented. We cannot easily absorb or remember information which is not clearly
structured.

Defining objectives

Many discussions of objectives imply that you must have them “perfectly” worked
out before you do anything else. We see objectives as more flexible in line with
the more fluid description of the writing process we gave earlier. There are two
aspects of objectives we want to highlight in this chapter:

• phrasing your objectives in a particular way can help you decide what infor-
mation to provide.
• clear objectives help you to improve the document by revising or redesign-
ing it.

124 After we have discussed these will look at one common business objective – to
persuade – and show some of the complexities of translating this into writing.
Clear objectives can lead to new (and better) documents 6
Professional
David Sless analysed how a large company used several rounds of customer test- written
ing to refine the format of what had been a complex multi-page document – a communication
traditional letter plus several forms (Sless, 1999). The single page which resulted
satisfied all the necessary objectives:

• telling the customer that their insurance policy would be cancelled if pay-
ment was not received by a certain date.
• reminding the customer of the details of the policy in question.
• providing a payment slip which customers could use by mail or at a post
office.

The previous design put these objectives on separate pages. This created practical
problems – all the customer needed to do was separate the letter and the forms
and they had no idea which policy was being chased up. Using a single sheet
eliminated this problem. The layout of the new form also clearly highlighted the
three sections by the use of shading behind the text:
For current examples of similar restructuring and simplification, see the work
of the Simplification Centre in the UK (and especially their “Simple Actions”
reworkings) – http://www​.sim​plif​i cat​ioncentre​.org​.uk

When the objective is to persuade

The study of persuasion goes back about 2,500 years to the time when the Greek
Sophists taught people to argue their cases in courts and in public forums. Many
modern theories of persuasion are still based on the three basic elements identi-
fied by Aristotle:

• ethos – establishment of sender credibility, or believability.

• logos – appeal to reason.
• pathos – appeal to emotions.

Sender Credibility
Aristotle correctly reasoned that if people could impress an audience with their
credibility, then what they said was likely to be accepted.

Rational argument
We cannot just rely on the strict rules of logic which the ancient Greeks used. In
most situations, you do not progress from irrefutable facts to logical conclusions; 125
rather, you have a mass of evidence, often contradictory, which has to be weighed
Part 2 before a decision is taken. You have to show that the weight of the evidence
Presenting favours certain conclusions, and that these conclusions suggest certain actions.
information: So, persuasive argument in professional writing usually consists of:
effective
­methods and
media • a clear presentation of facts and inferences.
• an objective analysis of this information.
• reasoned conclusions from the analysis.
• a proposed course of action based on these conclusions.

There are some further issues to worry about:

Emotional appeal
Your audience will often react emotionally to a message. It is important to know
those areas where an audience is influenced by strong emotion, particularly
where political, religious, and moral beliefs and values are concerned.

Audience analysis
Persuasion aims to change the audience's world view in some way, so it is impor-
tant to have some idea of the audience's present world view and the factors that are
likely to motivate the audience to adopt the desired view.

Format of correspondence
All writing should encourage the audience to read it as there is usually no com-
pulsion to do so. The minimum requirement for a persuasive letter is that it is
clear and well set out.

Deciding on the content of persuasive writing

You can use all three of Aristotle's principles. For example, when applying by
correspondence for financial support, sender credibility (ethos) can be established
by a number of methods, such as:

• the high status of the writer or the organisation.

• the obvious legality of the document, e.g. proper organisational stationery,
fund-raising number, etc.
• stating (briefly) some achievements of the organisation.

We must also use logical argument and provide some evidence that the appeal is
necessary. Such evidence can come from:

126 • facts and figures.

• expert opinion.
The emotive appeal must be carefully handled. It has been shown that overly 6
emotional appeals do not necessarily result in the desired action, although they Professional
may often elicit an emotional response. For example, people usually want to for- written
communication
get unpleasant emotions as soon as possible. Charities have found that focusing
on a bad situation during appeals is less successful than placing some emphasis on
the potentially happy outcome of a successful appeal.
Modern techniques and approaches to persuasion tend to build on these ideas
and emphasise the importance of building conducive relationships. For example,
Robert Cialdini (2021) suggests six principles, summarised in Table 6.3.
Kevin Dutton reviews a wide range of studies and his own analysis of persua-
sive techniques in action to propose “five major axes of persuasion”: simplicity,
perceived self-interest, incongruity, confidence, and empathy. (Dutton, 2011)
We have summarised these in Table 6.4 below and you can use this as a checklist
for your own persuasive messages, both written and oral.

Table 6.3 Principles of influence (adapted from Cialdini, 2021)

Principle Meaning? Practical implications?

Reciprocation Give a little something Would this make a regular site user be more
to get a little something inclined to pay towards a training course of
in return tips and expertise?
Commitment People want their beliefs By identifying regular site users as customers
and to be consistent with and aligning their self-belief and perception
consistency their values with yours, can they be more easily
persuaded?
Social proof There is nothing like Does the “wisdom-of-the-crowds”
feeling validated based philosophy work if safety in numbers is
on what others are evident?
doing
Liking The more you like Does the Richard Branson liking principle
someone, the more you work? Does his persona and ideals persuade
will be persuaded by customers to buy Virgin?
them
Authority Will you obey me? Do influencers truly influence? What
authority do they hold to persuade others to
accept what they say, or do what they do?
Scarcity When you believe Remembering the scarcity of toilet rolls and
something is in short pasta at the beginning of the pandemic, the
supply…you want more use of fear is a persuasive tool to encourage
127
of it! consumers to act fast.
Part 2 Table 6.4 Characteristics of persuasive messages (adapted from Dutton, 2011)
Presenting
information: Characteristics Meaning Checklist question
effective
­methods and
of persuasive
media messages

Simplicity Simple messages are more Can you summarise your main
memorable. message in a simple phrase or
sentence?
Does your use of language make the
main message easy to remember?
Perceived Your main message should What does your audience want?
self-interest appeal to what the audience Does your main message offer them
sees as its own advantage. an advantage?
Incongruity Persuasive messages often Does your presentation contain
contain an element of novel elements which will catch your
surprise which captures audience’s attention?
attention.
Confidence Persuasive messages are How does your presentation inspire
expressed confidently. confidence?
Empathy Persuasive messages How does your presentation
demonstrate that you demonstrate that you have
appreciate the feelings recognised the main issues or
and circumstances of your interests of your audience?
audience.

Methods and principles for structuring information

There are several different ways of looking at structure.

Chunking, ordering, and signposting

Much of the communication skills training that we have been involved in over the
last few decades has used these three basic principles (Hartley, 1984):

• chunking – dividing information into sections or “chunks” which make the

information easier to digest.
• ordering – putting those chunks into an order which will make them more
or less useful or meaningful.
• signposting – providing clues or signals to explain or demonstrate the way
the information is structured.

128 We can illustrate these principles with an everyday example. The news bulletin
on US or UK television is usually organised along the following lines:
• the bulletin is presented in a series of specific events with some use of overall 6
categories – for example, the sports stories are clustered together towards Professional
the end (chunking). written
communication
• the introduction at the beginning lists the main stories (signposting). This is
repeated at the end and sometimes also about halfway through.
• the most “important” stories come first (ordering). There is often a short
funny story or unusual event at the end to provide light relief.

All the methods we go on to describe use some combination of these three basic
principles. They often use a visual analogy as a basic idea and so we start with the
“magic” of pyramids.

The pyramid principle

This comes from the book of the same name by Barbara Minto, first published in
the USA in 1987 and since published in several different editions (Minto, 2002).
It is based on the idea that the human mind will look for patterns in the informa-
tion presented:

the clearest written documents will be those that consistently present their information
from the top down, in a pyramidal structure.
(Minto, 2002, page 11)

She explains how to construct pyramids which can then be translated into docu-
ments, emphasising that

• any level in the pyramid must summarise the ideas grouped below it.
• you must logically order and cluster ideas into sensible groups (what we
would call “chunking”).

She recommends a top-down approach although she also shows how you can
build a pyramid from bottom-up, where you have a collection of information but
do not have a clear idea of how to put it together.
With a clear objective, you can use the top-down approach. You start by defin-
ing the top-level of the pyramid. To do this you need to decide what question
you are dealing with and what is your recommended answer. This answer then
fills the box at the top of the pyramid. For example, suppose that you have been
asked to produce a written report which evaluates a proposal to replace an exist-
ing information system with a new one. If you decide that the new information
system is a good idea, then this proposition becomes the top box in the pyramid.
You then have to ask yourself how to convince your reader to go along with
the proposition. For example, you may want to argue that a new system will 129
actually provide more comprehensive information than the present one. It may
Part 2 We should
install a new
Presenting information
information:
system
effective
­methods and
media Why
should we
do this?

It will give It will be It will be more It will be easier Staff can spend
more cheaper to run reliable to use time on more
comprehensive important jobs
information

Figure 6.3 Pyramid example

be cheaper to run. It may be easier to use and allow staff to spend more time on
other more important jobs. You can see from Figure 6.3 below that you can use
these ideas to build the second layer of the pyramid.
By generating a logical question which follows from these three proposi-
tions, you can produce of the third layer of the pyramid. The key question
here is “how?” How will the new system deliver more comprehensive infor-
mation? How will it be cheaper to run? How will it allow staff to spend more
time doing more important jobs? To construct the complete pyramid, you
simply repeat this question and answer sequence to generate as many levels
as appropriate.
Minto also provides a very interesting model to form the introduction to any
document. This is based on her suggestion that we need to spell out the history
of events which have led up to the document. This can be represented by what
she calls a “classic pattern of story-telling” – situation, complication, question,
answer. This sequence is explained in a bit more detail below.

Spider diagrams and mind maps

The Pyramid Principle advocates that we should visualise the structure of our
argument as a pyramid. But what other visual analogies can we use?

The spider diagram

Another way of developing a structure of ideas is to create a spider diagram. You
write your central idea or topic in the middle of the page and then build a “spi-
der’s web” of associated ideas which link from it. This then gives you a structure
which you can amend and revise until it covers what you want. We have used
130 this very simple method of summarising ideas in various ways – to take notes of
lectures, to plan lectures, to give as handouts, to plan reports and papers, and so
on. The spider diagram has a number of potential advantages over linear notes or 6
a full transcription: Professional
written
communication
• it is quick and easy to do.
• it gives a visual map of the topic which can make it easy to remember.
• it can summarise complicated ideas.​

Mind maps
A more sophisticated development of this idea was originated by the late Tony
Buzan, one of the leading advocates of the Mind Map®, which he described as:

a revolutionary thinking tool that, when mastered, will transform your life. It will help
you process information, come up with new ideas, strengthen your memory, get the most
out of your leisure time and improve the way you work.
(Buzan, 2018, page 13)

He argued that these maps work best when you incorporate a variety of tech-
niques, such as:

• emphasis, by including images, colours, and spacing on the page, and by vari-
ations in the size of lines, text, and images.

131
Figure 6.4 Spider diagram
Part 2 • association, by making links across the diagram and by developing your own
Presenting codes to represent ideas.
information:
effective
­methods and
According to Buzan, there are three essential characteristics of a good mind map:
media
• “a central image that captures the main subject under consideration”.
• “thick branches radiating out from the central image”. These represent the
key themes and should be “represented by a different colour”.
• “a single key image or word placed on each branch”.

As a result of his emphasis on colour and images, many of the examples in his
books and on the website which is carrying on in his name (https://tonybuzan​
.com) are much more visually complex and colourful than the diagrams we have
tended to use in this book.
Buzan offered strong arguments in favour of mind maps, as in:

recent scientific research support growing evidence that the Mind Map is the natural
manifestation of the human brain’s thinking processes, and that we actually all think
in internal Mind Maps.
(Buzan, op cit)

We think this claim is overstated but we are persuaded that many if not most of
us can benefit from using some form of visual thinking to help us in our profes-
sional writing. As with your approach to writing in general, you should investi-
gate alternatives and find the tools that best suit your approach and personality.

Concept Maps
Several of the diagrams in this book were prepared using concept mapping
software (Cmap) which offers an alternative approach to mind maps which
may be more useful in many situations. One leading exponent of concept map-
ping in the UK describes mind mapping as a ‘helpful study tool’ but suggests
that concept mapping is a tool that promotes a greater level of reflection.
(Kinchin, 2014)
As with mind maps, different software packages are available. We use Cmap
which has several advantages:

• as “Freeware”, it can be downloaded (from https://cmap​.ihmc​.us) and used

freely (we do recommend a donation to its parent institution).
• it is very easy and quick to learn.
• maps start from a clear/relevant “focus question”.
132 • coherent links between concepts can encourage thinking and test your
understanding.
• it works cross-platform (PC/Mac/iPad) and there are also web and server 6
versions. Professional
• because they are based on propositions, they can be easier to “read” and written
communication
understand than many mind maps.
• you can include docs/links in the map (e.g. weblinks).
• a presentation can be stored in the map.

There is an international community of “Cmappers” and you can find multi-

ple examples of its application as well as research and analysis of its impact and
benefits.

Visual thinking: Sketchnoting and Infographics

If you have attended an annual conference or an organisation’s strategy meeting
or a public consultation meeting in the last few years, the discussion in the room
or online may well have been summarised in graphic form by a facilitator using
visual thinking and sketch-noting techniques. These often use colour as well, so
we have included some examples on the website.
While these facilitators are usually skilled graphic illustrators, basic tech-
niques can be used by everyone. For example, Brandy Agerback (2016) offers a
practical manual explaining and illustrating techniques which she has used with a
wide range of organisations, and which includes the five steps described in Table
6.5 and 24 “Idea Shapers” (specific tools which you can use and adapt in your
own plans).
Where sketchnoting is typically based on hand-drawn sketches, infographics
primarily use software. As they are mainly used for presentations rather than
planning or structuring ideas, we will discuss them in more detail in Chapter 8.

Table 6.5 Sketchnoting principles

Step Title Where you/you are…

1 Chunk “identify and isolate discrete, relevant ideas from a big

messy pile” (page 49)
2 Sort + Group “arranging related chunks of information into useful
groupings” (page 105)
3 Connect + Contain “using lines and shapes to express relationships” (page
183)
4 Scale “adjusting size to shift thinking and create organization”
(page 277)
5 Grasp “strengthening your drawing and making meaning from 133
it” (page 327)
Part 2 A fairly typical definition of infographics comes from Nediger (2022):
Presenting
information: An infographic is a collection of imagery, data visualisations like pie charts and bar
effective
­methods and graphs, and minimal text that gives an easy-to-understand overview of a topic.
media
Walsh (2020) provides a set of influential infographics which illustrates the vari-
ety of formats and objectives, and we discuss this further in Chapter 8.

Outlining
Even the simplest written communication needs some form of planned struc-
ture. This can vary from a three-or-four point outline for a response to an
enquiry letter, to an outline with headings and sub-headings for an investiga-
tive report. Your word processor includes an outliner so you can either type
in your text in normal page fashion or directly into the outliner. Provided you
have used the hierarchy of headings which your word processor allows then
you can also review your text in outline at any time. You can also move the
text around in outline view which can be easier than using “cut and paste” in
normal view.
So you can produce an outline straight into the word processor to see if your
plan looks sensible and then expand it. For example, after several staff in a train-
ing department had expressed interest in using infographics, one was asked to
produce a short report on possible ways forward. They started with the follow-
ing outline:

• what are infographics? (definition plus examples.)

• how are they used by organisations? (what benefits do they offer?)
• how could we use them? (are there any disadvantages?)
• what software is available (and what would it cost?)
• how could we become expert in them? (what training would we need? Or
could we do it ourselves?)
• what would the plan of action be if we decided to adopt them?

For longer documents, such as reports on investigations, you can use the outliner
function to produce a plan of action as a guide before you start your investigation.
Once the investigation is complete this can be expanded in the outline for the
report. For example, if you were asked to investigate the copier needs of your
department/organisation for the next five years, your plan could look something
like this:

• present copying facilities.

134 • estimate of future requirements.
• technology – current and developing.
• operating costs. 6
• back-up service and spares. Professional
written
communication
Once the information has been collected and examined you could develop this
plan into a more comprehensive outline. For example, under operating costs you
would want to investigate the comparative costs of purchase or lease and the dif-
ferent forms of lease available.
But would this approach meet the needs of your audience?
This example also illustrates one possible issue with any request for a docu-
ment – what is the actual objective? Are there hidden agendas behind this request?
If you are asked to “investigate copier needs”, what could this mean?

• is this an invitation to consider whether the organisation needs to use photo-

copiers at all? (are you or should you be heading for the “paperless office”?)
• is there a “hidden agenda” as the boss suspects some staff of doing too much
copying?
• does “the boss” expect a simple recommendation on how we can “replace that
old cranky machine in the corner” as cheaply as possible?

These are very different requests which need very different approaches, or at
least further discussion about what is really required.
In the next few years, we are likely to see further advances in the way com-
puter software supports our writing through functions like outliners. And you
should check whether your default word-processor software is offering you the
facilities you really need as in Box 6.2.

BOX 6.2
Are you using the “right” word processor?
If you have been through a school/college/university career in the UK, you have
probably been provided with a copy of Microsoft Office. You may never have con-
sidered using an alternative word processor to Microsoft Word.
But there are a number of alternatives which offer different facilities. For
example:

■ Google Docs allows collaboration online but does not have such a wide
range of formatting.
■ one of us (PH) prefers Apple’s Pages to Word for specific tasks because of
the more flexible ways it manages page layout.
■ some word processors are designed for particular tasks. For example,
Scrivener advertises itself as “tailor-made for long writing projects” 135
Part 2
Presenting (https://www​.literatureandlatte​.com​/scrivener​/overview). It is worth taking
information: some time to review alternative software as you may well find one which
effective
­methods and saves you both time and effort.
media
See the website for an update and further discussion.

Structuring devices in written documents

We can use several techniques in documents to make the structure clear to read-
ers. To illustrate this, we shall identify features of paragraphs: structure, length,
unity, coherence, and linking devices. In later chapters, we show how features
like typefaces and page design can supply similar cues, including the use of head-
ings and sub-headings linked to page layout.
Structure of paragraphs
One common paragraph structure presents the following logical progression:
Situation
⇓
Problem
⇓
Solution
⇓
Evaluation
You can also use this structure as a model for structuring documents.
Often you only need to use two or three of the components but they follow
the same sequence:

• situation – problem – evaluation.

• situation – evaluation.

For example, the following paragraph follows the “situation – evaluation” pattern:
Any substantial written professional text contains a number of different pieces
of information that are part of a presentation to achieve some communication
objective. These pieces are usually related in a structured way.
Another common structure is to follow the time sequence:
We were travelling by car to Springfield. Near Halfway House the left-front
tyre burst and the car skidded off the road into a barrier. We were extremely
136 lucky to escape without injury.
This paragraph also follows the “situation – problem – evaluation” sequence.
Length of paragraphs 6
Professional
As you have just seen, a paragraph can consist of a single sentence. written
Short one-sentence paragraphs are often used to emphasise a point, like this one. communication
There is no upper limit to the number of words in a paragraph. Good busi-
ness writing tends to have short paragraphs compared with literary writing. For
long documents like reports, a maximum of 100 words per paragraph is a rough
guideline. For shorter documents, about 60 words is suitable, but you should not
destroy the unity of a paragraph in an effort to reduce its length.
To maintain the reader’s interest, you should use paragraphs of varying lengths.

Unity
Unity here means that the paragraph deals with a single topic. Any sentence that
does not refer to the topic should be excluded and moved to a new paragraph.
This enables the reader to follow your train of thought one step at a time.

Coherence
It is not sufficient that all sentences in a paragraph refer to the topic; they should
also develop the theme in a logical way. Each sentence should follow on naturally
from the previous one.
A typical practical translation of these sorts of ideas comes from Suzanne
Sparks who advises that you should “structure your writing to reach your reader”
(Sparks, 1999, page 48). She offers five possible structures for short documents
which are similar to the paragraph structures we talked of above. For example,
she suggests that a persuasive communication should be based on the following
five paragraphs:

1. you try to establish some common ground.

2. you explain the problem which will be resolved if the reader agrees to your
request.
3. you explain the solution and show how it has significant advantages for the
reader which outweigh any disadvantages.
4. you list all the benefits for the reader.
5. you clearly specify what you want the reader to do.

Matching structure to objectives

To conclude this chapter, we would emphasise our main message: the structure
of your written communication should support your objectives (this also applies 137
to face-to-face communication as we shall discuss later in this book).
Part 2 We can illustrate this by looking at possible structures for a persuasive flier/
Presenting letter. The following are some of the elements that may be included. Not all of
information: these elements will suit every case and they do not necessarily follow this exact
effective
­methods and sequence given.
media
• attention-getting introduction.
• statement of problem or situation.
• statement of needs of or advantages to receiver.
• statement of needs of sender.
• visualisation of outcome.
• reconciliation of sender's and receiver's needs.
• call for action.

But will this letter work?

Will it achieve its objectives?
Consider your answer to these questions and then have a look at an example
and our further analysis on the website.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ many texts divide the writing process into a series of steps and suggest you
follow them in that order, moving from preparation and research, to organis-
ing the material, and on to writing and revising.
■ research suggests that life is more complex. Writers need to find the com-
bination of methods that suit their situation – it is important to develop
plans and objectives but this does not mean that you have to write in a rigid
sequence of steps.
■ research shows that if we can present information which is clearly organised
and organised in a way which makes sense to the audience, then that audi-
ence will find the information easier to understand and remember.
■ clear objectives are an important part of planning. Phrasing your objectives in
a particular way can help you decide what information you then need to provide.
■ persuasion is an important function of many documents. We need to con-
sider whether our writing can use appropriate tactics and techniques.
■ there are various ways of structuring information which you can use as the
basis for a written document. They are all based on three basic principles:
chunking, ordering, and signposting.
■ there are many useful techniques for structuring material which often use
some visual analogy as a basic idea. It is worth considering the Pyramid
Principle, the use of Concept and Mind Maps, sketchnoting, and the use of
138 outliners.
 6
■ there are also devices we can use in documents to make the structure clear Professional
to readers. To illustrate this, we concentrated on features of the paragraph: written
communication
argument structure, length, unity, coherence, and linking devices.
■ the structure of your written communication should support your objectives,
and we illustrated this by looking at possible structures for a persuasive let-
ter. But this then raises the question of the appropriate media for particular
messages.

References
Agerback, B. (2016) The Idea Shapers: The Power of Putting Your Thinking into Your Own Hands.
Loosetooth​.co​m.
Bovee, C. and Thill, J. (2014) Business Communication Today. London: Pearson.
Buzan, T. (2018) Mind Map Mastery. London: Watkins.
Cialdinii, R.B. (2021) Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. New York: HarperCollins.
Cutts, M. (2020) Oxford Guide to Plain English, 5th edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hartley, P. (1984) Principles For Effective Documents. Paper to Scottish Communication Association Annual
Conference. Edinburgh: Napier university.
Dutton, K. (2011) Flipnosis: The Art of Split-second Persuasion. Croydon: Arrow.
Kahneman, D. (2011) Thinking, Fast and Slow. London: Penguin.
Kinchin, I. (2014) Concept Mapping as a Learning Tool in Higher Education: A Critical Analysis
of Recent Reviews. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 62(1): 39–49. At: https://www​
.researchgate​.net​/publication​/journal​/The​-Journal​-of​- Continuing​-Higher​-Education​- 0737​
-7363
Minto, B. (2002) The Pyramid Principle: Logic in Writing and Thinking, 3rd edition. London: Pearson.
Nediger. (2022) https://venngage​.com​/blog​/what​-is​-an​-infographic/.
Plous, S. (1993) The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Scott, B. (2013) Framing an argument. At https://www​.diplomacy​.edu​/people​/biljanascott/
Sharples, M. (1999) How We Write: Writing as Creative Design. London: Routledge.
Sless, D. (1999) The mass production of unique letters. In Bargiela-Chiappini, F. and Nickerson,
C. (eds) Writing Business: Genres, Media and Discourses. Harlow: Longman.
Sparks, S.D. (1999) The Manager’s Guide to Business Writing. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Timm, T. and Bienvenu, P.R. (2011) Straight Talk. London: Routledge.
Turk, C. and Kirkman, J. (1989) Effective Writing: Improving Scientific, Technical and Business
Communication, 2nd edition. London: E and FN Spon. Close.
Walsh, S. (2020) 14 Influential Infographic Examples To Inspire You. https://www​.semrush​.com​/
blog​/infographic ​- examples/​?kw​=core ​_ bu ​_ 82​&cmp​=Core12 ​_ SRCH ​_ DSA ​_ Blog ​_ Core​
_BU ​_ BING ​& label​= dsa ​_ pagefeed​& Network​=s ​& Device​= c ​& utm ​_ content=​& kwid​= dat​
-2333507271648916​:loc​-188​&cmpid​= 412591844​& agpid​=1307319654896571​& BU​=Core​
&extid=​& adpos=​& msclkid​=f b4 ​8 93c ​dc07​d11f ​7571​0 f13​2ba0a9d3d​& utm ​_ source​=bing​
&utm ​_ medium​=cpc​&utm ​_ c​​ampai​​g n​=Co​​re12_ ​​SRCH_ ​​DSA ​_ B​​log ​_C​​ore ​_ B​​U ​_ BIN​​G​&utm​
_term​=core​_ bu​_ 82.

139
 Chapter 7
What is an effective writing style?

Introduction

As we said in the last chapter, professional writing should achieve clear objec-
tives – it should help to get some necessary job done. For example, you might be
writing to give someone accurate information (as in a product information sheet)
or to persuade someone to set up a project (as in a project proposal).
How effectively you achieve your objective will depend in part on your writing
style. We need strategies which will increase the likely effectiveness of profes-
sional language. These strategies are what this chapter is all about – how to write
in an effective style for various forms of professional communication.
We start by identifying some common criticisms of official and business lan-
guage, using examples from communication specialists such as the Plain English
Campaign and the Plain Language Commission. We then work through the main
criteria we use to identify the main features of effective style – appropriate con-
tent and appropriate tone. Many business communicators advocate Plain English
or Plain Language as the appropriate style to meet these criteria and we review the
main supporting claims and possible limitations of this approach.
Finally, we look at some detailed strategies for improving writing and assess the
value of methods such as measuring the “readability” of a document. But we must treat
tools like this with caution – we cannot offer a “magic solution” to language problems
which can deal with every situation. Throughout this chapter, we shall point out the
difficulties and pitfalls of relying on simple or absolute rules of “effective” language.
As we must keep saying, communication is both complex and dependent on context.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:
140 ■ identify common criticisms of professional writing.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-10
 7
■ explain the main criteria we can use to identify an effective professional What is an
writing style. effective writing
style?
■ outline the main characteristics, potential advantages, and possible limita-
tions of the Plain English/Plain Language approach.
■ summarise important strategies of “plain language” and suggest how to
improve your style by using appropriate words and effective sentences.
■ evaluate methods to measure the readability of a document.

What do we need to “fix” in business writing?

There are two main forms of communication in organisations – how the

organisation communicates to its customers/clients and the general public,
and how it communicates within its own walls. Both aspects of professional
writing have come in for their fair share of criticism. For current examples
of baffling prose, we only need to consult the “Golden Bull” awards from
the UK Plain English Campaign (PEC). As well as awards for examples of
excellent communication, the Campaign publicises organisations and indi-
viduals who have managed to confuse and/or mislead their audiences. These
brief descriptions of some of their awards are taken from the PEC website
(https://plainenglish​.co​.uk):

• The Golden Bulls (“for the worse examples of written tripe”).

• Heroes and Villains (“for those who have performed plain English heroics and
for those that have done the opposite”).
• The Foot in Mouth Award (“for baffling quotes by public figures”).
• Web award (“for clear and usable websites”).

The following examples demonstrate some of the language misdemeanours

which the Campaign aims to eliminate. For each one, you might like to contem-
plate how you would feel if the message had been aimed at you:

Example A – from the Golden Bull Awards 2021:

This extract from the NHS England Primary Care Bulletin baffled many readers.

The ICS Design Framework set an expectation that provider collaboratives

will be a key component in enabling ICSs to deliver their core purpose. This
guidance outlines minimum expectations for how providers should work
together in provider collaboratives, offering principles to support local deci-
sion-making and suggesting the function and form that systems and providers 141
may wish to consider.
Part 2 This Bulletin “provides resources on health policy and practice” aimed at “teams
Presenting across general practice, dentistry, community pharmacy and optometry” (NHS
information: England, 2022).
effective
­methods and
media Example B – Golden Bull Awards 2021:
Customers were not impressed by this email from SP Energy Networks which
assumes a significant level of technical expertise and understanding of acronyms:

As your local Distribution Network Operator (DNO) – the company respon-

sible for the connection of your power generation assets to the local electric-
ity network – we have previously notified you of an important change to the
Distribution Code.
To further update you all, EREC G59 requirements must be implemented
by generation owners by 1 September 2022. Where Loss of Mains (LoM) is
provided by Vector Shift, it must be removed and/or replaced with Rate of
Change of Frequency protection (RoCoF)

The email continues in a similar vein, and you can find further paragraphs on the
PEC website.
Example C – Foot in Mouth Award, 2021
British politician, Dominic Raab, managed to demonstrate his complete misun-
derstanding of misogyny:

Misogyny is absolutely wrong – whether it's a man against a woman or a woman against
a man.

Example D – Plain English Villains Award, 2021

Former British politician, Nick Clegg, now working for Meta, was recognised
for his attempts to divert attention from criticisms of Facebook. Responding
to accusations of “allowing dangerous misinformation to run unchecked on its
pages”, PEC highlighted this quote from Clegg:

The vast majority of content on Facebook is babies, barbecues and bar mitzvahs.

Example E (showing that official pomp and

long-windedness has a long and undistinguished
history) – Golden Bull from 2012
The Committee concluded, having regard to the totality of the factors consid-
142 ered above that choice could not be given significant weight and that there was
not currently a gap on the spectrum of adequacy sufficient to conclude that
 the provision of pharmaceutical services is not currently secured to the stand- 7
ard of adequacy. Accordingly, the Committed concluded: The application was What is an
neither necessary nor expedient to secure the adequate provision of services effective writing
style?
in the neighbourhood, and therefore dismissed the appeal in this respect.

NHS Litigation Authority explained their rejection of an application to open a

pharmacy – their Appeals Manager is quoted as admitting the error and promis-
ing to do better in future.
These awards do generate considerable adverse publicity and can have an
immediate impact. All “award-winners” are also preserved for posterity on the
PEC website.
All these examples would have been seen both inside and outside the organisa-
tions concerned. Criticisms of the written materials which circulate only within
organisations can be equally scathing. Again, this is nothing new.
Exasperation with poor professional writing has a long history. For example, we
can go back to World War 2. At the height of the Battle of Britain, the British Prime
Minister, Winston Churchill, still found time to write a memo to his staff recom-
mending “reports which set out the main points in a series of short, crisp paragraphs”.
He complained that most official papers were “far too long”; wasted time and energy
by not highlighting the main points; and contained too many “woolly phrases”.
If professional and business writing is still often ambiguous, overcomplex, and
unattractive, what can we do about it?
Suggestions to resolve these problems also have a long history. Back in the
1990s, William Horton suggested we need a new type of business document
– “one that answers questions in a hurry” (Horton, 1997, page 3). Through
advances in electronic communications (perhaps most notably email and/or text
messaging) have we now answered Horton’s suggestion?
One common response is to adopt Plain English. Before we investigate this in
detail, we need to examine general criteria for good style which are often applied
to professional writing.

What is “good style” in professional writing?

To demonstrate good style, professional writing must be concise, clear, and con-
vey information and ideas quickly. This style of writing is to inform or persuade
and/or to clearly convey information and ideas.

Style in writing is concerned with choice.

(Kirkman, 1992, page 6)

Even if you work in an organisation with very strict rules about how emails, let-
ters, and reports are presented, you still have to make choices about which words 143
and phrases to use, how to organise your content or paragraphs, and so on. You
Part 2 have to make stylistic choices to create a document with the appropriate content
Presenting and tone – and we shall investigate these two aspects in search of the “best” busi-
information: ness style. A more recent consideration is the use of gender or un-gendered terms
effective
­methods and in professional writing.
media There are numerous guides to good style written by experienced con-
sultants and language experts. Table 7.1 compares recommendations from a

Table 7.1 Agreement on Plain Language

Language Cutts (2020) * Timm and Bienvenu Bovee and Thill (2013)
characteristic (2011)

Use short Average 15–20 “Sentences should average “Look for ways to combine
sentences words about 16 to 18 words in a mixture of sentences that
length”. (Page 16) are short (up to 15 words
or so), medium (15–25
words), and long (more
than 25 words)”.
(Page 108)
Use familiar “Use words your “Use simple, everyday “Choose familiar words”.
words readers are likely wording”. (Page 21) (Page 89)
to understand”
No unnecessary “Use only as many “A sentence should contain “Readers want messages
words words as you no unnecessary words”. that convey important
need”. (page 1) content clearly and
quickly”.
(Page 105)
Prefer active to “Prefer active- “Minimise the use of “In most cases, the active
passive voice voice verbs unless passive voice in workplace voice is the better choice”.
there’s a good writing”. (Page 218) (Page 86)
reason for using
the passive”.
Direct style “Put your points “Write the way you “Achieve a tone that is
positively when would talk in a planned, conversational but still
you can”. purposeful conversation”. business-like”.
(Page 19) (Page 85)
‘Good’ “Put accurate “We conspicuously display “If you make errors of
grammar and punctuation at our professionalism grammar or usage, you
punctuation the heart of your in our writing”. And lose credibility with your
writing”. this includes “Avoiding audience”.
common grammar, (Page 87)
punctuation and usage
mistakes”. (Page 194)
144
*All quotes taken from his summary of guidelines (Cutts, 2020, pages xxvi to xxxvii)
number of leading experts (one from the UK and two from the USA) dem- 7
onstrating substantial agreement. What is an
effective writing
style?

BOX 7.1
Good style can be dangerous?
Frank Luntz has an impressive track record of working with corporations and
political leaders on their use of language. His 2007 book is based on the “basic
advice” listed in Table 7.1 which we would echo:

It’s not what you say, it’s what people hear.

And so:

The key to successful communication is to take the imaginative step of stuff-

ing yourself right into your listener’s shoes to know what they are thinking
and feeling (page xi)

He offers ten “rules of effective language”:

■ credibility.
■ brevity.
■ simplicity.
■ consistency.
■ novelty.
■ sound.
■ aspiration.
■ visualisation.
■ questioning.
■ context.

He introduces some ideas which are not in our recipe below and which are worth
considering in your own context, such as the value of explaining things in a way
which your audience can visualise.
These techniques can be used to mislead readers. Steven Poole (2007) high-
lights a leaked memo from Luntz back in 2003 which advised US Republican
politicians to “refine” the terminology they should use in an environmental
debate – “It’s time for us to start talking about ‘climate change’ instead of global
warming” as “‘Climate change’ is less frightening…” Poole discusses the effec-
tiveness of this strategy of “redefining labels” to serve political and economic
ends (page 42ff). 145
Part 2
Presenting More recently Lundt has changed his political stance on issues such as cli-
information: mate change, but his advice was influential at the time. The important lesson
effective
­methods and from this example is that language can be (and is often) used to mislead. For this
media reason, we suggest “accuracy” as our first content criterion below.

An example where accuracy is essential relates to the specific requirements

for prepacked for direct sale (PPDS) food labelling. Relevant law was changed
in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland on 1 October 2021. New legislation
known as Natasha’s Law (Introduction to allergen labelling changes (PPDS) |
Food Standards Agency) helps to protect consumers – all labelling provides life-
saving allergen information on the packaging. The need for such accuracy on
packaging followed the tragic death of teenager Natasha Ednan-Laperouse from
an allergic reaction – caused by a baguette without allergen labelling.

Content criteria
What criteria can we use to evaluate the content of a business or official text?
We suggest you start from these criteria:
• accuracy.
• brevity.
• clarity.
• emphasis.

Accuracy
Accuracy is the most important criterion. Inaccurate and incorrect information
can often be more harmful than no information at all. Would you wish to travel
on an aircraft that had been serviced according to an inaccurate manual?
But this raises a problem: how accurate must your writing be? A high degree of
accuracy often requires considerable detail and qualification of the information.
The result could be long and turgid texts which nobody can bring themselves to
read. So, you need to strike the right balance in terms of the level of detail.

Brevity
Overlong documents are usually caused by unnecessary material and/or long-
winded writing. In any communication situation, the writer usually has more
information than is necessary and must therefore determine:

• what the audience already knows.

146 • what the audience needs to know.
• what the audience wants to know.
Once you have a clear idea of this, you can trim the message without leaving out 7
important information. However, this is not as easy as it sounds – your audience What is an
may contain distinct subgroups with different needs. effective writing
style?

Clarity
Lack of clarity is often due to poor style, rather than difficult subject matter, and
may be caused by:

• stilted phrases and cliches.

• too much detail and repetition.
• lack of logical structure.
• excessive use of abstract and generic terms.

Emphasis
Important information should be emphasised. But how do we decide what is
important? It is:

• information that is important to the audience.

• information that will support your arguments as a writer.

Less important information should be left out or placed later in the text.
Apart from ranking items in order of importance, emphasis can be achieved
by other methods, such as:

• format and typography.

The layout and typography of a document can be used to highlight important
points. We say more on this in Chapter 8. Techniques include the use of
white space, use of lists and bullet points, use of headings etc.
• grammatical structure.
We can emphasise a word by making it the subject of a sentence. For exam-
ple, rather than “The temperature was measured by an optical pyrometer”,
you can say “An optical pyrometer measured the temperature”. This puts the
emphasis on the means of measurement.

Of course, emphasis should not be carried to the point where information is

distorted or where important facts are concealed.

Balancing the content criteria

A good text depends on achieving a successful balance of the four criteria
to meet the reader’s needs. In the simple examples we have used above, the 147
criteria are relatively easy to apply. But even in simple examples we can dig
Part 2 deeper and discover possible ambiguities. For example, suppose you receive
Presenting an email about a recent survey of your organisation’s canteen facilities which
information: discovered that most of the staff “were in favour”. What exactly does that
effective
­methods and mean? What sort of facility did they want? And how often would they use it?
media This general “approval” might mask very strong differences in terms of what
particular groups of staff want from a canteen. Of course, this detail may be
in the attached report, but the email should highlight key findings. At the
moment, this does not give a very clear pointer to any management action.
So, always consider what the written communication aims to achieve when
you apply the criteria.

Tone criteria
Even if the content is good, business writing can fail to achieve its objectives if
its tone offends or upsets readers. We have already argued that communication
always conveys two simultaneous messages – information and relationship. We
can examine the style of professional writing to see if it establishes or reinforces
an appropriate relationship. This is especially important because everything you
write can be interpreted as writing on behalf of your organisation (or your part
of the organisation in an internal communication). Any attitudes you express are
assumed to be those of the organisation. Be aware of the image your organisation
wishes to project and write accordingly.
For a simple illustration, compare the following sentences from letters to cus-
tomers and decide which organisation is projecting the most suitable “profes-
sional” and positive image:

• “If this does not sort out your gripes give me a ring”.
• “If this does not solve your problems, communicate with the undersigned at
your earliest convenience”.
• “If this does not solve the problem, please telephone, email or text me as soon
as possible at…”

Of course, different relations that exist in organisations mean you must be

sensitive to the requirements of these situations. Therefore, you do not use
the same tone when writing to a customer who has not paid his account for
six months as you would to a potential customer. There are, however, certain
tonal requirements that almost invariably apply to written communication.
Written communication constitutes a permanent record – this means that
writers should:

• adopt a professional tone, appropriate to the status of the receiver.

148 • be sensitive to the existence of different business practices.
• be sensitive to cultural differences.
The last two points are particularly important in international business where 7
there is always the danger of unintentionally giving offence. A common exam- What is an
ple would be the use of American conventions in messages for British readers – effective writing
style?
phrases like “have a nice day” are often seen as insincere and formulaic.
If we are searching for a business style which satisfies these criteria of content
and tone, can Plain English provide the answer?

The rise of Plain English

Criticisms of official and business writing are nothing new. Equally long-standing
are pleas for plain and understandable writing – in the Oxford Guide to Plain English
(2020), Martin Cutts notes pleas going back to the 16th century. He offers a
detailed history so here we simply highlight some major landmarks in the rise of
Plain English in the United Kingdom.
Earlier in the 20th century, there were several attempts to simplify the lan-
guage of government, including the very influential book by Sir Ernest Gowers
– Plain Words (later revised and extended into The Complete Plain Words,1987).
Another influential article, still quoted in modern guidebooks, came from George
Orwell in 1946 (“Politics and the English language”). See Box 7.2 for discussion of
some of the broader implications of his approach. His six elementary rules are a useful
summary of early Plain English thinking which had lasting influence:

(i) Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to
seeing in print.
(ii) Never use a long word where a short one will do.
(iii) If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
(iv) Never use the passive where you can use the active.
(v) Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can
think of an everyday English equivalent.
(vi) Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.

One major issue which prompted the more recent rise of Plain English in the UK
was the poor quality of official forms and government publications. The Plain
English Campaign was formed as a pressure group to tackle this.
Plain English is now encouraged for all documentation in UK government cir-
cles (https://www​.gov​.uk​/guidance​/content​-design​/writing​-for​-gov​-uk). Plain
English is mandatory for gov​.u​k. One of the parts most people pick up on is the
plain English (or words to avoid) list found at that link.
There is a lot of common ground between these sets of principles, which is
also reflected in more recent and current texts. We explore the most important 149
recommendations in more detail later in this chapter.
Part 2
Presenting
information: BOX 7.2
effective
­methods and The politics of language style
media
George Orwell was not simply interested in improving the quality of official docu-
ments. One of his main concerns was the way that totalitarian states used “cor-
rupt” forms of language to disguise the true intentions behind political dogma.
One of the key weapons used by the state in his classic novel, 1984, is the lan-
guage Newspeak. This language systematically destroys the link between words
and meanings and is used to make the dogma of the ruling party both meaning-
less and indisputable at the same time. Orwell argued for clear and transpar-
ent language to prevent specific linguistic features being used to confuse and
dominate.
Another important aspect of Orwell's thinking is also very relevant to modern
thinking on plain English – the notion that plain language will be “automati-
cally transparent”. This assumes that there is a fixed code whereby a word cor-
responds to a fixed meaning. This is not our view. As we showed in Chapter 3,
language is a fuzzy code where flexibility is the norm. Although plain English
may assist understanding, it can never guarantee it.

Developments in plain language

One major difference between modern Plain English recommendations and pre-
vious writers such as Gowers is the attention paid to the organisation, design,
and layout of documents – good writing is not just about “getting the words
right”. We also follow this philosophy and look at organisation and layout in the
next chapter.

BOX 7.3
This organisation has rules
Some organisations publish very definite rules to control their staff’s writing.
Many official UK publications endorse ideas we discuss in this chapter. For exam-
ple, the link above related to government documents and use of plain English.
Others would be:

■ the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence in the UK publish
150 information to support the creation of written information for the general
 7
public, and for specialists in the medical field. https://www​.nice​.org​.uk​/cor- What is an
porate​/ecd2​/chapter​/rules​-of​-clear​-writing effective writing
style?
■ similarly, the UK Law Society publish a “Ten Rules of Written
Communications for Business” guide which suggests how to create clear
information and writing on complex legal terms for businesses and organi-
sations. https://www​.lawsociety​.org​.uk​/Topics​/In​-house​/Features​/10​-rules​
-of​-written​-communication​-for​-business

What is your organisation’s approach or “rule book”’ (implicit or explicit)?

And how is this expressed and enforced?

Current agreement on plain language

If you read a selection of recent and current texts on professional or business
communication, then you may be struck by the consensus that emerges over
recommended language style. Table 7.1 illustrates this agreement – and also sug-
gests some differences in emphasis - listing eight major characteristics of plain
language style and showing how they are summarised in three recent texts: one
of the best recent British summaries of the Plain English approach by Martin
Cutts, and two American texts.
We recommend the book by Cutts as the best single source on plain language.
He offers “twelve main guidelines” – the ones listed above plus:

• “Organise your material so readers can see the important information early
and navigate the document easily”
• “Use good verbs to express the actions in your sentences”
• “Use vertical lists to break up complicated text”
• “Use good grammar”
• “Check your material before the readers do”

You can evaluate your writing against these 12 characteristics (Cutts, 2020).
Another option we can safely recommend on modern PCs/Macs is the use of
dictation to prepare documents. Speech recognition software has been available
for some time, but earlier versions demanded significant dedication and patience
to use them effectively. Now it achieves impressive accuracy levels and is well
worth considering. It will enable you to see if a more conversational approach
improves your documents (as well as helping to cut down keyboard time and 151
attendant health risks from excessive typing).
Part 2 But is Plain English always the answer?
Presenting
information: A range of studies and examples make a persuasive argument in favour of
effective
­methods and Plain English/Plain Language (e.g. the 50 studies summarised by Kimble,
media 2012). But Plain English has also had its critics. For example, Robyn Penman
argued that we need to consider the context when we write, and we cannot
rely on universal principles of plain or simple English. He reviewed the evi-
dence that Plain English revisions do not always work – such as an Australian
study which compared versions of a tax form and found that the revised ver-
sion was “virtually as demanding for the taxpayer as the old form” (Penman,
1993, page 128).
We agree with Penman’s main point – that we need to design appropriate
documents – but current Plain English practice is more flexible than Penman
implies. So, we still think that all professional writers should consider the rec-
ommendations coming from Plain English sources. Unless you have clear con-
trary evidence, they are the “safest bet”, especially if you have a general or mixed
audience. For the rest of this book, we shall talk of “plain language” to refer to
this approach – using the simplest and clearest expression which is appropriate
for the audience.
A recent research contribution may give us further clues as to how we decide
on the most appropriate language style for any given situation. Julie Baker looked
at the comparison between traditional legal language and plain legal language
using the concept of “cognitive fluency” which:

relates to the level of confidence a person has regarding his or her understanding of an
object or piece of information. Simply put, a reader more quickly and easily processes
fluent communications.
(2011, page 12)

She concludes that “plain language is, in fact, the right way to write, as it is:

“fluent”and thereby inspires feelings of ease, confidence, and trust in readers (whereas
legalese is “disfluent”, engendering feelings of dislike and mistrust). …however, …there
are times when the legal writer’s analytical or persuasive goals may be served by more
difficult, less fluent language.
(Pages 1–2)

While this may be difficult to translate into specific recommendations for a

given situation, it is worthwhile thinking in terms of the levels of cognitive
fluency which you are assuming in the readers of the documents you are writ-
ing – how much effort will they have to put in to understand what you are
152 saying?
 It is also worth remembering that even simple language may not tell the whole 7
story. Martin Cutts, one of the co-founders of the UK Plain English Campaign, What is an
now runs the Plain Language Commission, and makes the point that: effective writing
style?

corporate language should be not only plain in style but also plain in intention and in
content.
(Cutts, 2020)

There is one further word of caution we need to emphasise – changing language

styles in an organisation does not just change the language. Language use reflects
important aspects of organisational culture as we saw in Part 1 of this book.
There may also be specific implications for organisation relationships as the study
in Box 7.4 illustrates.

BOX 7.4
Where Plain English disrupted the organisation structure
Jim Suchan studied how Report Assessors (RAs) in a government agency made
decisions based on information in written reports from subordinates (with whom
they had no direct contact). The RAs felt the reports were badly organised and
difficult to read but they had various strategies to “make sense of all the garbled
stuff in these reports” (Suchan, 1998, page 312). Despite these criticisms, they
did not suggest that their subordinates should change their writing style – it was
accepted as part of the job. The RAs had “become very skilful in the manoeuvring
through the reports to find the information they needed to make a decision. They
were proud of that skill: it differentiated them from others”.
A few reports were rewritten using techniques such as headings and subhead-
ings, bulleted lists, active verbs, shorter paragraphs etc. However, these revised
reports did not lead to better decisions. They were disliked and described as
“abnormal discourse”. The new report style was seen as deskilling the RAs and
“usurping their authority”. Rumours circulating in the organisation about pos-
sible cutbacks and restructuring were an obvious factor in these perceptions.
This study shows that we cannot simply impose a new language style on an
organisation without considering broader impact and implications.

Applying plain language strategies

In this final section, we suggest plain language strategies which you should always 153
consider in your own writing:
Part 2 Hit the right point on the “word scales”
Presenting
information: You need to use appropriate words in a specific situation. Some organisations have
effective tried to control word choices by introducing simplified English. Unfortunately,
­methods and
media
this can bring other problems. Assuming you have free choice, consider where
your words fit on the following four scales:

Abstract – concrete
The main problem with abstract terminology is its vagueness. It often needs a
concrete example to clarify it. Although a statement like “Inflation is affecting
our administration costs” may be true, it is vague. The statement could include a
concrete example, like “Inflation is affecting our administration costs – costs of
printing and stationery have risen by just over 7% per year each year since 2020”.

