Review of Linear

Circuit Theory

ics forms the cornerstone for all hardware, both digital and analog. It opens vistas to numerous
other fields, including telephone and data cbmmunications, high-speed co uters, wireless radio,
artificial vision, control systems, space reisearch, energy management, signal processing, enter-
tainment, and materials science. Electroni0s is important to many other branches of engineering
as well. In mechanical engineering, electronics plays a key role in manufacturing process con-
trol, test and measurement, intelligent mqchanical systems, robotics, and precision machining.
In biomedical engineering, electronic devices and circuits make possible countless monitoring
instruments, surgical implants, prosthetic li s and devices, DNA sequencing, and, in the not-
too-distant future, intelligent neurologicaf hearing and vision implants. Nanotechnology e
next technological frontier that will combine electronics with molecular engineerin will rely
heavily on the same basic principles that govern present-day electronics. Because it is important
to many fields, electronics is studied by a wide variety of engineers. The goal of this book is to
advance the education ofthe engineering student one step beyond a first course in linear circuit
theory.
The study of electronics involves the extension of linear circuit theory to include nonlinear
elements. In contrast to a linear circuit, which contains only resistors, capacitors, inductors, and
linear dependent sources, an electronic circuit contains devices such as diodes, transistors, or
numerous varieties of integrated circuits. The design and analysis of nonlinear circuits requires
conceptual and mathematical tools not forlnd in the study of linear circuits. Indeed, most of this
book deals with the techniques for designifrg and analyzing nonlinear circuits. Nevertheless, the
fundamental concepts of linear circuit theqry play an important role in electronics. An electronic
circuit can often be divided into linear and nonlinear parts. Applying linear circuit theory to the
linear portion of a circuit often allows the latter to be represented by a si ler equivalent linear
model. Moreover, many nonlinear devices can be modeled by linear elements over some regions
of operation. In either case, familiarity with the fundamentals of linear circuit theory is important
to an understanding of electronics. This book therefore begins with a review of the fundamental
principals of linear circuit theory. In this chapter, the terms linear element and linear circuit are
first defined, then used as a basis for explqring Kirchhoff's voltage law, Kirchhoff's current I
2 o Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

resistor-rapacitor circuits. Although not strictly linear elements, independent voltage and current
sources will also be included in our description oflinear circuits.
Throughout this book, current is defined as positive when flowing into the positive voltage
terminal of a passive device. This sign convention results in positive power flow into the element,
consistent with the conservation of energy. Similarly, current is defined as positive when flowing
out of the positive terminal of a voltage or current source, indicating a net power flow out of the
element. The term active is used to denote an electronic device capable of controlling power
taken from an independent source. Currents are defined as positive when flowing into the positive
voltage terminals of an active device, because, as we shall see in later chapters, an active device
is still a net consumer of power.

1.1 KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE AND CURRENT LAWS

Kirchhoff's laws are basic principles of physics thatdescribe the relationship between the voltages
and currents in any network, whether linear or nonlinear. In summary, Kirchhoff's laws state:

1. The sum of voltage drops encountered around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero
(Kirchhoff 's vohage law).
2. T\e sum of all currents entering any node of a circuit is equal to zero (Kirchhoff's current
law). A node is defined as a point in the circuit where two or more wires. or branches. are
connected.
According to Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL), the sum of voltage drops along any two
branches of a circuit will be the same if the two branches start and stop on the same nodes. For
the circuit of Fig. 1.1, for example, all of the following statements are true:

Do:utlu2 (1.1)
uo:u3fu+-Fus (r.2)
and ut*uz:u3*u++'us (r.3)

Figure l.l
Kirchhoff's voltage
and current laws
(KVL and KCL)
applied to an LoopB | {
arbitrary circuit.
u:

+
u!

Node B
+
U2
+
,
t-Ua

Node Z
 Section 1.2 . Voltage Bus Notation . 3
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) predicts that the sum of all currents flowing into a given
node must equal the sum of currents flowing out of the same node. In the circuit of Fig.
1 . 1, for

example, all of the following statements are true:

io: it t iz (Node X) (1.4)

i. (Node Y) (1.s)
-;^
and ;^
.J - ;, - ;- (Nodes A and B) (1.6)
-'4-.f

L.2 VOLTAGE BUS NOTATION

A circuit often contains one or more fixed voltage sources that provide the electrical power
needed to operate electronic components. As depicted in Fig 1.2(a), it is often convenient to
adopt a shorthand bus notation for such voltage sources. The dc voltage sources in the diagram
are understood to be connected between the power supply nodes and ground.
According to KVL, the voltages across a string of components connected in series between
a voltage bus and ground or between two voltage buses must add up to the total voltage drop. In
the circuit of Fig. 1.2(a),for example:

u1*u2:l/4 (r.7)
and uzJ-uq:Vt-Vn (1.8)

In most applications, Va will have a positive value and Vs a negative value. With such a bipolar
bus connection, the ground node becomes the zero reference point. Positive nodes have voltages
that lie somewhere between ground and the positive bus Va : +10 V, while negative voltages
lie somewhere between ground and the negative bus V6 : -10V. In most circuits, including
all those covered in this book, node voltages can be no more positive than the V1 bus nor more
negative than the V6 bus.
Note that current must flow out of the positive terminal of any voltage source that supplies
power to the circuit. The current la in Fig. 1.2(b) will be positive, for example, indicating that
the y/ source supplies power to the circuit. Similarly, a positive current 16 will flow into ground
from the positive terminal of the V6 source (i.e., the source will accept current from the circuit
into its negative terminal), so that the Vp source also contributes power to the circuit.
The ground symbols in Fig. 1.2 refer to connections made to a common reference point
in the circuit. In general, current can flow up from ground into a circuit element or down from
an element into ground. The collection of ground connections represents a single circuit node,
so the sum of all currents flowing into the various ground connections must equal the sum of
currents flowing out of ground, in accordance with KCL. Thus, for example, the sum of currents
associated with node G in Fig. 1.2(b) becomes:

ia - ie* (ia - i+) * h = i+ - (ir *i:) * (iz -la) f i1 : Q (1.e)

where la : it I i3 is the current flowing from the node into the negative terminal of the Va
source, is : iq is the cunent flowing into the node from the positive terminal of the V6 source,
and the currents (it - iq) and 11 flow into the node from other ground connection points.
4 . Chapter I . Review of Linear Circuit Theory

Figure 1.2 Va Voltage bus

ljr
(a) Illustration of
voltage bus
i' +
+l U1
notation. Bus ,:l
voltages are
measured with
respect to ground. +
(b) Tlpical u2
connection of
bipolar voltage bus + Ground symbol
with 7a : lOV +
u!
and Vs - -10 V.
Implied voltage-'
The sum of currents
source connectlons
into node G,
including those V3 Voltage bus
flowing up from
(a)
f
ground, is ir - ia
(it-iq) *i1 :6,
where ia : ir * lr
Positive voltage bus -a v,c= 10v l!
and iB : io.
I
I

Voltages above'
-l
ground

Ground'
G
level
t3- r4
I

Voltages below'
gr nd

Negative voltagebus ,f vr=-16Y

(b)

1.3 DEFINITION OF VOLIAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC

Tlte voltage-current, or u-i , characteristic of a circuit element describes the relationship between
the current through the element and the voltage across its terminals. A graph of the u-i charac-
teristic of a device serves as a plot of all operating points allowed by the device. A resistor, for
example, has a u-i characteristic given by Ohm's law: i : u/R. A plot of this u-i characteristic
passes through the origin and has a slope given by

di1 (1.10)
duR
-:-
A plot of the u-l characteristic of of value R : 10 kO, in which voltage is plotted on
a resistor
the horizontal axis and current on the vertical axis, is shown in Fig. 1.3.
The concept of a u-i characteristic need not be confined to an individual element. A group
of elements connected together can be described by a single equation that relates the voltage and
current variables at any one port. Such a port can be considered as a single element with its own
characteristic u-i equation. The concept of a voltage--current equation can be applied to any two
terminals of a multielement network, as shown in the next ex le.
 Section 1.3 o Definition of Voltage-Current Characteristic o g
igure 1.3
'lot of the u-i
haracteristic of a
0-kQ resistor.
/oltage is the
ndependent
'ariable (horizontal
xis) and current
he dependent
'ariable (vertical
Lxis).

;XAMPLE 1.1 Derive and plot the u-i equation for the port X-Xt of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.4(a). When
another element is connected to the port (for example, a resistor in the range 0 < Rr < oo),
a current l; will flow out of the terminal labeled X. The "device" to be described by the u-i
equation is not passive, because the circuit contains an independent source. Hence, ly is defined
as positive out of the positive ua terminal.
rigure 1.4
.a)
Simple
nultielement
:ircuit consisting of
r voltage source Rr= 1 kQ
md resistor; (b) PIot of ravs. uy'
)lot of ix versus at terminals X- X'
Jx as measured at
he port terminals
Y_X,.

ux (V)

G)

Solution
. Use Kirchhoff's voltage law to find a relationship between uy iy
"nd
Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the voltage drops around the circuit, including the terminal
voltage uy that will appear in the u-i equation, must sum to zero. Applying KVL around the
circuit thus yields the equation
ux:Vl -ixRt (1.1 1)

This equation can also be solved for ly as a function of uy:

(r.r2)
6 . Chapter I o Review of Linear Gircuit Theory

Thislatterequationhasaslope diylduy: -llRt, an ix-axisintercept of V1lR1, anda uy-axis

intercept of V1.
o Plot the u-i equation with voltage on the horizontal axis and current on the verticat
axis
As shown in Fig. 1.4(b), a plot of Eq. ( 1 . 12) results in a straight-line u-i equation that crosses rhe
uy -axis at iy : 0, ux - h . This operating point represents the open-circuitvoltage ofthe circuit
measured atterminals X-X'. The u-i equation crosses the ly-axis at uy:0, ix - Ir1lh.
This operating point represents the current that would flow through a short circuit placed across
terminals X-X',andiscalledtheshort-circuitcurrent of thecircuit, Theslopeof thelinein
Fig. 1 .4(b) is equal to diy lduy : -l I Rr. This slope is negative because current flowing oul of
the circuit causes the voltage u; to be reduced.

L.4 SUPERPOSITION IN LINEAR CIRCUITS

A linear circuit element is formally defined as one that has a u-i characteristic of the form

u:aitlbiz (1.13)
or i:curlduz (1.14)

In these equations, a, b, c,and d are constants. More generally, these coefficients could also be
linear operators such as derivatives or integrals. Thus, a circuit element havinga u-i characteristic
of the form
,:o++u
dtJ
Iizat (1.1s)

is also a linear circuit element.