Generic – specific
“Vehicle” is a generic term, as it covers a variety of things. There is a range from
generic to specific, as in: vehicle – motor vehicle – motor car – Toyota car – 1998
Toyota Corolla – 1998 green, 1.6 L Toyota Corolla – and so on. Professional and
business writing tends to be too generic.

Formal – colloquial
“The company is in financial difficulties” is more formal, while “The company is
going down the drain” is more colloquial. It is very important to pitch your writ-
ing at the point on this scale which is appropriate to your audience.

Emotive – referential
Emotive words convey both facts and attitudes or dispositions. Referential terms
convey facts rather than attitudes. Therefore: “The shop floor was covered with
sawdust” is essentially factual, whereas “The shop floor was filthy” conveys the
writer's attitude.

Avoid jargon and technical slang

Jargon is technical language, which is usually unintelligible to a wider audience.
A term like “discounted cash flow” would be unacceptable jargon to a general
audience if no explanation was given. Technical slang covers slang terms that are
used in technical conversation: expressions such as “the bottom line”.

Avoid cliches
154
Cliches are expressions which once may have been fresh and insightful but have
become stale through constant use. Our latest list is on the website.
Avoid piled-up nouns 7
What is an
Nouns are often “piled-up”, so it is difficult to disentangle the meaning, as in: effective writing
“staff induction emergency training procedures”. Apart from the difficulty of dis- style?
entangling the meaning there is always the danger of ambiguity. In this example
it is not clear whether we are dealing with emergency-training procedures (how
to train people to deal with an emergency), or emergency training-procedures
(how to organise the training if there is some sort of crisis).
Simplify sentence structure
Simple straightforward structures make for easy reading. The most common
structure is to start the sentence with the subject, e.g. The company increased its
profits by 25% compared with the last financial year.
A common alternative structure is an adverbial opening such as:
In the last financial year, the company increased its profits by 25%.
Adverbial beginnings are particularly useful when you wish to link the sen-
tence to something that has gone before, as in:
However, unfavourable trading conditions may not continue after the first
quarter.
It requires considerable skill to structure long sentences. Modern word-pro-
cessing software has built-in spelling and grammar checks which will identify
“poor” or overlong sentences. But these checks can give some strange results as
we illustrate in Box 7.5.

BOX 7.5
Grammar checkers may not know what you mean!
You can try the following exercise yourself – you need a reasonably long text
which you have written yourself.
Table 7.5 below gives examples of corrections to sentences and phrases which
are recommended by the free version of Grammarly (https://app​.grammarly​
.com) when we asked it to analyse this chapter. It spotted several typos and
offered some simplifications which we found helpful, but it also made some sug-
gestions which we rejected as they did not make a useful difference – see a few
examples in Table 7.2.
This shows that you should approach these automatic devices with some cau-
tion. Their recommendations can fail if they rely on the over-strict interpretation
of grammatical rules, if they misinterpret the context, or if they automatically
follow supposed “good practice” (like avoiding the passive at all costs). We also
found problems where Grammarly wanted to get rid of some necessary quotation
marks and change words in direct quotes. There can also be problems with differ- 155
ent cultural norms – see Box 7.6.
Part 2
Presenting
Table 7.2 Disagreements with Grammarly
information:
effective
Original phrase What Grammarly Did we accept the
­methods and
media or sentence recommends recommendation?

1 This puts the emphasis on This emphasises the No.

the means of measurement. means of measurement. We wanted to
emphasise “the
emphasis”.
2 So the criteria must always So the criteria must No
be applied in relation always be applied But we agreed that
to what the written about what the written our sentence was
communication needs to communication needs not very clear, so we
achieve. to achieve. rewrote it.
3 which has had lasting Which has had a lasting No
influence. influence. We do not think that
the “a” makes any
difference.

After revising the chapter using Grammarly suggestions, we then asked the
Editor in Microsoft Word to check the chapter. It made over 60 grammar sugges-
tions – mainly about use of commas – and spotted a few typos which Grammarly
had missed. Responding to these suggestions lifted our “score” from 89% to
100% and we stopped checking! This demonstrates that you cannot expect com-
plete agreement between different checkers – you do need to review their sugges-
tions before you finish any document.

Use the appropriate balance of

active and passive sentences
A common misconception is that the passive form is the “preferred”’ business
style for official documents. Active sentences are usually preferred in Plain
Language. In practice, you need a sensible mix of active and passive.
The criterion for choosing between active and passive should be emphasis.
Consider the following sentences:

(1) The company gave each employee a bonus.

(2) Each employee was given a bonus by the company.

In (1) the emphasis is on “the company”; in (2) the emphasis is on “each employee”.
156 Both sentences are perfectly clear. Your choice depends on whether you wish to
emphasise “the company” or “each employee”.
Use clear and simple punctuation 7
What is an
Punctuation is an important code – it can change the meaning or emphasis effective writing
within a sentence: style?
Consider the difference between these two simple examples:

a) Insert the ID card into the slot, with the label on the top right.
b) Insert the ID card into the slot with the label on the top right.

In (a) the punctuation tells you that the label is part of the ID card; in (b) the
punctuation tells you that the label relates to the slot. In more complicated
instructions, possible ambiguities of this sort could be very dangerous. You could
punctuate the following to give very different meanings:

“Send replacement motherboard if the system fails again we will need to shut it down”.

But how do we decide which punctuation to use and when to use it? Here the
situation becomes more complicated. You can find very different interpretations
of how and when to use some punctuation marks so we suggest you follow the
advice of Martin Cutts:

Only about a dozen marks need to be mastered and the guidelines are fairly simple
(Cutts, op cit, page 98)

There have been changes in taste and style but there are several useful and enter-
taining guides to punctuation, including one best-seller from Lynne Truss (2003
and 2008). This illustrates how sensitive many of us are to the punctuation we
see around us.
Another good example of this sensitivity is the Apostrophe Protection Society
whose website shows both how to use them properly and how many organisations
fail to do so – http://www​.apostrophe​.org​.uk. At the very least, you should:

• make sure you are familiar with the conventional uses of the main punctua-
tion marks.
• use these main punctuation marks consistently.
• recognise that punctuation marks are important signals to the reader about
when to pause and which parts of the sentence go together.

One strategy is to use a limited set of punctuation marks. We do not agree with
some advice which suggests that you only really need to use the full stop and
the comma. But we could write virtually every type of official document using
only the punctuation marks discussed in one of the well-known British advice 157
books – The Economist Style Guide (12th edition published in 2018) – where you
Part 2 can find specific advice on apostrophes, brackets, colons, commas, dashes, full
Presenting stops, quotation marks, question marks, and semi-colons, and a useful discussion
information: of different uses in American and British English.
effective
­methods and This raises the question of which grammar/punctuation guide to use – there
media are many on the market and they do not always agree on specific points:

Generations of schoolchildren were taught grammar as an arbitrary set of dos and don’ts
laid down by people who knew, or thought they knew, best. Nowadays, grammar might
be more helpfully defined as the set of rules followed by speakers of a language.
(Marsh and Dodson, 2010, page 7)

The problem is that different users may follow different rules, depending on their
background, and some guidebooks on the market still offer “rules” which are sus-
pect or arbitrary. We suggest you stick with established texts on Plain Language
which are based on research and/or practical application (such as work by Martin
Cutts, or David Crystal, 2015, or the useful chapter on grammar and punctua-
tion by March and Dodson, 2010). And you need to pay special attention to these
issues when you write online (Darics, 2016) – more on this on the website.
A(void texts which adopt a more dogmatic stance. For example, we cannot
recommend Gwynne’s Grammar (2013) although this recently sold well in the UK.
This book claims that grammar is a “science” but then offers no method for its
scientific investigation! Look for reviews of this text on the web and you will
find very different opinions, reflecting the strong feelings that many people have
about what counts as good or acceptable grammar.
As additional help, most modern word processing packages offer ways of
checking your writing. This chapter was prepared in Word which:

• automatically puts a capital letter after every full stop – at the beginning of
every sentence.
• highlights incorrect or unknown spellings.
• suggests when our sentences “fail” its in-built grammar checker.

However, do not be tempted to rely too heavily on these automatic systems –

they only offer very general guidance which can be misleading (see Box 7.6).

BOX 7.6
Why doesn’t my word processor know I’m English?
Another problem with computerised grammar-checkers is that they may be
158 insensitive to cultural variations. Microsoft Word continually criticises us as we
do not follow one of the rules laid down by one of the main American authorities
 7
on written style – the Chicago Manual of Style. According to this manual, you What is an
should use the word “that” to introduce a restrictive clause and the word “which” effective writing
style?
to introduce a non-restrictive clause. For example, the Manual approves of the
following sentences:

a) The book that Nigel gave me was no good.

b) The book, which Nigel gave me, was no good.

In example (a), the clause is restrictive because I'm talking only about the spe-
cific book which Nigel gave me and not any of the other books which I own. In
example (b), the clause is non-restrictive as the fact that Nigel gave me the book
is simply added as extra information – the clause is not used to identify which
book we are talking about.
UK English speakers often do not make this distinction, although it does
crop up in some well-known guides to “good English” used in Britain. This is an
interesting example of a stylistic rule which makes little or no difference to com-
munication. This reinforces the point made by Deborah Cameron:

statements about ‘good writing’ are not self-evident truths about language
but value judgements upon it.

Her book on popular attitudes towards language should be required reading for
anyone who advises others on how to write good English (Cameron, 1995, 2012).

Readability
Readability formulae claim to predict how easy or difficult it is to read a par-
ticular text. These usually combine some measure of sentence length with some
measure of average word length. Examples include the Fog index and the Flesch
formula which is supplied as an automatic feature in many word processors.
Readability formulae can give a useful check – they can be used to revise texts
to make them easier to understand. However, the results must be interpreted
with caution as they ignore some critical points (James Hartley, 1994):

• some short sentences can be difficult to understand.

• short technical abbreviations may be very difficult to understand.
• some long words are very familiar (e.g. communication).
• the formulae ignore any graphics or visual aids which can help readers to
understand. 159
• the formulae ignore the impact of any layout, such as headings and
subheadings.
Part 2 • the formulae ignore the readers’ past experience and knowledge.
Presenting • the formulae ignore the readers’ motivation.
information:
effective
­methods and
James Hartley has also shown that you can increase the readability of text
media according
to the scales and make it more difficult to understand. Our favourite example
of a short text which would pass a readability test but which is difficult to under-
stand is the following notice, stuck by the elevator doors in a large multi-storey
American office block:

Please
Walk up one floor
Walk down two floors
To improve elevator service

If you take the notice at face value and walk up one floor, you discover the same
notice by the elevator doors on the next floor (in fact, on every floor). The writer
managed to construct a very tortuous way of advising users not to take the eleva-
tor for very short journeys! For more examples of this type of problem (and how
to fix them), see Chapanis (1988). Another of our favourites in the same vein is
the following notice on a fence in the middle of a large national park in the UK:
The land within is outside open land.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ professional writing often fails to communicate because of poor expression.
■ we need to evaluate our writing using both content and tone criteria, bearing
in mind the demands of the situation.
■ Plain English/Plain Language has made a significant impact on official writing.
We now have a wealth of guidance plus good and bad examples thanks to the
work of organisations like the Plain English Campaign and the Plain Language
Commission. But we need to consider research studies which suggest that this
approach is not always as straightforward as might first appear.
■ “Plain language” should be considered as a personal and company strategy,
remembering that this argues for an appropriate style of language and not
the same simple style for every document. Also, it is not just about using the
right words – we also need to examine organisation and layout and consider
the needs of users/audiences.
■ we should follow standard conventions on punctuation while remembering
that the rules are both flexible and changing
160 ■ readability tests and grammar-checkers offer some useful information but
should always be interpreted carefully.
References 7
What is an
Baker, J. A. (2011) And the Winner Is: How Principles of Cognitive Science Resolve the Plain effective writing
Language Debate, University of Missouri-Kansas City Law Review, Forthcoming Suffolk University style?
Law School Research Paper No. 11-33. At: https://papers​.ssrn​.com​/sol3​/papers​.cfm​
?abstract​_ id​=1915300
Bovee, C. and Thill, J. (2013) Business Communication Essentials. London: Pearson.
Cameron, D. (1995) Verbal Hygeine. London: Routledge.
Chapanis, A. (1988) ‘Words, words, words’ revised. International Review of Ergonomics 2: 1–30.
Cutts, M. (2020) Oxford Guide to Plain English, 5th edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Darics, E. (2016) Writing Online: A Guide to Effective Digital Communication at Work, 1st edition. New
York: New York Business Expert Press (Corporate communication collection).
Gowers, E. (1987) The Complete Plain Words, 3rd edition. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Gwynne, N.M. (2013) Gwynne’s Grammar: The Ultimate Introduction to Grammar and the Writing of
Good English. Incorporating also Strunk’s Guide to Style. London: Ebury Press.
Hartley, J. (1994) Designing Instructional Text (3rd edition) London: Routledge
Horton, W. (1997) Secrets of User Seductive Documents: Wooing and Winning the Reluctant Reader.
Arlington, VA: Society for Technical Communication.
Kimble, J. (2012) Writing for Dollars, Writing to Please: The case for plain language in business,
government, and law. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
Kirkman, J. (1992) Good Style: Writing for Science and Technology. London: E and F N Spon.
Luntz, F.I. (2007) Words That Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear. New York: Hyperion.
Marsh, D.R. and Dodson, A. (2010) Guardian Style, 3rd edition. London: Guardian Books.
Penman, R. (1993) Unspeakable acts and other deeds: A critique of plain legal language.
Information Design Journal, 7(2): 121–131.
Poole, S. (2007) Unspeak: Words are Weapons, 2nd edition. London: Abacus.
Suchan, J. (1998) The effect of high impact rating on decision making within the public sector
bureaucracy. Journal of Business Communication, 35(3): 299–327.
Timm, T. and Bienvenu, P.R. (2011) Straight Talk. London: Routledge.
Truss, L. (2003) Eats, Shoots and Leaves: The zero tolerance approach to punctuation. London: Profile
Books.

161
 Chapter 8
Effective design and visual aids

Introduction

It is worth emphasising how quickly the process of producing business docu-

ments has been transformed through technology.
One obvious change is the way that we can all now incorporate visual ele-
ments into documents such as graphics, charts, tables and diagrams which were
either impossible or impractical without specialist technical help only a few years
ago. It is also much easier to prepare and distribute documents online although
that can generate further complications. The way we read online documents is
different to reading on paper. This means that clear design of documents is even
more important than previously.
Because of these technological developments and the associated changes in
office structures, all professional writers now need to understand basic principles
of document design. We also need to know when and how to construct simple
and effective visual aids – and these are the main themes of this chapter.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ explain why effective document design and layout is such an important part
of effective professional writing.
■ explain why and how we should make documents accessible to all readers.
■ review the main design features which we need to consider when we produce
professional documents.
■ summarise main features of typography which professional writers need to
know about, e.g. fonts, size, space, and alignment.
■ demonstrate how page layout can show the reader how the document is
162 structured.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-11
 8
■ analyse why and when you need to incorporate a visual aid into a business Effective design
document. and visual aids
■ review main types of visual aids used in documents and highlight their main
advantages and disadvantages.
■ demonstrate the major dangers of inappropriate construction of graphs and
charts and show how you can avoid misrepresentation.
■ identify how to avoid bias in the use of visual aids, and how to support equal-
ity, diversity, and inclusion.
■ introduce the changing uses of presentation software to produce documents.

Why is effective design and layout now such

an important aspect of effective writing?

Our answer to this question reflects the views of those responsible for the devel-
opment of technical writing:

No matter how brilliant or important the content, if it is not formatted in a way that
enhances readability, it will likely not receive the attention it deserves
(Suzan Last, 2019)

Psychological research supports the designers’ view that the “look” of a

document influences how it is read (Vora, 2019; Knaflick, 2015, Hartley,
1994). But despite the importance of good design, many organisations are
still content to treat the development of documents, reports, and forms of
communication as secondary considerations to the content. A consequence
of this is that the reader won’t understand either the content or the purpose
of that communication. If the purpose is to persuade, motivate, or initiate
an action then these things are more likely to happen when the style of the
document is designed alongside the content of the communication. See Box
8.1 for a brief discussion of these problems.

BOX 8.1
The PC/laptop/Mac etc is not a typewriter
– changing conventions
Although the typewriter is now obsolete, some interesting habits from tra-
ditional typing still survive in modern word-processing. For example, leav-
ing two spaces after a full stop (period) made sense on an old mechanical 163
Part 2
Presenting typewriter where all the characters take up the same amount of space (mon-
information: ospaced). The two spaces helped to separate the sentences. But word-pro-
effective
­methods and cessors use typefaces where each character is proportionally spaced – for
media example, the letter “i” takes up less space than the letter “m”. So you do
not need more than one space to separate sentences. Other features in many
printed documents we have seen in organisations are also a legacy of typing,
such as the use of underlining. Professional printing avoids underlining and
uses italics or bold for emphasis.

Making documents accessible to all readers

Designing documents to achieve their objectives and to make them fully acces-
sible means taking full advantage of word-processing features, such as styles and
templates. These improve the look of the document, and they are essential for
accessibility. For example, if a partially sighted person reads the document using
the read-aloud feature then the headings are described as such. If these features
are not used, then the read-aloud programme cannot structure the reading in a
way that the partially sighted person can understand. It’s also useful for those
colleagues who can listen to these documents whilst travelling rather than read
them on the screen or in print.
Changing the style characteristics of “Heading1” takes a few seconds – from
that point, every Heading 1 in the document uses the same format. Changing
every heading individually in a long document can take some time.
You can quickly work out whether a document has been efficiently produced
by looking at the styles associated with headings and subheadings (you can also
use the outliner facility to check this). If the headings/subheadings are simply
the “normal” style with extra formatting then you have uncovered an example of
using the PC/laptop/Mac/Chromebook in the same way that typewriters work.
This shows serious lack of concern for the range of readers who may need to read
the document.
For both ethical and professional reasons, we need to make all our documents
accessible to all readers, i.e. anyone can “read” it, including those who are sight
impaired, or dyslexic, or have other issues such as dyscalculia etc. In the UK,
since 2018, all public sector bodies have had to make all aspects of a website or
mobile app accessible. That includes documents that may be read online – and
covers internal and external communication. While the legislation does not for-
mally apply to other organisations, it does set both a valuable precedent and good
164 practice which we should all follow (https://www​.legislation​.gov​.uk​/uksi​/2018​
/852​/contents​/made).
What are the main design features 8
of business documents? Effective design
and visual aids

Every business document has a characteristic layout – ranging from the simple
layout of an internal briefing paper to the glossy multicolour annual report from
a large company. Only the latter may have received much attention from profes-
sional designers but all documents have been put together with some attention to
their design. And the design is important no matter how humble the document.
A well-designed document has three main advantages over a poorly
designed one:

• it makes a good impression on the reader.

It suggests a professional and competent approach. So it can enhance the
credibility of the person who prepared the document. In this way, it improves
the chances of its message being accepted.
• the content/information is easier to understand.
• the reader is in a better position to respond appropriately, by assimilating
the information or responding to the questions raised, or taking necessary
actions.

Conversely, poorly presented material can put the reader off and create a
poor image. A simple example from our professional experience would be
coursework assignments which students have to complete at college or uni-
versity. A well-prepared word-processed assignment is likely to gain more
marks, not because the tutor is consciously awarding marks for presentation,
but because the word-processed assignment is easier and quicker to read and
looks as if it has been carefully prepared. Conversely, the poorly word-pro-
cessed assignment – no page numbers, no headings or subheadings, poor use
of visual aids etc. – can lose marks. At the very least, it gives the impression
of having been “knocked together” at the last minute. This may seem unfair
but being able to write for the audience of your writing is an important
skill to develop – and that includes writing for tutors at college/university!
Reports, emails, and memos in organisations create similar impressions on
the reader, depending on the way they look.
Also remember that a document may have several different readers. If it is a
report, then the person who asked for it is likely to read the whole report. There
will then be secondary readers who only want to read the summary or specific
sections relevant to them. Each of these readers need to be able to navigate their
way through the report easily and to understand and respond to either the whole
document or those individual sections.
There is no excuse for poorly formatted documents. Software now enables 165
us to produce most of the characteristics of professional typesetting. As a result,
Part 2 readers have come to expect documents which satisfy longstanding criteria used
Presenting by graphic designers (Lichty, 1989):
information:
effective
­methods and
• proportion – where all the elements of the page are clearly in proportion to
media each other.
• balance – where there is a clear sense of balance in the design of each page.
• contrast – where contrasting parts of the design are used to focus the reader’s
interest on the page.
• rhythm – where the reader’s attention is drawn smoothly down the page
without distraction.
• unity – where the various components of the page fit together to give a coher-
ent impression.

What do business writers need to

know about typography?

Modern software offers writers a wide variety of typefaces, or fonts (a typeface

is a collection of fonts). When these were first made available it resulted in docu-
ments with many different fonts included. This resulted in messy and confus-
ing documents, with little to guide the reader through what had been written.
Whilst the choice of a typeface or font is largely subjective, the impact on the
reader and its accessibility need to be considered at the design stage rather than
after the text has been written.
There are a few technical aspects of fonts, typefaces, and page layout which
are worth knowing so you can make sensible choices. You also have to under-
stand some technical terms with rather odd names – much of the terminology
has been carried forward from the days when printing was a mechanical pro-
cess using letters made from “hot metal”. We outline these terms below before
returning to the issue of which type is “best” for particular business documents.

Type families
A font is a specific style and size of a typeface, for example ‘this font is 12 point
Times New Roman Bold.’ You may find these terms are used interchange-
ably (although the distinction is important for designers and typographers). Any
single typeface can appear in different styles, which make up its “family”. For
example, Arial can appear as Arial, Arial Black, or Arial Narrow.
Especially given changes in requirements for accessibility, it is important to
know which fonts/typefaces are easier to read. An easy distinction to remember
is the difference between those typefaces that have extra decoration attached to
166 letters (serif) and those that do not (sans-serif). To illustrate this, look at the fol-
lowing sentences in different fonts.
 This sentence is written in Times New Roman 8
This sentence is written in Arial. Effective design
For many readers, the sentence written in Arial is easier to access. and visual aids

A further important type style is italic – this is not a separate typeface but a
sloping version of the basic font. It has several main uses:

• to emphasise a particular word or phrase.

• to show the name of a book (see the reference list in this book and in most
textbooks)
• to indicate technical terms or foreign words.
• to indicate a quotation.

Type size
Type size is usually measured in “points”, one point being approximately 1/72nd
of an inch. However, this does not mean that different typefaces which are the
same point size will look the same. The points measurement is taken from the
top of a capital letter to the bottom of a lower case letter which extends below
the baseline. But when we look at a typeface we are more inclined to notice its
“x-height” – the distance from the baseline to the top of a lower case letter like
x. The example below shows the difference between two fonts having the same
point size but different x-heights.
This is Times Roman in 12 point.
This is Arial in 12 point.
Despite these differences, we can make reasonable generalisations. Eleven
or twelve point is common for body text, with larger sizes usually used for
headings. Eight or ten point is often used for less important information as
well as the “small print” which you are always advised to read before signing a
document.
Consider your audience before you finally decide on the type size. Bearing in
mind earlier comments around accessibility, we recommend a font size of at least
12 for printed documents. If a document is viewed onscreen, then the reader can
adjust the size of the screen to suit their needs.

Space between lines

This is called leading after the old printing practice of putting extra slices of lead
between lines of metal type to increase spacing. It is measured in points so that
10 on 12 point Times Roman means a 10 point font with two extra points of lead-
ing. A rough rule of thumb is to use leading which is about 20% of the font size
and this is what current software tends to do as the default on body text.
You can see the difference by comparing the last paragraph (with zero lead- 167
ing) to this one where the setting is 1.2. In the next paragraph we have increased
Part 2 it to double the normal setting. Increasing the leading does not necessarily make
Presenting the text easier to read beyond a certain point.
information:
effective You can see the difference in this paragraph where we have put the leading
­methods and
media to 2.0. Increasing the leading does not necessarily make the text easier to read
beyond a certain point.

Alignment
You can align your printing on the left-hand side and/or the right-hand side of the
paper. Traditionally, professionally typeset material has been aligned on both sides.
In the past, this often left uneven gaps between some words as the control of the
space between letters (letterspacing) was not very sophisticated (from a distance,
you can see “rivers” of white space winding down the page). Although this control
of spacing has improved, we recommend that word-processed documents leave a
ragged right margin, as there is some evidence that this improves readability.

Categories of typefaces
There are thousands of different typefaces and there are official classification
systems. For practical everyday purposes, a simpler classification will do and five
main categories are used:

• Serif.
The endings of the letter shapes are decorated in a way which harks back
to the way that letters were carved out of stone in Roman times. Famous
examples of serif type are Times Roman which was designed as a readable
and economical typeface for The Times newspaper in London. The modern
equivalent is the widely available Times New Roman.
• Sans-serif.
The letters are without (sans) serifs. Examples here are Helvetica and Arial
which are recommended where the readership is unknown and may have
dyslexia or be partially sighted.
• Script.
The typeface imitates the letterforms of handwriting.
• Display.
The typeface has been designed for use in displays such as advertising or
posters.
• Symbols.
The alphabet is replaced by symbols. As an example of the practical applica-
tion of a symbol font like Wingdings, we often use the “r” symbol when we
168 create a document which needs a tick box. You can resize the symbols in
exactly the same way you can resize conventional letters.
And which typeface is best? 8
Effective design
This is an almost impossible question to answer. The best one will depend on the and visual aids
context and the audience.
For printed documents, the traditional view was to use serif typefaces for
body text and sans serif for headings. Many graphic designers had very definite
views. For example, McLean stated that one of the “rules” of legibility for con-
tinuous reading was that “Sans-serif type is intrinsically less legible than serifed
type” ((McLean, 1980, page 44). However, thanks to the increased understand-
ing of neurodiversity and the barriers that serif text can pose to dyslexics (e.g.
British Dyslexia Association, 2022), our opinions have shifted. But traditions
still prevail – at the time of writing, academic literature is usually presented
using serif typefaces and online resources will be sans serif.
Many organisations have now adopted sans serif typefaces as standard (even
without any considerations of neurodiversity). They do not seem to have suffered
as a result. We can (and do) get used to a particular typeface over time. Any
intrinsic advantages or disadvantages may be less important than some designers
have argued. Where you have a choice of typeface, this should depend on several
factors:

• the known or potential needs of the reader.

• the purpose of the document.
• what the readers are used to and what they might expect.
• how the document might be used. For example, some fonts are not suit-
able for repeated photocopying or faxing as some of the letter shapes are
too thin.

Page layout and document structure

Document design and page layout should emphasise the structure of the docu-
ment. This can be done in several ways, including the use of headings, number-
ing, and layout.

The use of headings and subheadings

Word-processing software like Microsoft Word or Apple Pages gives you pre-
set styles which you can reformat to your own taste and which provide an easily
identifiable hierarchy of headings:

• Main Heading (Heading 1).

• Subheading (Heading 2). 169
• Sub-Subheading (Heading 3).
Part 2 These guide the reader through the text, identifying the major topic under dis-
Presenting cussion and the various elements that make up that topic, and the relationships
information: between the elements.
effective
­methods and
media Clear numbering
Alongside the use of the variety of headings, the decimal numbering system is used
because it adds to the visual impact when identifying a hierarchy of headings.
1.   Main Heading
1.1  Subheading
1.1.1. Sub-sub-heading
We recommend using no more than three levels for most professional docu-
ments. Excessive numbering and subdivision fragments the document, making
it difficult to read.
You can also use space on the page to further emphasise the hierarchy of head-
ings, as below. One disadvantage that this uses a lot of space on the page.

1. Main Heading in 14 point Arial bold

The text under the main heading is in 12 point Times New Roman
and will be set out like this on the page so that it lines up…

1.1 Subheading in 12 point Arial italic bold

The text under the subheading is in 12 point Times New Roman
and will be set out like this on the page so that it lines up…
1.1.1. Sub-sub-heading in 12 point Times New Roman bold
The text under the sub-sub-heading is in 12 point
Times New Roman and will be set out like this on the
page so that it lines up…

Table 8.1 shows how the three levels of heading have been formatted in this
book:​
This shows how:

• different typefaces distinguish main headings from body text.

• spacing emphasises the hierarchy of headings and subheadings.

Although these applications of spacing and numbering may seem fairly obvious,
they are often ignored or not understood. For example, when James Hartley
asked his undergraduate students (experienced in word-processing) to use space
170 and typographic cues to improve the readability of a short text, they were often
inconsistent or failed to use the full variety of cues.
Table 8.1 Levels of heading 8
Effective design
Typeface Size Characters Spacing and visual aids

Heading 1 BELL GOTHIC 11 pt Black, Before 19.5 pt

Capitalised After 6.5 pt

Heading 2 Bell Gothic 11 pt Black Before 19.5 pt

After 6.5 pt
Heading 3 Bell Gothic Light 11 pt Italic Before 19.5 pt

After 6.5 pt
Body text Perpetua 11 pt Normal Standard line
spacing

Using lists with bullet points

Lists are a simple way of presenting information to make information more
readable. For example, sometimes a sentence becomes long because several
items are governed by the main verb, e.g. When leaving at the end of the
day make sure that: all the windows are closed; the back and side doors are
locked; the burglar alarms are set; and all the lights are switched off, except
the one at the front door.
This sentence can be made more readable just by listing the items:
When leaving at the end of the day please make sure that:
• all windows are closed.
• the back and side doors are locked.
• the burglar alarms are set.
• all lights are switched off, except the one at the front door.
You can also change the style, to focus on what the reader has to do:
When you leave at the end of the day, please make sure that you:
• close all the windows.
• lock the back and side door.
• set the burglar alarms.
• switch off all the lights, except the one at the front door.

Layout and design

Good page layout contributes to ease of reading. Text together with images 171
should be presented in a way that there is a sense of balance on a page. For
Part 2 example, those items that are placed at the top or on the right of a page can easily
Presenting dominate and make a page seem unbalanced – and less easy to read.
information: Both Google Docs and Microsoft Word provide a range of layout options,
effective
­methods and including margin width, paragraph style, paragraph spacing, number of columns
media etc. It is well worth the time to investigate the options available – they can help
you to be more efficient in your production of documents as well as enhanc-
ing their accessibility. However, each organisation will have its house style, or
style dictated by the profession, that needs to be adhered to. Your opportunities
for creativity may be limited – but it is always worth questioning whether the
document design support its purpose. Your readership should always be your top
consideration.

When and how do you need to incorporate

a visual aid into a business document?

The range of visual aids used in professional documents has grown rapidly as a
result of increased access to both software and information. Tables, charts, and
graphs may continue to dominate the presentation of numerical data in formal
documents, but flowcharts, icons, presentations, photographs, infographics, and
maps are increasingly useful.
One of the most respected academic writers on the presentation of statistical
evidence and information design, Edward R. Tufte, argued that good graphics
should “reveal data” (Tufte, 2006). We extend this idea to all the visual aids which
you use in a document. They should not simply display data but they should reveal
its importance and meaning. They should present information which clearly sup-
ports the argument expressed in the text.
Using Vora's (2019) and Knaflic’s (2015) concept of data storytelling, the
visuals have to connect at different levels with the audience as well as present
information. Vora (2019) suggests the impact of storytelling is fourfold:

• release of dopamine improves understanding and retention by improving the

brain’s attentiveness.
• the audience will link their own experiences to points made in the story
(neural coupling).
• patterns in a story appeal to the logical reasoning in the brain.
• an emotional connection can move the information into the long-term mem-
ory which can influence decision-making and action.

172 For a simple illustration of the way that a visual aid can reinforce or start telling
a story, consider Figures 8.2 and 8.3. There is no obvious explanation for the
 8
Effective design
and visual aids

Figure 8.1 Impact of Storytelling

dip in performance in August. A label with short explanation (e.g. department

restructuring) could give readers clues to explain the change.

Deciding which visual aids to use

The following table illustrates main types of visual aid linked to the information that
is being conveyed and their relative advantages. Whatever form of visual representa-
tion you use, you must ensure that the audience of the document can interpret the
information appropriately. This means taking into account whether or not they are
specialists in the subject area, and the purpose of the data presentation.​
We now have access to all these methods to improve the visual quality of
documents. For example, Microsoft Word offers tables, pictures, shapes, icons,
3D models, SmartArt, charts, and screenshots/screen clippings which you can
add to the document (as well as choices for word art and document design). In
addition, websites such as Canva​.c​om offer professional-looking infographics for
online and paper-based use.
Presentation software, such as PowerPoint and Google Slides, has also experi-
enced a shift in the way that it is used. PowerPoint is still primarily used in face-to-
face or online meetings to complement what is being said. However, because of the
benefits of the quality of presentation – particularly around data – that were widely
recognised during pandemic lockdowns, the PowerPoint presentation is now often
used as a “pseudo-document”. The traditional report that may have been produced
for a meeting is replaced by the PowerPoint presentation with all the necessary data
included and key points suitably highlighted.

Tables, charts, and graphs

Vora (2019) and Knaflic (2015) use the concept of data storytelling to underpin
the potential of data presentation. Effective data presentation should enable good
decision-making, either because the data shows that a particular set of actions is 173
working (or not) or because the data raises questions that need to be pursued.
Part 2 Table 8.2 
Visual representations of information (adapted from Peterson, 2019)
Presenting
information: Information to Convey Visual Type Advantages
effective
­methods and
media Numbers, percentages, Tables, charts, graphs Data can be summarised
categories Easier to access by
non-specialists
Can show trends and
correlations between data
sets
Processes Flow charts, diagrams, Information can be
mindmaps relationships communicated more
between items, e.g. efficiently than text
organisational charts, schema
Geographic data Maps Provides an indication of
area, distance between
locations, particular
characteristics of a specific
location
Chronological or Number lists, or timeline Provides a clear
prioritised lists representation of sequence
or level of significance
Non-chronological lists Bulleted lists Easier to read than a body
of text
Significance of the Icons Easy to recognise and
information, or type of respond to
information

Consider the following example of three representations of sales and profits data
for two departments across a calendar year.
Before you read on, look at Table 8.3 and Figures 8.2 and 8.3 and answer the
following questions:

• what is the main message the writer is trying to get across?

• which of these figures presents the data most effectively from your point of view?
• who would need this information and what questions would they be likely
to ask?

Our interpretation
Both departments overall have the same overall sales and profits but what is the
relationship between these two variables? Table 8.3 provides the data, but it is
174 difficult to see the pattern across the year, or the relative profitability of the two
departments. The writer is making the reader do all the work!
Table 8.3 Sales and profit data (tables) 8
Effective design
Department A Department B and visual aids

Month Sales (£) Profits (£) Sales (£) Profits (£)

January 914 100 746 100

February 814 80 677 80
March 874 130 1274 130
April 877 90 711 90
May 926 110 781 110
June 810 140 884 140
July 613 60 608 60
August 310 40 539 40
September 913 120 815 120
October 726 70 642 70
November 474 50 573 50
December 600 85 580 55

(Datasets adapted from Tufte, 1983, page 13–14)

Figures 8.2 and 8.3 are both commonly used and provide a clearer insight into
the pattern of sales over the year indicating the variations between months. This
could support planning for the following year. For Department A the chart may
be indicating when more should be spent on marketing (July and November) to
even out sales per month – or it may be that staff are more likely to take holidays
in July and August and therefore less available to make those sales!
A scattergram shows the association between two variables. Figure 8.4 shows
the association between sales and profitability. For Department A data the asso-
ciation between sales and profitability is inconsistent, where sales of 800 units
can yield either £80 or £140 of profit. The reasons for this may be well known
by management, but if they are not then they need to investigate this further. In
contrast, there appears to be a more consistent correlation between sales and
profitability for Department B – although there are signs of diminishing returns
at about 1000 units of sales. It may be that management feel that there continues
to be a benefit to the organisation to have sales above 1000 units, or it may look
to find ways to address that growing disadvantage of increased sales.
Whatever the correct interpretation, the important general lesson is that
writers should clarify their main points and should make sure that these points 175
come across clearly in the accompanying text.
Part 2
Presenting
information:
effective
­methods and
media

Figure 8.2 Sales and profits data (bar charts)

Avoiding bias and misrepresentation in tables and charts

Graphs and charts can be used to deceive, to present the best picture possible or
to hide unwanted news. Sometimes the line between honest emphasis and deceit
is not always clear. In the final analysis, the author's or the professional illustra-
tor's professional integrity is the best guide. The following are some of the meth-
ods that can, intentionally or unintentionally deceive an audience.

Suppressing the zero

The zero on a graph is sometimes suppressed to save space or to emphasise a
small but significant change. In Figure 8.5 there is no indication on the graph that
the zero has been suppressed. The graph suggests that sales are rising much more
steeply than if the full range was included, as in Figure 8.6.

Mixing the scales

Often two- or three-dimensional presentations are used in pictographs, but the
scale used is linear. Spreadsheets like Microsoft Excel offer you a range of 3-D
176 presentations, but this can lead to distortion. The data in Figure 8.7 is turned into
three-dimensional cylinders in Figure 8.8 to suggest that the difference between
 8
Effective design
and visual aids

Figure 8.3 Sales and profits data (line charts)

sales is much bigger than it actually is. Tufte suggests that you can quantify the
distortion by working out what he calls the “lie factor” which is:

Size of effect shown in graphic

Size of effect in data

This formula is taken from Tufte, 1983, Chapter 2, which also contains many
more examples of distorted graphics.

Unjustified line fitting

Where the data shows a considerable scatter writers can be tempted to fit a line
or curve which supports their favoured hypothesis. Even using sophisticated
curve-fitting methods, the result will not necessarily be the best representation
of the data. Ideally, any relationship derived from the data should be used to plan
and test further observations. This is, however, not always possible. Figure 8.9 177
shows that you can fit both a straight line (AB) and a curve (CD) to the data.
Part 2
Presenting
information:
effective
­methods and
media

Figure 8.4 Sales and profits data (scattergrams)

Department sales
80
Sales in thousands

75

70

65

60

55
1 2 3 4 5 6
Period

Figure 8.5 Line graph with suppressed zero: the effect is to exaggerate the
change

178
 Department sales 8
100 Effective design
and visual aids
Sales in thousands

80

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Period

Figure 8.6 Line graph without suppressed zero

Department sales
1,500
Sales in thousands

1,000

500

0
1 2 3 4
Quarters this year

Figure 8.7 Sales data expressed as a bar chart

Department sales

1,500
Sales in thousands

1,000

500

0
1 2 3 4
Quarters this year

Figure 8.8 Sales data in 3-D cylinders: the effect is to exaggerate the difference
179
Part 2 B
Presenting
information: 10
effective 9
­methods and D
media 8
7
Variable A

6
5
4
3
2 A
C
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Variable B

Figure 8.9 Fitting a line

BOX 8.2
Using graphs and charts – practical guidelines
If you intend to produce your own graphs, we suggest the following practical
guidelines.

■ keep the graph simple. Remember the purpose and the audience; provide no
more detail than your purpose requires and your audience needs.
■ place titles either above or below the graph but be consistent throughout.
■ ensure that your title accurately reflects the contents of the graphic. Words
like “Graph of…” or “Diagram of…” are unnecessary as this should be
apparent. An explanatory note below the title can help the reader.
■ see that your graph has some logic behind its presentation, e.g. largest
to smallest, most important to least important, by provinces, or by time
sequence. Use the ordering of information to emphasise the point you wish
to make.
■ make the illustration attractive. It should provide a welcome break from the
written word and not be a distraction or puzzle.
■ use specific devices to help your reader and to emphasise important points.
Examples of such devices are: colour, arrows, heavy lines, distinctive plot-
ting points, annotation, and keys.
180 ■ avoid bias in presenting information.
 8
■ make sure that axes are clearly labelled and that units are unambiguous Effective design
and consistent. and visual aids

■ wherever possible, use horizontal labelling in preference to vertical labelling.

■ where possible, label line graphs directly rather than using a key, but do use
a key if the graph becomes cluttered.
■ do not place a graphic before its first reference in the text but place it as
soon as practicable thereafter.
■ do not just repeat information from graphs in the text but rather use the text
for comment, explanation or interpretation.
■ for scales use multiples or submultiples of 2, 5, or 10.

Tables
With small amounts of numerical information, simple tables can be constructed
within Microsoft Word or Google Docs etc. This sort of table can be incorpo-
rated into the main text if removing it from the text would result in a loss of
meaning of the information.
Where you have more extensive datasets, spreadsheets such as Microsoft
Excel, Google Sheets, or industry-specific software, offer increased flexibil-
ity in both the management and the presentation of the data. Specialists who
work with large datasets may be comfortable using and reading spreadsheets.
However, others who are less expert will usually require the data to be presented
in more visual ways.
Where a formal table is needed in a document, the following characteristics
need to be taken into account:

• it appears in the text in a convenient position after its first mention in the
text.
• it has an identifying number.
• it has a clear and informative title.
• the data is arranged in some rational order.
• columns should have clear descriptive headings.
• where appropriate, the units of measurement should be stated.
• important data should be emphasised by its position in the table.

When including data it is worth considering whether or not to include the

full table in the body of the text, or as an appendix. If there is more than
one audience for the data, it may be that the key elements are provided in the
body of the text for non-specialists with full datasets available as an appen- 181
dices for specialists.
Part 2 Unfortunately, many complex formal tables you will find in business docu-
Presenting ments are not well organised. We can still find examples of the misuse of tables,
information: as criticised by Ehrenberg (1977). He offered the four principles for presenting
effective
­methods and data in tables which are still relevant and useful:
media
• round off numbers so that readers can make comparisons quickly and easily.
• include averages for each set of data so that readers can quickly work out the
spread of values.
• organise your table so the reader compares the columns. Figures in columns
are easier to compare than figures in rows.
• order rows in columns by size with larger numbers placed at the top. Again
this helps the reader compare the data.

BOX 8.3: USING EHRENBERG’S PRINCIPLES

Consider the following table comparing the composition of the workforce in
the ABC Corporation over the last few decades. All figures are in thousands
employed:​

Table 8.4 Trend table which makes the reader do all the work

1980 1990 2000 2010

Total 201.66 342.54 410.44 567.21

Males 150.64 278.50 323.22 441.16
Females 51.02 64.04 87.22 126.05

After revising the table using Ehrenberg’s principles, it is much easier to see
patterns in the data.​

Table 8.5 Trend table which tries to analyse the data

Males Females Total

2010 441 126 567

2000 323 87 410
1990 278 64 342
1980 151 51 202
Average 298 82 380
182
 8
Of course, we always need to question the purpose of a table like this. If the Effective design
real purpose is to investigate any gender bias in ABC’s employment practices, and visual aids
then this should be the focus of the table:​

Table 8.6 Trend table which highlights the key statistic

Total Female numbers Females as % of workforce

2010 567 126 22

2000 410 87 21
1990 342 64 19
1970 202 51 25
Average 380 82 22

Flowcharts, diagrams, schema

As we reimagine the presentation of numerical data through the concept of sto-
rytelling, we must also consider other forms of data presentation to enhance
accessibility and impact. Figure 8.10 explains the recruitment and s­election
process as a flowchart. While this could be produced in bullet points, or
­sentences/­paragraphs, the image makes information easier to follow and clarifies
the sequence of actions needed after the decision to recruit new staff.​
New and online software is having impact on the range of documents. Figure
8.11 is an infographic for students on a Postgraduate Certificate in HE. Previously
presented as text within a handbook. This revision is easier to read and emotion-
ally more engaging. Students are more likely to retain the information (remem-
bering the impact of data storytelling in Figure 8.1, after Vora, 2019).​
We are now seeing growing use of AI-powered image software (e.g. DALL-E,
Midjourney), where images are generated by text prompts. This software is
developing very rapidly – see the website for more updates.

Maps
The traditional view of maps is that it provides geographic information and apart
from planning purposes would rarely be used. However, there are business rea-
sons for the use of maps, such as identifying where and how marketing budgets
should be spent. For example, a postcode review of the client list of a small gym
in the UK revealed that the majority of members came from PR9, divided into
183
four areas (see Table 8.7).​
Part 2
Presenting
information:
effective
­methods and
media

Figure 8.10 Recruitment and Selection process

Using www.streetlist.co.uk, the representation of PR9 7 (Figure 8.12) was
much easier for the management team to work with when considering a market-
ing strategy. ​

Icons
Icons are often used in text to draw attention to the various elements within the
text. For example, throughout this book icons have been used to draw attention
to key sections within chapters, as in Table 8.8. ​

Checking the audience and purpose

Your choice of data presentation depends upon both your audience and the intended
184 purpose of the document. As data analysis and interpretation is not widely taught
in our education systems the simpler and more pictorial the device the better. Of
 8
Effective design
and visual aids

Figure 8.11 PG Certificate in HE Learning Journey

185
Part 2 Table 8.7 
Geographical spread of members
Presenting within one postcode district
information:
effective
PR9 0 10
­methods and
media PR9 7 45
PR9 8 20
PR9 9 35

Figure 8.12 Map of PR9

Table 8.8 Use of icons

Icon Purpose

Key image highlights the key points at the end of each chapter

Book image used to highlight the boxes

course, many professions such as engineers, economists and architects do have their
own technical language and conventions which can be used where appropriate.
In general, you have more information available than can be used in the visual
186 aid, so the selection and processing of information is essential. Where the infor-
mation is numerical, you need to use a form which matches the purpose and the
needs of the audience. You can then decide the content of the message using the 8
content criteria we have already discussed in this book: Effective design
and visual aids
• accuracy.
• brevity.
• clarity.
• emphasis.

Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion

As well as recognising the advantages of presenting numbers, processes etc. in
visual formats, we need to check to what other messages are included that may
undermine the message. For example, many illustrations in documents continue
to propagate stereotypes – even if this is unintended.
We all carry inherent bias, even if that is over which football team we support
– and recognising these will help us to consider what overt and subliminal mes-
sages we send in our work. Graphics which treat any part of the audience without
respect for their essential human dignity are unacceptable. This is particularly
the case where humour is used to make a point. A more subtle form of incorrect
attitude to audience is stereotyping, for example where managers are portrayed
as white and male and workers as black.

Presentations

Whilst traditional style documents continue to be the norm in many business

contexts, such as the Annual Reports and Accounts, instruction manuals, com-
mittee documents, investment reports etc. there are opportunities to present
data more clearly using presentation software, such as PowerPoint and canva​.c​
om in these same contexts. In Chapter 13, we look at this in more detail.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ understanding the audience and purpose of the document lies at the heart
of good document design.
■ psychological research supports designers’ views that the “look” of a docu-
ment influences how it is read. But despite the importance of good design,
many organisations use traditional and dated conventions.
■ a well-designed document is accessible to all potential readers, is easy to
understand and will enable good decision-making – as well as presenting the
author as professional and competent. 187
Part 2
Presenting ■ writers should consider basic technical aspects of typefaces and page lay-
information: out so they can make sensible design choices, such as using page layout to
effective
­methods and emphasise the structure of the document.
media ■ good visual aids should enhance engagement with the data. It is important
to highlight the main points you wish to make in whatever visual aid you
decide to use.
■ there are three main types of visual aids you can use in documents – visual
representations of numerical data (including tables, charts, and graphs),
process presentations like diagrams, flow charts etc. and pictorial presenta-
tions like photographs and maps. These sit alongside bullet points and num-
ber lists which also alter the visual presentation of material.
■ graphic devices (graphs and charts) can be used to deceive. You must recog-
nise the potential for misrepresentation and avoid it in your own documents.
■ new forms of data visualisation, such as infographics and presentations are
changing the way documents are being developed and in some cases replac-
ing traditional documents in professional and business processes.

References
British Dyslexia Association 2022 Dyslexia friendly style guide Available from British Dyslexia
Association (bdadyslexia​.org​​.uk)
Ehrenberg, A.S.C. (1977) Rudiments of numeracy. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A 140:
227–297.
Hartley, J. (1994) Designing Instructional Text, 3rd edition. London: Kogan Page.
Knaflic, C.N. (2015) Storytelling with Data: A Data Visualization Guide for Business Professionals.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Last, S. (2019) Technical Writing Essentials. University of Victoria. British Columbia. Canada.
Available from https://onl​inea​cade​micc​ommunity​.uvic​.ca​/sch​olar​lyco​mmun​ications​/2019​
/08​/07​/technical​-writing​-essentials/
Lichty, T. (1989) Design Principles for Desktop Publishers. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Peterson, K. (2019) Document design – Technical and professional writing genres. In Beilfuss,
M., Bettes, S. and Peterson, K. (eds) Technical and Professional Writing Genres. A Study in Theory
and Practice. https://open​.library​.okstate​.edu​/tec​h nic​alan​dpro​fess​iona​lwriting/.
Tufte, E.R. (1983) The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Tufte, E.R. (2006) Beautiful Evidence. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Vora, S. (2019) The Power of Data Storytelling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications India Pvt.