Any circuit made from elements whose u-i characteristics can be expressed in the form
(1.13), (1.14), or (1.15) will obey the very general property of superposition. Superposition
states that the response of a given linear circuit to a sum of inputs will be equal to the sum of
the responses with each input applied individually. Suppose, for example, that a particular circuit
yields a current 11 in response to an applied voltage ur, for example:

i1: f @) (1.16)

where /(u) isalinearfunctionof theform(1.13), (1.14),or(1.15). Adifferentvoltage u2 applied

to the same circuit will yield a current i2, given by

i2: f @2) (r.r7)

If the circuit is linear, the total current resulting when both u1 and u2 are applied becomes

l: f(u1*u2)- "f(ur)+ f(u):irliz (1.18)

The superposition principle can be used to find any voltage or current in a linear circuit, even
when all sources are not applied at the same location. Superposition can thus be used to assess
the effect of multiple fixed voltage and current sources in a network. This concept is illustrated
in the next example.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Using the superposition principle, find the voltage uy in the circuit of Fig. 1.5.
The linear portion of the circuit consists of R1 and R2, and the applied inputs are ut, uz,
and Is. Plot the ux-ix voltage--current equation that will apply at the terminals labeled X and
X' when an external load element is connected.
 Section 1.4 o Superposition in Linear Circuits . 7
igure 1.5 Rr=10kO
,inear circuit
xcited by three
rxed, independent
ources (two
'oltage sources and
rne current source).

Solution
.Find the value of ua with no load connected
The voltage u1 calr be found by setting all the independent sources to zero, then individually
energizing each and assessing its contribution to ua. Voltage and current sources are set to zero
by making them short circuits and open circuits, respectively.
. Find each of the superimposed contributions to uy

;igure 1.6 Rr=10kQ

All sources except
ll1 SOt tO ZOIO.

Io= O R2

1: Find the contribution due to u1 by setting u2 and Is to zero (Fig. 1.6):

: Rtit: u- :5kO :1.67Y

p'u R? - (1.1e)
Rr*Rz

Figure 1.7 Rr=10kO

AII sources except
u2 set to zero.

Io= 0 R2

Step 2: Find the contribution due to u2 by setting u1 and 16 to zero (Fig. 1.7):

(r.20)

Step 3: Find the contribution due to 1p by setting u1 and u2 to zero (Fig. 1.8). The resistors
Rl and R2 now appear in parallel, hence:

D'I : Io(Rt llRz) : 1.5mA(10kOll5kO) : SV (r.2r)

8 o Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

Figure 1.8 Rr= l0kO

Allsources except
10 set to zero.

. Use superposition to find the total value of uy

The total uy is found by superimposing the partial contributions u'x, u'i, and u,jl:

nx : t)'x + u'! + u'! : (u1 + rz)=

-'Rr * + Io
-&--
Rz (r.22)
=1.67V+0.33V*5V:7V

. Plot the u-i equation at the terminals marked X and X'

tX
Figure 1.9
Short-circuit
conditions imposed lsc
on terminals X-X'
in the circuit of +
Fig. 1.5. ux= 0

The circuit of Fig. 1.5 contains only linear circuit elements, hence its u-l equation will be a
straight line. With the three sources applied, however, the line will not pass through the origin.
Thevoltage ux:7 V,foundinEq.(1.22)foropen-circuitconditions(noloadelementconnected;
ix : O), constitutes the ux-axis intercept, or open-circuitvoltage ue6, ofthe circuit. The point
where the u-l equation crosses the current axis is called the short-circuit current lgg. Its value
can be found by imposing the condition ux : 0 on the circuit of Fig. 1.5, as shown in Fig. 1.9.
Use of superposition leads to the value

' ul+u2
Jsc:rxlr"=o:ro+- Rt
(r.23)
:1.5mA+5V+lV:2.1mA

A plot of the line passing through these two intercepts is shown in Fig. I . 10. The slope of the line
is equal to
isc -2.1mA
m: : -0.3mA/V (r.24)
Aux uoc 7V
 Section 1.4 o Superposition in Linear Circuits o $
:igure 1.10
)lot of the u-j
:quation of the
)ircuit ofFig. 1.5 as
neasured at X-X'
with u1 - 5V,
oz:7Y,
Io : 1.5mA,
Rr : l0kQ, and
Rz:5kQ.

Using the sign convention of Sectionl.2, that positive current flows out of the positive
terminal of a circuit containing fixed dc sources, the u-i equation at terminals X-X', with iy
expressed in milliamperes, becomes

ix : mux * isc - (-0.3 mA/V)ux + 2.1 (r.2s)

or, alternatively,
iy
U.;g:-fUgg
m (r.26\
: (-3.33VlmA)tx +7V
Note that if u1, u2, and 16 are all set to zero in Fig. 1.5, the resulting resistance appearing
at terminals X-X' is equal to Rr llRz : 3.33 kQ, which is the coefficient multiplying iy in
Eq. (1.26).

EXERCISE 1.1 On the same set of axes, plot the u-i characteristic of a resistor of value I kS2, 5 kO, and 20 Q .

1.2 Plot the u-i equation of rhe circuit of Fig. 1.4 if R1 is changed from 1 kO to l0 kO.
Answer: uoc : 5 V; lsc - 0.5 mA
1.3 Plot the u-i equation of the circuit of Fig. .4 if V\ is changed to 10 V.
1

Answer: uoc : l0V; isc : 10mA

't.4 Find the value of uy in Fig. 1.5 if u1 : 10V, uz :4Y, Io :4mA, and R1 : R2:10k9.
Answer: 27 V
1.5 Find the value of u1 in Fig. 1.5 if ur : 10V, uz:4Y, Io : -4mA, and R1 : R2:10kO.
Answer: -13 V
1.6 Find the value of the current through Rz (in the downward direction) in the circuit of Fig. 1.5 if
ur : 10V, uz:4Y, Io :4 mA, and Rr : Rz : l0kC2. Answer: 2.7
1.7 Find the value of the current through R2 (in the downward direction) in the circuit of Fig. 1.5 if
ur : 10V, u2:4Y, Io : -4mA, and R1 : R2: l0kO. Answer: -1.3
1.8 Plot the u-l equation of the circuit of Fig. 1.5 as measured at terminals X-Xtif u1 : l[y,
uz : 4Y, Io : 4mA, and R1 - Rz :10kO. Answer: uoc :27 V; ig6 : 5.4mA
10 o Chapter I . Review of Linear Circuit Theory

1.5 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

A circuit that contains only resistors, linear dependent sources, and independent sources is called
a resistive circuit. A resistor is a circuit element that obevs Ohm's law.

i:ulR (1.27)

which has the form of a linear equation. A dependent source is linear if its u-i characteristic can
be expressed in one of the following simple forms:
Dependent voltage source:

U:fll (1.28)
U:AU| (r.2e)

Dependent current source:

i:gul (1.30)
i:Fit (1.31)

or by a linear combination ofequations ofthe form (1.28) to (1.31). In the preceding equations,
a, r, 8, and p are constants. Variables u1 and i1 upon which the sources depend can appear
anywhere in the circuit. Dependent sources are often not physical circuit elements, but are used
to model the behavior of electronic devices.
Because a resistive circuit contains only linear elements and independent sources, the u-i
equation of any port in the circuit can always be put in the form

u:Ai]_B (r.32)
i:Cu*D (1.33)

In these equations, u and i are the port variables. Constants B and D represent the
fixed sources in the circuit, and constants A and C represent the resistors and dependent source
coeffrcients.

EXAMPLE 1.3 For the circuit of Fig. 1.11, determine the u-l equation seen at terminals X-X'. The circuit
contains a linear dependent current source and two independent voltage sources. Current la has
been defined as positive out of the positive u; terminal.

Figure 1.11 lxv

Example of a
resistive circuit.
 I

1 Section 1.5 o Resistive Circuits . ll

Solution
. Find the open-circuit voltage ux using superposition

Figure l.12
Circuit of Fig. L l 1

with u2 - 0.

The dependent source is a linear one equal to Fit; hence superposition applies. The open-circuit
voltage can be found by setting u1 and q2, in turn, to zero. Note that the dependent source will
equal zero when the variable upon whictr it depends-in this case l1-is zero also. With u2 set
to zero, as in Fig. | .72, the current through R1 becomes

.
,t:
'ul
(1.34)
R,
so that ut* : -piyRz: -p+Rz
,R1 (1.3s)

With u1 set to zero, as in Fig. 1.13, the current through R1 becomes

.v2
,t: -& (1.36)

so that u'! : -pi1Rz: +Ffrnz (1.37)

Figure 1.13
Circuir of Fig. l.l I
with u; 0. -

The total open-circuit voltage becomes the superposition of u'* and ui:

| , ^R2
uoc:u'xla'fr:f^(uz-u11.
(1.38)
: 100 (1.5 V - 0.5 V) : 10V
12. Chapter 1 o Review of Linear Circuit Theory
. Find the slope of the u-i equation that $OV€fnS u1 and fy when a load is con-
nected
Figure 1.14 lX
Circuit of Fig. 1 .l 1 +
dtx I
with both ut and u2 "
set to zero. The dux K2

dependent source
becomes zero
because i1 :
Q.

* Because lr 0 through
= Rr

The slope of the u-i equation at the X-Xl terminals can be found by setting both u1 and D2 to zero
(Fig. 1.14). In this case, both sides of R1 are grounded so that 11 is equal to zero. The dependent
current source is therefore set to zero as well. Evaluating diy lduy at terminals X-X' results in
div : - I -l mA/V (1.39)
7; Rr:
o Use the open-circuit voltage uoc and the slope diy/duli to determine the com-
plete u-i equation
Combining the open-circuit voltage (1.38) with the slope (1.39) yields the short-circuit current:

(1.40)

This result could also be obtained by applying a short circuit across terminals X-X' and com-
puting the resulting current, in this case equal to fl(vz - u) /\ : l0 mA. For a short-circuit
current of 10 , the u-i equation of port X-X' becomes

lx : jsc * ux : lOmA - (l mA/V)ux $.41)

Note that i; becomes equal to 10mA when ux : 0. A plot of this u-i equation is shown in
Fig.1.15.