188
Chapter 9
Effective documents

Introduction

This chapter discusses the range and type of documents we need in organisa-
tions, both now and in the immediate future, and considers the ways in which we
engage in the online world.
Whilst there are different demands on the writer in print and online docu-
ments, there are key principles which apply to all contexts, including:

• knowing your audience.

• knowing your topic/subject matter.
• having a clear rationale for each document.

We begin by summarising principles of effective communication from the previ-

ous three chapters – structure, style, and design – organised in checklists you can
use with your own documents.
We then apply these principles to common professional documents, ranging
from the informal to the official, and from the individual to the corporate. Many
print documents have well-established conventions that can be adapted and trans-
ferred between organisations. In the online world, expectations continue to be
in flux. These expectations vary considerably, both in the range of media used
across any single organisation and in the ways technology is embraced in the
development and use of documents.
This is part of the larger debate about the future of work post-pandemic
which we introduced in Chapter 4 and return to in Chapter 15. The nature of
documents and professional communication will be influenced by the ways
that organisations resolve the balance between working in the office or at
home/virtually.

189

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-12
Part 2
Presenting
information: OBJECTIVES
effective
­methods and This chapter will:
media
■ summarise main principles which we need to consider when preparing all
professional and business documents.
■ apply these principles to main forms of professional and business documents.
■ identify particular principles to consider when writing online.

Underpinning principles

To identify principles that help us prepare effective professional and business

documents, we start by highlighting key points from the last three chapters, sug-
gesting key questions you can apply to your own documents, and adding a few
comments from our experience.

Planning and structure​

Style​
Layout and visual aids​

Table 9.1 
Planning and organisation

Principle Key question Our comments

Planning Do you have a clear plan? This does not mean that you have to
write in a rigid sequence of steps.
Plans should be flexible and regularly
reviewed.
Objectives Do you have clear objectives Phrasing your objectives helps you decide
for the document? what information you need to provide.
Audience Have you considered the A specific document can have several
particular needs of your different audiences. Can you satisfy all
audiences? of them?
Organisation Have you organised the Your audience will find the information
information in a way which easier to understand and remember if it
makes sense to the audience? is clearly organised.
Remember the three basic principles:
chunking, ordering, and signposting.
Structure Does the document structure Your audiences need to recognise what
190
support your objectives? you are trying to achieve.
Table 9.2 Quality of communication 9
Effective
Principle Key question Our comments documents

Expression Does your document express We need to evaluate writing using

the appropriate tone for the both content and tone criteria.
audience and context?
“Plain language” Have you used clear, plain This argues for an appropriate style
language? of language and not the same simple
style for every document.
We can use plain language
approaches to evaluate and improve
our expression.
Punctuation Does the punctuation help Follow standard conventions on
your audience to understand punctuation while remembering
what you mean? that the rules are both flexible and
changing

Table 9.3 Design

Principle Key question Our comments

Overall image What “image” does your The “look” of a document influences how
document convey? it is read.
Accessibility Is your document fully Every document must be accessible to all
accessible? readers.
Good design Is your document A well-designed document has three main
well-designed? advantages: it makes a good impression on
the reader by:
• suggesting a professional and competent
approach.
• making the content or information
easier to understand.
• enabling the reader to respond
appropriately.
Page layout and Does the page layout You should understand basic aspects of
design and use of typefaces typefaces and page layout/design and use
convey a them to make sensible design choices.
Visual aids Do your visual aids Good visual aids should support the
convey clear messages? purpose of the document. If it is data, then
the form of presentation should enable
good decisions to be made.
Graphics can be used to deceive. Avoid 191
misrepresentation in your documents.
Part 2 Other general considerations:
Presenting
information:
effective
You are the organisation!
­methods and
media
Whenever you write to another person, you are representing not only yourself
but your organisation or your part of it. If you create a poor impression then both
you and the organisation suffers.

Format, image, and house style

Professional documents project your image. Large organisations usually employ
professional designers to design their corporate stationery. The current trend
is towards simple stationery, but you may have to work within a certain format
dictated by the house style.

Legal and statutory requirements

There are certain legal requirements which obviously vary from country to coun-
try. For example, in South Africa, letters must carry the company's registration
number and the names of its directors. How this information appears depends on
the image that the organisation is trying to project.

Document designs reflect organisational

structures and culture

Susan Katz’s suggestion continues to hold true:

every organization, and every department within an organization has its own conception
of what makes ‘good writing.’
(Katz, 1998, page 109)

She found that some managers very carefully coached new staff in their writ-
ing, explaining the importance and purpose of documents, providing models
of good practice, and commenting on drafts and outlines. Some managers
were less diligent. Support and training can be very uneven as these four
different examples illustrate:
“My own introduction to business writing was ‘ghost writing’ letters for senior partners
in the organisation – where each partner had a distinctive style of their own”.

“As Roger’s new manager, I wanted to give him the best performance appraisal I could.
192 I’d received some negative feedback on his reports for one committee. When I tried to
discuss that with him, he reacted very strongly – ‘I’ve been doing those reports for two
 years now, ever since I came here, and nobody have ever commented on them before.’” 9
Unfortunately. I discovered afterwards that this was true. No-one had raised issues with Effective
Roger – they had just grumbled to themselves”. documents

“As Chris undertook a new role as secretary for some of the governance committees
of the organisation, he was mentored by a more experienced committee secretary
known for their good practice. This provided a smooth introduction to the demands
of the role and minimised potential mistakes”.

“Being responsible for the induction of new professionals to the business, Jordan had to
respond to complaints regarding the style of emails being sent by a new colleague which
had been considered too abrupt. This was a shock to the new colleague who had intended
the emails to be clear rather than rude. Jordan was aware that other organisations deliv-
ered ‘netiquette’ training for staff which included policy on the writing of emails so there
was a common understanding of good practice”.

Changing the design of documents can also change relationships between staff
and their perceptions of their roles. So, we cannot assume that making docu-
ments easier to read and understand will automatically make the organisation
more effective, as we said earlier.

Increasing reader engagement

At the height of the pandemic, much was written about the quality of communi-
cation both within businesses and between businesses and external stakeholders
in response to the continual state of change.
Key lessons have been learnt – emphasising the need for clarity, cred-
ibility and empathy to maintain engagement and motivation (Mayfield and
Mayfield, 2022). Continual change meant that professional communication
had to be agile to ensure that messages would be heard and responded to
appropriately. More importantly, clarity, credibility, and empathy do not
exist independently. Where a message is delivered clearly, and the author
has credibility, then this is in itself empathetic because it generates a sense of
security for the recipient.
As we think back to messages around mask-wearing/social distancing etc.,
we can reflect on our own feelings of security during this time. During the first
lockdown in the UK, the message to stay at home was widely adopted reflecting
the clarity of the message, the credibility of the experts delivering the message,
and the sense of empathy engendered by the sense of “being in this together”.
However, credibility and empathy was undermined by news of lockdown parties
at the heart of government and it is questionable whether there would be such 193
uniformity in response should the need arise again.
Part 2 In turn, we can see the impact on our productivity and activity when we
Presenting recognise that communication is not just about words on a page. Against this
information: backdrop, the next section provides guidance on some of the key documents that
effective
­methods and are produced by organisations to maximise their effectiveness.
media

Different types of documents

There is no simple answer to the question of which are the most important docu-
ments for a business, although there are plenty of websites that will define a list
of documents that “every business” needs.
For example, Agile CRM (www​.agilecrm​.com) identifies five types of docu-
ments – email, business letters, business reports, transactional documents,
financial reports, and documents (3 Jan 2020).
The list of over 20 documents provided by Indeed (www​.uk​.indeed​.com)
includes contracts, internal regulations (bylaws), employment agreements, busi-
ness plans, financial documents, business reports, minutes, etc.
We focus on those documents that you are likely to encounter in most organi-
sations, especially early in your career, and which reflect our own professional
experience.

Email

Despite the growing use of instant messaging systems such as Teams or Slack, con-
structing an effective email is still a key requirement in most organisations. Ejim
(2022) suggests it “plays an essential role in business communication”. But we are
concerned that many users do not fully appreciate its importance as an “official” docu-
ment, even though it can become a legal document in some circumstances.
Reflecting its 1970s origins, email continues to be viewed as a simple commu-
nication system, albeit with significant sophistication for the passing of informa-
tion and integration with other systems. Perhaps due to its perceived simplicity,
most users receive little formal training or education in its best use. For example,
we have colleagues who are exasperated by what they see as a “lack of courtesy” in
student emails. Some students fail to recognise the expectations of staff who use
email as a semi-formal system within higher education institutions. They write
using textspeak, or occasionally write nothing at all and just send an attachment.
There are some useful guides on both university and college websites but we are
not sure how well they are used (e.g. University of North Carolina).
One main issue is the number of emails that we may have to deal with. Email
194 is so easily accessible on a range of devices that some people find themselves con-
tinually overloaded by work queries. We return to these issues below.
Content, structure, and layout 9
Effective
Emails include a space for the sender, the receiver and the title, with date and documents
timing of sending automatically supplied. The title of the email is very important
and needs to reflect the aim or goal of the email. It should engage the recipient to
increase the chances of getting the intended response.
The key requirement is to simplify the message so that its intent is clear to the
recipient, and they know what their next steps are. The email is not the place for
a long report or extensive piece of writing, although in some circumstances there
may be an attachment to provide further information.
While some of the formalities often expected for other communications are miss-
ing, we still recommend courtesy in the opening and closing of an email. The open-
ing can range from traditional formal openings of “Dear…” to “Hello…” and “Hi…”
etc. with the use of a name, with similar considerations at the close. Increasingly,
electronic/business signatures are used to end an email. These can be personalised
(e.g. by adding a graphic that looks like your normal written signature), but in larger
organisations there will be a house style that determines its look. This may include
the use of a particular logo, name, title, and key elements of the role. Beyond this,
the contents and style of an email will reflect the culture of the organisation or sector
and – to a greater extent than in other documents – the personality of the author.
Currently layout is more restricted than for word-processed documents, but
this is continuously developing so there is now a choice of fonts, bullet points etc.
Hyperlinks can be inserted and a range of attachments can be incorporated. In
addition, emoticons can be added – whether they should be used is debatable and
depends on both the context and your relationship with the recipient.
These developments in email have meant that simplifying the content has
become easier, e.g. by the judicious use of bullet points or numbers. Other tips
for streamlining the message include:

• removing repetition.
• avoiding adverbs, such as really, extremely, and very.
• stating facts, rather than qualifying them with terms such as “I think” or “I
feel”.
• embedding images – not attaching them.
• cropping images so that only necessary detail is showing.
(Adapted from Kelly Stephanie, 2019, 123,126)

Tone: hitting the right note in an email

Email is often used in a way that blurs the distinction between talking, texting,
and writing. However, emails are permanent, can be used as legal records, and
once sent are no longer under the control of the author. For these reasons, the 195
tone of an email can be as important as the subject. As a result, we disagree with
Part 2 one aspect of Kelly’s guidance – we would use “I think” or “I feel” more often in
Presenting emails to soften a message.
information: Another way of creating engagement is to note the context of the recipient of
effective
­methods and the email, e.g. by acknowledging the fact that a colleague is particularly busy when
media sending a request for something to be done within a certain timeframe. Recognising
that there is a person at the other end of the email could be considered as an aspect of
emotional intelligence and is more likely to lead to a successful outcome. There are
situations where emotions should not be entertained, such as when a message is emo-
tive or reflects private relationships between colleagues. Such messages can damage
reputations and relationships – as well as being on permanent record.
Many organisations routinely monitor email use. This is partly due to legal
reasons. Another reason is because of concerns about staff “wasting time” on per-
sonal concerns. One of our colleagues was fired from a temporary job when his
employer noted that he used his company email to follow up another job advert.
As we said earlier, knowing your audience, the purpose of the email, and
the culture(s) of the organisation or sector will make the difference between
whether or not an email is received well and acted upon. For example, within
some parts of the legal profession, formality of communication has continued to
be the norm, even in emails.
Reflecting on how well you know your audience can also prevent the confu-
sion or loss of reputation that may arise as a result of false assumptions of what
the recipient understands or expects, such as with the use of abbreviations, col-
loquialisms, poor phrasing or typos (i.e. misspelt words), or clumsy phrasing.

BOX 9.1 HITTING THE RIGHT NOTE IN AN EMAIL

Imagine you are the owner of a small software company and you receive an email
from one of the industry’s most well-known and pioneering characters with the
following subject line “Get together?”
Do you:

1. email back immediately to suggest a meeting?

2. ring him up or text him immediately?
3. email him to say you are busy at the moment and will get back to him?

And what style would you use in your message?

a) formal and very “business-like”?

b) formal but not too ‘business-like?
196 c) casual and chatty?
 9
If you look up the detailed correspondence between Mark Zuckerberg of Effective
Facebook and WhatsApp then you might be surprised at the casual tone of the documents
messages – 3 and c in the above lists – especially when you realise that this led
to a $19 billion dollar business deal. But the style was right for the context and
established the right framework for the relationship.

BOX 9.2 EMAIL FATIGUE

The combination of the volume of email that hits our inboxes, together with
the ability to access email on multiple devices, has led to increasing levels of
stress – “email fatigue” (Mittal, 2022) – that sense of being overwhelmed by
both the number of emails and the amount of information that we are expected
to manage.
The benefits of email are widely recognised, such as increased information
sharing across different locations and asynchronously. However, there are also
disadvantages, such as the disruption to workflow, decreased engagement during
tasks, and the blurring of work and non-work boundaries.The combination of these
factors has led to an increase in employee fatigue and burnout and has led some
countries to legislate for employers to uphold their employees’ rights to disconnect
from the workplace (e.g. in France, Germany and Spain) (Steffensen et al., 2022).

Managing work boundaries

The issue of boundaries between work and non-work is more complex than it
might first appear, particularly with the increased flexibility that came with
working from home during Covid. While some individuals used this to man-
age their own time and emailed at times convenient to them, there was unin-
tended impact on colleagues who felt that they needed to mimic the availability
at either end of the normal working day – or on changing clients’ expectations of
responses in the early morning or evenings.
There are some practical solutions (or at least things you can do to minimise
the problems). You need to choose solutions which suit your working practice:

• some time management texts recommend only answering emails at particu-

lar points in the day, say at the beginning and end, so that you do not get
continually distracted during the day.
• how often do you read any given email? Can you commit to only reading 197
emails once and deciding what to do with them there and then?
Part 2 • using some form of filtering which automatically sorts incoming email and
Presenting eliminates particular forms of message.
information: • schedule your emails to be sent only during normal working hours irrespec-
effective
­methods and tive of when you choose to write them.
media
Spam, hacking, abuse
As well as the increase in genuine messages, there has been the growth of spam and
hacking. Every organisation needs appropriate protection and filtering in the system.
Even then, you are likely to receive daily messages which are suspect but which can
look surprisingly authentic. It is always worth taking a few precautions:

• never open an attachment unless you are confident that the email is genuine.
• check the sender’s address even if the message looks authentic.

As long ago as the 1990s it was recognised that emails could harbour abuse.
For example, Hargie et al. (1999, page 182) reported one survey where over
half of email users claimed to have “received abusive e-mails…which irreparably
damaged working relationships”. Over half of these came from their managers
and were much more likely to be written by men than women (five times more
likely, according to this study). Much of the debate around the causes of this type
of abuse continues and is not only about the use of email but across all types of
social media. There is no clear answer to this. However, the solution is for us to
ensure that we are not the perpetrators of that abuse and to support those who
experience and report it.

What is your individual style?

Individuals do develop their own style of writing emails. This covers such things
as how you express politeness, how you use short sentences and abbreviations,
and your use of what linguists call metalanguage, where you use language to com-
ment on itself as in the phrase “can I ask when the minutes will be distributed?”
Your style should be appropriate to your audience. Reviewing our own use of
email, we noticed how our style varies from very conversational with close col-
leagues to a more impersonal style in messages which may reach a large group.
You also need to consider your organisational culture. See Box 8.1. for an inter-
esting example of matching your style to the other person.

Reports

198 A report is an official or formal statement, often made after research or an inves-
tigation and usually made to your immediate line manager, or to a working group
Table 9.4 Audience analysis 9
Effective
Your Definition documents
audience

The primary As a report aims to achieve action, these are people who have the
audience authority to act on the recommendations. This may be a single person,
such as a general manager, or a group, such as a committee or even the
board of directors.
Key parts of the report (especially the executive summary, conclusions,
and recommendations) should be targeted specifically at this primary
audience.
The secondary Few decision-makers act entirely on their own; they seek advice from
audience departments and specialists. This group of advisers is the secondary
audience, which often has limited or special interests.
The tertiary If the recommendations of a report are approved, then it may
audience be distributed to further readers who have to implement the
recommendations. They will need details which were not necessary for
decision making, so make sure these are covered in the appendices.
And other There may be a fourth category of reader who, for policy reasons, “need
readers to know” (often senior staff in other parts of the organisation).
Or there may be people at a later date who find the report useful for
similar investigations.

or committee. The audience(s) may be either internal or external to the organ-

isation, or, on rare occasions, both. The audience may not share the writer’s
expertise.

Analysing the audiences

The structure and content of any report must meet the needs of up to four dis-
tinct categories of audience, as outlined in Table 9.4.​

Executive Summary
The purpose of this is to allow readers to engage with the main points quickly
and decide if they need to read the rest of the report, or specific sections. Its
role is to state the objective(s), the findings or supporting evidence, and the next
steps. Getting this section right is crucial for the report to achieve its aim.

Types of report

Whilst you can find a wide range of “types of report” on the internet, these three 199
main categories cover most of the variation you will find in practice:
Part 2 • form reports.
Presenting • short reports.
information: • long formal reports and proposals.
effective
­methods and
media
Form reports – forms and questionnaires
These share important features, which are to:

• compile specific information from a variety of respondents.

• collect information which can then be collated, analysed, and interpreted.

Form reports are regular and standardised, such as production reports, sales
reports, accident reports, progress reports, etc. There are definite advantages in
having standardised forms for these:

• the same information is in the same place each time.

• we can check that all the required information is submitted.

Forms and form reports are increasingly online so that the information is fed
directly into the organisation’s information systems. This can also lead to direct
action if the system is set up for it.
Designing forms and questionnaires requires high levels of skill. It is all too
easy to create ambiguous or misleading questions and collect data which is effec-
tively useless.

Short reports
These are internal reports, usually less than five pages, which do not require all
the formalities of long reports. They often have simple subsections, such as:

• introduction.
• investigation.
• conclusion.

Descriptive reports of this sort are usually intended to supply information, rather
than recommend specific action. In terms of effective style and structure, we
echo what is said about memos, emails, and letters, emphasising the importance
of informative headings and subheadings to guide the reader through the text.

Long formal reports and proposals

Long reports deal with a complex investigation or issue, often addressed to a
200 number of different audiences. To cater for different audiences and to provide
a logical structure, reports are subdivided into sections with distinct functions.
 A complete investigation (from problem definition through to recommenda- 9
tions) requires a logical sequence of actions, which are reflected in this sectional Effective
structure. documents

Proposals might be for a new company or departmental initiative. These have

a similar format to reports but use some sections differently.

Objectives
Writing a report is easier if you have a clear objective, i.e. identifying the pur-
pose and expressing this clearly at the start of the document. For example, we
suggest two parts to the opening sentence(s):

• the first part (“the aim of this report is to…”) expresses the report’s immedi-
ate aim.
• the second part (“so that…”) looks to the future. What benefit, payoff, or
actions do you see as a result of the report?

Having a clear view of the objective is especially important with complicated

reports which involve a lot of preparation. Not only does this make it clearer for
the audience, it is a useful way of confirming that it meets the needs of the person
or organisation that commissioned the report.

Structure and report sections

One large consulting company we know adopts a “pyramid reporting” approach
as a way of engaging its clients with both the detail and the “big picture” aspects
of its reports. It borrows a format from the world of journalism, where the head-
line presents the big picture – and the reason for reading on – the introductory
paragraph provides the purpose of the article as a succinct summary and the
remainder of the article provides the detail.
The most typical report structure is an expansion of the begin-middle-end
structure we have come across before, as in the following table. See our website
for a more detailed description of each section and other links to useful guidance
on the web.
Not all reports will contain all these sections – how they are subdivided
depends on the contents and the audience requirements. Table 9.5 gives a few
variations to meet specific needs. The important principle is to choose a struc-
ture which supports your objectives and which readers will follow easily. For
example, many writers advocate the SPQR approach:

S = the situation (this company is the leading producer of grommits)

P = the problem or problems which have arisen (sales of grommits are falling)
Q = the question which arises in the reader’s mind (how can we restore grom- 201
mit sales?)
Part 2 Table 9.5 Typical outline report structure
Presenting
information: Report structure Report sections
effective
­methods and
media Begin Introduction • title page.
• synopsis or summary.
• contents list.
• introduction.
Middle Main Body • methods of investigation.
• results.
• discussion of results.
End Conclusions and • conclusions.
Recommendations • recommendations.
• appendices.

Table 9.6 Examples of different specific report structures

Report which Report which Proposal which

summarises the results investigates three recommends that
of an investigation to possible solutions to a the department or
arrive at a conclusion: specified problem and organisation adopts new
“the new manufacturing recommends the best working practices (e.g.
process does/does not course of action adopts new computer
meet Health and Safety system)
standards”

• Title page • Title page • Title page

• Title • Title • Title
• Summary • Summary • Summary
• Contents list • Contents list • Contents list
• Introduction • Introduction (which • Introduction
• Investigation, which specifies the problem) • Analysis of present
comprises • Solution 1 working practices
• method of • advantages • problem 1
information gathering • disadvantages • problem 2
• results • Solution 2 • and so on
• discussion • advantages • How a new system would
• Conclusion • disadvantages deal with these problems
• Appendices (e.g. detailed • Solution 3 • advantages
test results) • advantages • disadvantages
• disadvantages • Conclusion and
• Conclusion Recommendation
• Recommendations • Appendices
• Appendices
202
R = response (solutions and recommendations, which may of course challenge 9
assumptions behind the original question. For example, it may be impossible Effective
to revive grommit sales as this technology is in long-term decline – what documents

should the organisation do about this?)​

Whatever the final structure in terms of headings and subheadings, it is essential

that this reflects the structure of your argument. As we said in Chapter 8, visual aids
can be used to present or support an argument as well as improving engagement.

Report style

All the general issues of language style we have discussed previously are relevant,
but there are two issues which are worth emphasising:

Style and organisational structure

A particular language style can reflect deep-rooted organisational attitudes
which may be difficult to change. For example, some traditional conventions of
formal reports, like avoiding the first person and using the passive voice, were
justified by the claim that this writing style was more “accurate” or “objective”.
Some organisations still insist on some of these conventions.
However, adopting this strategy can lead to tortuous expressions which
can be vague or misleading. The best practical solution is to make your
reports compatible with the organisational house style and avoid any sentence
constructions which can confuse. Further suggestions include using specific
and concrete terms rather than general and abstract terms. For example,
“the function of allocation and distribution of revenue will be performed by
the Business Development Department” is improved by simplifying the state-
ment to “the Business Development Department will allocate and distribute
the revenue”.

Letters

Business letters have a long history. Their main advantages are that they provide
a permanent record of what is said and can be referred to easily. On the other
hand, letters are relatively expensive – they have to be composed carefully, and
feedback may be slow or non-existent. For these reasons, the use of letters has
been overtaken by email. However, there are still individuals (external to busi-
ness) who do not use email and there are situations when hard copy written doc-
umentation is needed, for example where an individual needs proof of address 203
for identification purposes.
Part 2 Standard and circular letters
Presenting
information: There are situations where a letter is written and sent by email to a closed group
effective of recipients, particularly common within the public sector. This includes the
­methods and
media
advice given to schools throughout the lockdowns – when schools were still
open. A circular letter also refers to flyers promoting social events. The logic
of a circular letter is that everyone receives exactly the same information and at
much the same time. In practice, this may have unanticipated consequences. For
example, consider the following message in a circular letter from the relatively
new general manager of a large multi-site organisation:
From September to December this year, we shall be holding consultations with all
staff on the Greenfield site to consider proposals to amalgamate the departments
on that site.
Many staff on the Greenfield site received this news by word of mouth. But the
meaning of the grapevine message was more definite than the written message:
“The new general manager has decided to amalgamate the departments on that
site”. This interpretation was strongly justified by its advocates. They pointed to
several clues to management’s “real intentions”:

• the way that the circular had been announced, out of the blue, and just before
the annual holiday period.
• the fact that the current department managers were completely unprepared
for it.
• the “fact” that the new general manager obviously wanted to establish her
authority.

The important principle here is that a message which is designed to reach and
mean the same for everyone (like circular letters) must take account of the con-
text and anticipate different interpretations. In the last example, some of the
problems could have been avoided, at least in part, by briefing department man-
agers and by issuing the circular after the holiday period.
But is a printed circular the best method for this sort of message?
Would an email have been greeted with more or less suspicion?
That depends on the history and culture of the organisation. For example,
in a large distributed organisation, why not organise a webinar led by the senior
manager making the announcement with opportunities for staff to raise ques-
tions and receive immediate answers?

Style in individual letters

204 We can write individual letters of various types, including: making/answering
enquiries; appointing an employee; submitting or accepting a quotation, and so
on. We can highlight main principles and issues with an example where the tone 9
is particularly important: responding to a complaint. Effective
documents

Chunking in letters
If you follow chunking principles from previous chapters then each paragraph has
a specific theme. We can think of business letters in terms of the basic begin-mid-
dle-end structure, as recommended by many trainers and teachers (Table 9.7).

Deciding on the tone

As well as making sure that the content was accurate, is the tone appropriate?
For example, we would recommend a “positive and neutral” tone for a letter of
complaint to another person/organisation.​
One issue with any letter of complaint is the possible assumption that the
other person is directly to blame. As accusations usually put the other person
on the defensive, they are not a good strategy to resolve the problem, especially
in the first letter (and even less in person!). It is much safer to assume that your
audience is someone who wishes to provide a good service, but that something
has gone wrong.

Layout conventions in letters

Conventions have changed – for example, most organisations now use the block
format of presentation:

• everything starts at the left-hand margin, except possibly the company let-
terheading/logo at the top of the page.
• the right margin is either justified or ragged (we recommend the latter for
word-processed documents).
• punctuation is kept to a minimum with only the necessary full stops (periods)
and commas.

You can see these rules applied in many templates now offered in word-process-
ing software.

Table 9.7 Chunking in letters

Begin Explain why you are writing

Middle Explain the detailed information
End Explain what action you are going to take 205
Part 2 Memos
Presenting
information: Memos continue to be important in many organisations. They are recognised as
effective a way of raising the importance of the message, act in a way that is similar to a
­methods and
media
press release, although for an internal audience. They have a particular format –
provided by the organisation – which reflects their formality. The typical memo
will be focussed on one topic and will be brief but may reference a report or
other sources of further information.
According to Indeed, the job-finding website, memos are effective when:

• the purpose of the memo is highlighted in the introductory paragraph.

• the message is concise, and the language is positive throughout.
• the subject line communicates the message of the memo.
• the body paragraph and conclusion are used to break down the information.
(Indeed, 2022)

Fax

A fax is the scanned copy of a document that is then transmitted by telecom-

munications links. Nowadays, online faxing is increasingly common. Dedicated
fax machines are now obsolete (or heading that way) in many places (e.g. recent
changes to telecommunications policy in the UK).
Once extremely common, the use of fax decreased steadily after the intro-
duction of email. However, fax still has some possible advantages over email:

• messages can be sent to incomplete addresses – only the name of the business
needs to be known.
• fax is traditionally sent using phone lines, not through the internet. Even
when the internet goes down or you are out of range, fax can still be
transmitted.
• fax provides confirmation that the recipient has received the message and can
be used as evidence if needed (and it won’t get lost in spam).
• it is considered to be more secure than email and is therefore commonly used
by legal services, medical providers etc.

Messages specially written for fax share many of the characteristics we discussed
for email, although abuse does not seem to be an issue. They are short (often less
than one page, not counting the cover sheet with the contact information); they
mainly supply or request information; and they are written in a more conversa-
206 tional style than traditional business letters.
Writing online 9
Effective
Writing online (and distinct from digital marketing) has become an essential documents

expectation for the professional, reflecting the blurring of the lines between
writing internally and writing to engage a wider range of stakeholders in a more
immediate and conversational way. According to Jameson (2014) there are four
types of potential and actual audiences of online communication:

• the intended audience.

• the addressed audience who are mentioned in postings.
• the “empirical audience” who actually read the postings (which may or may
not include the intended audience).
• the potential audience of the future who may access the communication due
to its electronic permanence.

Depending on your organisational context, you might be expected to write for a

range of media, such as:

• managing social media with external partners, such as Twitter, Instagram,

Facebook, Google, Snapchat, Flickr etc.
• writing blog posts for the organisation or your own professional development.
• setting up and/or managing an online discussion group or forums
• contributing to a wiki, for either internal or external use.
• managing internal communications through social media.

To successfully manage communication across such a wide range of contexts,

understanding the audiences and using appropriate language is essential, as the
reputational risks, both for the professional and the organisation, are significant.
Understanding the audience will include an awareness of the level of familiarity
between the conversation partners, their conversation history, and the organisa-
tional culture.

Effective communication in the online world

Business documents such as reports, letters, and e-mail have established conven-
tions that can be relatively easy to adopt and use. However, in the online world,
the rules of engagement are still in a state of flux and potentially carry greater
reputational risks. The effectiveness of online engagement depends on hitting
the right tone as well as being factually correct – and the right tone may not be
one of deference, or formalised courtesy. The Twitter relationship marketing
campaigns of Tesco Mobile, Old Spice, Taco Bell, amongst others have eschewed 207
Part 2 traditional customer service approaches with “snarky” interactions with online
Presenting audiences. For example, Tesco Mobile’s “letter of apology” (2021) on behalf
information: of rival networks for changing the prices mid-contract hit the headlines in the
effective
­methods and world of public relations as a positive example to follow – but is also notoriously
media difficult to emulate.
Communication in the online world provides several advantages due to its
flexibility. One is the ability to share across online platforms so that messages
have a much broader reach than traditional business communication. For exam-
ple, images and text in WhatsApp can be shared on Facebook; blogs can be shared
on Twitter, LinkedIn, and email; marketing posts can be shared on Facebook and
Instagram etc. Alongside these opportunities to share, you can include adapted
hyperlinks to other sources within the text so that audiences can access the full
story behind the post.
As positive engagement is key in the online world, Darics (2016) makes the
following recommendations for creating the right tone and facilitating interactiv-
ity online:

• discourse markers, which words that reflect engagement e.g. OK, I mean, You
know.
• interjections, such as wow, OMG, aww, hey.
• direct addresses and imperatives, such as Check this out, on closer inspection you
will see…
• Questions, which are aimed to stimulate Can you believe that? Would you stay
here again?
• Answers to hypothetical questions, such as and yes, I always use an oven
thermometer.
• Questions and answers, like simulated dialogues such as Would you toss whole
strawberries into a £40 blender? No.

These textual markers can be added to with the use of speech-like features, such as:

• enthusiasm markers, for example !!!, ALL CAPS, elongated letters – sooooo.
• backchannel signals.
• emoticons (adapted from Darics, 2016).

The problem with some of these recommendations is that they imply a “super-
friendly” relationship which some customers might resent or find annoying.
We always suggest that you test messages like this with members of your target
audience.
To maximise the reach of online writing, tags can be used, such as hashtags
where # is used alongside key words to make the post or blog easy to find by the
208 provided search engines within the application. Another way of extending the
reach is by adding specific individuals’ online handles so that they are notified of 9
the post and can respond. Effective
It is worth noting that this use of language is very different to what would documents

be used for reports, letters and email etc. and some of our colleagues consider
these interactions to be “unprofessional”. The existence of contrasting opinions
reflects the newness of online communication and its current state of flux within
the business world. In Chapter 16 we look further into navigating this complex
world which blurs the boundaries between the professional and personal worlds
of the individual.

How to write a blog

Blogs are a more extended form of writing online to enhance professional stand-
ing. They are written for many different purposes: to create communities formed
around professional interests, lifestyle and/ or life stages, or themes within a
subject area – or to develop student academic writing – and are extensively used
in the United States, Canada, and the UK.
The approach is often more informal than other forms of document writing,
whilst not being casual. The structure reflects the pyramid reporting style men-
tioned in report writing, with a title that will draw the reader in, and an opening
paragraph that describes the purpose and the remainder providing the detail in
a clearly structured way, and with a conclusion to pull the whole piece together.
With blogs, we expect images will be incorporated into the text to support both
engagement and recall of information.
If you wish to explore blogging for yourself, there are plenty of sources to help
you, including:

• sites which can support the development of your own personal blog pages,
such as www​.wix​.com, www​.squarespace​.com, and www​.masterclass​.com,
often aiming to draw you in to subscribe to the website and/or buy their
templates.
• examples of popular blogs across different categories.
• online courses in blogging, from organisations such as www​.udemy​.com

Alternatively you may choose to start writing within an already established

online community which may be within a professional association, or for the
organisation/department that you work for or, perhaps for an online platform
such as LinkedIn. Or it could be something as prosaic as being required to write
regular blog posts on behalf of your organisation.
The most successful blogs are those that connect at some deep level with
their audience. This can be due to the passion for the subject which is evident 209
Part 2 Table 9.8 Questions to consider before you blog
Presenting
information: Question Comment
effective
­methods and
media What is the purpose for What do you want to achieve from the blog?
the blog?
Who is your ideal Is this everyone who might read the blog, or a subset of that
audience? audience?
What value do you want For the average reader there needs to be a sense of immediate
to offer? value, i.e. that the material can be applied right away without
purchasing your product/service
How do you want Examples may be to connect via social media, to respond to a
to engage with your poll, or to download a free giveaway
audience?

in their cutting-edge knowledge or due to their deeply personal experiences,

the blog by Dame Deborah James “Bowelbabe” being a prime example of this
latter style of blog writing (Dawson, 2007). If either of these describes you,
then the motivation for creating and sustaining a blog series may already be in
place. Even if this doesn’t describe you, it may still be the case that you will find
yourself responsible for the development of a blog. Whatever your context, the
questions in Table 9.8 will need to be addressed before putting pen to paper – or
text to screen.​
Where an online community already exists, such as with a professional
association or LinkedIn, or an employer, then reviewing the structure, tone,
and content of pre-existing blogs will support your development. This will
include the straightforward aspects of length, use of headings and subhead-
ings, font etc.
If you are not driven by personal passion, then identifying content for regular
posts may be something of a challenge. One way to address this would be to
identify keywords within a particular field and begin to develop a blog series
based on those keywords. For example, if your audience was small businesses
then keywords would probably include profit and turnover. As a result, it would
be likely that a blog describing the difference between profit and turnover would
be useful for small business owners (especially as so many business owners and
students struggle to understand the distinction).
If you write blog posts in your private rather than professional sphere then
take care that one aspect of your identity does not undermine the other. For
210 example, a medical practitioner could not prescribe a course of treatment and
then blog about the inadequacies of that treatment. If that were the case, then
the credibility of the medical practitioner and the treatment would both be open 9
to question. That is not to say that the medical practitioner cannot raise ques- Effective
tions around the efficacy of treatments with the purpose of improving patient documents

care. The issue would be about where those questions are raised and how steps
are put in place to investigate improvements in practice. Similarly, undermining
your employer or specific individuals within the organisation would generally be
considered inappropriate.
Any and every example of business writing should present your professional
voice, including blogs. An advantage of blogs over other forms of online writing
is the control that you have as author to fashion the content before exposing it to
the online world, without requiring instant engagement.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ writing online and print documents can require different skills but general
principles apply to all business and professional documents whether print or
online: deciding on appropriate objectives, meeting audience needs, organis-
ing the message, writing in an appropriate style, and using layout and design
to support your message.
■ effective professional and business correspondence must meet both content
and tone criteria. Written messages can be interpreted in different ways
depending on the context in which they are received.
■ the design of documents reflects aspects of organisational structure and
culture.
■ email has become ubiquitous in business and strategies need to be developed
to manage the number of emails and quantity of information.
■ each type of business document can be analysed in terms of structure, style,
and layout, and it is important to understand both the conventions which
readers will expect and the potential problems caused by limitations of the
system.
■ you need to adapt the structure and style of your documents to the specific
situation, as for example with the different ways of structuring long reports.
Relying on a standardised approach will not usually be successful.
■ communication in the online world provides opportunities for interactivity
and immediacy to reach a wider audience but can require careful negotia-
tion to support the development of a professional profile.
■ blog writing offers a way of developing your professional profile or the pro-
file of your business/employer with fewer risks than other forms of online
engagement. 211
Part 2 References
Presenting
information: Darics, E. (2016) Writing Online: A Guide to Effective Digital Communication at Work, First edition.
effective New York: New York Business Expert Press (Corporate communication collection).
­methods and
media Dawson, K.M. (2007) Blog overload. Chronicle of Higher Education 53(22): 2.
Ejim, E. (2022) What Is the Role of Email in Business Communication? https://www​.smartcapitalmind​
.com​/what​-is​-the​-role​-of​-email​-in​-business​-communication​.htm.
Hargie, O.D.W., Dickson, D. and Tourish, D. (1999) Auditing Organizational Communication: A
Handbook of Research, Theory and Practice. London: Routledge.
Henwood, D. (2020) Business Writing for Innovators and Change-Makers. (First, Ser. Corporate
communication collection). Business Expert Press.
Katz, S. (1998) Part 1: Learning to write in organizations: What newcomers learn about writing
on the job. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 42(2): 105–115.
Mayfield, J. and Mayfield, M. (2022) Business communication lessons in agility: Introduction to
the special issue on the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Business Communication
59(2): 163–173. doi:10.1177/23294884221077813.
Mittal, N. (2022) How to Manage Email Fatigue to Keep Your Subscribers Engaged. https://www​
.mailmodo​.com​/guides​/email​-fatigue/.
Steffensen, D.S., McAllister, C.P. and Perrewé, P.L. (2022) “You’ve got mail”: A daily
investigation of email demands on job tension and work-family conflict. Journal of Business
Psychology 37: 325–338.
Stephanie, K. (editors) (2019) Computer-Mediated Communication for Business; Theory to Practice.
Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.

212
PART 3

Effective interpersonal
and group communication

213


Chapter 10
Effective interpersonal communication
Defining interpersonal skills in an information age

Introduction

Various methods have been proposed over the years to develop our interpersonal
skills. For example, in the 1990s, many organisations were influenced by best-
selling books on “emotional intelligence” (EI) which emphasised self-awareness
and the importance of handling relationships:

a new competitive reality is putting emotional intelligence at a premium in the workplace

and in the marketplace.
(Goleman, 1996, page 149)

You can still find EI in many current training courses in interpersonal skills,
alongside more recent trends such as the increasing focus on EDI (equality, diver-
sity, and inclusion) and employee wellbeing, increasing use of online resources,
and the need to manage virtual teams (Symonds Research, 2022). Other training
systems such as Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) are much more controver-
sial as we see later.
This chapter reviews research and theory which suggests that effective com-
munication depends on interpersonal skills which include personal awareness and
understanding, and which can be adapted successfully to both face-to-face and
online settings.
We examine what effective interpersonal communication involves, highlight
the main characteristics of essential skills, and show how these skills can be used
together in everyday situations. We also warn against the “over-mechanical” use
of certain techniques and highlight the growing role of new technologies in the
way that we both create and receive impressions of others.
Our overall conclusion suggests that we cannot simply rely on skills and tech-
nique to arrive at effective interpersonal communication. We need to become
“mindwise” as suggested by Nicholas Epley – 215

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-14
Part 3 The secret to understanding each other better seems to come not through an increased
Effective ability to read body language or improved perspective taking but, rather, through the
interpersonal hard relational work of putting people in a position where they can tell you their minds
and group
communication openly and honestly.
(Epley, 2014, page 183)

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ explain what effective interpersonal communication involves.

■ identify and explain the most important interpersonal skills.
■ comment upon popular models of interpersonal skills and communication
training.
■ identify important implications of this analysis for your behaviour towards
others at work.
■ suggest ways you can use technology to enhance your interpersonal
effectiveness.

What does effective interpersonal

communication involve?

One answer to this question is that we need “good” interpersonal skills so we can
respond or react to the other person or persons in ways which appear “natural”,
and which are “effective”. This suggests that we have accurately assessed what the
other person is trying to communicate, and this depends upon how we perceive
that other person.
But what if our perception is misleading?
Suppose that you worked behind the counter in an English bank and were con-
fronted by a male customer who handed over a cheque and said “give me the money”
with no change in intonation over these four words. Would you interpret this behav-
iour as “rude”? Many native English speakers would – to them it sounds too abrupt or
even aggressive. The most common “polite” English expression would be to say this
phrase with a slight rise in intonation on the last word (assuming that the person does
not have a strong regional accent where different rules might apply).
If you interpreted the flat intonation as rude, would you deal with this cus-
tomer in a correspondingly abrupt way? Or perhaps you would not give him quite
the same positive greeting you would give to other customers?
Suppose your customer came from a Middle Eastern country and is using
216 the pattern of intonation seen as polite in his native culture. Would you be suf-
ficiently aware of this cultural difference to avoid an inappropriate reaction?
 Social context 10
Effective
Social identity interpersonal
communication

Person A Social perception

Coding

Presentation Representation
(relationship) (information)

Coding

Person B Social perception

Social identity

Figure 10.1 Hartley’s model of interpersonal communication

The process of interpersonal communication is complex – unless you under-

stand some basic features of this process, you can easily behave in ways which the
other person will not accept or appreciate. For example, consider the model of
interpersonal communication in Figure 10.1 (from Hartley, 1999) This suggests
that there are a number of fundamental processes:

• social perception – how person A interprets the behaviour and characteristics

of person B.
• social identity – how person A sees him or herself in terms of their role and
status. We communicate in ways which support this sense of social identity.
• coding – how A and B choose to express themselves. Do we use slang or
jargon or technical words? What nonverbal signals do we use?
• the dual nature of “the message” which always includes both information and
relationship aspects. When we communicate, we pass on information to the
other person(s), and we simultaneously set up or reinforce a particular rela-
tionship with that person.
• the influence of the social context.

We also need to emphasise the potential ambiguity which is inevitable in our eve- 217
ryday communication – which effective communicators anticipate and avoid. The
Part 3 more you investigate these processes, the more you realise that effective inter-
Effective personal communication demands both social understanding – recognising the
interpersonal processes – and social skills – being able to use the behaviours and techniques.
and group
communication We shall look at fundamental behaviours and techniques before we return to this
question of how they all “fit together”.
This model was developed in a pre-digital age, but we can still apply it, pro-
vided that we also consider the range of technologies now available to enhance or
replace face-to-face interaction. And we need to consider how we use those tech-
nologies to both support our face-to-face encounters and to replace any missing
cues, as in our discussion of “digital body language”.

What do we mean by interpersonal skills?

Suppose you have been asked to nominate someone you know to lead a discus-
sion group. Who would you choose? What do they do to make you think of them?
What makes them good at getting people to talk? Do they make you feel that
they really are listening and interested in what you are saying? How do they do
this? How do they encourage you to contribute? What are the specific behaviours
which make them successful? How and when do they smile, nod, invite you to
speak, gesture etc? If you do this analysis in detail, then you will be doing a
social skills analysis – you will define some of the social skills possessed by that
individual.
This detailed approach to our social behaviour was pioneered in Britain by
Michael Argyle in the 1970s. He developed the analogy between a motor or
physical skill (like playing tennis or riding a bike) and a social skill like having a
conversation with someone. He suggested that they had the following features in
common (Argyle, 1994):

Goals
You need to decide what you want to achieve. If you talk to someone, are you
trying to persuade them, sell them something, make friends or what? Of course,
my goals may differ from yours and this could lead to problems or conflict.

Perception
You need to perceive what is going on around you and you need to do this accu-
rately to achieve your goals.

Translation
218 In order to perform effectively you have to “translate” your idea of what you want
to achieve into the correct action.
Responses 10
Effective
Even if you have the correct idea of what you need to do, can you physically do it? interpersonal
communication
Feedback
If you talk to someone, can you work out how interested they are? Can you rec-
ognise when they are getting bored or irritated? Can you accurately interpret the
feedback you receive? For example, suppose you express your point of view, and
they lean back and cross their arms. What does this signal mean? Does it mean
agreement or disagreement? If you think it means disagreement, then do you try
to restate what you think more clearly or in a different way? This example illus-
trates that there are several problems in reacting to feedback:

• did you notice the signals? You might have been concentrating so hard on
expressing yourself clearly that you did not notice the other person’s NVC.
• did you interpret the signals correctly?
• were you able to respond effectively?

There are other important analogies between physical and interpersonal skills:

• we have to learn how to perform effectively. We can always learn something

new and/or some improvement.
• we can benefit from good coaching and tuition.
• as we learn any skill, our actions become more fluent and better-timed. We
become less aware of what we are doing – the action becomes sub-conscious.
The same process can apply to interpersonal skills. For example, if you have
to learn interviewing skills, your first interviews are likely to be hesitant and
nervous until you gain some confidence. After some successful experience,
you will no longer have to concentrate so hard as the behaviours have become
more “automatic”.
• we can let our skills “lapse” by failing to practise. This is the downside of the
previous point. As with a motor skill such as driving a car, we can become
lazy and careless – we can fall into “bad habits”.

One influential and more recent development of this approach comes from Owen
Hargie (2022). While endorsing Argyle’s main ideas, he developed a more elabo-
rate model – see Figure 10.2. This incorporates the following important ideas:

• the social context is an important influence on our behaviour. The skills that
are effective in one context may not work in another.
• we gain feedback from our own actions as well as the other person’s reac-
tions. We are continually aware of our own behaviour and feelings, and this 219
can help us decide what to do next.
 Person–situation content
Part 3
Effective Feedback
interpersonal
and group
communication
Perception Responses

Mediating Mediating
Goal Goal
factors factors

Responses Perception

Feedback

Figure 10.2 Hargie’s model of social skills

• we are influenced by our emotions as well as by our thoughts, and so the term
“mediating factors” is used instead of “translation”.

It is important to emphasise that these authors do not think that social skills are
just the same as motor skills. We have already highlighted some important dif-
ferences – the fact that other people may have different goals, the importance of
feelings – and there is another more complex problem:

Metaperception
As well as directly perceiving our own behaviour and the behaviour of others,
we can also reflect on how those other people are perceiving us. This has been
called “meta-perception” and is an important factor in determining how people
react to one another. For example, if we are having a conversation and I get the
impression that you think I am being too “chatty” then I might become more
reserved to counteract this impression. If my initial impression is wrong, then I
will probably confuse you or even offend you with my sudden and unexplained
change in behaviour.

What are the most important interpersonal skills?

220 As well as developing the model described above, Owen Hargie has produced
what is probably the most comprehensive textbook on interpersonal skills (the
most recent edition is Hargie, 2022). This includes the following topics – the 10
phrases in brackets below are Hargie’s: Effective
interpersonal
communication
• nonverbal communication (NVC) (“communication without words”).
• reinforcing (“rewarding others”).
• questioning (“finding out about others”).
• reflecting (“showing understanding for others”).
• listening (“paying attention to others”).
• explaining (“getting your message across”).
• self-disclosure (“telling others about yourself”).
• opening and closing (“set induction and closure”).
• assertiveness (“standing up for yourself”).
• persuasion (“using your influence”).
• negotiating (“working things out together”).
• working with others (“participating in and leading small groups”).

In an earlier edition of this text, Hargie included a specific chapter on humour

and laughter.
We shall summarise the essential features of some of these to illustrate the
importance of this analysis and approach.

Nonverbal communication

We have already suggested some of the important features of non-verbal com-

munication (NVC for short) in Chapter 3 of this book, notably that:

• there are a wide range of NVC signals, including facial expression, gaze,
gestures, posture, bodily contact, spatial behaviour, clothes and appearance,
non-verbal vocalisations (paralanguage), and smell.
• we usually react to the combination of these signals. For example, we may
decide that someone is lying to use because they fidget, and avoid eye contact,
and hesitate when they talk etc.
• these signals are ambiguous. For example, the indicators of someone lying
are very close to the signals of nerves and anxiety. This problem of ambiguity
is very important if you are considering adopting particular NVC strategies.
• there are significant cultural differences in the meaning of nonverbal signals.
• when verbal and nonverbal signals seem to contradict each other, we are usu-
ally more inclined to believe the nonverbal “message”.