Figure 1.15
Plot of the u-i
equation ofthe
circuit of Fig. 1.1 l

Slope = -1

ux (V)
 Section 1.6 o Th6venin Equivalent Circuits . 13

:XERCISE 1.9 Plot the u-i equation of the circuit of Fig. 1. I I if B is changed from 100 to 50.
Answer: uoc :5V; lsc - 5mA
1.10 Plot the u-i equation of the circuit of Fig. 1.11 if u1 is changed from 0.5 V to 1 V.
Answer: uoc :5V; 156 : JPd
1.11 Plot the u-i equation of the circuit of Fig. 1. I 1 if u2 is changed from 1 .5 V to 2 V.
Answer: uoc : 15V; i56 : 15mA
1.12 Plot the u-i equation of the circuit of Fig. 1.1 1 if R2 is changed from 1 kO to 5 kO.
Answer: uoc :50V; isc : 10mA

1.6 THEVENTN EQUTVALENT C|RCUITS

Figure 1.16 lX
Any port of a
resistive circuit can
Resistive circuit
oe modeled by a
(contains only
Ih6venin resistors and
equivalent circuit hxed or linear'
consisting of a sources)
single voltage
source uTh and a
series resistor R1,.

Any port of a resistive circuit can be represented by a much simpler circuit consisting of a single
voltage source and series resistor. Such a network, called the Thdvenin equivalent ofthe original
circuit, is depicted in Fig.1.16. The voltage source u1 represents all ofthe fixed sources in the
actual circuit, and the resistor RTh represents all of the resistors and dependent sources in the
actual circuit. As viewed from the port terminals, the Th6venin circuit is identical in every respect
to the actual circuit and obeys the same u-i equatlon.

Figure I.l7
Resistive circuit
connected to load
element having
u own Unknown load
properties. element

LResistiv
""ir"uitJ
As an example of this concept, consider the circuit of Fig. 1.17. The unknown element
connected to the circuit could be either linear or nonlinear. If only the voltage u1 and current l.;i
at the terminals of the unknown element are of interest, and not any voltages or cunents inside
the resistive circuit, the entire resistive circuit can be treated as a two-terminal device that has the
u-l equation of its Th6venin equivalent circuit.
In this case, the resistive circuit contains an independent voltage source that can supply
power. The current, therefore, is defined as positive when flowing out of the resistive circuit. This
choice is consistent with the sign convention of the passive unknown element, for which current
is positive when flowing into the positive terminal.
L4 o Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

A general expression for the voltage uy at the terminals of the resistive circuit of Fie. I .1 7
can be found by taking a KVL loop around the outside of the circuit:
ux: Vr - lrRr (r.42)
where the current i1 is an unknown. By using KCL, the current i1 can be expressed as

it : iz I ix (1.43)
where 12 is related to uy via R2:
i2:!!R2 (r.44)
Combining Eqs. (1.42), (1.43), and (1.44) results in

Dx : Vr - (iz l- ix)Rr
:vt-(y" *ir
\ (1.4s)
i^, )R'
Equation (1.45) can be solved for uy as follows:

/ R'\
uxll*-
' \ Rz/l:V1 -iyR1 (r.46)

R2 RrRz
L\':V (r.47)
R1*R2 "Rr*Rz
Equation (1.47) describes the general relationship between u; and 11 at terminals X-X' .
A specific solution for uy andiy in Fig. 1.17 requires knowledge ofthe u-i characteristic ofthe
unknown element.
The relationship (1.a7) has the form ofthe equatron

ux:uTh-lxRm (1.48)
R,>
where Lnrr, : Vr
'Rr (1.4e)
* Rz
and Rrn: (1.s0)

Figure 1.18 tx
RL
Th6venin
+
equivalent of the
resistive circuit of
Fig.1.17 connected T
UX Unknown load
to load element. element

Th6venin equivalent circuit

Equation (1.48) should be compared with the u-i equation of the circuit of Fig. 1.18, which
consists of a single voltage source u1, in series with aresistor R1r. For this much si
ler network,
Eq. (1.48) is a valid expression as well. If ury6 and R1, in Fig. 1.18 are set to the values given by
Eqs. (1.49) and (1.50), this simplified network will be indistinguishable from the actual network
of Fig. 1.17. The left-hand portion of the circuit of Fig. 1.18 is called theThdvenin equivalent of
the resistive network of Fig. 1.17. It models the circuit behavior at terminals X-X' inevery way.
Note that the Th6venin voltage urh represents the open-circuit voltage of the original network.
Similarly, the current un /Rrn represents the short-circuit current of the original network.
 Section 1.6 o Th6venin Equivalent Circuits o 15
Figure 1.19
Th6venin
equivalent circuit
(TEC) treated as a
single two-terminal
linear circuit
element.

The Th6venin equivalent circuit concept is often used to describe the behavior of a resistive
circuit. It is equally possible, however, to treat a Th6venin circuit as a single electronic "device"
with its own unique u-i characteristic, as depicted in Fig. 1.19. If no current is drawn from the
terminals ofthe circuit, no voltage drop occurs across the equivalent series resistance R1l,, and

As positive current is drawn from rn" ,".*:rltr, a voltage drop occurs across R,n, .i:::
the voltage across the terminals of the Th6venin circuit. The resulting terminal voltage becomes

u:uTh-lRrrt (r.s2)

This u-i characteristic is a simple equation in two variables; hence the Th6venin circuit
can be treated like a single circuit element.
The Th6venin circuit has the property that its output voltage d s toward zero as more
current is drawn out of its terminals by an externally connected element or circuit. Such behavior
is sometimes referred to as the pull-down effect.
If the terminal voltage of the circuit is forced to zero by some external element, the current
flowing out will be equal to the maximum value possible. Imposing the condition u : 0 on
Eq. (1.52) yields the short-circuit current:

.l,,.ft
at I\t (1.s3)
l,=o- Rrt'
-
-

Summary of the Procedure for Finding the Th6venin Equivalent

of a Circuit
The formalism surrounding Th6venin equivalent circuits can be summarizedby the following set
of rules for finding the Th6venin equivalent of any two-terminal port of a resistive circuit:
1.. Disconnect any elements not included in the resistive circuit for which the Th6venin equiv-
alent is to be found.
2. Find the open-circuit voltage u6s at the port ofthe resistive circqit. The Th6venin voltage
try5 is equal to this open-circuit voltage.
3. Find the Th6venin resistance R1 using either method (a) or (b):
(a) Set all the independent sources in the resistive circuit to zero. Voltage sources set to
zero are replaced by short circuits, and current sources by open circuits. Use series
and parallel resistor combinations to find the net resistance seen at the terminals of
the port. If the circuit contains dependent sources, the test source method must be
used, as will be demonstrated in Example 1.5.
(b) Find the short-circuit current i56 by connecting a short cirquit between the terminals
of the port, noting that Rrn : um/ isc.
16 o Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

Although these rules are meant to apply to the analysis of a circuit on paper, they can also
be applied in the laboratory. In such a case, the open-circuit voltage, equivalent resistance, or
short-circuit current are measured using laboratory instruments

EXAMPLE 1.4 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the linear portions of the circuit shown in Fig. I .20. The nonlinear
device connected in the middle is called a transistor. Its properties will be examined in later
chapters.

Figure 1.20 vcc= l2Y

Three{erminal
nonlinear device
R,A
connected to two
20 kQ
resistive circuits.

Rp
l0 ko

Solution
. Find the Th6venin equivalent of everything to the left of the transistor
(resistive circuit #l)
The transistor is first disconnected from the resistive circuit at terminals a-a' and a Th6venin
equivalent found for Rt, Rn, and Vgg. The open-circuit voltage looking into a-at is equal to

uocl : jrRr - : t2v :4V

Rn 10kO (1.s4)
20kQ + l0ko

The value of Th6venin resistance R1, can be found by the short-circuit current method.
With the transistor disconnected, the current that would flow into a short applied across a-a' is
equal to
,
isct: vcc:2oks2
l2v :o'6mA
(1.ss)
o,
The value of RL for resistive circuit #l aI a-at is thus given by

Rrhl: Yocl
- :6.67kQ (1.s6)
tscl

Alternatively, the value of R1, can be found by setting Vgg to zero, thereby connecting
the upper lead of Ra to ground. The resistance seen at open-circuited terminals a-a' under such
conditions is equal to Re llRs : 6.67 kQ.
 Section 1.6 o Th6venin Equivalent Gircuits . L7
. Find the Th6venin equivalent of everything to the right of the transistor
(resistive circuit #2|
The transistor is next disconnected from terminals b-b' and a Th6venin equivalent for R6, R1 ,
and V6g is found. The value of ue6 ai terminals b-b' is equal to

uocz: - :6v
izRt
ffi^r: no1f,ml kQ (1.s7)

The Th6venin resistance seen at terminals b-bt can be found from i5g2:
. Vcc l2V l2mA
iscr:.-: (1.s8)
Rc lkg
uocz -:
Hence ^ : -::: : 6V :500Q
1(rhr (1.se)
iscz 12 mA
This value is equivalent to Rc llRr : 500 Q.
In Fig. | .21, the circuit of Fig. I .20 is redrawn with the transistor connected to each of the
Th6venin equivalent circuits derived before. Although the circuit of Fig. l.2l is only a repre-
sentation of the circuit of Fig. 1.20, it is identical in every respect from the point of view of the
transistor.

Figure 1.21 D Rnz= 500 O

Circuir of Fig. 1.20
redrawn with
appropnate
Th€venin
equivalent circuits
substituted at
terminals a-a' and vocr
b-b' .

\-----a-a E b,\_______Y-
Th6venin equivalent' Th6venin equivalent'
ofresistive circuit #1 of resistive circuit ll2

EXAMPLE 1,5 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the resistive circuit connected to the nonlinear elementinFig. 1.22.
The dependent source is linear, hence it can be considered as part of the resistive portion of the
circuit. The test source technique becomes a convenient method for finding R11' when the circuit
contains a dependent source. Alternatively, the short-circuit current method for finding R11' could
be used. In this example, we illustrate the use of the former method.