Bearing these points in mind, we can suggest some recommendations for the 221
skilled use of NVC in workplace situations:
Part 3 Use a combination of signals to show what you mean
Effective
interpersonal For example, some texts suggest that managers should be very careful to
and group choose the right seating position when they want to have a discussion with
communication
one of their staff. The usual recommendation is to avoid the direct fron-
tal position as this implies confrontation and to talk “at an angle” – across
the corner of the desk rather than directly facing the other person across
the desk. This will help to establish an atmosphere, but other cues are also
important. To achieve cooperation, you also need to use appropriate eye con-
tact and gestures. Just sitting at the “correct” angle will not help the manager
who continues to belittle his staff verbally and nonverbally in other ways,
perhaps by constantly interrupting them! These other signals will create the
lasting impression in the staff.

Make sure that your verbal and nonverbal

messages are “in harmony”
The boss who tells you he is listening to you while looking at his smartphone will
not be believed!

Make sure your NVC is appropriate

to the culture and the context
The English manager who uses his “native” pattern of eye gaze when dealing with
Arabian colleagues may well be seen as “shifty-eyed” and perhaps untrustworthy
because he does not engage in sufficient eye contact.

Avoid NVC which has a popular

interpretation which you do not want
Many popular books on NVC claim that particular signals definitely pass on a
specific message. Even if this is not always true, what if the other person believes
that it is? Will they read a specific message from the way you cross your arms?

Develop your awareness of your own

NVC and its likely impact
Perhaps the most important way of developing your NVC skills is through aware-
ness of your own behaviour. Does your NVC always reflect what you want it to
mean? You can only develop this awareness by reflecting on your own behaviour
and by getting feedback from others who are prepared to give you an honest
response. If you decide to change your behaviour, then you also need to monitor
222 the effect of change. You need to behave in a way which comes across as “natural”
for you rather than relying on “textbook techniques”.
Look out for micro-expressions 10
Effective
We introduced the concept of micro-expressions in Chapter 2 – very fleeting interpersonal
nonverbal expressions which are supposed to reveal the true emotional state. As communication
we suggested earlier, there is some still some doubt about this, but they can offer
an additional clue to someone’s feelings. And you should look out for any impres-
sions you may be creating along these lines.

BOX 10.1: THE CASE FOR “DIGITAL BODY LANGUAGE”?

In her consultancy work with clients, helping them to collaborate more effectively
at work, Erica Dhawan noticed increasing concerns with “miscommunication in
the workplace”. This stemmed from misunderstandings because the participants:

didn’t know what empathy meant anymore in a world where digital commu-
nication had made once-clear signals, cues, and norms almost unintelligible.

She concluded that “the digital world required a new kind of body language”
and developed the following “four laws” as the practical steps to avoid future
problems (Dhawan, 2021).

■ “value visibly”.
■ “communicate carefully”.
■ “collaborate confidently”.
■ “trust totally”.

These “laws” suggest a mix of behaviours and approaches which should

ensure that online interactions are as “rich” in social cues as their face-to-face
equivalent.

Reinforcing
When you use reinforcing behaviours, you use behaviours which encourage the
other person to carry on or repeat whatever they happen to be doing. Various
experiments have shown how people respond to quite small expressions of
praise, encouragement, and support, including head nods, grunts and the “uh-
huh”. For a quick demonstration of the power of these simple cues, ask a friend
to listen to you talking for a couple of minutes without showing any signs of
support or agreement. First of all, they may find it very difficult if not impossible
to do. Secondly, you will find it very disconcerting to speak what is effectively
a “blank wall”. And this brings us on to the importance of listening, which we 223
talk about later.
Part 3 Questioning
Effective
interpersonal If you have attended a series of job interviews, you will know that some profes-
and group sional interviewers are much better than others at extracting information from
communication
you. This will be due in part to their question technique – whether they are ask-
ing the right sort of question at the right time. For example, texts on interview-
ing technique usually distinguish between open and closed questions.
An open question allows the person to answer in whatever way they like, e.g.
what do you think of the government’s economic policy? A closed question asks
for specific information or a yes/no response, e.g. do you agree with the govern-
ment’s economic policy? Open questions encourage people to talk and expand;
closed questions encourage short answers. Inexperienced interviewers often ask
too many closed questions and do not get the detailed answers which they really
want. We say more on this in the next chapter.

Reflecting
This is a skill often used by counsellors and other people who have to conduct very
personal interviews and who want the other person to talk in some detail about their
own feelings and attitudes. Even the most open-ended questions can sometimes
suggest the way that the other person should construct their answer. Reflections are
more neutral – they feedback to the speaker some aspect of what they have just said.
This invites them to elaborate or extend what they have been saying.
You can reflect in different ways and achieve different results. This will depend
on whether you are interested in the factual statements that the other person has
made or their feelings about what they are saying. Textbooks often distinguish at
least three different forms of reflection:

• identifying a keyword or phrase which will encourage the speaker to say

more.
• summarising what you have heard in your own words.
• identifying the feelings which seem to lie behind what the speaker is saying.

This last form of reflection is perhaps the most difficult and most skilful – you
have to sense the underlying emotion accurately and read between the lines.
However, these different strategies focus on rather different aspects of the
other person’s communication – the first two relate to concentrate on what has
been said; the third concentrates on how it was said, trying to interpret the non-
verbal accompaniment.

Listening
224 It is worth emphasising the importance of listening as it is often taken for granted.
Perhaps because we do it so much, it can be dismissed as a “natural” behaviour
which we have all learned. But educators concerned with the development of 10
interpersonal skills usually give it central importance: Effective
Developing your skills as a listener involves two major steps: interpersonal
communication

• recognising (and eliminating) any barriers which prevent you listening with
full attention.
• adopting and practising behaviours which help you listen (and which con-
vince the other person that you are giving them your full attention).

Examples of important common barriers include being distracted by personal

stereotypes or other perceptual biases, such as listening selectively for what you
expect to hear.
Detailed analysis of the skills which are used by people who are recognised as
“good listeners” shows that they use a variety of techniques. For example, Bolton
(1986) found three clusters of skills:

• attending skills, where you show the other person that you are attending to
them. NVC can be especially important here.
• following skills, where the listener uses technique which encourage the
speaker to give a full account of what they want to say. Reinforcing behav-
iour can be very important here, or what Bolton calls “minimal prompts” like
“mmm”, “uh-uh”, “yes”, “and”, etc.
• reflecting skills, which we talk about in more detail below.

So, typical recommendations to support active or positive listening include

(Hartley, 1999):

• being receptive to the other person – showing that you are prepared to listen
and accept what they are saying (of course, this does not mean that you auto-
matically agree with it). Nonverbal signals are obviously important here and
you need to avoid any signs of tension or impatience.
• maintaining attention – using eye contact, head nods, and appropriate facial
expression.
• removing distractions.
• delaying evaluation of what you have heard until you fully understand it.

As well as reviewing the research evidence on this topic (e.g. Hargie, 2022,
Chapter 7), it is useful to read accounts of from professionals whose effective-
ness depends on their skills. For example, Kathryn Mannix’s medical career has
focused on working with people with incurable, advanced illnesses. She offers
suggestions on “style and skills (which) can be used when the occasion for conver-
sations is particularly challenging” and talks of “tender conversations” (Mannix, 225
2021, page 4).
Part 3 Perhaps her most important message is her focus on fundamental principles
Effective which we need to apply in our own style, as in:
interpersonal
and group
communication To offer somebody help or support, we must start from where the person is, and under-
stand the situation from their perspective. That sounds so simple, and yet it can be
difficult to do.
(Mannix, 2021, page 15)

Opening and closing

This refers to the ways in which we establish the beginnings and endings of a par-
ticular interaction. For example, sales staff often receive very detailed training
on how to start the interaction with the customer. Often this involves making
conversation to establish the sales representative as more friendly and helpful than
“just a salesperson”. But this can rebound if the customer sees this as insincere.
Consider all the different possible ways of starting a conversation with
someone – some ways will be much more appropriate than others in particular
circumstances.
The choice of opening can be very important in more formal situations such as
an interview where the opening can establish either a positive or negative atmos-
phere and we shall give some examples in the next chapter.

Self-disclosure
When you communicate with other people you can tell them various things
about yourself (or you can decide not to). Sidney Jourard coined the term “self-
disclosure” – the process of sharing information about ourselves with other peo-
ple (Jourard, 1971). When you self-disclose, you provide some information to
the other person about yourself: how you are feeling; what your background is;
what your attitudes and values are, and so on. Jourard was interested in how
people came to reveal aspects of themselves to others and what this meant for the
way that they developed relationships with others.

Self-disclosure and relationships

You need to self-disclose to develop a relationship with another person. And this
raises several practical issues:

• what do you tell them? What sort of information do you pass on? When is it
“safe” to reveal your personal feelings?
• how quickly do you reveal yourself? There are important social and cultural
differences here. For example, in the USA, you are often expected to say a
226 lot about yourself very early in a relationship. In the UK, a more leisurely
pace is the norm.
In business, we have to develop good relationships with other people in the organisa- 10
tion. And so self-disclosure is an important issue. How far can we (or should we) keep Effective
these relationships on a strictly formal basis and not self-disclose? If you develop a very interpersonal
communication
close and open relationship with a group of staff and are then promoted to be their
supervisor, can you maintain the relationship at the same level?

Assertiveness
Over the last five decades, assertiveness training has been one of the most popular
ways of developing social skills. As well as training courses and workshops, many
popular books on business communication use assertiveness principles even if
they do not use the term. And some of these have endorsed it very strongly, even
claiming it can “change your life” (See Hartley, 1999, Chapter 12).

What do we mean by assertive communication?

The following quotes summarise essential points:

The aim of assertive behaviour is to satisfy the needs and wants of both parties involved
in the situation.
(Back and Back, 2005, page 2)

Anne Dickson wrote one of the classic texts on assertiveness 40 years ago. She
describes her updated version as follows:

the single unifying focus of every chapter of this book is: how to communicate effectively
without the use of aggression.
(Dickson, 2022, page xi)

Following on from this, she suggests that:

Assertive communication is counter-cultural: it is not what we witness as the normal

form of direct communication, which tends to be aggressive and competitive with a focus
on one individual being right and the other wrong. The values at the heart of the asser-
tive skills I teach are equality, care and honesty.
(Dickson, op cit, page xii)

What are the different styles of behaviour?

Books on assertive behaviour usually define three styles of behaviour: assertion,
aggression, and submission (or non-assertion). These are often expressed as a
continuum with assertion in the middle.
227
Aggression --------------- Assertion ------------- Submission
 Coercive
Part 3 behaviour
Effective
interpersonal Indirect aggressive Aggressive
and group
communication
Indirect Direct
expression expression
Submissive Assertive
Non-coercive
behaviour

Figure 10.3 Styles of behaviour Source: Hartley, 1999, p. 196

But a better way of comparing styles of behaviour is to look out the two underly-
ing dimensions:

• from indirect expression through to direct expression.

• from coercive behaviour through to non-coercive behaviour.

This gives Figure 10.3 above. The fourth style is where you express aggression
in an indirect way without direct confrontation. For another useful discussion of
this approach, see Hargie (2022) pages 332ff.
Most texts concentrate on the three main styles, and so will we in this chapter
(descriptions taken from Hartley, 1999).

Aggressive behaviour
This includes some form of threat which undermines the rights of the other per-
son. It is about winning, regardless of the other person's feelings. The verbal
and non-verbal accompaniment to aggressive behaviour includes loud and abusive
talk, interruptions, and glaring or staring eye contact.

Submissive behaviour
This behaviour gives in to the demands of others by avoiding conflict and accept-
ing being put upon. Verbal and nonverbal accompaniments include apologetic
and hesitant speech, soft speech, nervous gestures, and a reluctance to express
opinions. Submissive individuals will be seen as weak and easily manipulated.
They will certainly not inspire confidence in others.
The verbal and nonverbal behaviours associated with these styles have been dem-
onstrated quite clearly in research studies as well as from observation of everyday life.

Assertive behaviour
228 The characteristics are open and clear expression, firm and fluent conversation,
and quick spontaneous answers. The nonverbal components include medium
levels of eye contact; appropriate facial expressions; smooth gestures; relaxed 10
but upright body posture; and appropriate paralinguistics. Effective
interpersonal
communication

Using assertive behaviour

There are various ways of categorising assertive behaviour. For example, Ken
and Kate Back define six main types of assertive behaviour which can be divided
into two levels, and this is summarised in Box 10.2. The practical implications of
this are that you should normally start by using a low-level assertion. If this is not
successful, then you try a high-level assertion. Other texts concentrate on what
they regard as the main assertive techniques. To illustrate the approach, we can
quote a typical example from Linehan and Egan (1983). They offer the “broken
record” technique as a way of resisting influence. This technique simply involves
repeating your initial request or response, without being side-tracked, until the
other person accepts it.

BOX 10.2: DIFFERENT TYPES OF

ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Ken and Kate Back define six main types of assertive behaviour which can be
divided into two levels, listed below (Back and Back, 2005, Chapter 7). The prac-
tical implications of this are that you should normally start by using a low-level
assertion. If this is not successful, then you try a high-level assertion. The three
types at the lower level are:

■ basic assertion (a straightforward statement of what you need, want,

believe, or feel).
■ responsive assertion (where you check what the other person needs or is
feeling, by asking them in a straightforward way).
■ empathetic assertion (where you make a point of recognising the other per-
son's point of view or feelings, before you state what you want).

The three high-level types are:

■ discrepancy assertion (where you point out the discrepancy between what
you have agreed previously on what seems to be happening or is about to
happen).
■ negative feelings assertion (where you point out the effect that the other
person's behaviour is having upon you).
■ consequence (the strongest form of assertion – where you tell the other per-
son what will happen to them if they do not change their behaviour.) 229
Part 3
Effective They suggest that you should “use the minimum degree of assertion for achiev-
interpersonal ing your aim” (page 91, their emphasis). If you do not then you may be seen as
and group
communication aggressive, and you will have fewer options if the other person does not wish to
co-operate.

Does assertiveness always work?

Most texts on assertiveness emphasise the possible benefits of this style of behav-
iour. But there are also potential problems:

• assertive behaviour may be “misread”.

It may be seen as aggressive, especially when the person is behaving differently
from the way they have acted in the past.
• people have different definitions of assertiveness.
For example, untrained women stress the importance of consideration for
others, whereas untrained men seem to see assertiveness in terms of power
and influence.
• there are issues of gender roles.
Male assertion and female assertion can have different consequences and so
reliance on the same techniques may actually work out differently.
• there are situational factors to consider.
Certain types of assertiveness may well work better in some situations than others.
• there are cultural differences to consider.
Behaviour which is culturally acceptable in the USA and Western Europe
may not be accepted in cultures which place very different values upon
humility and submission.

One final issue comes from work by Daniel Ames (2009) whose studies suggest
that both under-assertiveness and over-assertiveness contribute to ineffective
leadership and/or management. He found that under-assertive leadership leads
to “failure to deliver on task objectives” whereas over-assertive leaders are:

jeopardising their relationships with others. Getting assertiveness ‘right’ appears to be a

prevalent challenge for leaders.
(op cit, page 129)

Popular theories to improve your communication

230 Specific theories of interpersonal communication which are often used on train-
ing courses may not feature in mainstream social science texts. They may have
achieved wide popular acceptance but have often been dismissed and/or neglected 10
by professional and academic social scientists. To illustrate why this may have hap- Effective
pened, we can use one main idea from Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) – interpersonal
communication
and highlight some important issues. There is more detail on this on the website.

Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)

You can find NLP ideas in several popular management and communication
texts, as well as being widely used in training. A typical claim from NLP trainers
is that you only need three things to communicate well:

• a clear idea of the outcome you want.

• flexible behaviour.
You need to find the behaviour which will work in the specific situation.
• the ability to recognise the responses you are getting from other people.
If you can do this, then you will be able to “home in” on the behaviour which
achieves the response you want from the other person.
They also emphasise the importance of nonverbal communication.

Representational systems
One fundamental idea from NLP is that we think using three main representa-
tional systems:

• visual, where you see visual images as you think.

• auditory, where you hear sounds inside your head.
• kinaesthetic, where you think in terms of feelings.

According to this theory, you can increase rapport with someone by “getting to
know the thinking preference of the person you are communicating with and
changing your behaviour to literally make more sense to them” (Bandler and
Grinder, page 88). For example, if you are talking to a visual person then you
should use language which corresponds with that representational system. You
should say things like “I see what you mean” or “that looks fine to me”. By using
this technique, “sometimes almost miraculously, rapport increases as you share their
experience” (Adler and Heather, 1999, page 62, our italics).
For this to work, you have to be confident which representation system the
other person is using. And that leads to another important idea – that there are
reliable ways to recognise somebody's representational system.
The snag with this analysis is that it has not been supported by systematic
research.
For example, you can find many critical accounts of NLP listed on the 231
Wikipedia page.
Part 3 Can we believe this (and any other) popular theory?
Effective
interpersonal NLP contains some interesting propositions and ideas. But we suggest that you
and group
communication approach it (and other popular systems you may come across) with some scepti-
cism. We have important concerns about NLP and similar approaches:

• it has suffered by being over-simplified and applied too “mechanically”.

• it has been “over-sold”. We believe some of the claims for their success are
exaggerated.
• probably because of the “over-selling”, it has not attracted the interest of
independent researchers. As a result, there is little independent evidence to
show that it really works over a wide range of circumstances.
• it seems to ignore cultural differences. And this is a general issue for all skills
approaches (see Box 10.3 below).

So, one way of looking at any popular analysis of human communication is to ask
questions based on these concerns:

• what are the ideas based upon?

(do they come from well-organised studies or from systematic observation
or what?)
• are the ideas critically examined?
(what are the recognised limitations to the ideas?)
• are they applied in a way which recognises the specific social context?
(is any account taken of social and cultural differences?)
• who are the gurus or advocates?
(and what is their expertise based upon in terms of experience, training etc.?)

BOX 10.3 ATTENDING TO CULTURE

So much of the research into interpersonal communication (and so many of the
advice texts) is based on American and European examples that it is easy to for-
get the potential complications of cross-cultural communication. For example:

■ patterns of self-disclosure and relationship development are very different

in cultures with strong politeness norms and where the saving of face is
critical, like Malaysia.
■ NVC has strong cultural variations.
■ assertive behaviour is seen very differently in cultures which do not share
the individualistic values of the US and UK.
232
The role of new technology in 10
interpersonal communication Effective
interpersonal
communication
We now live in the age of “perpetual contact” thanks to the ubiquity of smart-
phones and social media. There are three aspects of this which are especially
important to this chapter. We can:

• enhance our relationships with others by careful use of social media.

• use these media to gain initial impressions of others.
• check our own public face through these media and try to limit any mislead-
ing messages.

We shall explore these issues in more detail in the next chapter.

Becoming “mindwise” and putting the skills together

Earlier in this chapter, we argued that social skills depend upon social under-
standing. You need to understand how and why people are behaving as they do in
order to select the appropriate way to behave. We are very suspicious of com-
munication skills training which does not emphasise the need for social under-
standing and research to accompany the practice of techniques. We are not alone
in this concern – Deborah Cameron surveyed a range of communication skills
courses and training materials and found “consistent disregard for those bodies
of knowledge that derive from the empirical investigation of naturally occurring
talk” (Cameron, 2000, page 51).
We need to become “mindwise” (Epley, 2014) and recognise that the major
barriers to understanding other people include our own often misplaced confi-
dence in our abilities to understand the way that we come across to other people
and to interpret their behaviours and feelings, what Epley calls the “illusion of
insight” (op cit, page 11). For example, think of your current partner and/or a
close friend and give yourself a percentage rating on the following questions,
where 100% means “completely” and 0% means not at all?

a) how high is your partner’s sense of self-worth (self-esteem)?

b) how confident are you in this judgement?

Following the typical pattern of research on this topic, we would expect you to
be reasonably (but not perfectly) accurate on Question (a) and to be significantly
over-confident on Question (b). Your degree of confidence in your judgement is
likely to be up to twice as strong as your actual accuracy and this does not depend
on the length of time you have known the other person. If anything, we seem 233
Part 3 to become more confident but not more accurate in our judgements over time.
Effective And the same pattern of results appears when you ask people to make judgments
interpersonal about others’ verbal and nonverbal behaviour.
and group
communication Epley describes a number of cognitive and social processes which explain
these results. Particularly important for this book is his analysis of how we inter-
pret others behaviour and three important traps we can fall into:

Projecting from our own mind

We tend to be too self-centred in our social judgments and that can include
overestimating our own contributions to a group effort and feeling more self-
conscious about our own behaviour than is warranted (often called the spotlight
effect). We assume that other people interpret the world in much the same way
as we do and so we can seriously underestimate the degree of ambiguity in cer-
tain messages.

Basing our judgements on stereotypes

If we rely on a stereotype when making judgement about others (e.g., age, gen-
der) then we can be misled. For example, Epley refers to the common stereotype
that “women are more emotional than men” (op cit, page 125). Physiological
studies of reactions to emotional scenes demonstrate that men and women have
much the same emotional reaction, but social and cultural factors come into
play when we look at how men and women express (or do not express) their
reactions. So, we will be misled if we rely on a stereotype which does not distin-
guish between feeling (the invisible internal reaction) and expressing feeling (the
outward behaviour which is influenced by a range of social and cultural factors).

Inferring someone’s intentions just from the way they act

Attribution theory tells us that we are likely to be more sensitive to contex-
tual influences when we try to explain our own behaviour than when we try
to explain others – “I failed the test because the environment was so hot and
uncomfortable; he failed it because he is not very bright”.

So, we cannot just rely on skills

As a result, Epley suggest that we cannot and should not expect to fully under-
stand others by relying just on our own “skills”. Our observations and interpreta-
tions of others’ body language may be limited or misleading and we may have real
problems in trying to put ourselves in their position (what he calls perspective-
taking which has been a key component of many self-help books on communica-
234 tion since the classic text by Dale Carnegie – Principle 8 of How to Win Friends
and Influence People).
 Epley describes several studies where conscious attempts at perspective-tak- 10
ing, e.g., in negotiation, made things worse as it led to people acting on inac- Effective
curate conclusions. Being “mindwise” is about “Knowing the shortcomings of interpersonal
communication
your social sense” which will then “push you to be more open in sharing what’s
in your own mind with others, but also more open to listening to others” (op cit,
page 187).
One practical way of thinking about this is to approach face-to-face communi-
cation as a process with a series of stages in a way that allows a genuine exchange
of perspectives, as in Table 10.1.
The table emphasises the planning and preparation which you can undertake
before an important face-to-face communication. At first sight this might seem a
very deliberate or perhaps even a manipulative approach to human relationships.
But we are not advocating that you lose all spontaneity and plan every encounter
in minute detail. The following points were made by Peter Honey many years ago
and are still relevant:

• “on many occasions we need consciously to organise our behaviour”.

• “one of the hallmarks of an interactively skilled person is that they frequently
declare their objectives openly and explicitly”.
• “if you have got objectives, your behaviour should be in step with them”
(Honey, 1988, page 18ff).

Honey was very critical of people whose behaviour is “out of step” with their
declared objectives, such as the manager who invites staff to contribute ideas and
suggestions and then seems to relish pointing out the defects of every idea but
his own. He also commented that planning is not just something we do before
an event or activity:

On-going planning requires us to size up the situation as we are in it

(Honey, 1988, page 22)

This point highlights a potential criticism of our approach which implies that
we walk into a situation with a single predetermined plan and then simply try
to achieve it. Taking the situation described in Table 10.1, what would you do
if you received a very negative reaction from X when you asked for help/advice?
Suppose X’s response was “I’m surprised you don’t know that. Aren’t you prop-
erly qualified for this job?” You need to respond to this not very subtle attack
before you can proceed toward your objective. What do you say?
You could respond in a way which allows X to reinforce their negative image
of you. For example, if you responded by asserting how well-qualified you were
then this could allow X to say “well, you’re so well-qualified that you obviously 235
don’t need my help”. You have just made the relationship worse – X is even more
 Effective
Part 3

and group
interpersonal

communication

236
Table 10.1 Interpersonal communication as a staged process

Stage Content Points to watch Example

Decide the What do you want to achieve overall? You are a new member of the organisation and
general goal have been sent to join a new project team. One
of the older members of the team seems to
be deliberately uncooperative with you. You
want to develop a better relationship with
this colleague.
Consider the What’s happened in the past? What do you know about the history of
context Who are the participants? this group and about X. Suppose you find
What is the setting? out from other members that X is generally
Are there any hidden agendas because suspicious of ‘new, young, know-it-all’s
of the history? who want to come in and take over.’
What do your audience need or expect So, is this the pattern of behaviour which X
to happen? is expecting of you?
If so, how can you modify this stereotype?
Plan Decide on the objectives Make your objectives realistic Your objective is to show X that you value
Decide on the structure and achievable. and respect his opinion.
Make sure your structure leads up to your You find something which X is very familiar
objective with and you are not: perhaps some aspect
of the history of the project or some
complex company procedure which is new to
you.
You plan to ask their help by asking them
to explain it.
Act Use the relevant skills What are the most important skills You need to choose the right moment so that X
in this situation? e.g. feels that the request is genuine, and you need
listening, questioning etc. to make sure that you listen carefully and
How do you make contact with X? Do don’t say anything which X could interpret as
you drop in on them or attempt to set up a criticism.
meeting?
What message do you send to X to start the
conversation? Do you make contact online?
Would an email or a text be appropriate?
Follow-up What can you do to make sure your What can you do to reinforce what you Have you followed up the request so that you
communication has been effective? have achieved? can check how X has responded?
If X’s response is positive, how can you build on
that to create a better long-lasting relationship?
If X’s response is negative, is there anything
else you can do to create a better long-lasting
relationship?
10

237
Effective
interpersonal
communication
Part 3 convinced that you are the “know-it-all” who is just trying to show off your
Effective superiority.
interpersonal So, the key to effective interpersonal communication is the flexibility to
and group
communication respond to the other person in order to maintain the original objective. Perhaps
asking X for advice is too indirect an approach. Should you adopt a more direct
approach and explain how you see the problem to X: “I feel that we’ve not man-
aged to sort out how we work together, and I’d like to talk about it”. Would this
achieve the first step?
We cannot provide a definitive answer to this example because so much
depends on the context. What is X feels that all is well, and you have misinter-
preted his NVC? In this case, a very direct approach might make X feel defensive.
And this reflects one of the most important points in this chapter – commu-
nicating effectively with other people is not just applying special techniques or
behaviours which “always work”. A fundamental issue is how we perceive the
other person and recognise their needs – and this is also an important theme of
the next chapter.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ the process of interpersonal communication can be complex – unless you
understand some basic features of this process, you can easily behave in
ways which the other person does not accept or appreciate.
■ you can analyse social interaction as skilled behaviour – it has many of the
characteristics of other skills, including the importance of goals and feed-
back. But it is also important to emphasise that social skills are not just
the same as motor skills. There are important differences, including the fact
that other people may have different goals, and the importance of personal
feelings.
■ there are several important interpersonal skills, including nonverbal com-
munication (NVC), listening, self-disclosure, and assertiveness.
■ many authors stress the advantages of assertiveness without highlighting
potential problems. For example, assertive behaviour may be seen as aggres-
sive; there are issues of gender roles; and there are important cultural dif-
ferences to consider.
■ there are several “popular” models of effective communication which are
virtually ignored by social science researchers but are often used in busi-
ness and management training. We commented briefly on Neurolinguistic
Programming. It does offer some interesting ideas, but we also raise some
important concerns. For example, it has been over-simplified and applied too
238 “mechanically”, and often seems to ignore cultural differences.
 10
■ major barriers to understanding other people include our own often mis- Effective
placed confidence in our abilities to understand the way we come across interpersonal
communication
other people and to interpret their behaviour and feelings. We need to
engage with others in ways that allow a genuine exchange of perspectives.
■ you can approach face-to-face communication as a process with a series of
stages, from deciding the goal through planning and on to action. But this
must be seen flexibly – effective communication must be based on flexible
behaviour which is appropriate to the specific context.

References
Adler, H. and Heather, N. (1999) NLP in 21 Days: A Complete Introduction and Training Programme.
London: Piatkus.
Ames, D.R. (2009) Pushing up to a point: Assertiveness and effectiveness in leadership and
interpersonal dynamics. In Brief, A. and Staw, B. (eds) Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol.
29, 111–133.
Argyle, M. (1994) The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour, 5th edition. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Back, K. and Back, K. (2005) Assertiveness at Work: A Practical Guide to Handling Awkward Situations.
London: McGraw-Hill.
Bolton, R. (1986) People Skills: How to Research Yourself, Listen to Others, and Resolve Conflicts. Sydney:
Prentice Hall.
Cameron, D. (2000) Good to Talk. London: Sage.
Dhawan, E. (2021) Digital Body Language: How to Build Trust and Connection No Matter the Distance.
London: HarperCollins.
Dickson, A. (2022) A Woman in Your Own Right: The Art of Assertive, Clear and Honest Communication,
2nd edition. Richmond: Duckworth.
Epley, N. (2014) Mindwise: How We Understand What Others Think, Believe, Feel and Want. London:
Allen Lane.
Goleman, D. (1996) Emotional Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury.
Hargie, O. (2022) Skilled Interpersonal Communication, 5th edition. London: Routledge.
Hartley, P. (1999) Interpersonal Communication. 2nd edition. London Routledge.
Honey, P. (1988) Face to Face: A practical guide to interactive skills. 2nd edition. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Jourards, S. (1971) The Transparent Self, revised edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Linehan, M. and Egan, K. (1983) Asserting Yourself. London: Century.
Mannix, K. (2021) Listen: How to Find the Words for Tender Conversations. London: HarperCollins.
Symonds Research. (2022) Challenges and Solutions for Successfully Managing Virtual Teams in the
Workplace or When Teaching Online. https://symondsresearch​.com​/challenges​-virtual​-teams/.

239
 Chapter 11
How do interpersonal skills work in practice?

Introduction

The previous chapter emphasised that effective communication depends on per-

sonal awareness, interpersonal skills, and the context in which people operate.
We also argued that all these factors are open to interpretation – your view of
the context may not be the same as mine. If that is the case, then we have the
opportunity for serious misunderstanding.
If we have an inaccurate perception of ourselves or of the other person, then
we may apply the wrong approach or techniques. In all practical situations, we
need to establish a dialogue which allows the participants to understand each
other.
This chapter applies these ideas to common face-to-face situations of two very
different types:

• the more casual, unscheduled, or informal interactions and exchanges of

information which go on all the time – conversations and discussions in the
office, shopfloor, or service area, or online outside the scheduled formal
meetings.
• the more formal interactions which are often subject to company rules, reg-
ulations, and procedures, such as interviews. The last few years have seen
enormous change here. Organisations had to adjust when everything moved
online during the pandemic; some have made significant changes to their
practice as a result.

In all these situations, we can look at how the participants are working together
(or not!) to achieve some understanding which will have an impact on the effec-
tiveness of the organisation. As well as highlighting specific skills which we
described in the last chapter, we need to examine the way that participants
240 understand or make sense of the events which unfold, and this is a main theme of
the case study which starts the chapter.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-15
 11
OBJECTIVES Interpersonal
skills in practice
This chapter will:

■ apply principles developed in Chapter 10 to common face-to-face situations

in organisations.
■ analyse a case study which shows how misunderstanding, and “miscom-
munication” can quickly and easily develop through conversations and dis-
cussion in the organisation unless the participants take deliberate steps to
avoid this.
■ use the examples of selection and appraisal interviews to illustrate how
communication influences the outcomes of interactions.

Conversations in the office – the case

of the missing service engineer

The following case study is based on real events which we and colleagues have
experienced over the years, suitably anonymised to protect the guilty!

The situation
As General Manager of ABC Computer Services. Kai Brown receives an urgent
text from XYZ, an important customer in Durban, who has a “major fault in
their computer system” and demands an immediate visit from a service engineer
immediately. Kai tries to contact Sam Smith, Service Manager, at once but finds
they are out visiting PRQ Engineering, another important customer. PRQ are
based in a remote location where mobile reception is unreliable and Kai cannot
immediately contact Sam.
Deciding that the Durban problem is urgent, Kai goes to the service depart-
ment and finds engineer, Chris Anker. They have the following conversation:

KB: “ Have you any really urgent work on hand?”

CA: “Well, I’m sorting out a few updates for the new system we’ve sent to PRQ.
Sam Smith is expecting me to have them done by tomorrow”.
KB: “But is it really urgent?”
CA: “Well, I don’t know…I don’t suppose so”.
KB: “Good – you can sort out the Durban problem first”.

Kai suggests that Chris should fly to Durban on an afternoon flight and start
work at XYZ first thing next morning. Chris has to leave the office immediately 241
but continues the conversation before leaving.
Part 3 CA: “I had better leave a message for Sam Smith”.
Effective KB: “Don't worry, I will let Sam know what is happening so we can re-schedule your work
interpersonal for the next few days!”
and group
communication
Kai returns to their office and phones XYZ to confirm that Chris Anker will
be there first thing in the morning. Kai then calls Alex Botham, their personal
assistant, leaves several messages and instructions, answers some queries, and
ends the call as follows.

KB: “Oh, by the way, let Sam Smith know that Chris Anker will probably be in Durban for
a few days working on XYZ's computer problems!”

Sam Smith returns just after 2 pm and finds that Chris Anker is not in the
office. Knowing from his e-calendar that Chris is scheduled to be in the
office for the rest of the day, Sam sends an email, instructing Chris to drop
everything and go to clear up an urgent problem at PRQ engineering first
thing in the morning.
Sam then leaves the office at 3.30 pm to meet another customer. Sam does not
return that day and goes home to work on a technical report, turning off their
smartphone to avoid interruptions.
After working through the other jobs from Kai by around 3.45 pm, Alex
Botham sends an email to Sam Smith, saying that Chris Anker will probably be
in Durban for a few days on the XYZ job.

The next day

Sam Smith arrives in the office at 8 am, notes that Chris Anker is not there, and
assumes that Chris has gone to PRQ Engineering. Sam has an urgent technical
report to finish so does not check email (Sam usually does this first thing).
About 9.30 am, Sam receives an irate phone call from PRQ Engineering – the
promised service engineer has not arrived, so they are threatening to cancel the
lucrative service contract.
At first, no one else in the office knows anything about Chris Anker's
whereabouts. As a last resort, Sam checks email to find the message from Alex
Botham: “Kai has asked me to let you know that Chris Anker will probably be
in Durban at XYZ for a few days”. Sam is both puzzled and annoyed by the brief
message.
About five minutes later, Sam Smith storms into Kai Brown’s office and says:

“How do you expect me to run an efficient service department, when you send my staff
around the country without letting me know? We will probably lose the PRQ Engineering
242 contract because Chris Anker did not report there this morning as I promised”.
What do you think of communication at ABC? 11
Interpersonal
Before reading on, consider the following questions: skills in practice

• what are the most important problems of interpersonal communication illus-

trated in this case study?
• what are the key factors (both process and meaning) which have created
these problems?
• who was responsible for the problems?
• how could the participants have behaved differently to avoid these problems?
(both short-term and long-term.)
• does this case study simply illustrate poor interpersonal communication? Or
do you recognise any broader issues?

Our analysis
There are many ways to analyse this incident – we focus on the interpersonal
issues. But perhaps there are broader problems in the organisation and this con-
flict is simply a symptom. For example, we have not mentioned the physical sur-
roundings – researchers have suggested that this can have important influences,
as we suggest in Box 11.1.
We have also not provided any information on the social identities of the char-
acters in our scenario. For example, you might like to guess the gender of each
character – what were the images you created in your imagination as you read the
case? We return to this issue later.
Moving back to the interpersonal difficulties, we have picked out the follow-
ing problems. Each one suggests that the participants are not paying much atten-
tion to the impact of their communication – they could do with some urgent
training in listening, NVC etc. For each problem, we also suggest an important
practical principle which has been ignored:

The request from Kai Brown

Consider the way Kai communicates to Chris Anker. If your boss asks you “Have
you any really urgent work on hand?”, this implies that a request is about to fol-
low which is really urgent. How is Chris supposed to respond? What does “really
urgent” actually mean? Why did Kai not start on a more neutral note and ask
what jobs Chris was undertaking?
And the principle: other people will always try to interpret the intention behind
what you are saying. This can be a particular problem when status differences
are involved. 243
Part 3 Kai’s reassuring message to Chris
Effective
interpersonal When Chris says, “I’d better leave a message for Sam Smith”, Kai says “Don't
and group worry, I will let Sam know what is happening”. Kai does not do this in a way
communication
which guarantees the communication happens – leaving a message for Sam but
making no real attempt to ensure either that Sam has received it – or that the full
urgency of the situation is explained.
And the principle: if you give a commitment and a reassuring message, you
should always make sure that you act on it in the way that you have implied.

Kai’s message to Sam

Kai does not contact Sam directly but leaves it to Alex Botham. But note the way
Kai does this: “Oh, by the way, let Sam Smith know that Chris Anker will prob-
ably be in Durban for a few days working on XYZ's computer problems!” There
are several hints in this sentence that the message is not very important – “by the
way” and “probably”. Alex gives it low priority and leaves it till later.
And the principle: if you delegate a job then you need to explicitly communi-
cate its urgency or priority. Otherwise, the other person will assume the pri-
ority from the way you pass it on. In this case, the casual way the message was
expressed signalled “low priority”.

Sam’s attempt to contact Chris

Finding no one in the office, Sam emails Chris to “drop everything” – if the
demand is so urgent, is an email sufficient to explain what needs to happen?
Surely not. Sam makes no further attempt to check that the message has been
received and understood.
And the principle: always try to receive feedback on messages you send, espe-
cially if they are important or urgent.

Sam’s confrontation with Kai

Imagine you are Kai.
How would you respond to Sam’s opening comment: “How do you expect me
to run an efficient service department, when you send my staff round the country
without letting me know?”
This immediately puts Kai on the defensive, both in the tone and the spe-
cific accusation – it is aggressive rather than assertive. Kai will almost certainly
respond to the accusation and the conversation will turn to argument over who
told what to whom, rather than resolving the immediate crisis.
Your perception might have been influenced by the way we said Sam “storms
244 in” – if we had simply said “Sam arrives at...” then this frames the interaction
very differently.
 And the principle: the way that you open a conversation establishes the tone and 11
the agenda. If you “say” you want a fight, do not be surprised if you get one. Interpersonal
skills in practice

Resolving the issues

As with so many problems in organisational communication, this crisis could
have been avoided if the participants had communicated more carefully. And
everyone contributed to the crisis. Even Alex who simply passed on the mes-
sage can be criticised – failing to establish whether the message was important
or urgent.
The most significant outcome in our case study is the conflict which has now
emerged between Kai and Sam. Of course, we have not explored their history
– this may be one symptom of a long-standing personal dispute – Kai does not
make a very serious attempt to consult Sam. Or it may be a symptom of confused
or sloppy management style.
If we assume that there is no personal animosity between them, what could
Sam have said? He could have presented the problem to Kai:

“We have a crisis – we both assigned Chris Anker to urgent jobs with different customers.
We may lose an important customer if we do not respond promptly”.

This form of expression sets out the problem, assumes joint responsibility, does
not assign blame, and suggests what needs to happen – it is assertive rather than
aggressive. Deciding what went wrong, and how it should be resolved long-term,
is best left till the crisis is over.

BOX 11.1 HOW IMPORTANT ARE THE PHYSICAL

SURROUNDINGS IN THE WAYS WE COMMUNICATE?
The idea that our physical surroundings influence how we communicate per-
suaded many organisations to move to open plan offices. But the outcomes can
be more complex. Moving to open plan may give more opportunities for conver-
sations and may lead to perceptions of improved communication. But we cannot
guarantee positive outcomes. In fact, the evidence points in the opposite direc-
tion – open plan offices have negative effects on both communication and staff
wellbeing.
Research studies report consistent difficulties in having certain types of con-
versations, such as very confidential ones, in open plan spaces.
As we have discovered many times, communication cannot be determined by
a simple change. What have been called “gathering places” may be more signifi-
cant than the individual’s workspace – places where staff typically congregate or 245
Part 3
Effective meet during their daily routines, by vending machines, photocopiers, in canteens
interpersonal etc. Organisations should ensure these places are conveniently situated to encour-
and group
communication age communication.
Another aspect of physical space which is relevant to this chapter is the way
that staff can manipulate office layouts. For example, Sundstrom quotes the
executive who arranged his office so visitors had to sit opposite him, and directly
in the light, so it was easier to study their faces.
One common issue which runs through all these conversations is the way that
the participants build up ideas about what an incident means and then translate
this into action which may be counterproductive in the long term.
One every useful way of analysing this process is described by Linda Ellinor
and Glenna Gerrard, building on work by Chris Argyris and Peter Senge (Ellinor
and Gerrard, 1998, page 82ff). They talk about the way we interpret data, make
assumptions, draw conclusions, and then act on the basis of those conclusions.
Other people use a different “ladder of inference” and arrive at different conclu-
sions from the same event. Figure 11.1 below shows the steps in the left-hand
column. If you start from the bottom and work up, then you can see how two
people (A and B) can arrive at very different conclusions and actions from the
same starting point. The logic of Person A is taken from Ellinor and Gerrard.

Person A Person B
Take action I won’t give Sally any key tasks I must see Sally for a counselling
interview
Adopt beliefs Good team players follow the rules Staff who are on top of their job
and attend meetings on time are able to explain problems to the
team
Draw Sally is not a good team player Sally is under pressure at the
conclusions moment
Make Sally does not think this meeting Sally must be worried about
assumptions is important something if she didn’t explain
Add meaning Being late is not acceptable People should explain if they cannot
(personal and attend on time
cultural)
Select data Sally came to the meeting late. Sally came to the meeting late.
(personal and She didn’t say why She didn’t say why
cultural)

Figure 11.1 The ladder of inference

246
Thinking about difference 11
Interpersonal
What was your image of the participants in the case study? Were they all male, skills in practice

or all female, or a mix and who occupied which roles? For example, was the sec-
retary male or female? Was the service engineer male or female?, etc.
Another useful question would be to consider the racial background of the
actors in the story – many of the names could be considered to be white and
Anglo-Saxon but Asian and Dutch names were also used within the narrative.
Would this make a difference to the interactions and sense of self-image, self-
esteem and, possibly, entitlement?
You probably assumed we set the location as Durban in South Africa. We did
not specify this. According to https://geotargit​.com, there are five places called
Durban across three countries. This adds further layers of complexity – what if
African surnames such as Obadan or Inyang had been used? Would other under-
currents be at play in the various interactions within the story?
As one colleague commented:
Having worked with an Indian/African Muslim woman in England I have seen how
people make various assumptions which play out in the conversations and discussions
that she has.
In your context, there may be legislation which aims to prevent individuals from
suffering from discrimination on the grounds of disability, age, sex, sexual orienta-
tion, marriage or civil partnership, religion or belief, or gender reassignment (e.g. in
England this is covered by the Equality Act 2010, www​.acas​.ork​.uk). Despite this
legislation, these factors continue to make a difference in the workplace and in every-
day interactions. Understanding and addressing our own conscious and unconscious
biases by getting to know the people that we work with can make all the difference in
terms of effective communication in the workplace.

Supportive communication

Another way of looking at conversations is to ask whether they are supportive or

defensive. Several of the conversations in the case study put the other person “on
the spot”, as in Kai’s initial request to Chris. This was manipulative and did not
encourage Chris to respond openly.
Andrews and Herschel (1996) summarised developments in our ideas of sup-
portive communication. They suggested five important characteristics which are
still relevant (pages 103–106):

1. it focuses on the problem, not on the person. Contrast what Sam said to Kai 247
in the case study above with our suggestion.
Part 3 2. it is based on “congruence” where what we communicate is really based on
Effective what we think and feel. In other words, we are not trying to mask what we
interpersonal say – the critical comment delivered with a smile is an example of incongru-
and group
communication ent behaviour which puts the other person on the defensive.
3. it is descriptive rather than evaluative. Again, compare what Sam said to Kai
with what we recommend.
4. it is “conjunctive” – in other words, it flows from what has already been dis-
cussed and does not interrupt or cut across others.
5. it “validates” individuals – in other words, it gives the impression that “what-
ever the difference in official organisational rank, she or he considers the
other individual of equal worth as a person” (pages 105/106). Box 11.1 gives
an example which shows how brief comments can have a very destructive
impact.

They also suggest these principles may be especially important in communica-

tions between superiors and subordinates given some of the research which sug-
gests that:

superiors believe they communicate with subordinates more effectively than they
actually do.
(page 110)

Managing difficult conversations

Another useful approach comes from the Harvard Negotiation Project – Difficult
Conversations by Stone, Patton, and Heen (2020). This proposes a common under-
lying structure to every difficult conversation we have to have, either at work or
home. They suggest that:

no matter what the subject, our thoughts and feelings fall into the same three categories,
or ‘conversations.’ And in each of these conversations we make predictable errors that
distort our thoughts and feelings and get us into trouble.
(page 7)

These three categories that we have to address and hopefully resolve are:

• what happened?
We need to agree on what actually happened which led up to the conversation.
• feelings.
248 What do we do with the various feelings (often ones of anger and hurt) which
we are experiencing?
• identity. 11
What does this situation mean for us in terms of our self-image and self-esteem? Interpersonal
• managing difficult conversations: “requires learning to operate effectively in skills in practice

each of the three realms” (op cit, page 8).

BOX 11.2 HOW TO DESTROY A RELATIONSHIP

IN ONE EASY SENTENCE
The dangers of the careless or thoughtless comment sentence is illustrated in
the following example. Non-supportive communication can have a powerful and
lasting impact:

the meeting had been quite productive, but we had got to a point where we
seemed to be a bit stuck, and no way forward was emerging. I proposed a
possible solution. The senior manager in the meeting immediately responded
– ‘you obviously have not been listening to me. That solution is not appropri-
ate because…’ I felt quite shocked and humiliated by this retort. I had been
listening very carefully indeed – we just didn’t agree on the way forward. I
never trusted that manager again.

When organisations provide the script…

Many modern organisations train their employees to follow a ‘script’ in particu-

lar situations, e.g., in sales or telephone conversations with customers, as the
following examples illustrate:

• the “have a nice day” from the restaurant as you leave.

• the “come again soon” plus “‘cheery wave” which restaurant staff were forced
to deliver every time.
• the designer clothes shop whose sales staff are forbidden to describe clothes
as “lovely” or “nice” (among the right words are “exquisite” and “glamorous”).
• the supermarket whose staff must smile and make eye contact with all cus-
tomers and are graded on these behaviours as part of performance appraisal.
(examples from Cameron, 2000, page 57)

The problem with all such scripts is that they assume the same behaviour means
the same thing to all receivers and they assume that everyone can deliver the
same script in a completely uniform way. Both these assumptions are suspect.
We argue throughout this book that communication is sensitive to context and 249
is inherently ambiguous. And skilled behaviour is flexible. In the long term,
Part 3 organisations who believe that “good communication” simply equals a “standard
Effective script” may find they have very disgruntled employees.
interpersonal
and group
communication
Communication and interviews

We broadly agree with the definition of an interview from Maureen Guirdham

(1995):

In an interview, two people meet, face to face, to accomplish a known purpose by talking
together. An interview is different from either a negotiation or a problem-solving meeting
because it is one-sided – as the words ‘interviewer’ and ‘interviewee’ suggest.
(Guirdham, 1995, page 180)

But we do have caveats – this definition ignores the possibility that there might be
more than one interviewer in some situations (e.g., the selection panel) and that
the interview may be online. But it does highlight the explicit “known purpose”
which is recognised by both sides and the different roles involved. She goes on to
discuss the obligations that this places on the interviewers. They are in control
and must not only take responsibility to achieve the purpose but also to treat the
interviewee fairly and honestly. As we shall see in some later examples, inter-
viewers sometimes ignore this last responsibility and “play games” which cannot
be justified.
The purpose of the interview can also be complex. For example, the main
purpose of a selection interview is to select the right person for the particular
job. But this is not the only goal which the interviewers have to work towards –
they must also realise that they are “representing the organisation” to candidates.
Candidates will use the interviewers’ behaviour and competence as information
about “what the organisation is really like” and “what it might be like to work
here”. There is the well-known tale of the organisation which decided that the
best test for managerial candidates was a series of short, aggressive, and stressful
interviews. The candidate who performed best in these – staying calm, sticking
to his arguments under pressure – was offered the job. He immediately refused
it and walked out, commenting that “if this is how you treat your prospective
employees then I do not want to work for you”.
There are many different types of interviews with different purposes which
mean that interviewers have to adopt a different approach and use different
skills. For example, the typical selection interview demands good question-
ing technique; the counselling interview places more emphasis on reflecting
and listening techniques. To illustrate these differences, we shall examine two
250 types in more detail: the selection interview and the performance appraisal
interview.
Communication in the selection interview 11
Interpersonal
In theory, the selection process is a process of logical steps: skills in practice

• job description, where the nature and demands of the job are thoroughly
reviewed and analysed.
• person specification, where the job demands are translated into the skills and
personal characteristics which the person will need to do the job well.
• advertising the vacancy, so that everyone who might meet the specification
has the opportunity to apply.
• sorting and short-listing applications, to select candidates who fully satisfy
the person specification.
• the selection event itself, which will normally include an interview (see Box
12.3 for some data on how this differs across cultures), but which increas-
ingly includes other tests such as psychometric tests or group tasks.