Figure 1.22
Resistive circuit
containing a
dependent source
connected to a
nonlinear element
 18 . Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

Solution
' Find the open-circuit voltage at the port of the resistive circuit
With the nonlinear elembnt disconnected, the open-circuit voltage appearing between terminal .4
and ground becomes

uoc: izRz (1.60)

where iz: it + ph : (F + t;;, (1.61)
Here pil isthecurrentcontributedbythedependentsource. Thecurrentthrough R1 canbefound
by taking KVL arourfd loop B:

ur : tlRl I izRz: jrRr + (p + l)itR2 (r.62)

Equation (1.62) can be solved for i1, yielding

.Ul
-
lt:--
R1 +G+DRz (1.63)

Combining this result with Eqs. (1.60) and (1.61) yields the open-circuir voltage, which is equiv-
alent to u11':

tlrh: uoc:izRz:(f * l)ilR2: ur(F -l l)Rz

(1.64)
Rt -l (fl + l)R2
o Find the Th6venin resistance presented by the circuat to the nonlinear element

Figure 1.23
Circuit of Fig. 1.22
with u1 set to zero
and test source
u1p51 applied. R16
is equal to
uresr/ irrsr .

The Th6venin resistance between node A and ground is found by setting ul to zero, as in
Fig. 1.23. The dependent source necessitates the use of the test source method to find R16. In
this case, a test voltage source is best because it fixes the voltage across Ry, thereby setting i1
and the current of the dependent source to known values. With urrsr in place, currents i1 and, i2
become

. : __UTEST
11 (1.6s)
R1

and
. LTEST
'R2 (1.66)

so that, by KCL, irEsr : -(ir * fli) * iz : (p+r)+ (r.67)

 Section 1.6 . Th6venin Equivalent Gircuits . 19
The Th6venin resistance between node A and ground is thus given by

o*:ffi:(T.;)-' (1.68)
: Rrll
-tl

The test source method of finding R6 works because setting ul to zero in the actual circuit
causes tTh to be set to zero in the Th6venin equivalent. If u6s1 is applied to the Th6venin circuit
with u'n' : 0, a current iresr : tTrsr/Rrn flows in response, as depicted in Fig. 1.24.

Figure 1.24 R6
Test voltage l46s1
applied to a simple
Th6venin circuit
with urrr set to zero. urn=0

Dhcussion. This section has focused on circuits containing resistors and sources only. In
the most general case, capacitors and inductors also can be included in a Th6venin equivalent
circuit if all independent voltage and current sources are periodic ac signals. In the steady
state, capacitors can be treated as linear elements having a complex impedance equal to

I
Z":
" jtoC
(1.6e)

Similarly, inductors can be treated as linear elements having a complex impedance equal to

21 : jaL (1.70)

The concept of complex impedances is discussed in more detail later in this chapter. I

EXERCISE 1.13 Find the values of each usg and R1, in Fig. l.2l lt the resistors in the circuit of Fig. 1.20 are
changedto R4 : 10kO, Ra : 5kO, R6 : 5kO,and R; : lkO.
Answer: uocl : 4Y: uocz :2V i RTnl : 3.33 kO ; Rnp : 0.83 kf,)
1.14 Find the Th6venin equivalent of each of the resistive circuits in Fig. 1.20 it the upper bus is
grounded and the lower bus is connected to a source of value Vnr : -lzV .
Answer: uocl : -8V; Rrrrr :6.67 kO; uocz - -6V; Rrr'z:500O
1.15 Find the Th6venin equivalent of each of the resistive circuits in Fig. 1.20 if the upper bus is
connected to V66 : l2Y, as shown, and the lower bus is connected to a source of value
VEn : -lzY , rather than to ground Answer: uoct : -4V; Rnr : 6.67kO;
uOC2 :0; Rrnz : 500 O.
1 .16 For the circuit of Fig. I .22, show that the short-circuit current measured from terminal A to ground
is equal to the ratio ur1/Rrn, with u11' and R1 as derived in Example 1.5.
20 . Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

L.7 NORTON EQUTVALENT CIRCU|TS

The Norton equivalent is the analog, or "dual," of the Th6venin equivalent and is an equally
valid way of representing a resistive circuit. In the Norton equivalent, the independent sturce
is a current source rather than a voltage source, and the equivalent elements are connected in a
parallel topology rather than in a series topology.

Figure 1.25 I

Norton equivalent
circuit.

The basic Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 1.25, where a resistance R11 is con-
nected in parallel with a current source of value l1,'. As seen from its terminals, the open-circuit
voltage of the Norton equivalent is given by

uoc : llYRm (1.71)

and the short-circuit current is given by

lsc : ,N (r.72)
The resistance seen looking into the terminals of the Norton equivalent is found by setting
the current source to an open circuit. The value of this resistance is thus identical to the series
resistance Rrtr of the Th6venin equivalent circuit. This result must be true if the Norton and
Th6venin equivalents are to be equally valid representations ofthe same circuit.
The rules for finding the Th6venin or Norton equivalent of a linear circuit are identical.
In finding a Norton equivalent, the short-circuit current is generally of more interest than the
open-circuit voltage.