In practice, this process can be both difficult and time-consuming. For example, the
job demands may be changing and there may be some argument as to how this should
be decided. There may also be argument about which of the characteristics in the per-
son specification are the most important. The choice of selection methods may also
be controversial. For example, there is debate about the value of psychometric tests.
Unfortunately, some organisations do use selection methods which have very dubious
validity, such as graphology – the analysis of a person’s handwriting.
We do not have the space to explore these issues more fully.
Perhaps the most important implication for communication is the possible
ambiguity and uncertainty which can creep into the interview room. If the job
description and person specification are poorly prepared, then the interviewer
might not have a very clear idea of what they are looking for. If there is a panel
interview, then there might be confusion or even clear disagreement between
interviewers. The candidate might also have developed a misleading picture of
the job depending on how the advertising material was prepared.

BOX 11.3 SELECTION PRACTICES VARY

Various studies have shown that there are significant variations both within and
between countries in terms of the methods they use to select employees. For
example:

■ an early study by Hodgkinson and Payne (1998) reviewed how British,

Dutch, and French organisations selected university graduates. Among the
significant differences were that traditional interviews were always used 251
Part 3
Effective by nearly all organisations in the UK and Netherlands to select university
interpersonal graduates (89% and 85% respectively). Only 45% of French organisations
and group
communication always used them; criterion-referenced interviews were used much more in
France than in the UK. Nearly half the UK organisations never used them;
graphology was used much more in France than in the Netherlands. A total
of 82% of French organisations sometimes used it.
■ Zibarras and Woods (2010) found that organisations from their UK sample
were more likely to use “informal methods” (e.g. unstructured interviews) than
“formal methods” (e.g., assessment centres).There were differences across sec-
tors – public and voluntary sectors were more likely to use formal methods.

Research on selection interviews has identified many potential problems and pit-
falls in the interview process. For example, Mike Smith (1982) suggested five
main sources of unreliability which still apply:

■ different interviewers may look for different characteristics in the

interviewees.
■ the setting of the interview may influence the interviewee in ways which are
unrelated to their skills for the job. For example, a candidate recently told
us how he had failed his last interview after being “overwhelmed” by the
surroundings. Instead of the expected formal panel interview, he was taken
to a lounge with low comfy chairs.
■ poor structure. The same candidate can give a very different impression
depending on which sequence of questions they receive.
■ interactive problems. Even interviewers with clear plans and objectives may
make unreliable decisions unless they recognise that their behaviour in the
interview can influence the way it progresses.
■ interviewers may use the information they have gained from candidates in
different ways. One bias that may be especially important in interviews is
the finding that interviewers can place too much emphasis on negative or
unusual information.

BOX 11.4 FAIR TREATMENT OR

INCOMPETENT PRACTICE?
How would you have responded as a candidate to the following three interview
situations?

Straight out of college, this was one of my first interviews, for a copy-writ-
252 ing trainee in an advertising agency. I was shown into the manager’s room
 11
and sat on the low, comfy chair facing his desk. He looked up and leaned Interpersonal
back in his chair, looked me straight in the eye, and said ‘Hello, Tony.’ I said skills in practice

‘hello’ and paused. I was expecting the first question. Nothing happened – he
continued to look me straight in the eye. After an awkward pause where I
started to panic, I realised he was not going to say anything, so I started – ‘I
suppose you’d like to hear something about me.’ He nodded slightly but still
did not say anything. So, I started to talk about myself. I wasn’t prepared
for this and so I didn’t feel I was giving a very coherent presentation. After
about ten minutes (it seemed a lot longer), I said: ‘and I’d really like to work
for an organisation which has exciting development plans. What are your
plans?’He leaned back again –‘That’s a very interesting question – what
do you think we should be doing? After a few more minutes of desperate
improvisation, I was told the interview was over. I crawled out of the office,
feeling completely dispirited, angry, and frustrated. I did not get the job. In
retrospect, I’m glad I wasn’t offered it.
I was pleased to be offered an interview for this post in local govern-
ment as it meant more responsibility, better career prospects, and a useful
promotion from my present post. I also wanted to move to that part of the
country. I was asked to attend for interview at the local college. When I
arrived, I was asked to wait as apparently the ‘interviews are running a few
minutes late.’ Eventually, I was escorted to Lecture Room 6. When I walked
in, I was shown to a chair in the position where the lecturer would usually
be. I looked up and discovered I was in a banked lecture hall and there must
have been about 70 people sat looking at me. I was asked six questions by
different members of the audience – who introduced themselves before their
question. None of my answers received any follow-ups or probing questions.
If I had known this was going to happen, I would have given fuller answers.
After my six questions I was thanked and asked to leave. Afterwards, I
discovered that these six questions were a standard procedure. The job was
controversial because of local politics so the large audience was because all
the interested parties had exercised their formal right to see the candidate.
I walked into the interview room. The interviewer was standing behind
the desk, clutching a stopwatch. He didn’t say anything, so I sat down in
what was obviously the interviewee’s chair. He leaned over towards me and
said, ‘Right, you’ve got ten minutes to sell yourself to me. Go!’ He clicked the
stopwatch to start the time and sat down with arms folded.

In all three situations, the candidate expected to receive a conventional inter-

view: a series of relevant questions, some probes and follow-ups, the chance to
add their own comments, and the chance to ask questions. 253
Part 3 Table 11.1 The interview as planned communication
Effective
interpersonal
and group Stage Content Points to Example
communication
watch

Decide the What do You have been asked to carry out

general| you want the first round of Interviews on
goal to achieve the candidates for the supervisor
overall? position. You have to Interview
eight candidates, all external, and
recommend three for a second
Interview
Consider What has Are there any As all the candidates are external,
the context happened In hidden agendas there should not be any problems
the past? because of the because of “internal politics”. Will
history? the candidates know what this
first Interview Is for? What sort of
Interview will they expect?
Who are the What does the What setting will be the best
participants? other person place to Interview them to give
What Is the need or expect a professional Impression of the
setting? to happen? organisation (not a corner of a
busy office with phones ringing all
the time)
Plan Decide on Make your Your objectives are to:
the objectives objectives 1 Find which three candidates
Decide on the realistic and match the job and person spec.
structure achievable 2 Give them the best chance to
Make sure your show what they can offer.
structure leads 3 Show them that the organisation
up to your Is a good place to work.
objective
You must make sure that you have
done your homework: read all the
applications; research the Job and
person spec.
You must have an Interview plan
which Is well-structured (and check
your questions before the event)
Give the Interview a clear,
confident Introduction
Make sure you listen to each
candidate
254 (Continued)
Table 11.1 (Continued) 11
Interpersonal
skills in practice
Stage Content Points to Example
watch

Make sure you probe the answers

to uncover ‘the evidence’
Act Use the What are the Give the candidate the chance to
relevant skills most important ask questions
skills In this
situation e.g. Complete the documentation
Follow-up listening,- Make sure that all candidates are
questioning, told of the outcome
etc.?

In all three situations, the organisation ignored these expectations and pre-
sented the candidate with a very different challenge (although situation 2 is clos-
est to the expected format, the setting is totally unexpected). In each case, was
the organisation behaving legitimately? Does it have a rationale for the specific
tactics? How will candidates feel about this “induction” to the organisation?
Why weren’t candidates told what to expect?
There is no real evidence to suggest that “shock tactics” help an interviewer
arrive at a better opinion of the interviewee’s competence and potential. The evi-
dence points the other way. All these three organisations are failing to communi-
cate clear expectations to their candidates. If they make bad selection decisions,
they should not be surprised!
Despite continuing concerns about the reliability of interviewer judge-
ments, the interview remains one of the most popular selection methods.
Research suggests that its reliability can be improved in several ways, notably
by training interviewers to avoid the problems we listed above. If interviewers
are sufficiently trained, if they know what characteristics they are looking for,
and if they follow a clear (but not over-rigid) interview plan, then they can
perform well. They must also have the specific social skills we highlighted in
the last chapter.
The general issues we have identified are summarised in Figure 11.1
which applies the model developed in Chapter 10 to the selection interview.
This also shows that the specific skills covered in Chapter 10 are all rel-
evant to interview practice. The example of opening and closing will illustrate
this.​

255
Part 3 OPENING AND CLOSING
Effective
interpersonal The choice of opening can be very important in formal situations such as an
and group
communication interview where the opening can establish either a positive or negative atmos-
phere. Which of the following opening techniques would you prefer in a selec-
tion interview:

• the interviewer gives you a positive welcome and spends some time in social
conversation – breaking the ice – before getting down to business.
• the interviewer starts by describing important features about the company,
and the job and then goes straight into critical questions, like: “What are the
most important attributes you have for this job?”

The first strategy is designed to make you feel relaxed so you can put on the
best performance you can. The second is much “colder” and more official. If
it is repeated to every candidate, then you can wonder whether this open-
ing is the best use of interview time – why not have a general briefing to all
candidates?
There is also a variety of tactics available to close or conclude the interview.
The good interviewer will make sure that the interviewee has a chance to clear
up any points they have not understood and will make sure that they know what
is going to happen as a result of the interview. We know from our own experi-
ence that this does not always happen!

When cultural differences make the difference

As we argued in the previous chapter, it is not sufficient just to “know the tech-
niques” to become a skilled interviewer. The skilled communicator must also
be looking for the different meanings which might affect different participants.
Many advice books on interview performance are written from a perspective
which favours candidates from particular cultural backgrounds (often reflecting
middle-class white American values!) Candidates from different cultural back-
grounds may not recognise or adapt to the “hidden rules” as the following exam-
ples illustrate (from Hargie, 1997):

• the question “why have you applied for this position?” may be recognised as
an opportunity to show how your skills and background fit you for the posi-
tion. From a different cultural expectation, it may be seen as too obvious to
warrant a detailed answer.
256 • the question “do you have any questions to ask us?” offers an opportunity
to impress by asking intelligent questions about prospects and development.
 It may be ignored by candidates who have the cultural norm of showing 11
respect to the person of high status. From this perspective, asking would be Interpersonal
disrespectful. skills in practice

Organisation and structure in the selection interview

Another characteristic which is emphasised in interviewer training is the impor-

tance of a clear structure in the interview. Structure can be discussed at two
levels: the overall structure of the interview, and the way that questions can be
organised in a sensible sequence.

Overall structure

The simplest way of summarising the likely structure of a selection interview is

to say it will have a beginning, middle and end. ​
There are several models of the selection interview which are more elaborated
versions of this. Problems occur when interviewers “change the rules” without
giving a clear idea of what to expect, as Box 11.4 illustrates.

Question sequences

In the last chapter, we introduced the difference between open and closed ques-
tions. Open questions invite the candidate to answer in any way they see fit;
closed questions ask for a yes/no or specific answer. Hargie (2022) suggests that
other types of questions are important, including:

• leading questions. These are “assumption laden. By the way they are worded
they lead the respondent towards an expected response” (Hargie, 2022, page

Table 11.2 Stages in the selection interview

Section What they might contain

Beginning Candidate is welcomed

Interviewer(s) introduce themselves and explain how the interview will be
conducted
Opening questions are designed to make the candidate feel at ease
Middle Interviewer asks main questions and follow-ups
Ending Interviewer invites candidate to ask any questions
257
Interviewer explains what will happen next
Part 3 138), and which could give a misleading impression in a selection interview if
Effective the candidate feels obliged to give the “expected answer”.
interpersonal • multiple questions, where two or more separate questions are bundled together
and group
communication as one. This confuses candidates – which question should I answer first?

Of course, there is no guarantee that a specific type of question will elicit the
intended response, as the following examples illustrate:

Q: “How long did you spend in the Sales Department?”

(closed question anticipating short, factual answer)
A: “Well, I don’t think that I really spent long enough as I felt that I should have
been able to…”
(extended answer)
And the other way round:
Q: “What do you think about expanding international links?”
(open question anticipating a long answer)
A: “Very good idea”.
(restricted answer)

Interviewers may need to ask a series of open or closed questions to get the
response they want from candidates, and this is where sequences of questions and
the use of probes become important.
Probes are designed to “probe” the previous answer in order to get a more
detailed picture. For example, suppose you were interviewing a young graduate
and wanted to check their IT competence. You might start with a general ques-
tion: “How much IT did you use at college?” Suppose the candidate simply said,
“We used it quite a bit”. This answer could be probed in a number of ways – one
sequence could be:

• which software packages have you used?

• what did you use them for?
• what is the most complex task you’ve done with those packages?

This sequence and further probes should establish both the breadth and depth
of the candidate’s expertise. Good interviewers will also probe to establish the
evidence behind the candidate’s answers. For example, does using IT “quite a bit”
mean “word-processing one essay a month” or “using the internet and computer-
ised databases every day”?
Popular sequences of questions include:

258 • funnel sequence, which starts with open questions and then narrows down,
using closed questions and probes.
• inverted funnel, which starts with closed questions and then opens out. 11
• tunnel sequence where all the questions are at the same level. They are usu- Interpersonal
ally closed. (Hargie, 2022, page 131ff) skills in practice

Communication and feedback in

the appraisal interview

Many organisations have an appraisal system with the following characteristics:

• a formal meeting takes place between a boss (appraiser)and subordinate

(appraisee) which takes place at least once per annum and which reviews how
the appraisee has performed over the previous period.
• the appraiser gives feedback to the appraisee, and the meeting discusses this
feedback.
• the meeting is based in some documentation which both parties have to con-
sider before the meeting.
• the outcomes of the meeting are a formal assessment (usually written and
kept) of how the appraisee has progressed and what this means for future
performance (e.g., future targets agreed) and staff development (e.g. agreed
training or development plan).
• these procedures are usually established and monitored by the human
resources function within the organisation.

You can analyse the appraisal interview in the same way that we analysed the
selection interview – as planned communication; as an interaction with expected
structures; as an opportunity for interviewers to make systematic errors, and
so on. In this chapter, we shall focus on the process of feedback which is a key
component of many interactions.

Do the appraisers have the necessary skills to

give productive and supportive feedback?
If the appraiser does not have the necessary social skills, then the system can eas-
ily collapse. Is there training to make sure that everyone is adopting a consistent
approach?
Factors which strongly influence the quality of appraisal interviews include:

• The amount of critical feedback. Where managers can spend up to one quarter of
the interview criticising or attacking the appraisee, it is not surprising if the
appraisees adopt a defensive attitude!
• The balance in the performance review. The balance between positive and nega- 259
tive feedback is very important.
Part 3 • The content of the feedback. For example, is it clear and unambiguous? Is it rele-
Effective vant to what the person does, or does it focus on more personal characteristics?
interpersonal • The use of a range of measures. If there is a wide range of evidence on how well
and group
communication the person is doing and if this evidence is available before the meeting, then
this will support the discussion.
• The way the interview is organised and conducted. Perhaps the critical factor here is
how well and how much the appraisee is able to participate in the discussion.
• The relationship between the appraiser and appraisee. If there is already a good
relationship, then this will make the appraisal much easier.

The problems with many appraisal schemes has led to new variations emerging.
For example, some organisations have put much more emphasis on self-appraisal
as a device for encouraging staff to reflect on their performance and suggest ways
they can improve. Another way is to increase the variety of feedback available, as
in 360-degree feedback which we describe in Box 11.5.
Even with expert appraisers and a carefully prepared meeting, there are
important weaknesses of the annual appraisal system. For example, it offers a
good opportunity to “game the system” from both the employer’s and employee’s
perspective and can fail to recognise the importance of collaboration and team-
working. As a result, many organisations have abandoned this system.

BOX 11.5 360-DEGREE FEEDBACK

Peter Ward, a consultant who used this method in a number of British organisa-
tions, defined the method as:

The systematic collection and feedback of performance data on an individ-

ual or group, derived from a number of stakeholders in their performance.
(Ward, 1997, page 4)

Susan Heathfield is more specific:

360-degree feedback is a method of employee review that provides each

employee the opportunity to receive performance feedback from their
supervisor or manager and four to eight peers, reporting staff members,
co-workers, and, in some cases, customers.
(Heathfield, 2022)

For example, suppose you are a junior manager in a retail company. Data on
your performance would be collected from relevant stakeholders such as your
260 staff, your boss, other managers you have to deal with, and your main customers.
 11
The data would be collected systematically using questionnaires or interviews or Interpersonal
perhaps both. You receive a written report which summarises the results and you skills in practice
have a chance to reflect on this report before you discuss it with your appraiser.
This discussion will cover four areas:

■ your strengths – those behaviours where you see yourself as strong and
where others also rate you as strong.
■ your development areas – those behaviours where you think you need to
improve and so do others.
■ discrepancies – those behaviours where you see yourself as strong and but
where others do not. In other words, there is a discrepancy between how you
see yourself and how others see you.
■ hidden strengths – those behaviours where others you see you as strong but
where you have not rated yourself highly.

As this brief summary implies, a comprehensive 360-degree system is both com-

plex and time-consuming. If it is implemented carefully then it can make a sig-
nificant impact on the culture of a company over time. If it is treated as a “quick
fix” then it will probably do more harm than good.
Beqiri provides a useful overview of the potential strengths of the system
(e.g., increased awareness of personal skills) and limitations (e.g., feedback may
conflict; over-concentration on weaknesses; lack of support/commitment from
senior management), alongside other useful articles on organisational commu-
nication (https://virtualspeech​.com). As with all these schemes, the quality of
communication is critical to its success.

Defining the skills of feedback

Feedback is obviously a critical component of the appraisal interview but there

are a number of less formal situations where someone might need to receive feed-
back on their performance. So, is there a “correct” way of delivering feedback so
that the person accepts it without becoming antagonistic or defensive?
There are a number of guidelines available. Most of them focus on issues iden-
tified by Harry Levinson who offers the following advice, especially when giving
negative feedback (quoted in Goleman, 1996, pages 153/4):

• Be specific. Feedback should highlight specific events or examples rather than

just general advice. It should also be specific about what the person did.
• Offer a solution. Feedback should suggest ways of resolving any problems.
There is little or no point in offering negative feedback where there is no way 261
the person can improve.
Part 3 • Deliver the feedback face-to-face.
Effective • Be sensitive. This is simply a reminder that feedback, even negative feedback,
interpersonal should be delivered in a positive way rather than simply attacking the other
and group
communication person.

Douglas Stone and Sheila Heen (2014) offer useful advice on how to “receive
feedback well”. They identify three “triggers” which can get in the way:

• truth triggers, where we feel that the feedback is wrong or unhelpful

• relationship triggers, where we are inappropriately influenced by the rela-
tionship we have with the other person.
• identity triggers, where the feedback makes us question our sense of who we
are, and we feel “threatened and off balance”.

These triggers “are obstacles because they keep us from engaging skilfully in the
conversation” and they offer advice on how to recognise and overcome them.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ the skills and techniques which were explained in Chapter 10 can be applied
in common face-to-face situations in organisations, both the more casual,
conversations and discussions, and more formal interactions, such as selec-
tion and appraisal interviews.
■ one important issue is the way that participants understand or “make
sense” of the events which unfold. We can easily jump to misleading or
unwarranted assumptions and base our communication on these. This can
very easily lead to confusion and conflict.
■ supportive communication is important, especially in encounters where
there is a status difference.
■ organisations which train employees to use standard, inflexible scripts are
adopting a very limited view of human communication.
■ in formal situations like interviews, the person in control, the interviewer, has
special responsibilities to manage the interaction so that communication is
open and focused on the specific objectives.
■ a range of communication problems can affect formal interviews like the
selection interview and interviewers should be trained to avoid these.
■ feedback is a particularly important and difficult process which needs care-
ful attention.
262
References 11
Interpersonal
Andrews, P.H. and Herschel, R.T. (1996) Organisational Communication: Empowerment in a skills in practice
Technological Society. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Cameron, D. (2000) Good to Talk. London: Sage
Ellinor, L. and Gerrard, G. (1998) Dialogue: Rediscover the Transforming Power of Conversation. New
York: John Wiley.
Goleman, D. (1996) Emotional Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury.
Heathfield, S.M. (2022) What is 360-degree feedback? https://www​.thebalancemoney​.com​
/360 ​-degree​-feedback​-information​-1917537.
Heen, S. and Stone, D. (2014) Thanks for the Feedback: The Science and Art of Receiving Feedback Well.
London: Portfolio Penguin/Viking.
Hodgkinson, G. and Payne, R.L. (1998) Graduate selection in three European countries. Journal
of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 71(4): 359–365.
Guirdham, M. (1995) Interpersonal Skills at Work (2nd eedition) Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.
Smith, M. (1982) Selection interviewing: a four step approach. In Breakwell, G., Foot, H. and
Gilmore, R. eds. Social Psychology: a practical manual. London: McMillan, pages 19–37
Stone, D., Patton, B. and Heen, S. (2020) Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most.
London: Penguin.
Ward, P. (1997) 360-Degree Feedback. London: IPD.
Zibarras, L.D. and Woods, S.A. (2010) A survey of UK selection practices across different
organization sizes and industry sectors. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 83(2):
499–511. https://openaccess​.city​.ac​.uk​/id​/eprint​/2213​/1​/UK​%20selection​%20practices ​_
JOOP914​_ revision​%20-​%20final​.pdf.

263
 Chapter 12
How can we organise effective meetings?

Introduction

It is depressingly easy to find complaints about the sorts of meetings which are
such a regular part of life in organisations. If presentations make us nervous, then
meetings seem to make us disappointed and cynical:

a meeting brings together a group of the unfit, appointed by the unwilling, to do the
unnecessary.
(many texts, e.g., Stanton, 1996)

My research suggests that only around 50% of meeting time is effective, well used, and
engaging — and these effectiveness numbers drop even lower when it comes to remote
meetings.
(Rogelberg, 2019)

70% of meetings keep employees from doing productive work.

(Larsen, 2022)

Various surveys reinforce these negative impressions as we see later in this chap-
ter. Meetings are also a regular target for comedians and satirists, as you will see
in Box 12.1.
Some management experts have suggested we “do away” with meetings alto-
gether but we agree with Steven Rogelberg that

the elimination of meetings in and of themselves is a false goal – the goal should actually
be to eliminate ineffective and bloated meetings.
(Rogelberg, 2019, page 8)

264 This chapter concentrates on principles and techniques which can overcome these
issues and criticisms. We focus on methods and structure, but we also highlight
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-16
group dynamic issues which can affect meetings. Issues of group dynamics are 12
covered more fully in Chapter 13. How can we
We start by looking at important differences between professional and busi- organise effec-
tive meetings?
ness meetings and then review various ways to improve their effectiveness.
Applying the ideas and principles in this chapter should enable you to run the
sorts of meetings which John Tropman describes as “excellent”, where:

• decisions are made and agreed.

• the group does not have to revisit or rework “old” decisions.
• the decisions are good – well worked out and successful.
• members enjoy the meeting and feel that it has been productive. (Tropman, 2003)

In the next few years, organisations will continue to adjust in different ways to
their post-pandemic ways of operation. This will involve some use of telecon-
ferencing and so we need to consider how general principles apply to virtual
interactions and also specific concerns which only apply online, such as “Zoom
fatigue”.
Finally, we highlight different ways of reviewing discussions and decisions and
visual presentation techniques such as concept mapping.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ analyse main differences between different types of meetings.

■ identify principles which have been associated with effective meetings, high-
light potential pitfalls and problems, and identify important skills for meet-
ing chairs.
■ review different procedures and practical steps which have been proposed
to improve meetings.
■ identify general principles and particular techniques which can help us
make meetings more effective using new technology.

What sort of meetings are these?

Consider the following two extracts (based on real business meetings) and iden-
tify what you think are the most important differences.

Meeting A
Speaker 1: “OK, well we need to consider John’s concerns about the store in 265
Smallville”.
Part 3 Speaker 2: “It’s just not doing enough business for a store that size. You can see
Effective from the figures in Table 3 in the report sent out last week”.
interpersonal Speaker 3: “So how can we bump up business? Any ideas, Paul?” (everyone looks
and group
communication at the large screen monitor for a contribution from Paul – Speaker 4 – who
is joining the meeting through a videoconferencing link).
Speaker 4: “The only way is to put up a Slow Down sign and lay a series of small
sharp spikes across the road just outside the store”.
Speaker 5: “Pardon?”
Speaker 4: ‘It’s obvious. People will slow down, get a puncture, and stop. While
they’re waiting for the breakdown services to arrive, they will have no
choice but to go in the store and spend some money”.
Speaker 5: “You're not serious?”
Speaker 4: “Of course not. But can you see my point?” (pause: some other mem-
bers of the meeting groan at the very tortured pun). “We do need to get
more people in that store. Look at the figures in Table 4 which compares
different stores across the region – have you all got the figures? They are
in the email I sent you this morning. (everyone agrees) You can see from
column 5 that the customers who go in to Smallville spend more on average
than customers who visit some of our other stores. We just need to get more
people through the door”.
Speaker 1: “So are we agreed that the best strategy is to work out how to attract
more customers to visit the store? OK, so how can we do that?”

Meeting B
Speaker 1: “We are quorate so we can now move to the first item in the agenda -
the proposal that we close the South Street office in Smallville. You will all
have received the paper on this, reference 99/8/2, and I will ask the writer,
John Smith, to summarise the main points for us”.
Speaker 2: “The critical point here is that if we combined the Smallville offices on
our main street site then we could offer a much better service to the local
community. Apart from some savings due to greater efficiency, we would be
more competitive. We could offer a wider range of services by putting the
two offices together. We also have no evidence that the existing customers
at South Street would be disadvantaged. In fact, we feel that many of them,
if not most of them, would find it more convenient to come to Main Street”.
Speaker 1: “So the proposal is that we merge the two offices on the main street
site. Have we any comments or further proposals?”
Speaker 3: “I have to say that my staff are very concerned about this proposal,
in terms of the messages it sends to loyal and hard-working staff. You have
glossed over the fact that the South Street office is extremely profitable and
266 has won awards for the quality of its service and management”.
Speaker 1: “John, can you respond to that?” 12
Speaker 2: “We have considered these points. I can assure you that there will be no How can we
redundancies and all staff will be accommodated at Main Street”. organise effec-
tive meetings?
Speaker 1: “Any other comments?” (pause) “So if there are no further points then
we can move to a vote?”
Speaker 4: “Point of order, please, chair. According to our terms of reference, I
do not believe that we can make this decision without further consultation.”
Speaker 1: “Thank you, John. We don’t want to go viral. I was going to say we need
to check that. Rather than hold up this meeting, I shall ask the Secretary to
check that during the coffee break and we shall return to this item of busi-
ness at the end of the meeting. Moving on to item two on the agenda…”

So, what were the main differences between these two meetings?
You may want to pause here and note your answer to this question before you
read our analysis. Have we missed anything important?

Our analysis
There are obvious similarities. Both aimed to reach a decision on an important
issue. There was an exchange of opinions and the discussion moved towards the
final decision.
The differences are more striking. For example:

• more members spoke in meeting A.

• in B, every comment was directed through the chair (Speaker 1).
• the style of conversation was more light-hearted in A (as in the rather feeble
joke from Speaker 4).
There is one reference in meeting B which could be construed as a joke – “we
don’t want to go viral” – and is based on shared understanding in the UK
of the English Parish Council meeting over Zoom in 2021 which became
famous after an angry dispute in the meeting. Clips from the meeting were
seen by “millions” online and the chair of the meeting became something of a
celebrity through media appearances, including a cameo role in The Archers
– the longstanding UK radio soap opera.
You can also interpret Speaker 1’s response in different ways depending on
the intonation. Is Speaker 1 trying to reassert their authority here – “I was
going to say that…?” Depending on tone of voice, this could be a very clear
attempt to “put John in his place”.
• there were several references to formal rules and regulations in B (again the
debate over the terms of reference, and the check on whether the meeting
was quorate).
• the behaviour of the chair was very different (Speaker 1 in both cases). 267
Part 3 Tight structure
Effective A B
interpersonal
and group
communication
Formal rules Informal

D C
Loose structure

Figure 12.1 Dimensions of meetings

• the procedures were different (e.g., the automatic move to a vote to close the
decision in B)
• the use of videoconferencing technology in A.

These examples illustrate two of the main dimensions along which meetings can
vary:

• the use of formal rules and regulations by the members.

• the degree of formal structure in the meeting.

You can represent these dimensions as follows – Figure 12.1 – and you can imag-
ine meetings which fall in different sections of the diagram. At position A, a
meeting is very tightly structured and follows formal rules and regulations. An
example here would be the annual general meeting of a company or the monthly
meeting of a local government committee. At position B, the meeting is tightly
structured but not subject to very formal rules. An example here might be a pro-
ject group or management team meeting.
One obvious implication is that each meeting should be at the appropriate spot
on this diagram. For example, suppose you wished to run a meeting to introduce
new people to one another and to generate some fresh ideas for new projects.
Organising in style A would be counter-productive, and you would probably use
style C. On the other hand, the meeting of a very large official committee might
have to follow format A to satisfy legal requirements.

BOX 12.1 MEETINGS CAN BE FUNNY

Sarah Cooper created and produces the satirical blog – TheCooperReview​.c​om
– where you can find “10 tricks to appear smart in meetings” (https://thecooper-
review​.com​/10​-tricks​-appear​-smart​-meetings/ ) which has had over three million
viewings. The “tricks” are almost too true to be funny, if our experience of meet-
268 ings in educational, commercial, and professional organisations is in any way
 12
typical. If you read this blog, we think you will immediately look for her book How can we
(100 tricks to appear smart in meetings – Cooper, 2020). Of course, we do not organise effec-
tive meetings?
recommend performing any of these tricks – they are all designed to disorient
or impress colleagues and make you appear more of a “high-performing team-
player” than you actually are. For example, she suggests “21 meaningless dia-
grams” – they look “smart” but do not actually mean much, if anything.
Online meetings have also seen their fair share of parodies.
Tripp and Tyler produced a series of short clips which managed to satirise
ways we communicate in both face-to-face and online interactions. This one is a
good starter:
https://www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=PpTTDfg4KLs​&list​=RDC​MUC3​10aJ​
Fjr6​Gn9m​GZjMZ2VTQ​&index=2

We have not identified the use of technology as a separate dimension as it can

be used in any of the four main types. One obvious use is to set up the meeting
so that some or all participants can attend online, e.g., using Zoom or Teams.
You need to have both working practices and technology which enable virtual
participants to contribute when they need to. And you need a skilled chair to
ensure that everyone is engaged – and we return to this later. In a meeting which
is totally or partly online, you also have the advantage of a text chat box so
that participants can post comments and suggest links without interrupting the
discussion.
There is also the problem that individuals may be coming to the meeting with
specific hidden agendas – see Box 12.2.

BOX 12.2 WHEN MACHIAVELLI

COMES TO THE MEETING
Political issues and hidden agendas may influence meetings even when most par-
ticipants are trying to arrive at the most “rational” decisions. Buchanan and
Badham (2008) highlighted some of the consequences of “power games” which
can affect events like meetings:

“Agendas are restricted to ‘safe’ issues; controversial issues are excluded

from informal conversations and from formal decision-making processes”.
(page 55)

Martin (2000) describes bargaining tactics which can be used in meetings to

gain an advantage, such as describing a worse situation than actually exists and 269
Part 3
Effective then backtracking to the position which you wanted in the first place. For exam-
interpersonal ple, “we have to increase prices by 10%” after discussion becomes “we agree to
and group
communication increase prices by 5%” where 5% was the original hidden objective. The problem
with all devious tactics like this is that they can rebound on you if they are dis-
covered. And you may never achieve trust if others suspect you of these tactics.

What makes meetings effective?

Every textbook on business communication includes some advice on how to run

effective meetings. But much of this advice seems to be based upon the author's
personal experience rather than more comprehensive research.
Research studies comparing meetings in different organisations and contexts
are relatively thin on the ground. Notable exceptions are two bodies of work
which we summarise below by John Tropman and by Steven G. Fogelberg. You
can also find useful resources from Fogelberg on his website – https://www​
.stevenrogelberg​.com

Meeting Masters
Tropman reports the conclusions of the Meeting Masters Research Project which
aimed to identify individuals who ran excellent meetings and decide how they
did it (Tropman, 2014). The research suggested that “Meeting Masters” followed
seven main principles – we list these below and highlight additional points from
Rogelberg’s research.

1. The orchestra principle

This emphasises the strong co-operation necessary to complete the task, as in a
symphony orchestra. The meeting chair is analogous to the conductor – mak-
ing sure that everyone delivers their best performance, and that everything fits
together.

2. The three characters principle

Tropman suggests you can only do three things in a meeting:

• announce something.
270 • decide something.
• discuss something.
Tropman also suggests that each agenda item can only do one of these three 12
things. The meeting should be organised so that members clearly know which How can we
item is which. Items should be dealt with in that order: organise effec-
tive meetings?
• first, all announcements, then…
• all items where you need decisions, and then…
• items which just need to be discussed.

3. The role principle

The person in the chair should act as role model to encourage other members of
the group to contribute openly and positively.

4. No new business

The meeting should only cover items which have been placed on the agenda and
which the members have had some chance to think about. Otherwise, members
will not be prepared for the discussion.

5. No more reports

Members are never asked simply to “report from their department”, as individu-
als may concentrate on topics which show them up in the best light and fail to
identify important issues.

6. The imperative of proactivity

Meetings should always include some items which deal with future plans or prob-
lems. Early discussion can enable members to have an impact on future events.

7. High-quality decisions
Not only are decisions made, but those decisions show “evidence of quality”.
Can you apply these principles to your organisation?

Rules to follow?
Tropman suggests rules which can help you apply these principles. Among the
most interesting are:

The rule of six

Tropman suggests that

• about one sixth of the items on an agenda should be from the past. These are 271
items which have not been completed or perhaps been deliberately held over.
Part 3 • about four sixths of the items should come from the present. These are
Effective important issues that need to be dealt with immediately.
interpersonal • about one sixth of the items should come from the future. These are issues
and group
communication which are likely to be important in the future and which need discussing
before they become urgent.

This way of structuring a meeting also allows Tropman to introduce a subrule:

the two-meeting rule – that controversial items should be discussed first at one
meeting without any decision being taken. They should then be decided at the
next meeting. This allows members to discuss the item freely and possibly disa-
gree quite strongly and then leave some time to reflect upon the issues so that the
final decision is not made in the heat of an argument.

The role of the chair

Tropman emphasises the importance of pre-meeting preparation and the influence
of the chair’s behaviour. We agree with this emphasis. Longstanding British research
complements Tropman’s analysis of what effective chairs usually do. For example,
based on a series of very detailed meeting observations, Rackham and Morgan
(1977) showed that effective chairs behaved very differently from the average mem-
ber of the meetings – they did much more summarising and testing understanding.
Rogelberg highlights the importance of the chair’s self-awareness:

There is compelling evidence suggesting we are poor judges of our own leadership skills
when it comes to meeting.
(Rogelberg, 2019)

He sees this as a particular example of the “Lake Woebegon Effect” where “most
people believe they are well above average” and suggests that all meeting chairs
should search out feedback on their performance. They should also demonstrate
all the positive behaviours on his ‘Good Meetings Facilitation Checklist’ (avail-
able on his website) which covers:

• time management.
• active listening.
• conflict management.
• ensuring active participation.
• pushing for consensus.

Developing and reporting the agenda

272
One of the most important devices for structuring a meeting is the agenda.
Table 12.1 Tropman’s 7 categories of agenda items (Adapted from Tropman, 12
1996, page 24–27) How can we
organise effec-
tive meetings?
Category Item Type Time(minutes)

1 Minutes 10
2 Announcements 15
3 Decision Easy 15
4 Decision Moderately difficult 15
5 Decision Hardest item 25–40
6 Discussion 15–30
7 Discussion Easiest item 10

Tropman proposes seven categories of agenda items which should be organ-

ised as follows in a two-hour meeting:​
This distribution of time gives a bell-curve and so Tropman talks of the
“Agenda Bell” (Tropman, 2014, pages 40ff). His argument for placing the “most
difficult” item in the middle of the meeting, starting about one third of the way
through, is to

take advantage of peak attendance, high energy, and the momentum that usually comes
from handling less difficult items successfully.
(op cit, page 43)

Whether meetings follow this exact distribution or not, it is critical that mem-
bers know the status and priority of each item on the agenda:

• “are we just discussing this, or do we have to make a decision?”

• “do we have to make a decision today?”

The agenda should communicate this information to members. Unfortunately,

many agendas do not. This may be just a matter of adding a subheading to the
title of the item. For example, consider the difference between these two agenda
items:

4. Report from J. Smith on the Eureka Project.

5. Report from G. Smith on the Alumni Project:
• review progress.
• allocate resources for the next financial period. 273
• decide whether to extend the project to the central site.
Part 3 Item 4 gives no indication of what should be discussed or decided; item 5 gives
Effective very clear information on what needs to be done.
interpersonal Rogelberg offers similar advice and suggests that the agenda should enable the
and group
communication meeting to “flow” in a way that engages all the participants. You can find exam-
ples of the way he expands agenda descriptions and his Agenda Template in his
book (op cit, 2019, pages 65 and 161/2).

Minutes and follow-up

The minutes of a meeting can be very different in style and detail. At one end
of the scale, we have decisions or action points recorded as a list with no expla-
nation or elaboration of the discussion. This is appropriate for some meetings,
say a small project group. At the other end, we have a complete record of what
everyone said. This verbatim report is far too time-consuming and unnecessary
for most if not all business meetings. A useful compromise is to prepare what
Tropman calls “content minutes” – for each item on the agenda, a minute is writ-
ten as two separate paragraphs which:

• summarise the main points in the discussion.

• summarise the decision taken, or the action agreed, naming whoever has to
carry it out, and giving the timescale or deadline.

From this we can suggest that effective minutes must convey all the information
set out in Table 12.2​
There is also the problem of deciding the style and layout of minutes. For
example, should the minutes identify who said what? Baguley (1994, page 94)
gives an example of minute structure which includes the following item:

4. Joan Harris reported that software development was on target and still had an
anticipated beta version completion date of end of March. There were, however,
still problems with Ron Stanning’s lack of co-operation over graphics programming
availability.

Table 12.2 Contents of minutes

Details of the meeting itself Details of the outcomes

Who was present and who did not attend. What was agreed.
When and where it took place. Who has to take actions as a result, and by
When and where the next meeting will when.
274 take place.
 Action agreed: Valerie Williams to set up meeting with Ron Stanning and 12
Joan Harris to resolve problems. How can we
Completion by: 21 Nov 1994. organise effec-
tive meetings?

This example does meet many of the suggestions given above. But there is one
important issue – the minutes record that Ron Stanning is being “uncoopera-
tive”. You might like to answer these questions for yourself before you read our
comments:

• should this have been recorded?

• if you were asked to rephrase that minute, what would you recommend?

We would not be happy with this minute – especially if we happened to be Ron.

How did the meeting establish Ron’s “lack of co-operation”? Is it “fact” or is it
simply Joan Harris’ opinion? If you were Ron and felt there were good reasons
not to supply a graphics programmer, how would you respond to this judgement
in the minutes? Would it be fair to record that “Ron Stanning had not supplied a
graphics programmer to the project”? Or is a more fundamental change of style
required?
As minutes remain as a formal record of what has happened then you need to
be very careful that they are accurate and that they do not record as “fact” any-
thing which could be contested later.
Given that minutes are an important issue, it is worth thinking about different
ways of producing them. One strategy which we have used is to create minutes in
the meeting itself using a collaborative document format like Google Docs. At the
end of each major item the chair reviews the minute onscreen and ensures that eve-
ryone agrees before moving on. There are also a number of apps available to make
other parts of the meeting process easier to manage – see Box 12.3.

BOX 12.3 AND THERE’S AN APP FOR IT

A range of apps for tablets, laptops, and mobile phones now exists to help with
aspects of the meeting process, offering suggestions for structuring different
types of discussion, taking notes, taking minutes, and so on. One main advantage
of many of these apps is their ability to sync with or send to other software like
your calendar and email and you can find structures for different types of meet-
ing. See the website for our current examples. If you have regular meetings with
a specific team, then it is worth discussing possibilities with the team members
as the use of a common app can often be very productive and increase collabora-
tion and sharing. 275
Part 3 Planning more effective meetings:
Effective procedures and techniques to consider
interpersonal
and group
communication Several techniques have been recommended to improve particular aspects of
meetings, either by changing the whole approach to the meeting or by including
a specific technique at a certain point within a meeting. If you are planning a
meeting, you should at the very least consider the following approaches:

• flexible meeting techniques to encourage more dialogue and discussion.

• brainstorming, to produce more creative ideas.
• structured problem-solving.
• Nominal Group Technique, also designed to help problem-solving and
decision-making.
• Delphi technique, for a group which cannot physically meet.
• techniques for encouraging group innovation.
• techniques for clarifying decision-making.

Flexible meeting techniques

If you are organising a meeting which might attract a large attendance then it is
worth considering some of the techniques which have been shown to work with
large groups, such as Open Space and World Café. These techniques can also be
applied with small groups where you can use approaches with specific supporting
toolkits such as Ketso. These approaches share the aim of giving the participants
as much opportunity as possible to shape the meeting agenda and outcomes, and
encouraging dialogue across all the group members, regardless of their status.

Open Space
This term and approach was originated by Harrison Owen in the 1980s and
its key features include the opening session where, after a short introduction
to the theme of the meeting, participants propose the key issues which then
form the detailed agenda. Participants work on these in a flexible way over the
course of the meeting and can move around different issues as they see fit, so
you will usually find a number of discussions going on at the same time. The
role of the meeting facilitator is to support this process and to ensure that the
outcomes and proposals are suitably recorded. There is a very useful summary
on Wikipedia and you can find details of recent developments at: http://www​
.openspaceworld​.org

World Café
276
The World Café approach is described on their web site as follows:
 “seven World Café design principles are an integrated set of ideas and practices that form 12
the basis of the pattern embodied in the World Café process” How can we
https://theworldcafe​.com​/key​-concepts​-resources​/design​-principles/ organise effec-
tive meetings?

The principles include: “clarify the context”; “explore questions that matter”;
and “connect diverse perspectives”. World Café can be modified to meet a
wide variety of needs. Specifics of context, numbers, purpose, location, and
other circumstances are factored into each event's unique invitation, design,
and question choice, but the following five components comprise the basic
model:

1) Setting: Create a “special” environment, most often modelled after a café.

2) Welcome and Introduction: The host begins with a warm welcome and an in-
troduction to the World Café process, setting the context, sharing the Café
Etiquette, and putting participants at ease.
3) Small Group Rounds: The process begins with the first of three or more twen-
ty-minute rounds of conversation for the small group seated around a table.
At the end of the 20 minutes, each member of the group moves to a different
new table…
4) Questions: each round is prefaced with a question designed for the specific
context and desired purpose of the session.
5) Harvest: After the small groups (and/or in between rounds, as desired) indi-
viduals are invited to share insights or other results from their conversations
with the rest of the large group.

The website provides a more detailed discussion of these steps and the design
principles and links to the toolkit and book which gives a full insight to the
method.

Ketso
As their website explains (http://www​.ketso​.com):

Ketso offers a structured way to run a workshop, using re-useable coloured shapes to
capture everyone's ideas. Ketso is unique in that each part is designed to act as a prompt
for effective engagement. … Ketso is not just a re-usable ‘workshop in a bag’. It comes
with a growing range of free, open-source support resources, including workshop plans
that you can customise to suit your needs.

The practical kit to support a Ketso workshop includes re-usable cards of dif-
ferent types, on which participants write their ideas and comments, and large
felt sheets, on which participants can stick the cards to build a concept map 277
which everyone can view and amend. There is also an Action Planner resource.
Part 3 After the meeting, the maps can be photographed or typed up to inform future
Effective actions.
interpersonal During the pandemic, a new version was developed for online sessions –
and group
communication Ketso Connect – which also uses Padlet to support the discussion.

Which flexible meeting to use?

There is no easy answer to this question, and we are not aware of research which
directly compares all the different formats. And there are other formats available
– see the website for further examples and discussion.
We have used/experienced all three of these techniques and found them valu-
able in terms of generating useful ideas and stimulating more discussion than
would have been possible in traditional meeting formats. We think that they are
especially useful in encouraging open discussion in situations where the team
or group is relatively new and/or seem to be a bit “stuck” and not making the
progress they would like. However, not everyone feels initially comfortable in
these more open-ended formats, and you do need a skilled organiser to set the
meeting going and keep everyone involved. For example, the Ketso website does
recommend that a meeting organiser should pilot/practise the method before
running it “for real”.
As well as running a complete meeting in one of these formats, you can of
course also consider using some specific techniques from the different approaches
to match your own context.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a technique which has received a good deal of publicity and gen-
erates very mixed reactions. There have been some objections to the terminol-
ogy and some organisations have used “thought showers” as an alternative term.
Opinions about its value are also divided:

• “brainstorming provides a free and open environment that encourages every-

one to participate. Quirky ideas are welcomed and built upon, and all partici-
pants are encouraged to contribute fully, helping them develop a rich array
of creative solutions”.
(from http://www​.mindtools​.com​/brainstm​.html).
• “there is a problem with brainstorming. It doesn’t work”.
(This quote from 2012 in The New Yorker has been widely discussed. You can
find a good example and a number of links to useful studies from Torres,
2012.)

278 There are two general principles behind brainstorming: that problem-solving is
best done in stages and that each stage should obey certain rules. The first stage
is generating of ideas. All the ideas generated during this stage are recorded for 12
later consideration. Brainstorming sessions usually have someone to lead the ses- How can we
sion who can enforce the rules and act as scribe. This first stage should also have organise effec-
tive meetings?
a definite time limit, say ten minutes. During this time, everyone in the group
must obey the following rules:

• no evaluation, no-one is allowed to criticise or evaluate any of the ideas being

expressed.
• no censorship, so all ideas are accepted and recorded.
• you are encouraged to produce as many ideas as possible in the given time.
• you are encouraged to hitch-hike, i.e., to build upon the ideas that have been
suggested by others in the group.

After the time limit is up, each idea is looked at in turn to see if it is worth
pursuing.

But does brainstorming “work”?

This is difficult to answer and demonstrates some of the problems of undertaking
social research. Current research and recent summaries often do not support the
original claims of more productive and creative ideas. But some of the research
studies have not been very ‘realistic’ tests of the method. Our conclusion is that
we do not have definitive evidence either way.
Perhaps the best conclusion is to argue that brainstorming is worth consider-
ing as a technique but should be used carefully:

I will continue to use brainstorming groups because they can have important social
effects - they can act as an ‘ice-breaker’ to help a group develop more of a co-operative
spirit. They can also produce good ideas, especially when a group has tried other ways
and is getting ‘stuck’ on a particular issue. But they are not a magic solution which will
guarantee success.
(Hartley, 1997, page 16)

Structured problem-solving

This is the philosophy on which techniques like brainstorming are based - break
down the problem-solving process into discrete stages and then deal with each
stage in turn, as in:

• study/discuss/analyse the situation.

• define the problem. 279
• set your objective.
Part 3 • generate alternative solutions.
Effective • establish evaluation criteria.
interpersonal • evaluate alternatives.
and group
communication • choose among alternatives.

There are many slight variations on this theme. For example, you can argue that
deciding the evaluation criteria – on which you judge the possible solutions or
decisions – should be done earlier.

Nominal group technique

Nominal group technique (NGT) also tries to organise decision-making to give
everyone in the group equal status. NGT mixes group discussion with independ-
ent generation of ideas and independent judgement.
It has been used by a wide range of groups in organisations.
Usually supported by an external facilitator, the specific steps are:

• the problem is fully explained to the group.

• individuals work independently to write down ideas and possible solutions.
• each individual presents one idea to the group in turn until all the ideas
are recorded (on a flipchart or whiteboard or using Post-It notes on the
wall).
• each idea is discussed, clarified, and evaluated by the group.
• individuals privately rank the ideas.
• the group decision is the idea which achieves the highest average ranking.

Delphi
This does not involve a face-to-face meeting. It uses the same steps as NGT and
has been used in many different types of organisations since its early develop-
ment in the 1950s. The group never meets and comments are usually collected
electronically. The main stages are:

• enlisting the group of experts.

• distributing the statement of the problem to the group members and inviting
them to respond.
• compiling the responses.
• sending out the compiled responses for further comment.

These last two phases are then repeated until a consensus is reached. We have
used this technique successfully on research projects which demanded that we
280 convene a panel of experts who were unable to physically meet.
Encouraging group innovation 12
How can we
Michael West and colleagues have carried out a number of studies which suggest organise effec-
tive meetings?
four factors encourage team innovation:

• vision.
• participative safety.
• climate for excellence.
• support for innovation.

Research suggests that these factors accurately predict whether a team will be
able to produce innovative ideas and solutions (West, 2012).

Changing decision-making

A group or committee should consider its present strategy for making decisions
– what are its advantages and disadvantages? There are numerous alternatives.
Table 12.3 below lists many of these and identifies one major advantage and dis-
advantage of each (from Hartley, 1997):

Table 12.3 Decision-making methods

Method Advantage Disadvantage

Decision by authority Speed Does not use members’

without discussion expertise
Decision by authority Allows everyone to express Members may not be committed
after discussion opinion to the decision
Decision by expert Good decision if expert May be difficult to identify the
member most exert member
Average members’ Speed Members may not be committed
opinions to the decision
Majority control Speed Minority can be alienated
Minority control Can be useful if not Members may not be committed
everyone can attend to the decision
Consensus Members will be Can take a great deal of time,
committed to the decision skill, and energy 281
Part 3 There are of course additional advantages and disadvantages to each. And we
Effective cannot decide on the “best” unless we know the context and the demands of the
interpersonal situation.
and group
communication

Comparing group methods

It is difficult to offer a definitive opinion on which of these methods to use as

there is insufficient research on their everyday applications. The research to date
does suggest a number of general conclusions:

• groups using systematic procedures probably do make better decisions.

• members of groups using these procedures seem both more satisfied and
more committed.
• groups which regularly review their own procedures are usually more effec-
tive than those who do not. So, we should also apply this to committees and
working groups in terms of their meetings.

This analysis of meetings has assumed that the members are co-operating and are
genuinely interested in problem-solving. We must not forget that many real meet-
ings are constrained or influenced by political factors, as illustrated in Box 12.1.

Virtual meetings

Technology has given us several options to improve the process of face-to-face

discussion as we have already suggested, e.g., the use of online documents, the
use of mind or concept mapping to suggest and record ideas etc.
As we are now familiar with online participation through lockdown, new
technology gives us two major possibilities:

• enabling remote participants to join a face-to-face meeting.

There is no excuse nowadays for even the smallest organisation to exclude
a remote member from participating in a face-to-face meeting, unless you
have very challenging network issues. The combination of a room equipped
with pc/laptop and projector (or a very large TV monitor), wi-fi connectiv-
ity, appropriate audio-visual hardware, and software like Zoom or Teams
enables remote participants both to attend and join in. The meeting chair
needs to conduct the meeting so that they can bring in the remote attender
at the right time.
• running a complete meeting online.
282 Depending on the size of group, you need to check that your meeting soft-
ware has the widest range of facilities, as we suggest in Box 12.4.
 12
How can we
BOX 12.4 SOFTWARE FOR VIRTUAL MEETINGS organise effec-
tive meetings?
A wide range of software can now support virtual meetings. Depending on budget
and networking facilities available, you can choose software which has the par-
ticular functions you need. From our experience, we suggest that you particularly
think about:

■ support for presentations.

You should be able to display PowerPoint and other types of presentation,
but certain features may not be supported (e.g., animations may not work
on the slides).
Always check for compatibility.
Over 2022, we experienced several unexpected glitches (e.g. being unable to
see the chat box as a presenter).
■ application sharing.
You may want to show a screenshot or some other software during the meet-
ing and you need to be confident that you can share this application through
the meeting software.
■ chat box.
This enables anyone without a mic on their setup to participate as well as
encouraging additional comments from everyone. But you need to have a
process to bring these comments into the meeting.
■ polling and feedback.
You can ask for reactions from members of the meeting and most software
now has icons which allow participants to “show a smiley face” or other sig-
nal of agreement or disagreement. Some software offers more sophisticated
polling options which can be especially useful in large meetings.
■ use of webcams.
It can be really useful to be able to see other participants as you can pick up
on communications clues from e.g., facial expressions, though video signals
require good quality telecommunications, and this is not always available.

How different are virtual meetings?

We are often asked how different online or virtual meetings are from their face-to-
face counterpart. This is a difficult question to answer as we suggest that you should
use face-to-face and virtual meetings in different ways.Table 12.3 below summarises
some of the key issues. See the website for more extended discussion and examples.
We must recognise that virtual meetings demand different levels of concentration
and attention in comparison to face-to-face settings. Research is now emerging about
the nature of these different demands – as we describe in Box 12.4 below. 283
Part 3
Effective BOX 12.5 IS ZOOM FATIGUE “REAL”?
interpersonal
and group The short answer is “yes”.
communication Research has identified four causes for “Zoom fatigue” (Bailenson, 2021):

■ the “highly intense” nature of Zoom calls.

■ seeing yourself all the time is fatiguing.
■ lack of mobility.
■ higher “cognitive load” because you need to concentrate more.

Bailenson offers several suggestions to resolve the problems. For example, you
can hide or minimise the view of yourself, or include audio-only breaks.
Other recent research suggests positive value in switching off your webcam
when you are doing particular tasks. Maria Tomprou and colleagues observed
people working in pairs on problem-solving tasks using either audio or video
calls. The audio pairs were more successful at collaboration, probably because of
fewer distractions (Tomprou et al., 2021). It is dangerous to generalise from just
one study, but this does suggest that experimenting with different formats during
online meetings could pay dividends

Table 12.4 
Comparing face-to-face and virtual meetings

Issue/question Face-to-face meeting Virtual meetings

Especially good Establishing relationships Saving time and expenses when

for? Extended open discussion team is distributed.
Progress meetings – keeping
everyone up to date.
Not so good for? Quick short meetings Establishing relationships.
(especially given the time to set Extended open discussion.
up/organise) Resolving conflicts.
Ideal timing Not more than two hours As long as the main business takes
(and no more)
1–1.5 hours as maximum.
Role of chair? Keeping everyone engaged As for face-to-face but special
Working through the agenda attention on keeping all the
on time participants engaged and able to
Ensuring that decisions are contribute.
clear and accepted
Need for Chairs should receive training As for face-to-face plus necessary
training as discussed in this chapter training on the technology to be
284 re agendas and meeting employed.
management
If you are using software which allows both audio and video links, then you need 12
to think about how you present yourself on screen. We say more on this in the How can we
next chapter. You need to consider such issues as how you “respond to silence” organise effec-
tive meetings?
given that you normally receive little or no immediate feedback from the audi-
ence for your presentation (Koegel, 2010).​

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ meetings differ in terms of the level of formality (rules and regulations) and
the structure. We need to ensure effective organisation and communication
in all the different types.
■ there are several compilations of research which have generated useful prac-
tical suggestions such as the American Meeting Masters Research Project.
This identified individuals who ran excellent meetings and summarised what
they did in 7 key principles.
■ agendas and minutes are important documents which can support effective
meetings. Both need careful attention to style and approach.
■ various innovative meeting formats and techniques have been suggested
to improve different aspects of meetings, e.g., Open Space, brainstorm-
ing, Nominal Group Technique etc. But we have limited evidence on actual
organisational practice to offer solid recommendations on which are the
most effective. Meetings should regularly review their own approaches and
procedures and find the most appropriate solutions.
■ following the pandemic, you can use the technology which is now common-
place such as Zoom and Teams to support and enhance your meetings. As
well as the obvious use of desktop videoconferencing to allow everyone to
contribute regardless of where they are, there are also new methods of tran-
scribing and summarising meeting discussions.

References
Bailenson, J.N. (2021) Nonverbal overload: A theoretical argument for the causes of Zoom
fatigue. Technology, Mind, and Behavior 2(1). https://doi​.org​/10​.1037/ tmb0000030.
Buchanan, D.A. and Badham, R.J. (2008) Power, Politics and Organizational Change: Winning the Turf
Game, 2nd edition. London: Sage.
Cooper, S. (2020) 100 Tricks to Appear Smart in Meetings.
Koegel, T.J. (2010) The Exceptional Presenter Goes Virtual. Austin: Greenleaf Book Group Press.
Larsen, E.G. (2022) 70% of Meetings Keep Employees from Doing Productive Work. https://erikgahner​
.dk​/2022​/70 ​-of​-meetings​-keep​-employees​-from​-doing​-productive​-work/.
Martin, D. (2000) Manipulating Meetings: How to Get What You Want, When You Want It. London: 285
Prentice Hall.
 Rackham, M. and Morgan, T. (1977) Behaviour Analysis and Training. London: McGraw-Hill.
Part 3
Rogelberg, S.G. (2019) The Surprising Science of Meetings: How You Can Lead Your Team to Peak
Effective
interpersonal Performance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
and group Stanton, N. (1996) Mastering Communication. London: Macmillan.
communication Tomprou, M., Kim, Y.J., Chikersal, P., Woolley, A.W. and Dabbish, L.A. (2021) Speaking out of
turn: How video conferencing reduces vocal synchrony and collective intelligence. PLoS ONE
16(3): e0247655. https://doi​.org​/10​.1371​/journal​.pone​.0247655.
Torres, T. (2012) Brainstorming: More Questions than Answers. https://www​.producttalk​.org​/2012​
/07​/brainstorming​-more​-questions​-than​-answers/.
Tropman, J.E. (2014) Effective Meetings: Improving Group Decision Making, 3rd edition. London:
Sage.
Tropman, J.E. (2003) Making Meetings Work: Achieving High Quality Group Decisions, 2nd edition.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
West, M.A. (2012) Effective Teamwork: Practical lessons from organisational research. (3rd edition).
Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

286
Chapter 13
Effective presentations

Introduction

Not so long ago, the common image of “presenting” in organisations was some-
one standing in front of an audience usually sitting in rows in lecture-hall for-
mat. This someone (typically male) delivered information, usually hoping that
the audience would be engaged and learn from it. The presentation technology
in this image changed over the years from the ubiquitous overhead projector to
the current standard of data projector, computer/laptop, and PowerPoint. But
this did not eliminate a common issue: audience complaints that they were being
talked at – with the visuals adding neither interest nor learning.
“Death by PowerPoint” summarised this complaint. It became the shorthand
description for a “boring presentation”. It features in many popular cartoons and
in numerous guides to combat it. It even has its own page on Wikipedia.
In recent years, and obviously influenced by the move online during the pan-
demic, presenting has become much more varied. As a result, you may be called
on to present in any of the following situations:

• face-to-face presentations to different-sized groups and in different contexts

(with or without slides).
• online presentations to either a group of colleagues or a broader audience.
• hybrid events where there is both a physical and an online audience.
• live and/or recorded vlogs and podcasts.

This demands an expanded skillset from us all, but with increased anxiety for
many individuals, another longstanding issue which we need to resolve.
Concerns about presentation skills seem universal and longstanding. For
example, Kakepoto et al. (2012) identified “poor oral communication skills” as
an important barrier for engineers in Pakistan. These engineers were not fully
prepared by their previous technical education for the demands for oral presenta- 287
tion in the workplace.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-17
Part 3 This chapter concentrates on principles and techniques which can deal with
Effective all the above contexts and issues and overcome these criticisms. We also intro-
interpersonal duce some possibilities offered by new technology to make a presentation part
and group
communication of a systematic communications campaign or process rather than just a “one-off”
event.
As with all other forms of communication, you need to find a personal style
which plays to your strengths and so we suggest alternative approaches and
strategies.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ explain why oral presentations are still important in modern organisations.

■ summarise main techniques which speakers can use to improve their perfor-
mance and decrease anxiety.
■ offer alternative approaches to “the presentation” which you can use in
specific situations.
■ describe how to ensure presentations are accessible to all members of an
audience.
■ review developments in technology which you can consider for your future
presentations, e.g., vlogs and podcasts.

Why are oral presentations important?

They are now very common and becoming more important. Some organisations
now use presentations in meetings where previously they received lengthy writ-
ten reports. While this can speed up decision-making, a poor presentation might
not do justice to the ideas presented and could have catastrophic consequences.
So, organisations want staff who can present convincingly and will not confuse,
irritate, or mislead an audience.
Presentations are also widely used in recruitment, especially for managerial
and supervisory positions. Organisations will select staff who deliver convincing
presentations as well as demonstrate other skills and capabilities. This does not
necessarily mean people who can “perform” in a theatrical sense although this
skill can come in handy if you are addressing large audiences. In keeping with the
general theme of this book, we are looking for “effective”’ communicators, i.e.,
those who engage an audience and enable the audience to respond appropriately.
YouTube, vlogs, and podcasts have allowed audiences to access presentations
288 in a much wider context than in the past and this has heightened the need to be
able to present in a range of different ways.
 Effective communicators will make sure the presentation “flows” by clearly 13
organising the material. They deliver confidently. A speaker lacking in confi- Effective
dence may well distract an audience from the main topic. A really poor presen- presentations

tation can linger in the audience’s mind for a very long time. One of our most
painful and long-lasting memories was the anxious conference speaker who
tried to conquer his nerves by preparing far too many slides for his 20 minutes
(in the days when presenters used acetate slides on overhead projector). As time
went on, he went faster and faster in a desperate attempt to use all the slides.
The audience’s attention turned to whether he would finish the race in time (and
he failed – delivering a fumbling and embarrassing ending). We have since met
several colleagues who attended that presentation – they all remembered the
“battle with the slides” but so far none have actually remembered what his talk
was about.
Having said that there are certain critical features, you also need to develop
your own style to suit your personality. Guidebooks and training texts offer dif-
ferent approaches, as we illustrate in Box 13.1.

Why are people so worried about giving presentations?

The previous paragraphs provide part of the answer to this question. One reason
is the “fear of disaster”. We have probably all attended at least one disastrous
presentation. And we remember how embarrassing and uncomfortable these
experiences were. So, we mentally anticipate the possibility that we could be
responsible for a similar disaster.
There are two ways to resolve these anxieties:

1. make yourself feel less nervous both before and during the presentation,
accepting that it is perfectly normal to feel some nerves.
2. behave in ways which are likely to conceal your nerves. If you behave confi-
dently, this creates confidence in the audience.

Several techniques can help you to achieve (1) including:

• being really well-prepared.

• relaxation exercises such as deep-breathing.

Following the advice from this chapter will make sure you are well-prepared.
Techniques which help to achieve (2) include:

• starting the presentation in a very deliberate way.

Make eye contact with the audience in a face-to-face environment. Remember
that you are being observed by the audience from the moment you enter the 289
room (or switch on the webcam connection in a virtual presentation).
Part 3 • rehearse not just the presentation itself but also how you will set out your
Effective notes, slides etc.
interpersonal Where possible, you should check the venue or technology in advance. We
and group
communication remember the stress of a colleague who was delayed and turned up at the
conference room just in time to find that there was no space on the lectern
for both his laptop and notes. From our seats at the back, we could only
empathise with his increasing anxiety level.
• deliver the presentation in a way which does not attract attention to your
level of anxiety.
For example, if you know your hand might shake a bit then do not use cue
cards which you have to hold in front of you. Or hold cue cards but use your
other hand to keep your arm steady.

BOX 13.1 DO THE TRAINERS AGREE?

As already discussed, advice on “effective written communication” can be con-
fused or even contradictory. Internet search on ‘delivering effective presenta-
tions’ offers similar variety – different elements to the presentation and different
numbers of steps to be taken. For example:

■ 12 elements of successful presentation (Indeed Editorial Team, 2021).

■ 16 elements of a powerful presentation (Lile, 2021).
■ 3 elements of a powerful presentation (Anderson, 2013).
■ 7 steps to create a powerful presentation (Campion, 2017).
■ 5 strategies to give an effective presentation (Alvernia University, 2015).

Given all the evidence that communication depends on context, it is unwise to

rely on absolute “golden rules”. You need to find a process that suits you, after
you have considered all the alternatives. And this is an area where you might be
able to make some “small experiments” and receive feedback on your perfor-
mance. You should be able to find opportunities to deliver presentations which
will not matter too much in terms of your career development or reputation and
where you can try out new approaches.

Planning the presentation

The most popular advice to presenters is to plan what you are doing in terms of
key stages or key areas. You can find significant common ground between the
guidance that experts have offered over the years:

290 • Raspberry and Lemoine (1986) suggested a four-step process: organisation,

construction, practice, and delivery.
• Gallagher, McLelland, and Swales (1998) suggest an eight-step approach, 13
starting by setting the objective. They suggest a simple, one-sentence objec- Effective
tive is a good way of clarifying your purpose, as in their example – “As a presentations

result of my presentation, my audience will understand and be impressed by

the new Customer Services system in Central Branch” (page 130).

There is considerable overlap and common ground between these and other
common recipes. Table 13.1 uses the structure we introduced in Chapter 12 to
identify main stages and important issues.
it is worth emphasising a few notes of caution:

• the danger with any series of stages is that they can be interpreted too rigidly. As
we said earlier in this book when we reviewed strategies for preparing written
documents, you need to be flexible and constantly revisit your objectives.
• as we suggested in Table 13.1, you need to find a system for preparation and
delivery that suits you rather than follow a rigid recipe from the guidebooks. For
example, we tend to use concept maps or mind maps to work out structures,
but some people find this an unnatural way of organising notes. Some prefer a
more structured or hierarchical method like the Pyramid Principle introduced in
Chapter 5. The important thing is to find a method which you can work with –
then make sure that it delivers a plan which ensures clear structure in your talk.

Presentation as process or event?

A further complication you should consider is one which seems to be neglected in

many of the other handbooks and guidelines. Most advice on presentations still
treats a presentation as a single “event”. For example, Harvard Business School
suggests that you need to “tailor your presentation” to these factors:

• Size of the audience.

• Formality of the situation.
• Regularity of the meeting (one-time, occasional, frequent)
• Time of day and other particulars of the occasion. (Morgan, 2007, page 5)

Another common piece of advice which we think is now outdated is to adopt

a cautious approach about allowing questions during a presentation in order to
avoid losing control when delivering. As a result of Covid and the growing use
of the chat function, attitudes towards this have become more flexible. If you are
very concerned about “losing control” then you need a strategy to manage this.
One useful approach is to plan those points in the presentation where you will
encourage questions or discussion and then make a point of pausing there – “can 291
we see what has been raised in the chat…?”
Part 3 Table 13.1 Planning a presentation
Effective
interpersonal Stage Content Points to Example
and group
communication
watch

Decide the What do you What amount You have been working for the last
general goal want to achieve of research are six months in a sales team, promoting
overall? you expected a new product which has only been
to do? distributed in your region. You achieved
How far can the most sales. You have been asked to
you offer deliver a ten-minute presentation to the
your personal regional sales management team on the
opinion? likely prospects if they promote and
distribute the product nationally.
Consider the What’s happened Are there any What do you know about the history of
context in the past? hidden agendas the sales management team in terms of
Who are the because of the their reaction to proposals? Is it usual
participants? history? to ask someone at your level to make
What is the What do your a presentation of this type? You need
setting? audience need to check whether you might be “being
or expect to tested”.
happen? You need to find out what criteria have
been used to decide on a product’s
future after test marketing. And you
need to know what level of detail the
managers expect.
Plan Decide on the Make your Your objectives are to deliver a
objectives. objectives presentation which:
Decide on the realistic and Argues that the product should (or
structure. achievable. should not) be developed more widely
Make sure your on the basis of sensible evidence.
structure leads Shows that you can present effectively
up to your to a given brief.
objective Your structure should reflect the
criteria which the managers will use to
judge the product.
Act Use the relevant What are the Explaining and presenting are obviously
skills most important critical. You will also need to respond
skills in this to questions and show evidence of
situation? research and preparation.
e.g., listening, And you must keep to time.
questioning etc.
Follow-up What can What can you Ask for feedback on the quality of the
make sure the do to reinforce presentation as soon as possible after
communication what you have the event. This could give useful tips
292 has been done? for next time as well as showing you are
effective? willing to learn.
 We offer further comments on “control” later. The main assumption which 13
you need to question is how far the presentation is a “standalone event” which you Effective
need to prepare for. Superficially, this is true, but could also be misleading if it presentations

forces you to think only about what happens in the presentation itself. It is worth
stepping back and considering where your presentation fits into the broader his-
tory and context of your organisation. This suggests additional questions which
can help you in your planning and preparation:

• what opportunity do you have to make contact with the audience beforehand
and perhaps discover some of their issues and concerns?
• what opportunity do you have for dialogue with your audience before, dur-
ing, and after the presentation?

Various forms of new technology give us options to extend our communication

beyond the traditional boundaries. We shall discuss some of these options later
in this chapter, including:

• surveying your audience beforehand or at key points to uncover their existing

positions and expectations.
• making some content available beforehand (usually online).
• offering a “backchannel” such as a chat function – a dialogue which can go on
in the background during a presentation (again usually online) which allows
members of the audience to post and exchange comments and/or questions
(e.g., inviting specific comments or answers to questions).
• setting up some online discussion either before, during, or after the event.

All of these options can now be realised with simple and accessible software. For
example:

• a short survey (say, up to ten questions) can be constructed at little or no

cost using tools such as Kahoot, SurveyMonkey, or Google Forms etc. Some
software such as Vevox can be embedded into a PowerPoint presentation.
• part or all of a presentation can be made available through SlideShare, SharePoint,
Teams, etc. either before the presentation, or afterwards, or both.
• We can provide a “backchannel” through the “chat” feature in software like
Zoom or Teams, or by using software such as Twitter which can run in paral-
lel with the presentation.

The importance of structure in presentations

As we say many times in this book, knowing your audience and structure are 293
critical. Choosing the most appropriate will depend on the audience and context.
Part 3 For example, suppose you have to deliver a presentation which advocates that the
Effective company adopts a new procedure for handling customer enquiries. Would the
interpersonal following outline be appropriate?
and group
communication
• confirm the Vision Statement (e.g., “we are leaders in customer care”).
• state the Goal and Objective (e.g., “we need to handle customer enquiries
more effectively than our competitors”).
• summarise Today’s Situation (e.g., “we deal with x enquiries at the moment/
we have seen increasing complaints from customers that we do not provide
very good support”).
• explain how we got to this position (e.g., “we have not reviewed the staffing
or the methods since the year x”).
• summarise available options (e.g., “there are new answering systems and
techniques on the market and our competitors are doing this”).
• make a recommendation (e.g. “we need to move to a new system and ensure
that our staff are properly trained”).

This is based on an outline offered as one of the templates within Microsoft

PowerPoint. It is similar to a longstanding outline suggested by Wilder and Fine,
1996:

• Present situation.
• Situation Problems.
• Possible solutions.
• Recommendations.
• Requirements.
• Overcoming obstacles.
• Next steps.

This second outline goes further into the implementation of the recommended solu-
tion – overcoming obstacles and so on. The exact outline is probably not as impor-
tant as making sure the audience knows where you are heading. There are various
ways of achieving this and this highlights the importance of the first few minutes of
any talk. Consider the strategies for opening and closing listed in Box 13.2.

Alternative structures and styles

Perhaps partly as a reaction to the misery of “Death by PowerPoint”, several
recent guides suggest moving away from conventional presentation styles to
make presentations feel less like a “performance” and more like a conversation.
Core to this is the use of storytelling to enhance the presentation. We need to
294 develop and adapt the art of storytelling into the sphere of creating and deliver-
ing presentations.
 A leader in the field, Garr Reynolds (2014), explains in his TEDx talk that 13
Effective
a good presentation is a mix of logic, data, emotion, and inspiration. We are usually OK presentations

with the logic and data part but fail on the emotional and inspirational end. Certainly,
leaders and educators need to infuse a bit of wonder into their talks that inspire people
to make a change. A good presentation should not end when the speaker sits down, or
the class comes to an end.

The use of storytelling was raised earlier in Chapter 7 when considering the way
in which data can be presented (in written documents) so that not only is the
information delivered clearly, but in a way that enables the readers/ listeners to
respond in an appropriate way.
To understand how storytelling works, Reynolds recommends that would-be
presenters view the unit on storytelling offered by the Khan Academy.
As well as promoting the significance of storytelling in the development of a
good presentation, Garr Reynolds also promotes the importance of looking and
sounding comfortable and natural:

Naturalness in delivery, then, should not be a formal, one-way didactic lecture. Rather,
imagine the delivery of your presentation as a conversation between friends or coworkers,
teacher and student, a master and apprentice, or scientist to scientist. They all involve
personal connection by way of natural expression.
(Reynolds, 2011, page 13)

This does not mean that you just “let the presentation happen” but that you
reflect very carefully on your style and approach. And you can use a combi-
nation of techniques to create your own style. For example, one of our col-
leagues has successfully used voting/polling to ask the audience what areas
they would like to further explore, using a pyramid-style mind map for the
overall structure.

BOX 13.2 STRATEGIES FOR OPENING AND CLOSING

The purpose of all of these is to make a connection with the audience so that they
want to listen to what you say.
The following suggestions do tend to assume that you are offering a “stan-
dalone” presentation. In many if not most situations in organisations, you are
delivering presentations to audiences you know to some extent and there will be a
history to the event. The presentation may also be recorded and stored and used
again in future: referred back to, used for decision-making, used within a series, 295
Part 3
Effective shared with colleagues who were not at the event, and made available online etc.
interpersonal These all have an impact on the best start and finish for the presentation.
and group
communication Lewis (1996) suggests six “classic openings”:

■ Provide a ‘startling fact’ which relates to your main theme.

■ Tell a “strong and relevant anecdote”.
■ Give a “striking example” which illustrates one of your themes.
■ Pay your audience a compliment.
■ Raise a “challenging question”.
■ Tell a joke.
(pages 133–138)

For all these openings, his advice is that they should clearly relate to the main
topic that you are presenting. This can be a particular problem for opening 6.
The presenter who starts with an irrelevant joke will be seen by the audience as
patronising or unprofessional.
He also suggests six “classic closes”:

■ The “surprise ending”, where you make a comment which offers an original
twist on your main argument.
■ The summary.
■ A joke.
■ An “upbeat or uplifting exhortation”.
■ A “call to action”.
■ A final compliment to the audience.
(pages 139–152)

Of course, there are other alternatives. But do not forget these important princi-
ples when you choose your opening and closing:

■ the opening comments establish the tone of what you are going to say and
also establish your credibility. It can be very difficult to rescue a presenta-
tion from a poor or indecisive opening.
■ in most presentations, the opening few minutes should provide clear signposts
so the audience knows where you are going, what you are trying to cover, and
what you want to happen as a consequence of this presentation. Otherwise,
the audience will place their own interpretation on what you are trying to do.
■ the closing remarks will leave your audience with a particular impression.
You need to make sure that this confirms and reinforces the main argument
you have offered.

Psychological research suggests that we often remember the opening and closing
296 parts of a presentation and tend to forget the details in the middle.
Critical issues and skills in presentations 13
Effective
Bringing out the common points in the approaches listed above, we suggest that presentations

the most critical questions to raise are as follows:

• do you have clear objectives?
• do you know your audience? (What are they expecting? What views do they
already have on the topic?)
• do you have a clear structure?
• is your style of expression right?
• can you operate effectively in the setting? (What technology are you using?
How confident are you with it?)

Critical skills
Baguley suggests five “core” skills:
• Clarity
• Emphasis
• Using examples
• Organisation
• Feedback
(Baguley, 1994, page 107)
We have already stressed the importance of organisation so it is worth making
comments on the other four skills. As a cautionary tale, we offer an embarrassing
example of how not to do it in Box 13.3.

Clarity
As the size of the audience increases, so your chances decrease of simply defin-
ing what your audience will understand. You need to be especially careful with
technical terms and jargon. Consider the jargon surrounding many descriptions
of computer systems and see which of the following speakers from Table 13.2
you would prefer. This example illustrates the point that you can explain in a way
that most levels of user will follow, especially if you can use everyday analogies
to illustrate key ideas.​

Emphasis
Good presenters usually give you a very clear sense of their main points. In other
words, they emphasise what they think are the most important parts of what they
say. There are various ways of doing this, including:
297
• using NVC to emphasise the verbal message, such as gestures.
Part 3 Table 13.2 Demystifying jargon
Effective
interpersonal Speaker A Speaker B
and group
communication
“I want to explicate and “This package can do things we can’t do on our present
demonstrate the additional system. I want to explain what the package can do, show
functionality” you how it does it, and highlight the advantages over what
we do now”.
“We’ve redesigned the user “We’ve redesigned how it looks on the screen to make it
environment for improved easier to use”.
ease-of-use”.

• pausing before key points.

• stressing key parts of the sentence.
• using rhetorical devices to emphasise – as in the recent British political party
slogan – “we have three priorities: education, education and education,” or
by saying “and if there is one thing, I would like you to remember from this
talk, it is…”
• signposting that a main point is coming: “and this highlights one of the most
important things I have to say”; “and so my three main concerns are…”.

Of course, visual aids can be a major vehicle to convey the emphasis. One final
point is the value of a brief handout to summarise main points.

Using examples
Baguley suggests that examples on their own are “not sufficient” (page 108), sug-
gesting that examples should be used to illustrate general rules in a particular
sequence, depending on the audience:

• if the audience is familiar with the topic but need to review or be reminded
of the rule then you can use either the rule–example or the example–rule
sequence.
• if the audience is not familiar with the topic, then you should use the rule–
example–rule sequence. In other words, you tell them the rule, give them an
example, and then remind them of the rule.

Another important point about examples is that they must clearly highlight the
rule and not be open to very different interpretations or contain too much irrel-
298 evant detail.
 13
Effective
BOX 13.3 HOW TO SHOOT YOUR PRESENTATION presentations
IN THE FOOT IN THE FIRST FEW MINUTES

You can “lose” your audience within the first few minutes!

The following example illustrate this:

I (PH) recently attended a seminar where an experienced speaker from indus-
try opened the afternoon session (using PowerPoint). He included all the follow-
ing statements in his opening few minutes:

■ “this is the graveyard slot, just after lunch”.

■ “the previous speakers have said much of what I’m going to say”.
■ “some of you will have seen these slides before”.
■ “you can go to sleep now”.
■ “this is not the most exciting theme of the day”.

No prizes for guessing how much interest and enthusiasm this presentation gen-
erated in the audience!

Presentation technology

Only a few years ago, the only presentation technology mentioned in many guide-
books was Microsoft PowerPoint. PowerPoint is now the “conventional method”
but has been criticised for the restricted way it is often used. For example, one
senior manager advises us to

constantly question to get beneath the platitudes of PowerPoint presentations

(Woodford, 2012, page 31)

The reliance on standard techniques such as bulleted lists and stock visual aids
does not guarantee interest or enthusiasm (as in “Death by PowerPoint”) which
can be made even worse by the presenter simply reading what is on the screen.

BOX 13.4 BULLET POINTS CAN KILL?

The unthinking use of PowerPoint has been blamed for some serious misrep-
resentations and distorted arguments. One of the most serious examples is the
299
Part 3
Effective work by Edward Tufte on the engineering presentations used by NASA where the
interpersonal standard method was PowerPoint (Tufte, undated; Avyukta, 2020; Harris, 2010).
and group
communication Tufte analyses the PowerPoint slides used in 2003/2005 and it well worth
looking at his detailed analysis of particular slides to see how technical data
should not be reported. His analysis reinforces the conclusions of the Columbia
Accident Investigation Board that:

distinctive cognitive style of PowerPoint reinforced the hierarchical filtering

and biases of the NASA bureaucracy.

Important technical issues were effectively buried in the detailed bulleted lists
of PowerPoint presentations such that the important safety messages were not
revealed or highlighted. He concludes that:

for nearly all engineering and scientific communication, instead of

PowerPoint, the presentation software should be a word-processing pro-
gram, capable of capturing, editing, and publishing text, data, tables, data,
graphics, images, and scientific notation.

As a result, you need to consider very carefully the nature of the information
and messages you wish to present. Looking at the examples in Tufte’s article
above, we would say that the problem lay not just in the default structures of
PowerPoint but also in the way it was used by the NASA scientists and engineers.
They could have used the software in a much more flexible way, and they could
have supplemented the presentations with detailed technical notes in different
formats. But they did not, and this led to tragic and avoidable accidents.

Reflecting on your use of software like PowerPoint

Whatever type of information you are presenting, you need to avoid the “mind-
less” application of PowerPoint and develop a broader range of skills. Consider a
range of alternatives, such as:

Using PowerPoint in a more flexible and

varied style, especially if that is the standard
organisational system. For example:
• one of our colleagues is a very enthusiastic user of PowerPoint on the grounds
300 that it offers a lot of control over the space on the screen. But he never uses any
of the standard templates and designs his own from scratch. You may not be
 able to do this if you have to conform to an institutional template, but you can 13
use the variety of slide styles to ensure that you are not burying or obscuring Effective
important information. presentations

Using other software such as Keynote from Apple to

take advantage of different styles and templates
• there are now other presentation packages such as Apple’s Keynote which
offer a similar broad range of facilities to PowerPoint.
• there is an increasing range of presentation packages which enable quick con-
struction of simple messages with libraries of images and icons to help you.
See the website for further details and discussion.

Using software with a very different

style of navigation such as Prezi
• Prezi treats your presentation as a giant canvas and zooms in and out
on the particular slides which you move to. We think this should be
used very carefully as the “roller-coaster” transition between slides can
be disorienting.

Using embedded presentation tools

• the presentation builder in our preferred concept mapping software (Cmap)
allows you to show how a map develops. Alternatives are available in many
mind map applications.

Whatever software you choose you should make sure that you are thoroughly
familiar with:

• the navigation controls and options.

• The computer setup in the location. Screen resolution on the data projector
can still be a particular problem if you are using your own laptop or tablet.

Alternative presentation strategies

There are also some important alternatives to the conventional presentation

strategy of “delivery plus questions/comments”:

Using pre-presentation surveys

The availability of free or inexpensive survey tools like Survey Monkey or Google 301
Forms means that we can all prepare simple surveys to test opinions.
Part 3 Polling the audience during the presentation
Effective
interpersonal There are various ways of doing this, including a number of ways of integrating
and group polls into standard PowerPoint presentations.
communication

Incorporating the back-channel for discussion and comment

This can place additional pressure on the presenter to keep up with the chat.
There are ways of dealing with this which we suggest below.

Flipping the presentation

The idea of the “flipped classroom” has received considerable publicity in education
over the last few years although the method has a longer history than some current
accounts give credit for. In its simplest form, the method reverses the conventional
lecture and seminar structure that has been a main feature of further and higher
education. The presentation, which was the traditional lecture, is made available
online in advance so that students work through basic content before the face-to-
face class session and are therefore ready to engage in workshop and/or discussion
activity. This has a number of advantages, including the fact that students can work
through the content at their own pace and at a time which suits their own lifestyle.
This format can be very successful. There is no reason why it cannot be used
in contexts other than education or training, as long as you make sure that your
audience “knows the rules” and are prepared to put effort in before the meeting.

Using visual slides which engage the audience

An important aspect of any presentation is to use visual images and style to sup-
port the argument you are making. Robin Williams (2010) suggests that we
apply four general principles of “conceptual presentation design” as we develop
and plan the presentation:

• Clarity: making sure that your presentation is “clear and understandable and
that viewers can easily assimilate your information”.
• Relevance: eliminating all irrelevant material and making everything rel-
evant to the specific audience.
• Animation: using animations to clarify your argument.
• Plot: making sure that you “tell the story”.

You can then apply a further four principles of “visual presentation design” to
deliver a professional impression through your slides:
302
• Contrast: using contrast help organise information on your slides.
• Repetition: keeping some constant elements on the slides to give a coherent 13
impression. Effective
• Alignment: keeping items aligned. presentations

• Proximity: using spacing to show the audience which information goes

together.

Virtual presentations

One consequence of the pandemic was the explosive growth of online meetings
and presentations. As well as exponential growth in numbers, Zoom and other
platforms saw new types of online activity across education, business, and in
our social and family lives, as well as new forms of negative behaviour such as
“Zoom-bombing”.
Increasing pressures on time and resources have led to the increasing use of
virtual presentations – webinars – using desktop conferencing software, in both
the commercial and educational worlds. The software is easy to use and will run
effectively on any modern desktop or laptop PC and more recently tablets. This
form of presentation will continue to grow, and you should be prepared and able
to use it. These presentations are often recorded so you have an additional incen-
tive to make a good impression.​
All of the suggestions made earlier in this chapter about face-to-face presenta-
tions (importance of objectives, structure etc) also apply to virtual presentations.
There are some additional things to worry about and prepare for:

Your on-screen presence

You are presenting to an audience you probably cannot see. Even the best large
screen systems can only give you a partial view of the audience and you will not
be able to focus on individuals in the same way that you can in a face-to-face pres-
entation. So, you have to be able to include “digital body language” techniques as
we discussed in Chapter 5.

Making good use of chat

Webinar software typically allows the audience to interact with you in differ-
ent ways – voting on a question, asking questions by signaling for access to the
microphone, and the ongoing chat box allows anyone to type a comment or
message.

How do you manage all these?

You can adopt a team approach to avoid the overload of multi-tasking. In a team 303
approach, the presenter focuses on his/her arguments and engaging the audience
Part 3 Table 13.3 Practical suggestions for online presentation (based on Reynolds)
Effective
interpersonal Tips from Garr Our comments and further suggestions
and group
communication
Reynolds

Simplify your message As it can be more difficult to spot when your audience is
confused, then you need to keep your message as simple and
“sharp” as possible.
Keep it short and mix
things up
Use a variety of visuals Make sure that you do not use “too many” and confuse your
audience.
Make visual elements Your audience may be watching you on a smartphone!
large
Place yourself well in the Record yourself so that you can adjust your position if
frame necessary.
Look at the camera There are various stands/tripods you can use to adjust the
camera position.
Remove clutter behind Decide on the best background to avoid distracting viewers.
you
Get comfortable with the Rehearse and practice – “overlearn” the setup so you will not
technology panic if anything goes wrong.
Upgrade your It is worth investing in the best mic you can afford.
microphone
Upgrade your camera It is worth investing in the best camera you can afford, or
you can take advantage of recent developments like using the
iPhone as your webcam.
Improve your lighting Another area where you can make a big different with a bit of
experimentation.
Use direct ethernet Especially if your wi-fi connection is poor or irregular.
connections

while a colleague or colleagues manage the technical process and channel the
questions/comments (e.g. Koegel, 2010).
We have used this process effectively in large conference sessions which
brought together an audience in the room and virtual delegates from across the
country (and in some cases across the world).
For smaller session and audiences, we think that an experienced presenter can
effectively manage the whole process, especially if you build in deliberate and
304 regular pauses in the presentation to “catch up on the chat”. This is a skill which
you can develop with practice.
Podcasts and vlogs 13
Effective
Podcasts and vlogs have grown exponentially since the early 2000s with the presentations
increased capability of telephones for recording both audio and video as well as
platforms such as Spotify, YouTube, and Instagram to publish recordings. Whilst
superficially attractive, offering opportunities to enhance your professional pres-
ence within online spheres, you need to consider carefully both the costs and
benefits of choosing to participate. As with all professional communication,
planning is a necessity – you need to develop skills as well as considering the
multiple audiences that can access the outputs. These audiences include unin-
tended viewers or listeners, such as future employers, as well as the audiences
that have been planned for.
There is now an enormous number of guides to podcasting, both in books and
online. This volume of sources reflects the place of the podcast in developing an
online presence. If you are completely new to this area then look for a source
which is run by seasoned podcasters and which offers a general overview, such
as: https://www​.thepodcasthost​.com​/planning​/how​-to​-start​-a​-podcast/. The
technology has developed rapidly so you also need to follow current practice (see
more suggestions on the website).
Podcasting is a useful professional skill to develop and, like other aspects of
online presence, can straddle your professional and personal space. You may feel
that this is “not your thing”, but it is a skill that can be learned, like any other.
Also, you may feel that this is something that you may be a natural at, but we can
all improve what we do with practice and wider reading.
If you decide to get involved, you will need to develop basic technical skills
and understanding. Your choice of platform to host a podcast will influence the
level of possible engagement with an audience (García-Marín, 2020).
In preparing to develop podcasts there are some key elements to identify
before hitting “record”, including:

• why you want to develop a podcast.

• what the key theme(s) of the podcasts will be.
• who the audience will be.
• the level of competition.

To maintain your own commitment to the production of a podcast series and the
level of quality required to keep your listeners interested, you need to identify
something that you are genuinely enthusiastic about (Kretz, 2018; Wolpaw and
Harvey, 2019, Podcast Insights, 2021). If you feel that this is something that you
may struggle with, then having a co-creator is something to consider.
At this point you would need to consider the format of the podcast, the level
of scripting that might be involved, as well as what avenues you will use to pro- 305
mote the podcast series in order to get listeners. Whilst scripting may seem to be
Part 3 in contrast to the impression that you want to create of a free-flowing delivery
Effective or interview, thorough preparation in terms of the content and direction of the
interpersonal podcast are required. This preparation will enable you to produce a podcast that
and group
communication presents you as a professional, i.e., knowledgeable of your subject and in com-
mand of your delivery.
Where your podcasts include interviews, knowing the background and area of
expertise of the interviewee will enable you to generate interesting and insightful
questions to support the delivery. In some ways, this aspect reflects the develop-
ment of a semi-structured interview that would be used for a research project.
In both cases, it is important to let the interviewee speak at length while you and
keep your own contributions to a minimum.
The world of vlogs is currently more limited in the range of subject matter
compared to podcasts, despite the size of YouTube and Instagram. At the time of
writing, the most popular themes for vlogs are: beauty, gaming, travel, technol-
ogy, health and fitness, cooking, do-it-yourself, and lifestyle (adobe​.co​m, 2022).
This presents a list of areas where there are already substantial audiences but also
significant competition. Moreover, despite the apparent authenticity of vloggers
in terms of presenting themselves as being spontaneous and genuine, the reality
is that the most popular are professionally edited and curated and supported with
brand sponsorship. Engaging in the world of vlogging may only be really benefi-
cial if you are committed to developing a career in vlogging. But we hesitate to
make detailed predictions as technology is advancing so fast.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ presentations are increasingly common in organisations. You should be pre-
pared to confidently deliver presentations where the presentation flows and
is clearly organised.
■ there are two main ways to resolve anxieties about presentations. First, you
can make yourself feel less nervous by using relaxation techniques and being
well-prepared. Secondly, you can behave in ways which conceal your nerves.
■ characteristics of effective presentations include a clear structure which is
communicated to the audience. Other important issues are clear objectives,
how far you know your audience, your style of expression, and whether you
can operate effectively in the setting. All depend upon the audience and
context.
■ Microsoft PowerPoint is the industry-standard presentation software, so
you need to be able to use it. But you also need to decide when and where to
use different software or a different approach.
■ there are some important alternatives to the conventional presenta-
306 tion strategy of “delivery plus questions/comments”. Alternatives worth
 13
considering include: the use of pre-presentation surveys; incorporating the Effective
back-channel; flipping the presentation. presentations
■ increasing pressures on time and resources have led to the increasing use of
virtual presentations – webinars – using desktop conferencing software and
you should be prepared and able to use this form of delivery.
■ presenting online has its own challenges and you need to make sure are both
well-prepared and suitably equipped with technology.
■ podcasting offers opportunities to enhance your professional and personal
presence online – again you need to do the necessary groundwork and
preparation.

References
Alvernia University. (2015) Speaking Up: 5 Strategies to Give an Effective Presentation. https://online​
.alvernia​.edu​/articles​/effective​-presentation​-skills/.
Anderson, G.Z. (2013) The Three Essential Elements of a Great Presentation. https://managementhelp​
.org​ / blogs​ /communications​ /2013​ /11​ /04​ /the​ - three​ - essential​ - elements​ - of​ - a​ - great​
-presentation/.
Avyukta. (2020) Death by PowerPoint. The Slide that Killed. https://medium​.com​/the​-futuristic​-co​
/death​-by​-powerpoint​-the​-slide​-that​-killed​-f3265a8d284a.
Campion, S. (2017) 7 steps to create a powerful presentation The Actuary. At: https://www​
.theactuary​.com​/features​/2017​/10​/2017​/10​/10​/7​-steps​-create​-powerful​-presentation
García-Marín, D. (2020). Mapping the factors that determine engagement in podcasting: design
from the users and podcasters’ experience. Communication and Society, 33 (2): 49–63.
Indeed Editorial Team. (2021) 12 Elements of Successful Presentation. https://www​.indeed​.com​/
career​-advice​/career​-development​/elements​-of​-presentation.
Kakepoto, I., Said, H., Buriro, G.S. and Habil, H. (2012) Beyond the technical barriers: Oral
communication barriers of engineering students of Pakistan for workplace environment:
Preliminary results. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences 3(10): 2013.
Kretz, C. (2018) How To Start A Podcast. Library Journal, 143(9), pp. 18.
Lile, S.P. (2021) What are the Elements of a Powerful Presentation? https://www​.beautiful​.ai​/blog​/
what​-are​-the​-elements​-of​-a​-powerful​-presentation.
Morgan, N. (2007) Giving Presentations. Boston, Mass: HBP
Morgan, G. (1997) Images of Organisation, New Edition. London: Sage.
Podcast Insights (2023) How to start a Podcast: A complete Step-by-Step Tutorial How To Start A
Podcast In 2023: A Step-By-Step Guide (podcastinsights​.c​om)
Reynolds, G. (2011a) Blog at www​.presentationzen​.com.
Reynolds, G. (2011b) The Naked Presenter: Delivering Powerful Presentations With or Without Slides.
Berkeley, CA: New Riders.
Reynolds, G. (2014) TEDx Talk “Why Storytelling Matters” https://youtu​.be​/YbV3b​-l1sZs
Tufte, E. (undated) PowerPoint Does Rocket Science – And Better Techniques for Technical Reports.
https://www​.edwardtufte​.com​/bboard​/q​-and​-a​-fetch​-msg​? msg ​_ id​=0001yB​&topic ​_ id​=1.
Wolpaw, J. T., and Harvey, J. (2020). How to podcast: a great learning tool made simple. The 307
Clinical Teacher, 17(2), 131–135. https://doi​.org​/10​.1111​/tct​.13040
 Chapter 14
Effective teams

Introduction

Many organisational analysts emphasise the importance of teamwork to organi-

sational success:

Pretty much all the most challenging work today is undertaken in groups for a sim-
ple reason: problems are too complex for any one person to tackle alone.
(Syed, 2020, page 14)

As a result, many companies worldwide have made significant investments in

team training. For example, we will describe Belbin’s model of team roles.
According to their website, this

now operates in over 100 countries, has been translated into 25 languages and has
more than 35 distributors worldwide
(https://www​.Belbin​.com; last accessed 9/10/22)

We need to know the essential characteristics of a successful team, define the

most important processes for effective teamwork, and work out the best ways to
develop effective teams. This chapter confronts all these questions and empha-
sises that the quality of communication, allied to the quality of the team mem-
bers, makes the real difference.
We now have a range of new technologies which can either help or impede
this communication and we are now all familiar with the mechanics of Zoom
and/or Teams meetings. We summarise important findings from recent
research which suggests the particular advantages and possible limitations of
this technology.
308

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-18
 14
OBJECTIVES Effective teams

This chapter will:

■ define an “effective team”.

■ show how important effective teams are to modern organisations, and com-
ment on moves to “empower” work teams.
■ analyse important processes which can influence group and team working,
including team roles, leadership, and problem-solving.
■ suggest ways in which virtual and online teamwork are best supported.
■ discuss how we can best develop teams in organisations.

We need a team!

Consider the following extract from a management meeting. Are their plans
likely to be successful? Jim is the manager:

Hugo: “ABC are offering an upgrade on the network software for a special price”.
Mo: “We’d better check that carefully before we commit ourselves.”
Jan: “We’d better ask a team to investigate it and report back quickly”.
Mo: “Needs Harry and Fran from my department – they’ve got the technical
expertise.”
Hugo: “Don’t forget finance – Michael and Mika should be involved”.
Sasha: ‘Don’t forget users – How about Helen from head office and Joe for the
other sites?”
Pat: “That team will never work together – they are all too concerned with their
own issues. Who is going to co-ordinate?”
Jim: “They’ll be all right. All they need is a clear deadline. It won’t take more
than a couple of meetings”.

What chance would you give this working group of working effectively as a
team? What confidence would you have in their recommendations after a couple
of meetings?

What makes a team?

Jim, senior manager, has no time for this question. In his opinion, all you need to
do is assemble a group with necessary technical expertise, give them a deadline,
and wait for the result. But will it be a “good” result?
309
Part 3 In his book which aims to “revolutionise your thinking and make wiser deci-
Effective sions”, David Robson summarises research demonstrating what he calls the
interpersonal “intelligence trap” – where “smart people” make bad decisions because of faulty
and group
communication thinking. This typically happens because of four factors:

• people may lack necessary tacit knowledge and counter-factual thinking.

• people may fail to recognise flaws in their own thinking. They rationalise
and perpetuate mistakes due to dysrationalia, motivated reasoning, and the bias
blind spot.
• people may be overconfident and failed to recognise their limitations because
of earned dogmatism.
• people may employ entrenched, automatic behaviours that render us oblivious to the
obvious warning signs that disaster is looming, and more susceptible to bias.
(Robson, 2019. Page 84)

Fortunately, he suggests ways to avoiding this “trap”, reflecting points we have

made in previous chapters, including:

• do not jump to premature conclusions.

• be aware of your own prejudices and typical assumptions and actively avoid
them.

Differences between teams and groups

What are the most important differences?
Leading American experts, Katzenback and Smith, distinguish different types
of team/group and argue that high-performance teams are much more effective
than working groups. In “working groups”, staff meet together to share informa-
tion and to co-ordinate and make decisions. This is very different from what they
call a “real team”:

a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a com-
mon purpose, performance goals, and a working approach for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable.
(Katzenbach and Smith, 1998, page 220)

The critical differences are the levels of commitment and the strong sense of
mutual support and accountability.
Think of a working group that you have been involved in – what happened
when something went wrong? Did everyone feel equally accountable? Did they all
pull together to put it right? Or did the group search out and perhaps “punish”
310 the member who had made the mistake? According to Katzenback and Smith, a
real team will always do the former – they will always take collective decisions 14
and they will always hold themselves mutually responsible. Effective teams
They suggest six basic elements of a team. High-performance teams score
highly on all these:

• size (is it large enough to do the job but small enough for easy communication?)
• skills (does the team have all the necessary skills?)
• purpose (is this “truly meaningful” – do all members understand it and see
it as important?)
• goals (are they clear, realistic, specific, shared, and measurable?)
• working approach (is this also clear, shared, fair, and well understood?
• mutual accountability (is everyone clear on their individual and joint respon-
sibilities? Do they feel mutually responsible?)

Katzenback and Smith accept that working groups can be effective and make
sensible decisions. But “real teams” will be much more effective. They also define
other varieties of group/team:

The pseudo-team
A working group may call itself a team when actually there is no real shared
responsibility – the members act as individuals. Their failure to share and co-
ordinate may make them perform worse than a working group which has fewer
pretensions.

The potential team

The potential team is the group which is trying to move to full teamwork but
still not clear on its goals/priorities and still struggling with issues of individual
responsibilities and loyalties. Whether it make the transition will depend on the
quality of the leadership/management and the commitment of the members. Box
14.1 gives an example of how not to manage this transition.

BOX 14.1 HOW NOT TO MOVE TO TEAMS.

Workers in the British factory of a large American corporation were called to
a mass meeting on Friday afternoon. The management presentation explained
the advantages of “self-managing teams” – work teams are responsible for set-
ting targets and monitoring quality and left to get on with it, without continual
management supervision. The factory was moving to this system the following
Monday morning, and all the existing supervisors were reallocated to other work
311
Part 3
Effective within the company. The presentation finished and everyone went home for the
interpersonal weekend.
and group
communication What do you think happened on Monday morning? An immediate upturn in
productivity and morale? Or confusion, chaos, and anxiety? And why were an
intelligent management group surprised when it was the latter?
A major issue in any discussion about teams is the amount of control and
power which they have over their operations and progress. Many organisations
have not just been training workers to work together more co-operatively but
also giving the teams more responsibility.

Group and team processes

Turning groups into teams is not quick or easy. It depends on understanding

fundamental group dynamics, which we discuss below:

• group development.
• team roles.
• leadership.
• problem-solving and decision-making.
• inter-group relationships (relationships between groups).

Group development

Many business texts paint a very definite picture of how groups change over time
– moving through four stages: forming, storming, norming and performing.
This account – four stages in a definite sequence – is probably the most well-
known account of group development and you can find numerous accounts online
and on YouTube. It is based on work by Tuckman (1965) who surveyed all the
studies of small group development he could find at the time and suggested this
was the common pattern. Groups start with a period of uncertainty. They then
move into a phase of conflict – members argue about the task and more person-
ally. Roles and relationships then get established. Only then is the group able to
get on with the job at hand.
But is this the “natural” or typical sequence for all small groups? Tuckman
himself was not so certain, pointing out some limitations in the studies he sur-
veyed. Nonetheless, his account has become the dominant model, as summarised
312 in Table 14.1 in terms of the content (how members approach the task) and the
process (how members relate to one another).
Table 14.1 Tuckman’s four-stage model of group development 14
Effective teams
Stage Content Process

Forming Members try to identify the task and Members try to work out what
how they should tackle it. interpersonal behaviours are
The group decides what information acceptable.
they need and how they are going Members will be very
to get it. dependent on the leader and the
Members try to work out the reactions of other members.
“groundrules”.
Storming Disagreement and argument over Members are hostile to the
the task. leader and other members.
Norming The group agrees on the task and Group members start to accept
how to do it. each other.
Group norms develop.
Performing The group concentrate on Group members take on roles
completing the task. which enable them to complete
the task.

In 1977, Tuckman decided this model could still account for all the studies he
could identify, provided you added a final fifth stage – adjourning. In this final
stage, group members know that the group is about to part or split up. They
make efforts to complete the task and say their farewells.
We have certainly experienced these phases in some project groups and teams we
have been involved in. But is this life cycle inevitable? In fact, several stage theories
offer variations on the themes set out by Tuckman. And many of these suggest that
stages can occur in various different sequences (e.g. Hartley, 1997, Chapter 4). For
example, Susan Wheelan (1996) proposed five stages:
• “needs and inclusion”, where members are anxious and dependent on the
leader.
• “counterdependency and flight”, characterised by conflict.
• ”trust and structure”, where norms develop.
• “work”.
• “termination” – the group finishes and disbands.
But she also pointed out exceptions: groups can get “stuck” or “regress” to a pre-
vious stage; groups can get stuck in a conflict phase and self-destruct.
An important principle here is that members of groups should try to work
out what stage of development they are in and act sensitively to “move the group
along”. Wheelan used her model to also offers practical advice to members and
leaders, summarised in Table 14.2, highlighting that it is not just the leader who 313
is responsible for helping the group develop.
Part 3 Table 14.2 Working through Wheelan’s stages of group development
Effective
interpersonal Stage What leaders need to do What members need to do
and group
communication
Dependency and Enable open discussion of values, Request information about
inclusion goals, tasks, and leadership. goals.
Raise their personal concerns.
Counterdependency Make sure that the conflicting Work to resolve conflicts
and flight issues are dealt with constructively. constructively.
Trust and structure Organise in ways that make the Organise in ways that make
group productive. the group productive.
Work Periodically assess how the group Periodically assess how the
is going to ensure that the group group is going to ensure that
can adjust to any changes. the group can adjust to any
changes.

The problem is that real work groups are not likely to follow the “textbook”
sequence of stages in such an orderly and predictable way. There are several good
reasons why we can expect more complex and more fluid development:
• membership may change, forcing the group to re-form in some way.
• the task facing the group may change.
• deadlines may change.
Other theories challenge the idea of groups progressing through a series of
stages. For example, we have observed project groups which follow the theory of
“punctuated equilibrium” where there is a very different pattern:
• starting into the task fairly quickly (not necessarily any “storming”).
• hitting something of a crisis halfway through when the group is not making
the progress it should.
• changing tactics (and sometimes the leadership) for the second half of the project.

Whether the group is successful or not depends on the effectiveness of the tactics
they adopt at this halfway point.

How will your group develop?

We cannot offer a definitive answer, especially as we do not have sufficient
research yet on changes in post-pandemic work practices. We can say that:

• it is important to regularly review your group development.

314 • you can use insights from theories, such as the value of a “halfway progress
meeting” for project groups.
• you should investigate developments in group theory (e.g. Hurt and Trombley 14
suggest an alternative model which integrates elements of Tuckman’s work Effective teams
and ideas from punctuated equilibrium).
• you should investigate and implement practical strategies which suit your
context.

Understanding leadership

An enormous range of books claim to unravel the mysteries of leadership: from

social science research, through the literature from management and business
studies, and on to the various leading personalities who want to tell us how to
“do it right”. You can also find interesting mixtures of fact and fiction, as we
illustrate in Box 14.2. Although very diverse, many texts agree on a few funda-
mental points:

• leaders have special qualities which we can identify.

• leaders have an important effect on their organisations.
• we need leaders, and only one leader in each situation.

However, all of these views can be (and have been) disputed, at least in some con-
texts. Many researchers do not believe that we really understand enough about
leadership and that we have ignored cultural factors.
One recent book by Jo Owen identifies 35 “myths” of leadership. He com-
ments that “there is no definitive answer on leadership” (Owen, 2022, page 3)
and discusses specific myths, including:

“We know what leaders do”.

“Great leaders build great teams”.
“Male and female leaders are different”.

Each of these generalisations can be questioned which means that “leadership

is contextual” (Owen, op cit, page 59). For example, the claims of differences
between male and female leaders are often based on stereotypes which are not
borne out by systematic research.

BOX 14.2 DIVERSE VIEWS OF LEADERSHIP

Many management texts on leadership have wandered into fantasy and parable
to make their points more entertaining. For example, Wess Roberts’ Make It
So (1995) contains leadership lessons supposedly written by Captain Jean-Luc 315
Part 3
Effective Picard – well-known across the world as a previous Captain of the Starship
interpersonal Enterprise and in his recent series on Amazon Prime.
and group
communication
But can we transplant the qualities required by a group of intrepid space
travellers confronting the unknown on a regular weekly basis to the office or
factory? You can ask the same question about Roberts’ earlier best-seller – The
Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun.

Dominant views on leadership have changed over the years and some views have
slipped out of favour. For example, the search for personality traits and charac-
teristics to underpin leadership was very popular in the early 20th century. But
researchers found different traits were important in different situations. Studies
failed to show strong relationships between the leader’s character and team per-
formance. More recently, this line of research has been revived and some modern
theorists emphasise the importance to the personality of the leader, and how this
is perceived by followers.
One example of this interest is the study of a so-called charismatic leader, who

is regarded by his or her followers with a mixture of reverence, unflinching dedica-

tion and awe.
(Bryman, 1992, page 41)

Rather than see this form of leadership as just emerging from the leader’s per-
sonality, this style of leadership is often conceptualised as a particular form of
relationship between leader and followers.
Recommendations about leadership often have strong moral or ethical over-
tones as illustrated by this quote from Simon Sinek:

Leadership is about integrity, honesty and accountability…To be a true leader, to

engender deep trust and loyalty, starts with telling the truth.
(Sinek, 2014, page 150)

The difficulty with many of these recipes for success and the underlying studies
is that they often focus on the “movers and shapers” of corporations or on people
who have responded heroically in emergencies. Do the same considerations apply
when we think of more modest attempts to lead?

The search for leadership functions and style

316 Looking at what leaders do has taken a number of directions, one of which was
to try to define the functions of leadership. For example, a series of American
studies suggested that effective leaders should score highly on both the following 14
dimensions: Effective teams

• initiating structure, i.e. organising to complete the task.

• consideration, i.e. developing good relations with the members.

In the UK, the work of John Adair has been used for leadership training in a wide
variety of organisations. He suggests that leaders fulfil three functions:

• achieving the task.

• building the team, maintaining good working relationships throughout the team.
• developing the individuals in the team, dealing with the members’ needs as
individuals.
(Adair, 1986)

If we know what leaders “do” then perhaps we can also define an ideal leader
style. Many texts still quote the classic study from the 1930s by Lewin,
Lippitt and White to suggest that democratic leadership is unequivocally
the “best”. But this is not a full picture of their results. Democratic groups
reported the highest morale and satisfaction, kept working even when the
leader was absent, and produced the highest quality models. Autocratic
groups produced the most models – but only when the leader was present.
When the autocratic leader was absent, groups quickly turned to misbe-
haviour. Later studies produced mixed results, especially when comparing
groups from different cultural backgrounds.
Despite mixed research findings, the notion of an ideal style of leadership which
blends concern for the task and support for the members is still popular.

Contingency approaches
Given that research on style and functions did not always deliver consistent
results, some researchers turned to more complex models, suggesting that effec-
tive leadership depends on (is contingent upon) several factors.

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

Fiedler started from the idea that there were two fundamental types of leader
– task and socio-emotional – and that these were taken on by different types of
people. He developed a measure of these leadership styles and investigated which
style was effective in which situation. Two important conclusions were:

• leadership style should match the situation to get best results. 317
• if the match is poor then leaders could alter the situation to improve it
Part 3 Evaluating Fiedler
Effective
interpersonal Although Fiedler cited an impressive range of supporting studies, there are
and group important criticisms of his approach, e.g. is leadership style as fixed as he main-
communication
tains? Other contingency theories incorporate the level of maturity of the group
members and the cultural context. Unfortunately, the message from this and
other research is that any simple model of leadership behaviour is almost cer-
tainly mistaken.

Leadership and management

Another important issue is the difference between leadership and management –

often differentiated as in Table 14.3.
The general distinction is between the notions of “direction” and “vision”
associated with leadership and notions of “competence” and “efficient operations”
associated with management. This is often summarised in the catchphrase “lead-
ers are people who do the right things and managers are people who do things
right” (this last quote is attributed to Warren Bennis and dismissed as part of yet
another myth by Jo Owen (op cit, page 11).​
We agree with Owen that this very clear distinction does not hold true in
many context – he prefers the definition of leader offered by Henry Kissinger:

someone who takes people where they would not have got by themselves.
(Owen, op cit, page 12)

Another way of approaching this distinction is to say that leadership is simply one of
the many roles which managers may play. One influential proponent of this approach
was Henry Mintzberg (1973), suggesting that managers can occupy ten roles:

• three interpersonal roles, including leader.

• three informational roles, including monitor and disseminator of information.
• four decisional roles, including negotiator and entrepreneur.

Table 14.3 Comparing leadership and management

The leader The manager

Creates and communicates the vision Controls

Develops power base Is appointed
Initiates and leads change Maintains status quo
318
Sets objectives Concentrates on results
This concern with the roles associated with leadership is just one recent trend in 14
leadership research which we now turn to. Effective teams

Recent developments in leadership research

We are still searching for a definitive account of leadership. Barbara Kellerman
has spent a good deal of her professional life “making a living from leadership”
through writing, teaching, and research. So we need to take her very seriously
when she castigated what she calls the “leadership industry” (all the training,
books, courses etc.) for failing to deliver:

while the leadership industry has been thriving…leaders by and large are perform-
ing poorly, worse in many ways than before.
(Kellerman, 2012, page xiii)

She argued that times have changed but our leadership practices have not responded
and cites multiple examples of failure, including the finding that (in the USA)

only a dismally low 7 per cent of employees trust their employer.

(op cit, page 170)

Given this level of scepticism with conventional wisdom, how can we respond?
Kellerman reported a growing level of support for her views in her later book.
She suggested that things had not improved and that:

leadership has stayed stuck – remained an occupation, as opposed to becoming a

profession.
(Kellerman, 2018, page 9)

She offers a way forward based on the need to treat leadership “more soberly and
seriously, like a profession” (op cit, page 9).
If you are preparing for a leadership position, our recommendation is that you
should investigate proposals for leadership style which specifically respond to the
world of digital connections – such as the concept of the “network leader”, repre-
sented as three overlapping areas (Hall and Janman, 2010, page 91ff):

• Cognitive flexibility – being able to face new and unanticipated challenges.

• Strategic resilience – with strong perseverance and focus on outcomes. 319
• Network excellence – the quality of our connection to others.
Part 3 The importance of networking is paramount:
Effective
interpersonal everything that leaders think, do or aspire to is mediated through the thoughts and
and group actions of others with whom they interact.
communication
(op cit, page 109)

Another approach which ties in with much of the thinking in this book is the
work by Clampitt and DeKoch (2011) based on the idea that effective leadership
leads to progress:

Leaders who are willing to embrace certain strategies and tactics can become pro-
gress makers.
(Clampitt and DeKoch, page 6)

We also suggest that you keep a watchful eye on other important themes which
have emerged from recent research including:

• vision, communication, and networking – emphasising the leader’s need to

communicate a clear vision for the group or organisation.
• culture and values – emphasising the leader’s role in building and maintain-
ing an appropriate culture for the group to work in and for the leader to be
concerned with values and goals.
• leadership as “situated action” – trying to provide a more sophisticated analy-
sis of the situations that leaders find themselves in than you find in earlier
contingency theories.
• leadership as skilled behaviour, making a more detailed analysis of the skills
and behaviour which “good” leaders use.
• cultural differences, recognising that there may be some common qualities
required of leaders in many cultures but that these will be expressed differently.
• power and authority structures, looking at the different forms of power
which leaders may use and how followers see their power and authority.
• “service or servant leadership”, where “the entire organisation is focused on
supporting customer-facing teams, and so the customer” (Laker, 2020). This
“upends” the typical organisational pyramid – “instead of employees serving
the leader, the leader serves the employees” (Indeed Editorial Team, 2022).

BOX 14.3 THE LEADER AS COMMUNICATOR

Georgiades and Macdonell suggest that leaders carry out four “explicit
imperatives”:
320 ■ scrutinise the external environment.
 14
■ develop a vision and communicate its strategic implications. Effective teams
■ develop the organisation culture so that can deliver this vision and its
strategy.
■ specify what management has to do to “drive the desired culture”.(1998,
page 21)

The search for group roles

Until recently, the typical description of roles in small groups borrowed the
three-way distinction originally set out by Benne and Sheats:

• group task roles, such as initiating ideas, requesting or giving information.

• group maintenance roles, such as supporting or encouraging others, or
resolving tension.
• individual roles, such as blocker or recognition-seeker.

But this is purely descriptive – it does not tell you which combination of roles is
most effective. An important example of work which tries to answer this ques-
tion comes from Meredith Belbin (2010).

Belbin’s Team Roles

Over a period of around ten years, Belbin and colleagues observed several hun-
dred teams of managers on management games and exercises and found that:

• team members’ behaviours were organised in a limited number of team

roles.
• these team roles were independent of members’ technical expertise or for-
mal status.
• managers consistently adopted one or two of these team roles.
• preferred team roles were linked to personality characteristics.
• the effectiveness of the team depended upon the combination of team
roles.

Originally, Belbin identified eight team roles. He later added the role of
“specialist” who brings specialist expertise to the group. Their main con-
tribution to the group is summarised in Table 14.4 with our comments on
practical implications. Belbin’s own recipe for success is summarised in Box
14.4. You can find the latest development in their thinking at the website 321
https://www​.belbin​.com..
Part 3 Table 14.4 Belbin’s team roles
Effective
interpersonal Role Main contribution to the Our suggestions re
and group
communication
group practical implications

Chair Organizes and co-ordinates. You need to ensure that the

Keeps team focused on main chair has the appropriate
objectives. personality and skills.
Keeps other members involved.
Team leader (shaper) Initiates and leads from the Who is the actual leader – the
front. chair or the shaper? There may
Challenges complacency or be interpersonal conflict here if
ineffectiveness. both try to be “the leader”. This
Pushes and drives towards the needs managing.
goal.
Innovator (plant) Provides new and creative At least one person needs to be
ideas. creative in relation to the task.
Monitor–evaluator Provides dispassionate This can be an “uncomfortable”
criticism. role so needs to be appreciated.
Team worker Promotes good team spirit. A really important role
if progress is slower than
expected.
Completer Checks things are completed. Another role that can be
Monitors progress against “uncomfortable” if other
deadlines. members do not appreciate its
value.
Implementer Practical and hard-working. This role can be seen as a “bit
(company worker) Focuses on the practical boring” – another one that
nitty-gritty. should be appreciated by other
members.
Resource Makes contacts outside the Networking skills can be
investigator group. critical in some projects.

(Titles in brackets are the original labels used in Belbin’s earlier book, 1981.)

BOX 14.4 BELBIN’S RECIPE FOR SUCCESS

Once you know which roles are strongly represented in the group, then you can
check whether your group has all the recommended ingredients:

The right person in the chair

322 Make sure that the person who is carrying out the functions of chairing the group
meetings has the appropriate personality and skills.
 14
One strong plant in the group Effective teams

Do you have at least one person who is both creative and clever in terms of the
job at hand?

Fair spread in mental abilities

What is needed is a spread of abilities, including the clever plant and competent
chair.

Wide team-role coverage

As many of the roles should be there as possible.

Good match between attributes and responsibilities

This is where members are given roles and jobs which fit their abilities and per-
sonal characteristics.

Adjustment to imbalance
If the group can recognise any gaps in its make-up, can it adopt strategies to
make good these problems?

Some implications of Belbin’s work

We suggest three very important implications:

• all the roles are valuable (some other approaches include destructive or nega-
tive roles).
• groups can develop strategies to cope with any imbalance.
• the third is best expressed as a question – using Belbin’s role.
• descriptions, who is the leader? Is it the chair or the shaper? Belbin says it
depends on the situation.

We still do not have enough independent research evidence to assume that Belbin
offers a definitive account of group roles. There are both critical and supportive
studies, especially concerning his self-report questionnaire.
To reflect on how you relate to these team roles, you can find early copies of
his questionnaire (Belbin, 1981). You should also consider his recommendations
that people should seek feedback from others (his system uses observer ratings
as well as the questionnaire data) before accepting any classification. We are not
necessarily accurate judges of our own behaviour. 323
Other systems of classifying roles are available which have some similarities
to Belbin including the Team Management Wheel from Margerison McCann
Part 3 at http://www​.tmsdi​.com. You can also find free inventories on the web often
Effective based on the Myers Briggs model of personality, e.g. at http://www​.teamtech-
interpersonal nology​.co​.uk.
and group
communication With any/all self-test systems, we repeat Belbin’s warning that you should
supplement any results with reliable feedback from others.

Problem-solving and decision-making

Many studies show that groups can fail to solve problems or make ineffective
decisions if they ignore some of the following:

• determining the type of task.

For example, can the task be divided into subtasks (divisible) or not (unitary)?
Does the group need to produce as much as possible (maximising) or are they
trying to achieve some predetermined standard (optimising)?
• problem-solving barriers, biases, and traps.
For example, we may perceive selectively. We may have subconscious biases.
We are very sensitive to contextual influences. We sometimes use inappro-
priate heuristics (a heuristic is a general rule of thumb). We use misleading
frames of reference. We can fall into problem traps, such as overconfidence,
which is usually inversely related to accuracy. The more confident people
are, the more likely they are wrong!

Communication and decision-making

On the positive side, the quality of communication is critical on both

simple and complex tasks. What is still not clear is some of the relation-
ships between communication, interaction and other components of the
decision-making-process.
Group goals are important, e.g. groups working towards specific, difficult
goals perform better than those without specific goals. Research suggests the
following practical strategies:

• setting goals which cover all aspects of the performance.

• providing regular feedback on progress.
• encouraging communication between members.
• encouraging and supporting planning activities.
• helping group members manage failure.

324 Groups can fail to recognise that they are not considering all the alternatives
needed to arrive at a balanced decision. For example, in 1961, James Stoner
suggested that groups tend to move towards more “risky” decisions than those 14
initially expressed by individual members - the “risky shift”. Later work con- Effective teams
cluded that the actual group process was “group polarisation” – if the individual
average is on the cautious side, then the group decision will be more cautious. If
the individual average is towards the risky side, then the group decision will be
riskier than the average of the individual opinions.

But will this group make effective decisions?

How much trust would you place in decisions from a group which had the fol-
lowing characteristics?

• they are very cohesive.

• they seem to be insulated from information from outside sources.
• as decision-makers, they rarely make systematic search through alternative
decision possibilities.
• they feel under stress to make quick decisions.
• they are dominated by a directive leader.

This group suffers from “groupthink”, a concept suggested by Irving Janis, after
investigating historical accounts of poor group decisions. These group character-
istics lead to “concurrence-seeking tendencies” which then lead to faulty deci-
sions. If you have a cohesive group with all these characteristics, then they will
likely fall victim to groupthink.
The good news is that groups can work out strategies to avoid these problems.
For example, Janis cited the Kennedy administration as victims of groupthink
after the Bay of Pigs crisis in the 1960s which nearly escalated into World War
3. A year later, they successfully managed an even more serious crisis – they had
implemented strategies to avoid groupthink. For example, they appointed one
member of the group to play “devil’s advocate” at each meeting, rotating this role
round the group so it did not become one person’s responsibility. This made sure
that every decision was scrutinised with a critical eye.

How widespread is “groupthink”?

Other investigators query some of Janis’ conclusions, questioning whether his
historical analysis is so clear-cut, and arguing he might have underestimated
political forces. Other researchers have questioned the role of cohesiveness.
Some studies suggest the opposite relationship – low cohesiveness associated
with groupthink – or no strong relationship between the two. The style of the
leader comes out as very important in many studies.
Some commentators have used the concept of groupthink in a way that seems 325
to overgeneralise Janis’ original ideas. For example, Christopher Booker uses
Part 3 the concept in case studies ranging from political correctness to global warming
Effective (Booker, 2020).
interpersonal Further research looking at the detailed impact of group communication and
and group
communication interaction processes on decision-making identified five critical functions:

• is the problem thoroughly discussed?

• are the criteria for a successful solution thoroughly examined?
• are all realistic alternative solutions proposed?
• are the positive aspects of each proposal fully assessed?
• are the negative aspects of each proposal fully assessed? (Hirokawa and Poole,
1996)

Problem-solving groups which can honestly claim to achieve all these functions
in open communication have the best chances of success.

Inter-group relationships

Question: When is “a” group not “one” group?

Answer: When it’s an intergroup!

In other words, when we communicate with another person we may choose to

communicate with them on the basis of the social categories which we occupy,
as in the following examples:

• I am lecturer, you are student.

• I am manager, you are trade union representative.
• I am engineer, you are from sales and marketing.

In each case, we may be more aware of our “group responsibilities” than our
individual characteristics. And this can have a very powerful influence on our
behaviour. The easiest way to illustrate this is to briefly describe a classic study
from social psychology and explore its implications for organisational behaviour.
The Sherifs (Muzafer and Carolyn) wanted to understand processes of conflict
development and discrimination and wanted to use a ‘natural’ situation. They
chose an American summer camp and did a series of naturalistic experiments
where they manipulated events in the camp without the boys knowing about it.
For example: they let boys make friends and then split them into two different
groups to see if that affected subsequent competition; they set up “frustrations”
effecting both groups in camp to see how they would react.
They were surprised how easy it was to create discrimination as opposed
326 to “healthy competition”, and noticed how the groups changed to focus on this
conflict:
• both groups developed biased perceptions (“we’re ok but they are rubbish!”). 14
• groups became more cohesive. Effective teams
• leadership became task-centred and authoritarian.

They were also surprised how difficult it was to resolve the conflict and to restore
open communication between the groups: only a series of what they called “super-
ordinate goals” made any real difference. Superordinate goals are goals where
both groups have to co-operate to achieve something which is equally important
to both.
The Sherifs suggested that this conflict and the breakdown in communica-
tion was a product of the conflict of interests – groups attempted to build their
self-esteem by winning the conflict. Later research suggested that intergroup
conflict could be much more deep-rooted – we build our sense of self-identity by
comparing ourselves with other groups (e.g. Hartley, 1997, Chapter 9).
We cannot resolve theoretical issues here but we can highlight important
implications for organisational life.
An organisational team containing members from different areas or functions
may fail because members have negative stereotypes of other members and may use
the team to foster their own group interests. In other words, the team becomes an
arena for intergroup conflict. For example, Putnam and Stohl (1996) describe sev-
eral studies of cross-functional teams. One team was characterised by “win-lose”
negotiation, strong allegiance to the home department, and continuing “power
plays”. The members took every opportunity to highlight departmental differ-
ences, including sarcastic wisecracks about ordering and paying for lunch. This
continuous conflict “stifled decision making and led to delays in product intro-
duction” (Putnam and Stohl, 1996, page 160) It is difficult to see how practical
techniques for improving meetings suggested in Chapter 13 would make much dif-
ference to this situation until the more deep-rooted conflict had been confronted.
In contrast, groups which were sensitive to these problems managed much
better, for example, where different department representatives worked very
hard to create “win-win” negotiations (creating superordinate goals which eve-
ryone could commit to). And this highlights the importance of negotiation and
communication processes, recognising there are likely to be different views of
reality, as in Box 14.5.

BOX 14.5 MULTIPLE VIEWS OF REALITY

One consequence of intergroup difficulties is the multiple perceptions of reality.
Different groups have views of reality which reflect their own experience and
interests and this can have very serious consequences. 327
Part 3
Effective An example is the accident which befell the NASA space shuttle Challenger
interpersonal which we discussed in Chapter 13 and which exploded just after take-off.
and group
communication Subsequent investigations showed that the potential for this disaster had been
recognised and investigated by NASA engineers.
So why was the launch given the go-ahead? Could one problem have been
the different perceptions held by different groups in the organisation? Yiannis
Gabriel contrasts claims by management that communication was “open and
free” with testimony that engineers “agonised over flaws in their equipment” but
“did not feel that they could voice their concerns” (Gabriel, 1999, pages 2–5).
For further comment on Challenger, see Hartley, 1997.

So how can we develop more effective

teams and working groups?

We well as the work of Katzenback and Smith on high-performing teams (already

discussed), we suggest you consider the following ideas and approaches.
Michael West (2012) offers one of the most comprehensive reviews of effec-
tive teamwork in organisations and suggest five main components which we have
turned into questions as below;
• does the team meet its task objectives?
• do the team members develop in terms of well-being?
• is the team viable over time?
• does the team innovate effectively?
• does the team co-operate effectively with other teams?

Similar problems are identified by Joiner Associates (Scholtes, 2003), American

management consultants, including clarity in team goals, clearly defined roles,
and clear communication. They offer downloadable checklists and emphasise
the scientific approach – insisting that opinions are supported by data and that
groups avoid jumping to conclusions and/or unwarranted assumptions.
Another example based on observation of a real “world-class” team in action
is from Hilarie Owen (1996). Once again the team is characterised by expecta-
tions and striving for outstanding performance. Strategies and skills required to
create such teams include open communication, negotiating the success criteria,
planning both the goals and the process, and effective leadership.
Based on research into “eight of the world's most successful groups”, Daniel
Coyle proposes three fundamental skills:

328 Skill 1 – Build Safety – explores how signals of connection generate bonds of
belonging and identity. Skill two – Share Vulnerability – explains how habits of
 mutual risk drive trusting cooperation. Skill 3 – Establish Purpose – tells how nar- 14
ratives create shared goals and values. Effective teams
(Coyle, 2018, pages xvi/xvii)
He suggests that these skills:
work together from the bottom up, first building group connexion and then chan-
nelling it into action
(Coyle, op cit, page xvii)
How do these skills operate in your organisation?
Does your management focus on building the connections between team
members, ensuring that everyone feels psychologically safe and secure and free
to contribute? Do team members trust one another, and are they prepared to
discuss issues and mistakes openly? Is there a clear shared purpose?

Different ways of mending teamwork

One approach is to simply identify all the process problems which might be
impeding group progress and try to resolve each one in turn. For example,
Robbins and Finley (1997) list 14 major problems, including confused goals, bad
leadership, lack of team trust, and unresolved roles. For each problem, they iden-
tify the main symptom to observe and a possible solution. For example, consider
the problem of unresolved roles. The main symptom is that “team members are
uncertain what their job is” and the solution is to “inform team members what is
expected of them” (1997, page 14).

Specific interventions
West (2012) suggests main types of team-building interventions. These have dif-
ferent aims and scope and will satisfy different needs and different situations:

Team start-up
A newly-formed team may need work on clarifying the team objectives, deciding
the member’s roles and co-ordination, and other forming issues.

Regular formal reviews

This may involve “away-days” where the team takes a day out of the usual routine
and environment to reflect on how things are going and being done.

Addressing known task-related problems

This also involves some time out but perhaps not so much as an away-day to focus 329
on a very specific problem.
Part 3 Identifying problems
Effective
interpersonal This is where the focus of the team review is on identifying task-related prob-
and group lems, where a team feels that it is not functioning as effectively as it could but is
communication
not sure why. This may involve discussion or some questionnaire analysis or use
of an external facilitator.

Social process interventions

Here the focus is very much on the social climate and member relationships.

Role clarification and negotiation

West describes a useful exercise for this (op cit, page 100).

The Culture Playbook

During his research mentioned above, Daniel Coyle collected examples of team
development activities, now published as 60 Highly effective actions to help your
group succeed (Coyle, 2022). These are organised under the three skills mentioned
above, and Table 14.5 gives an example of each.

New technologies and team behaviour

Before the pandemic, David Sibbert described a number of ways in which teams
could incorporate new technologies into their group process (Sibbert, 2011, page
219ff), including:

• Web conferencing with documents distributed beforehand.

• Web conferencing with documents onscreen plus audio links and web chat.
• Use of graphics tablets and shared document access to develop collaborative
documents.
Table 14.5 Examples of team development activities (based on Coyle, 2022)

Skill Example of activity to encourage positive team

development

Build Safety “Make a habit of over-thanking people”. (Tip 6)

Share Vulnerability “Build the AAR habit”. (Tip 28)
AAR means “after action review”. This process is used “not just to
figure out what happened but also to build a shared mental model
that helps the group navigate future problems”. (op cit, page 10)
330
Establish Purpose “Build the habit of a post-meeting reflection”. (Tip 53)
All of these are now available (and largely commonplace) in organisations of any 14
size, depending on their location and the quality of internet connections. Effective teams
These methods certainly add value to a team that has already developed effec-
tive team dynamics. Planting new technology on an already dysfunctional group
is likely to simply speed up or further complicate the mess.

Best practice in virtual and hybrid teams

In his Culture Playbook mentioned above, Daniel Coyle includes several tips
relating to hybrid working. We would emphasise Tip 4 – “To actively avoid Cool-
Kid bias” which is

“the misperception that working in the physical office possesses more value, lever-
age, and impact than remote work”.
(Coyle, op cit, page 32ff)

He suggests four specific “antidotes” to this bias which are also reflected in other
expert recommendations for good hybrid practice:

• “overcommunicate office happenings”.

This is the notion that remote work remote members should receive as much
information as possible so that they don't feel isolated.
• “spotlight the benefits of working remotely”.
Management and team leaders have a particular role to play here.
• “seek gender equity”.
Women can often feel disadvantaged and isolated by hybrid working and it is
important to ensure that this does not happen.
• “use in-person interactions like a booster shot” (Coyle, op cit, page 34)
Recognising the importance and value of in-person interactions, there should
be opportunities for team members to meet face-to-face at regular intervals
to build relationships.

Managing those online meetings

“Video meetings are a source of fatigue and anxiety due to one or all of the following, easily
mitigated factors: notice given, length, intensity, frequency and format”.
(O'Meara and Cooper, 2022, page 165)

The other side of the coin is that well-managed and carefully-run meetings can 331
make a significant contribution to team morale and productivity. As well as the
Part 3 factors you need to manage from the above quote, you can incorporate a range of
Effective specific behaviours into your practice, including:
interpersonal
and group
communication
• avoiding “Zoom fatigue” through effective timing and agenda planning.
• using the chat box positively to elicit comments and suggestions.
• organising your setting so that you appear professional on screen.

Final words on self-managed teams

The debate on how far organisations can or should implement these is longstand-
ing. For example, Ulich and Weber (1996) emphasised that teams must tackle
“whole tasks”, where they can set goals, plan what needs to be done, decide
how the work should be done, and receive clear feedback on their performance.
Richard Hackman argued that their success depends on three factors:

• the group task is “well designed”– members are motivated by a task which is
“meaningful” and receive clear feedback.
• the group is “well composed”– members have the necessary range of skills.
• the group’s authority and accountability is clearly specified.
(Hackman, 1990)

These recommendations reflect points we made at the beginning of the chapter when
we looked at the differences between groups and teams. The important implication is
that organisations cannot just expect these teams to happen overnight:

the spread of ‘self-managing teams’ will be a slow process…it involves very complex
organisational interventions, which must be consistent both with the values of an
organization and its technology.
(Ulich and Weber, 1996, page 273)

There are some well-established examples of success. For example, Stewart et al.
(1999) reviewed examples of self-managed team interventions in organisations. They
highlight some major organisational benefits, such as the Texas Instruments Malaysia
(TIM) move to an organisational design based on self-managing work teams in the
1990s. This delivered major savings, quality improvements, low absenteeism etc.
Important lessons can be drawn from this and other cases. Team practices must:

• be compatible with overall company philosophy and values, and with the
revised organisational structure.
• be supported by senior management.
332 • ensure that team members have developed necessary new social and techni-
cal skills.
Effective implementation is a long and careful process. It took TIM 12 years. 14
Alongside the changes in flexible and virtual working we discussed in Chapter Effective teams
5, we see a renewed interest in the possibilities and practicalities of self-managed
teams (Waters, 2021).

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

■ truly effective teams differ from working groups. Critical differences are
the level of commitment and the strong sense of mutual support and
accountability.
■ to create effective teams, we must understand the most important processes
which can influence group and team working, including group development,
team roles, leadership, problem-solving, and intergroup behaviour.
■ there are several models of group development. None are inevitable if the
members make an open attempt to review their processes.
■ the role of leader may be critical. Modern views of leadership place particu-
lar emphasis on aspects of communication.
■ models of team roles (e.g. Belbin) suggest we all have consistent prefer-
ences. The effectiveness of the team depends upon the combination of team
roles. The outcome is not predetermined – the effective group adjusts to any
imbalance in roles.
■ group communication and interaction processes have an important impact
on decision-making.
■ teams who are sensitive to intergroup issues tend to be more effective as
they can communicate and negotiate in ways which can minimise these
problems.
■ we can develop teams through improved communication, either by conscious
reflection on their major processes and adopting strategies for effective
working or by using specific team-building interventions.
■ it is important to choose the right team-building intervention to suit the
situation: different types have different aims and scope and will satisfy dif-
ferent needs.
■ many organisations now use self-managed teams. They are not a “quick fix”
and involve complex organisational interventions.

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335
PART 4

Future-gazing

337


Chapter 15
Change and future-gazing

Introduction

The rate of change is ever-increasing. Can we predict what changes are most
likely? And what implications do these changes have for our professional practice
and development?
Writing predictions, particularly those involving technology, is fraught with
pitfalls. Consider these predictions made by “experts” (more examples on the
website):

• the chairman of IBM predicting “a world market for maybe five computers”
(1943).
• the computing company head – “there is no reason anyone would want a
computer in their home” (1977).

This chapter tries to avoid placing “feet in mouth” by suggesting general trends
to look out for rather than trying to predict specific detail. In the next and final
chapter, we suggest ways we can best manage our professional development in
future.

OBJECTIVES
This chapter will:

■ show how communication is an essential feature in both the acceptance and

implementation of different types of organisational change.
■ identify key social, cultural, technological, and economic trends and
scenarios.
■ (hopefully) stimulate you to continually reflect on these trends and scenarios.

339

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-20
Part 4 What are the different types of change?
Future-gazing
Different definitions of the organisational environment suggest different types
and “triggers” of change.

The organisational environment

There are several ways of categorising factors in the organisation’s environment.
One popular mnemonic – PEST – identifies four factors:

• political/legal (including Government legislation and ideology; employment

law; taxation policy; trade regulations etc.).
• economic (including business cycles, inflation, interest rates etc.).
• socio-cultural (including social mobility, lifestyle changes, attitudes to work
and leisure, education levels, consumerism etc.).
• technological (including new discoveries, speed of technology transfer, rates
of obsolescence etc.).

Some writers turn this into PESTLE – adding Legal and Environmental issues.
These factors combine in particular ways to trigger certain changes. Senior
et al suggest that organisations operate in at least three types of environment
(Senior, Swailes and Carnall, 2020):

• temporal: historical development over time.

• external: the sum-total of the factors identified above in PEST/PESTLE.
• internal: “first-line responses to changes in the external and temporal envi-
ronments” (Senior, Swailes and Carnall, 2020, page 22), such as appointing
new management after poor economic performance, or installing new com-
puter software to meet legal requirements.

Triggers and sense-making

Change can be “triggered” in several ways, depending on the organisation notic-
ing or anticipating relevant change. And this depends on communication.
History is full of examples of organisations failing to appreciate key changes
in their environment. For example, the British motorcycle industry refused to
believe that new (cheaper) Japanese machines would affect them, arguing that cus-
tomers would pay more for “traditional” quality. By the time they recognised the
threat, their industry was in terminal decline. See Box 15.1 for further examples.
Many organisations place increasing emphasis on “sense-making” – trying to
ensure that their managers and staff continually scan the environment and com-
340 petitors’ behaviour to look for impending change. Management may use particu-
lar strategies to ensure this is done, e.g. setting up special groups or task forces.
These strategies will only succeed if results are quickly and accurately commu- 15
nicated to decision-makers within the organisation. If decision-makers do not Change and
accept the need for change then the organisation may be in trouble. This high- future-gazing

lights the need for an organisational culture which allows “bad news” to reach
senior management.
One issue which might prevent bad news “surfacing” is the possible isolation
of senior managers. This is a longstanding issue. Chaudry-Lawton and Lawton
(1992) found senior executives suffering from “feedback starvation” –

subordinates may constantly try to provide their leader with a flow of support and good
news.
(page 7)

If this happens, executives receive distorted pictures of the organisation’s perfor-

mance. This problem can be exacerbated by poor management – Box 15.1 again
– or alleviated by good management and sensible use of technology.

BOX 15.1 WHO DO YOU CONSULT ABOUT CHANGE?

Many on-screen features we take for granted nowadays started as developments
by Xerox – e.g. desktop icons. So why didn’t Xerox become the early market
leader? Why was it left for Apple, who came along several years after?
One factor was the way that Xerox demonstrated their prototype incorpo-
rating these features (the Alto). Alto was presented to male Xerox executives
and their wives. Many wives had secretarial/administrative experience and were
immediately impressed with Alto’s ease of use. But the men did not understand
the benefits, as one Alto inventor admitted – they “had no background, really, to
grasp the significance of it” (Shapiro, 1996, page 127)
You may not be surprised to learn that the male viewpoint prevailed!
Another example of male arrogance and insensitivity leading to economic
decline and failure is the British computer industry after World War 2, as sum-
marised by Marie Hicks (2017):

In the 1940s, computer operation and programming was viewed as women's

work - but by the 1960s, as computing gained prominence and influence,
men displaced the thousands of women who had been pioneers in a femin-
ised field of endeavour, and the field acquired a distinctly masculine image.
(page 1)

From the position where “Britain led the world in cutting-edge computing tech-
nology” (page 4), its computing industry failed to capitalise on the expertise 341
Part 4
Future-gazing built up by their female workforce. The UK government played a central role in
shaping the industry and it “neglected most of its trained technical workforce”
(page 15).
It would be nice to think that modern organisations had left behind these sex-
ist attitudes but there is plenty of evidence that such practices are still prevalent.

Type and rate of change

We must also consider the rate and scale of change. Dunphy and Stace (1993)
suggested four different types:

• “fine tuning” (small change in department(s)).

• “incremental adjustment” (gradual changes).
• “modular transformation” (radical change in one area).
• “corporate transformation” (radical change right across the organisation;
major changes to organisational structures and procedures).

Unfortunately, this (and similar models) contains a dangerous assumption – that

everyone in the organisation shares the same definition or understanding of the
change. What senior management sees as “incremental” is often perceived as a
fundamental shift by the employees involved.
This raises issues of communication: how is change communicated to staff?
How is change described? For example, consider the organisation which
decided to move all salaried staff to a new “more flexible” contract. Senior man-
agement extolled the virtues of the “new, professional contract” in meetings and
the company newsletter. They saw this as one step towards a more “flexible”
organisation. Staff saw the new contract as a fundamental shift in their relation-
ship with management – they resented the implication that their previous con-
tract (and behaviour) was somehow “unprofessional”.
There are also questions about the pace of change. Many models of change in
the literature were written before the pandemic, i.e. before every organisation
had to change “overnight”.

The organisational life cycle

Conventional organisation theory suggests that organisations grow through at
least four stages:

342 • entrepreneurial: a small number of people form the organisation. If it grows,

it confronts a crisis of leadership – it must decide its future strategy.
• collective: the organisation has grown. Appropriate division of labour 15
becomes critical. Departments or other subdivisions need managing and Change and
co-ordinating. future-gazing

• formalisation: the organisation is big enough to need more formal systems

and procedures. These could become over-bureaucratic – there may be a
crisis of “red tape”.
• elaboration: the company reaches a plateau and performance may even
decline. Can it change to remain competitive? (Senior, Swailes and Carnall,
2020)

There are further complications. Organisations can experience “waves” of

change. Change does not just happen and go away – it continually reappears in
various forms. A period of relative calm involving incremental change may be
followed by dramatic and turbulent change.

Strategies for change

If you are proposing and/or managing change, what strategy will you use?
Alternative strategies involve different approaches to communication,
including:

• education.
• participation.
• intervention/manipulation.
• management direction.
• coercion.

“Nudge theory” uses a mix of these approaches (Thaler and Sunstein, 2021).
This aims to influence people’s behaviour by adjusting their environment so they
make specific “decision choices” – they are “nudged” in the desired direction. It
is “based on indirect encouragement and enablement. It avoids direct instruction
or enforcement” (Businessballs, 2013/4).
Many organisations established “nudge units” to implement this approach,
including the UK government. Their Behavioural Insights Team has since been
privatised and you can find examples of their current work on their website
(https://www​.bi​.team).
Each strategy has pros and cons. For example, participation can be time-con-
suming but increases the chances of acceptance. A very directive strategy may be
quick but will often be resented and obstructed by staff.
Perhaps the most important conclusion is that there should be a strategy to 343
manage change which is communicated and open to feedback.
Part 4 Effective change messages
Future-gazing
One useful review of research suggested that an effective change message incor-
porates five components (Armenakis and Bedeian, 1999):

• this organisation needs to change.

• we can change successfully.
• change is in our best interest.
• the people affected support the change.
• this change is right for this organisation.

But we cannot just rely on “messages” – we also need to consider the stages of
change and the organisational context (see more examples on the website):

Stages of change
One of the most famous stage theories came from Kurt Lewin. He proposed
three stages: (Lewin, 1947)
• unfreezing.
People must see a reason to move from their existing attitudes or beliefs –
their existing attitudes must be “unfrozen”.
• changing.
• refreezing.
New attitudes/behaviours are tested to see if they “work”.
They only become embedded if this refreezing process is successful.
A practical example of this often-neglected final process is the effectiveness of man-
agement training courses, e.g. courses designed to make supervisors adopt more
democratic leadership. Suppose we find the course “works” when we measure super-
visors’ attitudes immediately after the course. What if we send these supervisors
back to an autocratic environment where nothing else has changed? Research into situ-
ations like this suggests that, after a short while, supervisors are overwhelmed by
the unchanging prevailing culture. Their attitudes and behaviour can become more
autocratic than before! Refreezing is ignored.
Johnson et al (2014) offer an expanded three-step model:

• unfreezing – organisational anticipation.

Management persuade staff of the need to change.
• organisational flux
“competing views surface about the causes of, and remedies for, the prob-
344 lems” (page 453).
• information-building 15
Managers find information to support their position. They need to manage Change and
this process (e.g. through strategy workshops and/or project groups) rather future-gazing

than leave it to political in-fighting.

• experimentation
New ideas are tried out.
• refreezing
Organisations must ensure new practices are embedded and staff are sup-
ported during the transition.

Learning organisations as the answer?

One solution to change issues (strongly advocated in the 1990s) is the “learn-
ing organisation” – an organisation actively embracing change as ongoing
and inescapable, where all employees commit to continuous learning and
self-improvement.
This approach challenges traditional practices. For example, research and
development (R&D) is not a specific department/section. As everyone is respon-
sible for contributing to development, R&D functions are integrated into pro-
duction facilities.
Another important feature is the leader’s role. Senge (1994) argued that
learning organisations must abandon traditional views of leaders as “spe-
cial people who set the direction, make the key decisions, and energise the
troops” (page 5). Instead, leaders must focus on the “creative tension” cre-
ated by the gap between where the organisation is now and where it wants
to be in future. They need to ensure the organisation has a coherent vision
of where it wants to be.

Evolving scenarios and the implications

for communication

Scenarios introduced in earlier chapters will be particularly significant.

Globalisation
This can be defined in different ways. For example, views of how trading will
evolve range from a “scattered” world – a future of monopolistic unregu-
lated competition – to a more connected world where companies collaborate 345
Part 4 domestically and internationally with enlightened Governments regulating
Future-gazing for the global good.
Underpinning such integration/collaboration is the internet. But increasing
the interdependence of economies, communications and cultures depends on
political systems. And there are disturbing examples of increasing control and
censorship in countries like China. There are also consequences from tragedies
such as the war in Ukraine which will take a long time to resolve. And there are
long-term consequences of political turmoil such as UK government changes in
the autumn of 2022.

Portfolio careers and job change

The notion of a “job for life” has been eroded in the private sector (less so in the
public sector), leading to very different work arrangements, from full-time, to
part-time, to “zero hours”, with different employment status.
For individuals, this probably means “portfolio careers”, with less upward
promotion and more horizontal career development.
One key impact of this jobs market is the need for individuals to take control
of their careers as early as possible – careers may well include several major
changes of direction.

Flexible and virtual working

Flexible and virtual working is now commonplace. As well as providing more
efficient support systems, IT departments face increasing challenges around
security as well as compliance with internal protocols and Government regula-
tions e.g. data protection.

Blurring of professional and private lives

Changes described above increasingly blur our professional and private lives.

Work-life balance
During/following the pandemic, many of us became more aware of limitations
in our current balance. This has affected the job market – individuals seek out
jobs offering more flexible working conditions.

The nature of offices

Increases in flexible and mobile working beg the question – what will offices
346 become?
Collaboration, collaboration, collaboration 15
Change and
Effective collaboration is a core capability for all professional staff – not just with future-gazing
local colleagues, but with partners, suppliers, associates and clients – locally,
nationally, and internationally.

Digital capability and integration

Further software and hardware advances will support the plans announced by
Microsoft and Google in 2023 to integrate AI into all forms of everyday and pro-
fessional communication supported by computers.

Digital literacy/fluency is critical

One thread running through all these scenarios is the need for IT systems to sup-
port flexible and mobile working and provide access to different communications
channels, networks, systems, data and information.
Digital literacy becomes ever more important, requiring more sophisticated
capabilities – we need to become more proactive in identifying, choosing, and
implementing appropriate technology.

Open innovation and new product development

Open innovation can be realised in different ways. For example, consider how the
mountain bike evolved (Charles Leadbeater, TED, 2007). A group of Californian
kids, frustrated by the inadequacies of normal bikes over rough terrain, cobbled
together parts (e.g. from motorcycles) to construct the first “mountain bike” – an
idea totally driven by consumer need.
Developments in the internet and social media now make open innovative
practices both easier and more likely:

• companies use social media to create communities of interest and interact

with customers, helping to identify new markets and new product ideas.
• open source products offer another model. Here, disparate individuals
(sometimes companies) collaborate to develop products that are “open for
use”. Examples include open-source content management systems such as
Joomla, Drupal, and Wordpress.
• companies diversify their products to build a community of customers.

Equality, Diversity and Inclusion v internationalisation

In the UK, we see moves to improving opportunities for all, increasing aware-
ness of racism, gender stereotyping, LGBTQi rights, and the benefits of neu-
rodiversity (with members of LinkedIn listing dyslexia as a skill) etc. These 347
Part 4 moves may clash with expectations and cultures in international markets. This
Future-gazing can create tensions as well as present opportunities to influence the creation of
a fairer world.

Increased individuality
The rise of the “social influencer” allows these individuals to have significant
influence and earning power that sits outside of traditional business structures.
Influencers are themselves subject to the influence of large corporations who buy
access to their followers.

Internet ethos and control

All these open approaches require a more “social” and cooperative approach to
innovation which does chime with the original ethos of the Internet.
And that takes us to our final chapter where we discuss how you can use ideas
from this book to build your own professional development.

References
Armenakis, A.A. and Bedeian, A.G. (1999) Organisational change: A review of theory and
research in the 1990s. Journal of Management 25(3): 293–315.
Chaudry-Lawton, R. and Lawton, R. (1992) Ignition: Sparking Organisational Change. London:
BCA.
Dunphy, D. and Stace, D. (1993) The strategic management of corporate change. Human Relations
45(8): 917–918.
Hicks, M. (2017) Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost its Edge
in Computing. London: MIT Press.
Johnson, G., Whittington, R., Scholes K., Regner, P. and Angwin, D. (2014) Fundamentals of
Strategy [3rd edition) London: Pearson
Leadbetter, C. (2007) The era of open innovation [video]. TED Conferences. https://www​.ted​
.com​/speakers​/charles ​_ leadbeater.
Lewin, K. (1947) Group decision and social change. In Newcomb, T. and Hartley, F. (ed) Readings
in Social Psychology. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Mahase, E. (2022) Type 1 diabetes drug was withdrawn because of “commercial conflict of
interest” charity argue. BMJ 375: 0373. https://doi​.org​/10​.1136​/bmj​.o373.
Shapiro, E.C. (1996) Fad Surfing in the Boardroom: Reclaiming the courage to manage in the age of instant
answers. Oxford: Capstone.
Senge, P.M. (1994) The leaders new work: Building learning organisations. In Mabey, C. and
Iles, P. (eds) Managing Learning. London: Routledge.
Senior, B., Swailes, S. and Carnall, C.A. (2020) Organizational Change, 6th edition. Upper Saddle
River: Pearson.
Thaler, R.H. and Sunstein, C.R. (2021) Nudge: The Final Edition. London: Allen Lane.

348
Chapter 16
Planning your future

Introduction

We keep returning to an image of the future – a world of change, uncertainty,

and unpredictability as the pace of technological innovation increases and dis-
rupts the way we work, learn, and live.
How can we cope with all this uncertainty and change?
We advocate an approach to your future career planning which uses two key
themes:

Adapt basic principles of effective

communication to your context
The principles in Chapter 2 will (hopefully) stand the test of time. Please use and
adapt these to guide your communication (and your organisation’s) irrespective
of which media/technologies you adopt in future.

Adopt the review, plan, and improve approach

Chapter 1 introduced the “review, plan, and improve” approach – what we also
call the “researcher approach”. For example, you can use this approach towards
emerging technologies and new media. It means spending time horizon-scanning
and getting to grips with emerging technologies. You need to work out how you
and your organisation can best use them. And you cannot simply rely on your
computing or IT departments – unfortunately, these departments are often con-
strained by pressures which do not give them time or resources to come up with
creative/innovative uses of technology.
Using these themes, we suggest you develop a plan covering all the areas in
Figure 16.1. After a few words on main headings, the rest of this chapter focuses
on the following as both priorities and good places to start:
349
• proactive professional development.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003297550-21
 Part 4
Future-gazing

350
Figure 16.1 Mapping your professional future
• recognising boundaries and managing your digital identity (ID). 16
• collaboration and networking. Planning your
future

Organisational understanding
We offered several different models of organisational culture and structure. You
need to decide which is most relevant in your context and consider how this
affects your behaviour and communication. If you do happen to find yourself in a
“toxic” culture then you should move on (quickly).

Personal goals
These should be both realistic and challenging. They should also be flexible as you
respond to the uncertainties of change.

Interpersonal skills
The important principle here is to develop your skills to cope with both face-to-
face and online situations – we cannot predict the balance of those in your work-
ing life over the next decades.

Digital fluency
The term “fluency” suggests that this is more than just acquiring a set of technical
skills. As we suggest in previous chapters, this is an area we all need to further
develop over the next decade.

Proactive professional development

Taking responsibility for your own learning is one overarching principle to fol-
low in future – whether you or your employer are funding your learning pro-
grammes. The uncertainty of the jobs market, the growth of the gig economy
(Kessler, 2018), the emergence of “portfolio” careers, and the likelihood of step-
changes in careers means that employers are less likely to fund ongoing pro-
fessional development. This leaves us as individuals to pick up the tab for our
“lifelong learning”.
We also predict further growth of “learn while you earn” approaches: part-
time courses, distance learning courses, or participating in work-based learning
programmes.
Smart universities and colleges work closely with employers to design learn-
ing programmes that serve the dual purpose of developing employees as well
as helping the employer organisation to improve, aligning with the organisa- 351
tion’s strategic goals. Even smarter universities and colleges help organisations
Part 4 to measure their impact. We see this happening in economies worldwide, e.g.
Future-gazing recent initiatives in the USA to rebuild regional economies through local part-
nerships, including colleges and universities.
New online services are appearing to support ongoing learning, not just
from traditional providers. Growing support for “open” approaches to edu-
cation/training means more OERs (open educational resources). These
typically comprise small chunks of digital learning materials which can
be used standalone or by course developers to incorporate in modules or
programmes.
One important development of the OER concept was the MOOC (massive
open online course). The year 2012 was proclaimed “The Year of the MOOC” by
The New York Times with assertions that this approach would “save higher educa-
tion’s crises and educate the world using Internet-based approaches” (Riel and
Lawless, 2017). This “revolution” did not materialise but MOOCs have become
a significant component in the educational landscape which are likely to develop
further and which we should all explore.
Other learning concepts likely to increase in use include:

Personalisation of learning
Following the pandemic, worldwide student numbers continue to increase in
higher education, and educators generally acknowledge the need to focus on
‘personalisation’ of learning, helping learners to plan their learning to align
with their own needs and goals, and to help them monitor and assess their
development.

Social, informal, peer, and work-

based learning and assessment
Increasing recognition of the importance of learning that occurs in social
and work-based environments (not just in the classroom) leads to more col-
laborative programmes, increasing accreditation of experiential learning –
Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL) – as well as designing
learning programmes that are based around individual employee working
practices and activities.
Core to making all of these developments work is the efficient and effective
use of communications technologies and online learning techniques.

New and changing providers of education and training

Increasing availability of educational resources and learning tools on the internet
raises questions for the future role of universities/colleges and training providers.
352
As well as many universities offering online education and training, either on 16
their own or through agencies such as FutureLearn (https://www​.futurelearn​ Planning your
.com), we see more “non-traditional providers” entering the online market, such future

as courses offered by Linkedin, or the Multiverse, founded by Euan Blair in 2016,

now with degree-awarding powers (https://www​.multiverse​.io).

Increasing coaching/mentoring
One crucial role for all providers is that of accreditation and “brands” are
extremely important in the education sector. However, there is more to edu-
cation than just downloading chunks of knowledge/learning. There are issues
of broadening horizons, raising aspirations and motivation, stimulating creative
and critical thinking and, overall, instilling a passion for learning. Coaching and
mentoring can be very effective techniques here both face-to-face and remotely.
The important general principle here is to:

• identify important gaps in your skills and/or understanding.

• find a way to plug that gap (see further suggestions on the website).

Recognising your own professional and

personal boundaries, (public and private
spheres) and managing your digital ID

Writing online typically blurs the boundaries between communicating with

internal and external audiences. It can also blur the boundaries between the per-
sonal and professional parts of your individual identity. We all need to manage
this (see Chapter 9 of O’Meara and Copper, 2022 for further discussion and use-
ful personal examples).
The distinction between the professional and private spheres of life used
to be much clearer. Such a distinction was, and is, exemplified in rules that
limit or prohibit interactions outside of business interests within the working
day, e.g. no personal phone calls during business hours. In contrast, in the
online world, there are benefits in being able to engage with external audi-
ences in a personal way in order to build professional identity and enhance
the reputation of a business. However, not everyone is equally equipped or
comfortable with managing communication in such a range of contexts. It
can be useful to review how and when different media are used from your
own perspective.
The following model provides a visual representation of public-private and
personal-professional communication categories: ​
353
Part 4
Future-gazing

Figure 16.2 Reflective tool to analyse your own use of social media (adapted
from Jameson, 2014)

BOX 16.1 CHOOSING TO MAKE BEST USE

OF TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL MEDIA
In the spirit of “review, plan, and improve”, we offer a couple of personal exam-
ples which (hopefully) demonstrate how we have taken to heart principles and
techniques recommended in this book

From Helena
As someone who works for a large employer within a specific sphere, has a pro-
fessional identity that overlaps with the business of my university employer, a
small business owner, and having a religious affiliation, I have to think care-
fully about the different social media that I use and how I use them. The model
described in Figure 16.1 was useful in identifying when to use which social media
in a way that reflects my own sense of personal integrity. For me, it has been
354 important to keep the various forms of social media that I use for specific parts
of my professional identity separate, e.g. Facebook, Instagram, and Google, to
 16
support the reputation and branding of my small business, whereas Twitter and Planning your
LinkedIn are linked to my professional, academic identity. future

From Peter
As a lifetime educator, now part-time educational consultant, I am also selective
in my use of web and social media. My suspicion of corporations’ use of data
influences my selection, e.g. DuckDuckGo for internet search. More positively, I
could not have maintained professional practice over the last few years without
technology, especially:

■ Zoom, Teams, and Wonder.me (webinars and meetings). And YouTube for
recordings of ones I missed!
■ occasional Facebook/Instagram for family use.
■ Twitter for professional messages and networking (although I suspect
Twitter will lose me through Elon Musk’s direction!).
■ ChatGPT/Bing and the explosion in potential of AI (with some concerns
about future directions and implications).

For example, my Twitter use includes the weekly educational Tweetchat, where
we respond online to six questions (a new one every ten minutes) set by that
week’s facilitators (https://lthechat.com).
Concept mapping has also been very important, both personally/profession-
ally (see Figure 16.3 below) and as trigger for research into notetaking (with
Dawne Irving-Bell and colleagues). We are now planning to generate further
resources for the National Teaching Repository. (See the website for further
details of these initiatives.)

From Susie
In my professional life, I use LinkedIn regularly to network with colleagues,
alumni, and also special interest groups. The Business School in which I work also
has a dedicated area on LinkedIn to maintain contact with our current students
and our alumni. This proves highly beneficial in creating links with employers
and invitations for guest speakers to enrich and enhance student opportunities.
The links with special interest groups helps to generate conversations around my
research and informs my teaching both in Marketing and specialist study skills.

Box 16.1 shows that we use the web and social media in different ways – but
we are all selective in the applications. Other people comfortably manage their
personal and professional online presence within the same space. Where this
is done well, there can be significant benefits both to the individual and to the
business(es) that they represent. 355
A classic high-profile example of this is Fernando Aguirre - an early adopter of
Twitter in the 2000s for personal communication, often tweeting about his love
 Part 4
Future-gazing

356
Figure 16.3 Why I concept map with Cmap
of baseball. In 2011, he was CEO of Chiquita Brands International considering 16
relocating its headquarters to another state. Twitter provided a space to discuss Planning your
this possibility in the public sphere in a way not possible before – and it was 24 future

hours a day, seven days a week. When Aguirre was asked about the public’s level
of engagement (in both cities and states) he tweeted:

2Pleasantly surprised. Positive for both cities. Direct contact consumers. Creative. Fun.
Humbling and humanizing 4 CEO
(Darics, 2016, Jameson, 2014)
Pitfalls and cautionary tales
There are pitfalls to developing an online presence. Before entering a new pro-
fessional sphere, you should complete a personal audit of your online presence,
redacting or deleting past posts. Many if not most employers now check candidates’
online presence – few of us would want an employer or client to access online
versions of our teenage self. We have already mentioned case studies of “careless”
tweets or other posts which destroyed careers by going viral (Ronson, 2015).
Collaboration, co-creation, and networking
During the pandemic, the availability of applications, such as Teams, and the
awareness of opportunities to co-create documents online improved and, in
many cases, led to better collaborations around documents. What has also hap-
pened is a realisation that personal style influences decision-making on how we
can best collaborate online. To illustrate the point, Box 16.2 compares our own
experience and preferences – we use very different techniques for personal note-
taking and document development.

BOX 16.2 TECHNIQUES FOR DOCUMENT DEVELOPMENT

Our techniques reflect both personal differences and our commitment to
collaboration.

From Peter: using concept maps as a collaboration tool

I use concept maps as an alternative to conventional notes. I explain my attach-
ment to concept maps in the concept map which is Figure 16.3 (see the website
for further explanation) and can highlight uses especially relevant to this book:

■ as a tool in meetings, stimulating dialogue, and focusing attention on main

points.
■ summarising a discussion.
■ constructing diagrams for publication. 357
Part 4
Future-gazing From all of us: developing our collaboration
Up to the submission of the final draft of this book to Routledge, all three of us
had never met face-to-face. Thanks to the pandemic, we had to prepare the book
proposal through email. We then developed a collaboration based on remote
working and weekly online meetings – not always straightforward – as the fol-
lowing changes illustrate:

■ chapters were uploaded to a shared area in Teams to allow access and asyn-
chronous review of individual chapters.
■ initially, this worked well for Helena and Susie who were able to work
together on a single chapter and see suggestions and changes that were
being made. Working for the same institution meant access to the necessary
online spaces/tools was straightforward.
■ unfortunately, Peter had difficulties with remote access.
■ Helena and Susie also found challenges due to different, well-established,
styles of working, and competing work demands at different times of the
year.
■ after discussion (and with deadlines looming), we reverted to exchanging
document files with comments and tracked changes. Helena continued to
use documents within Teams.
■ Susie found she needed to work away from the PC/laptop to review
the structure/contents of chapters before reassembling them into single
documents.
Her approach reflects her research with neurodivergent students, emphasis-
ing the place and use of physical and visual resources (e.g. flipchart paper,
Post-it notes and headings) in both individual and collaborative settings.
Online contexts struggle to emulate this, even where programmes can mir-
ror the processes.
■ in contrast, Helena’s cross-faculty and cross-university project work meant
she was very used to working with colleagues, using shared technologies to
develop documents within short timeframes (usually achieved more quickly
than by using traditional email).
A few observations from our experience:

■ pressures caused by the pandemic meant that we did not have enough time
to fully map out our process at the start.
■ some longer meetings (ideally face-to-face to help open discussion) at the
start would have helped (especially as we did not know one another).
■ we were able to adjust to our different styles as the writing developed.

358
This brief account of our experience highlights general principles for collabora- 16
tive communication: Planning your
future
• make sure you spend sufficient time in the initial planning stages, especially
with a newly formed group.
• if an approach is not working then discuss it and find an alternative that does.
• we have different styles of writing and preparing documents – it is important
to find a way of collaborating which plays to everyone’s strengths.

Using these reflections as a starting point, consider what approach to documents

(and to communication more generally) has been adopted by your organisation
and compare that with your own ideal approach.

Final words on the future

There is perhaps one final message about dealing with the unpredictability of
emerging technologies – rather than focusing on predicting the future, instead
focus on “inventing the future”.
We cannot all be digital entrepreneurs, but we can all influence and shape the
way we adopt and use new technologies for communications purposes and it is
important to believe that we can “invent” (or at least influence) the future – this
is after all, one of our basic principles of communication: the ability to influence
has become a key communication skill in modern organisations, and we wish you
good fortune in all your efforts.

References
Darics, E. (2016) Writing Online: A Guide to Effective Digital Communication at Work, 1st edition. New
York: New York Business Expert Press (Corporate communication collection).
Jameson, D.A. (2014) Crossing public-private and personal-professional boundaries: How
changes in technology may affect CEOs’ communication. Business and Professional Communication
Quarterly 77(1): 7–30.
Kessler, S. (2018) Gigged: The Gig Economy, the End of the Job and the Future of Work. London: Penguin
Random House.
O’Meara, S. and Cooper, C. (2022) Remote Workplace Culture: How to Bring Energy and Focus to
Remote Teams. London: Kogan Page.
Riel, J. and Lawless, K.A. (2017) Developments in MOOC technologies and participation since
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Information Science and Technology (4th edition). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn​.com​/abstract​=2827693.

359
INDEX

Page numbers in italics mark the location of figures, while page numbers in bold indicate tables.

accessibility 191; and document design 164; audiences 190; analyses of 126, 199; changing
and typography 166–67, 169 nature of 3; increasing dialogue with 3;
Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning and language decisions 10
(APEL) 352 augmented reality (AR) 89, 95, 100–102, 109
accuracy 146 authority 127
Ackermann, F. 12 automation 91, 98–99
actions: and communication 37–38; and Azhar, Azeem 88–89, 96–97
language 53; and mission statements
69–70 Back, Kate 229–30
active vs. passive language 156 Back, Ken 229–30
Adair, John 317 Badham, R. 11, 269–70
advanced connectivity 95 Baker, Julie 152
Agerback, Brandy 133 Bayam, Nancy 64
aggression 227, 228, 245 Beattie, G. 52
Agile CRM 194 Belbin, Meredith 321
Aguirre, Fernando 355, 357 Belbin test 28
ambiguity 13, 26, 39, 42, 45, 157, 217, 221; Belbin’s model 308, 322, 321–24
and interviews 251 Bennis, Warren 318
Ames, Daniel 230 Bhatt, Ibrar 32
anchoring 123 biases: and assumptions 45, 247; in computer
Andrews, P.H. 83, 247–48 technology 97; identifying 11–12; and
Apostrophe Protection Society 157 visual aids 176–77, 180, 187
appearance, and nonverbal communication Bienvenu, P. R. 144
60, 62–63 big data 106–07
appraisal interviews 259–62 Bing 355
Argyle, Michael 218–19 bioengineering 95
Argyris, Chris 246 blogs 209, 210, 211
Aristotle 125 body language 46, see also nonverbal
arrow communication 39, see also communication
communication Bolton, R. 225
artificial intelligence (AI) 5, 89, 95, 98, 101, 109 Booker, Christopher 325
assertiveness 46, 227, 228, 229–30, 245 boundaries 197–98
assumptions: identifying 11–12; questioning Bovee, C. 42, 144
45; and scripts 249–50 the brain 122–23
AstraZeneca 72–73 brainstorming 278–79
atmosphere, gauging 25 Brescoll, V. L. 63 361
attentional blindness 124 brevity 146–47
attribution theory 234 British motorcycle industry 340

 British Post Office Scandal 80, 82, 96 cognitive fluency 152
British Rail 6 collaboration 347, 357, 359; on this book 358
Index
broken record technique 229 commitment/consistency 127
Browning, L. D. 77 communication 54; and actions 37–38;
Buchanan, D. A. 11, 269–70 analysing 40, 232; defined 11–12, 37,
bullet points (presentations) 299–300 49; differing approaches to 39; goals of
business documents 172; design of 165–66 218; and the importance of timing 8–9;
Buzan, Tony 131–32 as links/connections 82; and metaphors
77; purposes of 12; quality of 191;
Cain, Susan 28 temporality of 64, 65, see also arrow
Cameron, Deborah 159 communication; circuit communication;
Cameron, K. S. 71–73, 78 dance communication
carbon neutrality commitments 108–09 communication analysis 40, 41, 49
career planning 346, 349, 350, 351 communication as process 40–42, 49
careless communication 7, 249; British Rail 6; communication channels 42, 48; growth of
Ratner’s 5–6 103–04
Carnall, C. 78 communication lacks: computer engineer
Carnegie, Dale 234 story 241–44; and confusion 43;
change 103, 340; communicating 342, impacts on technology implementation
344–45; and the COVID-19 pandemic 38–39; intensifying issues 43–44; and
88; and the future of work 22–23, 23, interviews 252–53, 255
89, 189, 346–47; increased rates of communication theory 40
2, 19, 83, 88–89, 104, 339; and the communications improvement 25; continuous
organisational life cycle 342–43; of review 25; feedback on 28–29, 35; guides
organisations 102, 103; stages of 344; for 37; for nonverbal communication 61;
strategies for 343–45; and technology strategies for 20, 25, 44, 47
90; triggering 340–41; types of 342 communications tools 32
Chapanis, A. 160 computers 347; and automation 91; early
chat functions 302, 307, 332; and audience 341–42; early predictions about 339;
dialogue 3, 293, 303 hacking 198; Horizon system 80,
ChatGPT 101, 355 82; improvements in 96–97; and
Chaudry-Lawton, R. 341 informating 91; and integration 91;
chunking 128–29, 133, 138, 190, 205 and neutrality 97; and organisational
Churchill, Winston 143 communication 103; and storytelling
Cialdini, Robert 127 101; synching 105; ubiquity of 105
circuit communication 39, see also concept mapping 21, 22, 23, 132–33, 291,
communication 355, 356, 357, see also information
circular letters 204 structuring; mind maps/spider diagrams
Clampitt, Philip 39, 71, 320 confidence 233–34, 239
clarity of communication 147; and conflict resolution 327; and team meetings 22
interpreting meanings 44; and messages confused trainees example 43
45, see also plain/clear language connectivity, increasing demands for 105
clean energy 95 continual professional development 26, 351–
Clegg, Nick 142 52; changing paradigm of 34; and digital
cliches 154–55 literacy 48–49; and engineering degrees
“cloud and edge computing 95 34; personality tests 27; tools for 20
Clyne, Michael 53 convergence 103–04
Cmap software 132–33, 301, 356, 357 Cool-Kid bias 331
coaching/mentoring 352–53 Cooper, Sarah 268–69
cobots 98–99 Copilot 101
codes 13, 41, 52; and language 53–54; and core statements 118
relationships 54; and technology 64, 65, COVID-19 pandemic 2; and change 342, 346;
362 see also nonverbal communication and letter writing 204; messaging about
coercive behaviours 228 193; and organisational culture 67;
 as Phase 4 work 90, 97–98, 109; and communications; professional writing;
technological developments 88, 265; and visual aids; written communications
Index
this book 358; and working from home document development 356, 357
70–71, 109, 197 Duck, Steve 9
Coyle, Daniel 329–31 Duffy, Bobby 45
credibility 125–26 Dunphy, D. 342
credit card companies 106 Dutton, Kevin 127
crowdfunding 103 Dweck, Carol 28
Crystal, David 56–57
Cukier, Kenneth 107 e-readers 104
Culture Deck 75 e-waste 108
Cutts, Martin 118, 144, 149, 151, 153, 157 The Economist Style Guide 157–58
Eden, C. 12
DALL-E 183 EDI initiatives (equality, diversity, and
dance communication 39–40, see also inclusion) 215, 347–48
communication Ednan-Laperouse, Natasha 146
Danziger, Kurt 54 educational opportunities 351–53
data analysis 184–85 effective communication 211, 240;
data storytelling 172 interpersonal 216, 217, 218; principles
Daugherty, Paul 98–99 of 189, 190–91
David, Werner 47–48 effective language “rules” 145–46
Davis, Fred 38–39 Egan, K. 229
decision-making 281, 282, 324–25, see also Ehrenberg, A. S. C. 182
problem solving Eisenberg, E. M. 77
DeKoch, R. J. 320 Ejim, E. 194
Delbridge, Rick 71 Ellinor, Linda 246
Delphi problem solving 280 Ellis, A. 52
demographics, and the future of work 22–23 email 46, 194–98, 203, 206
Dhawan, Erica 223 email fatigue 197
Dickson, Anne 227 emotional appeals 126–27
difficult conversations 248–49 emotional intelligence 215
digital body language 223, 303 emotions, and nonverbal communication 58
digital communications: and ambiguity 45, see emphasis 147
also email; social media employees 102; and hybrid working 2, 97–98;
digital identities 25, 29–31, 35, 210–11, 354– and Phase 4 work 89; selection of
55, 357; and interpersonal skills 233 251–52
digital literacy 31, 32, 33, 347, 351; staff encoding/decoding 41, 51, see also codes
training in 48–49 energy resources, and the future of work
digital mindsets 89–90, 99 22–23
direct expression 228 Enfield, Nick 52
discrimination 11, 247 English language: evolution of 56;
Disneyland 77 pronunciation 55–56; structural
disruption 103 features 55–56; in the United States 53
divergence 103–04 Epley, Nicholas 215–16, 233–35
document design 164–66, 187–88, 191, 211; executive summaries 199
and accessibility 164, 166–67, 169, 191; Exponential Age 96–97
alignment 168; headings 134, 136, 147, eye contact 52, 59–60, 63, 222
153, 159, 164–65, 167, 169–70, 171,
200, 203, 210; and house styles 172, face-to-face communication 8, 235, 239–41,
192, 195, 203; leading 167–68; legal 262, see also interviews
requirements for 192; lists 171–72; Facebook 99–100, 104, 142
and organisational structures 192–93; faxes 206
page layout 169–72, 191, 205; planning feedback 35, 219, 262; appraisal interviews 363
190; typography 166–69, see also online 259–62; from colleagues 28–29, 222; in
 the communication as process model 42; Harvard Business School 291
via technology 3, 293, 302, see also chat Harvard Negotiation Project – Difficult
Index
functions Conversations (Stone, Patton, and Heen)
feedback starvation 341 248–49
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory 317–18 hashtags 208
Finley, M. 329 Hastings, Reed 74–75
Finn, T. A. 38 Heathfield, Susan 260
Fisman, R. 103 Heen, S. 29, 262
fitness trackers 93 Heroes and Villains award 141–42
Flesch formula 159 Herschel, R. T. 83, 247–48
flipped classrooms/presentations 302 Hicks, Marie 341
flowcharts 183, 184–85​ Hobshawm, Julia 89
Flowers, Stephen 96 Hodgkinson, G. 251–52
Fog index 159 Honey, Peter 235
Fogelberg, Stephen 270 Hopi language 55–56
Foot in Mouth Award 141–42 Horizon computer system 80, 82
form reports 200 horizontal document plans 118
framing 124 Horton, William 143
How to Win Friends and Influence People
Gabriel, Ylannis 328 (Carnegie) 234
Garg, Vishal 70 Hutton, Roger 80
gender: and appearance 62–63; and assertive
behaviour 230; and discrimination 11; and ICS Design Framework 141–42
innovations 341–42; stereotypes 234 indirect expression 228
Georgiades, M. 320–21 individual style 198
Gerrard, Glenna 246 influencing 49, 348; principles of 127, see also
globalisation 345–46; and the future of work persuasion
22–23 infographics 134, 163
goals/objectives 21, 23; importance of 20–21; informal communication 85
reviewing 21–22, 23, 26, 27, 35; setting informating 91
24–25; SMART goals 20–21 information overload 3
Golden Bull awards 141–43 information structuring 122–24, 128–29;
‘Good Meetings Facilitation Checklist’ 272 concept mapping 21, 22, 23, 132–33;
Google 67, 347 mind maps/spider diagrams 130,
Google Docs 30, 135, 172, 181 131, 132; paragraph writing 136–37;
Google Workspace 101 pyramid principle 129, 130
Gowers, Ernest 149–50 integration 91
grammar 158 intelligence trap 310
grammar checkers 155, 156, 160 intelligent agents 106
Grammarly 156 inter-group relationships 326–27
grapevines 85 interactivity 64
graphology 251–52 internal/external communications, blurred
Gratton, Lynda 22–23 boundaries of 7, 353, 354
group development 312, 313, 314–15, 333 internet of bodies 5, 93
group innovation 281, 324 Internet of Things (IoT) 5, 92, 104–06
groupthink 325–26 Internet usage 94, 104–05, 348; and
Gwynne’s Grammar 158 globalisation 346
interpersonal communication/skills 218–19,
Hack, Cathy 100 220, 221, 236–37, 237, 351; development
hacking 198 approaches 215; effective 216, 217, 218;
Hackman, R. 332 failures of 241–50; listening 224–26;
Hall, Edward 63–64 mindwiseness 215, 233–35; opening/
364 Hall, Judith 61 closing interactions 226; and planning
Hargie, O. D. W. 198, 219, 220, 221, 257–58 235; reflecting 224; and technology 233;
Hartley, James 160, 170, 217, 218 theories of 230–32, see also interviews
interpreting meanings 42–44, 49, 243–44, Levinson, Harry 261–62
246; and misunderstandings 43–44, 46 Lewin, Kurt 344
Index
interviews 250, 262; appraisal interviews liking 127
259–62; cultural differences in Linehan, M. 229
256–57; examples 252–53; opening/ Linguistics Society of America 57
closing 256; planned communication LinkedIn 355
254–55; and question types 257–59; listening 224–26
selection interviews 251–52, 255, 257; lists 171–72; vs. storytelling 77
structuring 257, see also interpersonal Liu, Xiao 93
communication/skills loan-words 56
introductions 52 long reports 200–201
Luntz, Frank 145–46
Jack, Rachael 58
James, Judi 59 McCann, Margerison 323
Janis, Irving 325 McCord, Patty 75
Japanese culture 60 McDaniel, E. R. 60
Japanese Olympus corporation 79 McDonaldization thesis 75–76, 85, 102
jargon 54, 57, 154, 297, 298 Macdonell, R. 320–21
Jisc 32 McKinsey management consultancy 108
Johnson, G. 344–45 Malaysian organisations 78
Joiner Associates 328–29 management 318, 318–19; and teams 328–229
Jourard, S. 226 management commitment 8; to
communication 47–48
Kahneman, Daniel 123 management training courses 344–45
Kakepoto, I. 287 maps 183–84, 186
Katz, Susan 192 Maran, T. 62
Katzenback, J. R. 310–11, 328 Martin, D. 269–70
Kay, John 20–21 Mastodon 72
Kellerman, Barbara 319 Mayer-Schonberger, Victor 107
Ketso workshops 277–78 Meeting Masters Research Project 270
Keynote 301 meetings 264–65, 285; agenda of 272, 273,
kinesic communication. see nonverbal 274; chairs of 267, 272; dimensions/
communication structuring of 268; extract analysis
Kirkman, John 10, 117 265–67, 268; and group innovation/
Kissinger, Henry 318 decision-making 279–80, 281, 282;
Knaflic, C. N. 172–73 and hidden agendas 269–70; and humor
Knapp, Mark 61 266–69; minutes for 274, 275; negative
knowledge work 102 impressions of 264; principles for
270–71; research into 270; rules for
ladder of inference 246 271–72; techniques for 276–81; and
“Lake Woebegon Effect” 272 technology 269, 275–76, 282–83, 284,
language 150; accent 54–55; active vs. passive 285, 331–32, see also Zoom
156; and codes 53–54; decisions about memos 206
10; dialect 54–55; functions 53; register Mercedes corporation 98–99
54–55; and social identities 53; spoken message structuring 8
vs. written 57, 58; structural features of messages: for change 344–45; and clarity of
55–56, see also plain/clear language communication 45; confusing 141–43;
Lawton, R. 341 and the COVID-19 pandemic 193; and
leadership 167–68, 318, 315–19; network interpersonal communication 217; and
leaders 319; research into 316–21 nonverbal communication 59
Lean In (Sandberg) 11 metalanguage 198
learning organisations 345 metaperception 220
learning personalisation 352 metaphors 77 365
Leonardi, P. 99 Metaverse 2, 99–101
letters 203–04, 205 Meyer, Erin 74–75
 “micro-expressions” 61, 223 211; digital body language 223; and
Microsoft 101, 347 document design 122; form reports
Index
Microsoft Office 4, 135–36, 156, 158–59, 200; planning 118; presentations as 293,
172–73, 176, 181 299–301, 303, 304, 305–06, see also
Midjourney 183 email; Facebook; social media; Twitter;
mind maps/spider diagrams 130, 131, 132, written communication; Zoom
291, see also concept mapping online communities 209–10
mindsets 28 online language 58, see also specific types
mindwiseness 215, 233–35 open innovation 347
Minto, Barbara 130 open learning 352
Mintzberg, Henry 318–19 open plan offices 245–46
minutes 194, 273; and meetings 274, 275 open space meetings 276
mission statements 12–13; and actions 69–70 OpenAI 101
misunderstandings, and interpreting OpenAI​.c​om 101
meanings 43–44, 46 oral communications skills, and
mobile computing 104–05; and classrooms 7; presentations 287
growth in 5; smartphones 88, 104–05, orchestra principle 270
see also Internet of Things (IoT) organisational communication: about change
mobility 95 342; badly done 8–9; and computers
MOOCs (massive open online courses) 352 103; factors in 8; and organisational
Moore’s Law 96 politics 9; and organisational structure
Morgan, T. 272 67; research gaps in 9–10; and
multi-tasking 27 structures 103
Musk, Elon 72, 104 organisational culture 67–68, 69, 74, 85;
adhocracy culture 72; analyses of 78–
NASA 78, 79, 300, 328 81; bad 79–80, 96, 102; and “bad news”
Natasha’s Law 146 341; clan culture 72; communicating
Neeley, T. 99 77; and the COVID-19 pandemic
Netflix 74–75 67; culture styles model 73–74; and
networks, and Phase 4 work 89 document design 192–93; good 78,
neurodivergence 358 79; hierarchy culture 72; impacts of
Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) 215, 71; and language use 153; Malaysian
231–32 organisations 78; market culture 72–73;
next-generation software development 95 multiple co-existing cultures 76–77;
NHS Litigation Authority 142–43 Netflix 74–75; and political values 75–
nominal group technique 280 76; Quinn and Cameron’s Competing
noncoercive behaviours 228 Values Framework (2011) 71–73; and
nonverbal communication 52, 59–61, 65, size 77; and social/cultural backgrounds
221, 238; and appearance 60, 62–63; 78; staff experiences of 71
and emotions 58; eye contact 59–60, organisational environments, PEST/PESTLE
63, 222; listening 224–26; personal mnemonic 340
space 63–64; and presentations 297–98; organisational life cycle 342–43
and social/cultural backgrounds 60–61; organisational structures 81, 82, 83, 85;
and verbal communication 46, 59; in the command hierarchies 83; committee
workplace 222–25 based 84; and communication styles
note-taking 34, 133, 134, 355, 357, see also 103; and document design 192–93;
information structuring executive groups 83; informal 85; and
nudge theory 343 organisational communication 67; poor
96; and size 84–85; staff/functional 84;
Obama, Barack 124 and stakeholders 82
objectives 190; achieving 140; defining 124– organisational understanding 351
25, 135; matching written structure organisations: changing 102; command
366 137–38; of reports 201 hierarchies 83; downsizing 84; and
online communications 103–04, 120–21, environmental policies 108–09;
158, 162, 207–09, 353; blogs 209, 210, executive groups 83; informal 85;
 learning organisations 345; representing private reflective writing 24
81, 192; size and culture 77, 84–85; problem solving: brainstorming 278–79;
Index
thinking about 13 Delphi 280; and groups 324, 325; Kay
Orwell, George 149–50 on 21; structured 279–80, see also
Owen, Harrison 276 decision-making
Owen, Hilarie 328 professional writing 138–40, 143, 160,
Owen, Jo 315, 318 190; and information structuring
122, 136–38; restructuring 125; style
Pages (Apple) 135 143, 144, 145–49; tasks 119; tone
paragraph structures 136–37 148–49, see also document design;
paralinguistic communication 52, 61–62, 221 plain/clear language; written
Payne, R. L. 251–52 communication
Penman, Robyn 152 prosodic communication 52
Pérez y Pérez, R. 101 psychology experiments 123
performance reviews 26 punctuated equilibrium 314
personal/professional space blurring 7, 353, 354 punctuation 157–58, 191
personal relationships, negative impacts of 9 Putnam, L. L. 327
personal space 63–64 pyramid principle 129, 130, 291
personality analyses 27–28; Belbin test
28; introversion-extraversion 27–28; quantum technologies 95
mindsets 28; team roles 28 questioning 224; leading questions 257–58;
perspective-taking 234–35 multiple 258–59; probes 258
persuasion 125–27, 128; principles of Quinn and Cameron’s Competing Values
influence 127, see also influencing Framework (2011) 71–73
physical surroundings, importance of 245–46 Quinn, R. E. 71–73, 78, 104
piled-up nouns 155
plain/clear language 140, 144, 149–55, Raab, Dominic 142
156, 160, 191; awards for confusing Rackham, M. 272
language 141–43; importance of 4; Rafiq, Azeem 80
and organisational structure 153; rational arguments 125
organisations for 150–51; positive Ratner, Gerald 5–6
reactions to 10, see also language reach 64
Plain English Villains Award 142 readability 159–60
Plain Words (Gowers) 149 readability formulae 159–60
Plous, Scott 122–23 reader engagement 193
podcasts 305–06 reality, perceptions of 327–28
political values, and organisational culture reciprocation 127
75–76 Reed, James 28
Power Rangers 78 reflecting 224
PowerPoint 173, 294, 299–300, 306; reinforcing behaviors 223
complaints about 287, 294 relationships: and codes 54; destroying 249
presentation software 173, 293, 300–301, reMarkable 2 104
306, see also PowerPoint reports 198–201, 202, 203; and
presentations 287–89, 306–07; meetings 271
alternative strategies for 301–02; Reynolds, Garr 295
bad statements for 299; planning Ritzer, George 75–76
290–91, 292, 293, 297; preparing for Robbins, H. 329
289–90; recommendations for 290; Roberts, Wess 315
structuring 293–96; technological Robson, David 310
developments for 293, 299–301, 303, Rogelberg, Steven 264, 272, 274
304, 305–06; using examples in 298; role principle 271
and visual aids 302–03 Ronson, Jon 7, 30
Prezi 301 Rosling, Hans 45 367
primary systems of communication 52 rudeness 216
priming 123 Russia/Ukraine conflict 98, 346
 Sandberg, Sheryl 11 social skills 220
scarcity 127 SP Energy Networks 142
Index
Schein, Edgar 68–69, 78 space technologies 95
Schein, P. A. 78 spam 198
Schmidt, Eric 94, 97 Sparks, Suzanne 137
Scott, B. 124 speech recognition software 101–02, 151
scripts 249–50 spoken vs. written language 57, 58
self-disclosure 226–27 Stace, D. 342
self-monitoring 19 stakeholders, and organisational structure 82
self-review 26, 35, 47 standing features. see nonverbal
Senge, Peter 246, 345 communication
Senior, B. 68, 69, 78, 340 Stanford, N. 82–83
sense-making 340–41 Star Trek and leadership 316
service engineer example 241–48 stereotypes: and accents 55; and social
“set” 56 judgments 234
Sharples, Mike 101, 118, 120, 121 Stohl, C. 327
Sherif, Carolyn 326 Stoltz, Paul 28
Sherif, Muzafer 326 Stone, D. 29, 262
Shoot for the moon (Wiseman) 78–79 Stoner, James 324
short reports 200 storage 64, 65
Sibbert, David 330 storytelling 44, 172, 173; by computers
Sinek, Simon 316 101; and organisational culture 77; and
situations 13 presentations 295; and social/cultural
60 Highly effective actions to help your group backgrounds 78; vs. lists 77
succeed (Coyle) 330–31 strategies: for communications improvement
sketchnoting 133, 134 20, 25, 44, 47; for management 47–48;
Sless, David 125 for written communications 153–59
SMART goals 20–21 structured problem-solving 279–80
smart TVs 5, 104 style: house styles 172, 192, 195, 203;
Smith, D. K. 310–11, 328 individual 198; and letter writing
Smith, Mike 253 204–05
Smith, R. C. 77 submission 227, 228
social contexts 219, 220 Suchan, Jim 153
social/cultural backgrounds 13, 232, 247; and suggestibility 122–23
appearance 60, 62–63; and assertiveness Sullivan, T. 103
230; constraints of 46; and interpersonal supportive communication 247–48
communication/rudeness 216, 232; surveillance 91–92, 106–07
and interviews 256–57; and nonverbal Susskind, Daniel 98
communication 60–61, 221; and sustainable consumption 95
organisational culture 78; and storytelling Swailes, S. 78
78
social identities 210–11, 217; and language 53 team development activities 330
social judgments 233–34 Team Management Wheel 323
social media 5, 46, 48, 85, 104, 207–08, teams 333; Belbin on 308, 322, 321–24;
354–55; and crowdfunding 103; decision-making 324–25; group
dark side of 108–09, 198; and digital development 312, 313, 314–15; high-
identities 29–30, 354–55, 357; and performing 311; interventions for 329–30;
interpersonal skills 233; Mastodon 72; leadership 318, 315–17; pseudo-teams 311;
and presentations 288, 305–06; Twitter relationships in 326–27; self-managing
72 311–12, 332–33; successful 328; and
social norms: changing 10; and nonverbal technology 330–32; thrown together
communication 60–61, 63 teams 309; vs. groups 310–12
368 social perception 217 Teams (software) 34, 90, 97, 194, 269, 282,
social proofs 127 285, 293, 308, 358, see also Zoom
teamwork 328–29; organisational emphasis two-way communication 8
on 308 typefaces 166–69
Index
technical writing 163, see also written typewriters 163–64
communication typography 166–69
technological developments 88, 109, 355;
artificial intelligence (AI) 5, 89, 95, 109; Ulich, E. 332
augmented reality (AR) 89, 95, 100– United Kingdom: accessibility in 164; Common
102, 109; automation 91, 98–99; and Platform 96; Dementia Research Institute
bias 97; and business documents 162; (DRI) 93; dialects in 55; English rules
cobots 98–99; and communication 2–3; in 57, 159; Equality Act (2010) 63, 247;
concepts for 64; connectivity 105; and government 343, 346; Internet usage
the COVID-19 pandemic 88, 265; dark 94; Natasha’s Law 146; Plain English
side of 108–09; Exponential Age 96– Campaign (PEC) 141; plain language rules
97; and the future of work 22–23, 89, sites 150–51; Post Office 80, 82, 96
349; implementing 38–39; informating United States: e-waste in 108; English rules
91; integration 91; integration with in 158–59; language in 53; and personal
businesses 47–48; intelligent agents space 63–64
106; internet of bodies 93; Internet
of Things 5, 92–93, 104–06; in verbal communication 52; and nonverbal
interpersonal communication 233; and communication 46, 59
meetings 269, 275–76, 282–83, 284, virtual meetings 269, 275–76, 282–83, 284,
285, 331–32; microprocessors 92; and 285
mobile devices 105; and note-taking virtual reality (VR) 89, 92, 95, 100, 109
34; online communications 103–04, visual aids 133–34, 172–73, 174, 188, 191; and
120–21, 158, 162; predictions of biases 176–77, 180, 187; charts as 175,
88, 94, 95, 100–102, 107–08; and 176–80, 181; flowcharts 183, 184–85;
presentations 293, 299–301, 303, 304, icons 184, 186; and inclusion/diversity
305–07; speech recognition software 187; maps 183–84, 186; for presentations
101–02; speeding up communication 302–03; tables as 174–75, 181, 182–83,
8, 95, 104–05; and teamwork 308, see also concept mapping; document design
330–32; trends in 94; vehicles 106; vlogs 305–06
virtual reality (VR) 89, 92, 95, 100, Vora, S. 172–73
109; wearable technology 92–93; and
workplace developments 89, 90, see also Walsh, S. 134
Zoom war in the training room example 43–44
technology mapping exercise 109 Ward, Peter 260
Texas Instruments Malaysia (TIM) 332–33 wearable technology 92–93
text messages 58 Web 2.0 92
Thill, J. 42, 144 Web 3.0 100
Thorp, Nicola 63 Web award 141
Three Mile Island 91 Weber, W. G. 332
TikTok 104 webinar software 303
Timm, T. 144 West, Michael 281, 329–30
Tomprou, Maria 284 WhatsApp 104
tone 45, 59, 140, 144, 148–49, 160, 190; of Wheelan, Susan 313, 314
blogs 210; in emails 195–96; in letters Williams, Robin 302
205 Wilson, H. James 98–99
Tropman, John 265, 270–74 Wilson, T. D. 24
Truss, Lynne 157 Wiseman, Richard 78–79
trust architectures and digital identity 95 Woodford, Michael 79
Tuckman, B. W. 312, 313 Woods, S. A. 253
Tufte, Edward R. 172, 300 word-processing software 4, 30, 135–36,
Turk, C. 117 155, 158–59, 163–66, 169–70, 205; 369
Twitter 72, 104, 109, 207–08, 293, 355 and accessibility 164
 word scales 154 190; outlining 134–35; persuasion in
work: and career planning 346, 349, 350, 126–27, 128; planning 117–20, 122,
Index
351; future evolution of 22–23, 23, 89, 190; punctuation 157–58; restructuring
189, 346–47; phases of 90, 109 125, 155; strategies for 153–59;
work-related boundaries 197–98 structuring 136–37, 190; style 143,
working from home: and the COVID-19 144, 145–49; tasks 119; tone 148–49,
pandemic 70–71, 109, 197; hybrid 80, see also document design; information
89, 97, 330 structuring; online communication;
workplace developments 89, 90 technical writing
World Café approach to meetings 276–77 written vs. spoken language 57, 58
writing process 119; defining objectives
124–25; steps 118; strategies/ Xerox 341
methods 121 Xrai Glass 101–02
written communication 115–16, 138–39;
badly done 116–17; coherence 137; Yahoo 70
core statements 118; as creative design Yorkshire County Cricket Club 79–80
120; defining objectives 124–25, 135,
137–38, 291; document design 122; Zibarras, L. D. 253
and document design 162–63; format Zoom 97, 293, 303, see also Teams (software)
of 126; guidebooks for 117; horizontal Zoom fatigue 265, 284, 332
document plans 118; organisation of Zuboff, Shoshana 90–92

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