EXERCISE 1.17 FindtheTh6veninequivalentof thecircuit of Fig. l.26. Answer: u75: qR2/(Rz*Rt);

Rrn : R: * RzllRr : (R1R2 * R1R3 'f RzR)/(Rr * R2)

Figure 1.26 Rr Rq

1.18 Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 1.26 Answer: ix : utRz/(RrRz *
RrR: * RzR); Rn : R: * RzllRr
1.19 Plot the u-l equation of the circuit of Fig. 1.26 it ur : 6V, Rr : 2kO, R2 : 4kO, and
Rr :5kO. Answer: uoc :4V; lsc :0.63mA
1.20 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 1.26 if ur : 6V, Rt : 2kO, R2 : 4kO,
and R3 : 5 kg. Compare to the Norton equivalent of the circuit. Answer: Vrn : 4y;
Rn' : 6.33 kQ
 Section 1.8 o Vottage and Current Division . 2l
1.8 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

The voltage-divider simplification is a shortcut used often in the solution ofresistive circuits.
is summarized by the circuit example of Fig. l.27.If Vp is known and iy : 0, then

V6
.t (1.73)
-.2 - Rr*Rz

Because ur : irRr and u2 - i2R2,it follows that

ut:itRt-Vo (1.74)

and uz: izRz - Vo (1.7s)

These equations can be expanded to include the case ofthree or more resistors. Specifically, ifthe
voltage across a chain of series-connected resistors is known, the voltage across one resistor will
be equal to the total voltage times the "desired" resistance divided by the sum of all resistances.
Note that the voltage across the set of series resistors must be known, but it need not be explicitly
set by a voltage source. This concept is illustrated in the next exale.

Figure 1.27
Circuit that
illustrates the
voltage-divider
relation.

EXAMPLE 1.6 Find the voltage u2 acroSS resistor R2 in the circuit ofFig. 1.28. The voltage V6 is taken across
resistors R1 and R2 only, not across R3.

R3
Figure 1.28
Three-resistor
circuit that
illustrates the
voltage-divider
relation.
 22 o Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

Solution
The voltage Vp is set by the current source to the value lo(h
I R2). Note that R3 does not
affect the value of Vp because 10 sets i1 directly. For this value of Vs, voltage
u2 becomes, via
voltage division:

u, : : * R) :
# Rrro # orro(Rr
roRz (7.76)
The result (1.76) could also be obtained by inspection, because Ip flows through resistor R2.

Warning! The voltage-divider relation applies only whenno element is connected to the
resistor across which the voltage is computed. In the circuit of Fig. 1.27,
for example, the

Figure 1.29
Circuit that
illustrates the
current-divider Circuit in which
relation for parallel 16 originates
resistances.

The current-divider relation is similar to the voltage divider and applies to circuits of the
type shown rnFig. 1.29. Assuming that Is is known, an expression for i2 can be found by noting
that
iz: Io - ir (r.77)
The voltages across R1 and R2 must be equal, that is,

i1R1 : itP, (r.78)

Substituting for i 1 in Eq.(1.71) results in

(7.7e)

or (1.80)

Similarly, (1.81)

As suggested by Eqs. (1.80) and (1.S1), the curyent-divider relation canbe summarized in the
following way: If the total current through two parallel resistors is known, the current flowing
through one resistor is equal to the total current multiplied by the ratio of the "undesired" resistance
to the sum of both resistances.

EXERCISE 1.21 Find voltages u1 and u2 inFig. 1.27 if Vo : 12V, Rr :22kQ, and R2:33kQ.
Answer: ut : 4.8Y; Dz :7 .2V
1.22 Find voltages u1 and u2 inFig. 1.27 if Vo : -6V, Rr : 18kf2, and R2 :2lkf".
Answer: ut: -2.4Y; uz: -3.6Y
 Section 1.9 . Single-Time-Constant Resistor-Capacitor Circuits . 23
In
Figure 1.30
Current divider in a
parallel
combination of
l"
more than two
resistors. Ra

1.23 Find the current la through Ra inFig. 1.30 if 10 : l2mA, Rr : 2kO, Rz : lkQ, R3 : 1 kQ,
and Ra :4kQ. Answer: 2.4m4
1.24 Find the voltage across R4 in Fig. 1.30 if /o : 10mA, Rl : 2kQ, Rz : 5 kO, Rs : I kO,
and Ra : 2kO. Answer: ! 8.6V
't.25 Findthecunent i1 through R1 inFig. l.30if Io : 6rnA, Rr : 1kO, Rz :250Q, Rt : 750 Q,
and Ra :2kO. Answer: 2.4m4

1.9 SINGLE-TIME.CONSTANT RESISTOR-CAPACITOR

ctRcutTs
A resistive circuit that contains a single capacitor is often referred to as a single-time-constant
(STC) circuit. An understanding of single-time-constant circuits is important to the electronic
design process because capacitance plays a central role in determining the time and frequency
responses of many circuits. The primary focus of this section is on RC circuits containing
resistors and capacitors. With the exception of circuits involving transformers, inductance is
rarely important except at very fast switching speeds or at very high frequencies. The principles
addressed here, however, apply equally well to circuits in which inductance plays a significant
role. The reader is assumed to have had some exposure to complex numbers and phasors. These
topics are usually covered in a first course on electric circuit theory.

Figure 1.31
Simple linear RC
circuit
V.u(t)

1.9.1 RC Circuit Transient Response

The simple circuit shown in Fig. 1.31 consists of one capacitor and one resistor with the output
voltage taken across the capacitor. The general response of linear circuits of this type can always
be found by solving the appropriate differential equation or by using the Laplace transform
technique. The response of the circuit of Fig. 1.31 to two special input voltages, however, can be
found by inspection. The first case involves an input that is a simple step function of magnitude
Vr, given by
ury(t) : I/oa171 (1.82)

where u(r) is a unit step function.

 24 . Chapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

This input is a singular event in time, not a periodic time-varying signal; hence
the circuit
response is best examined in the time domain rather than in the frequency
domain. Because this
circuit contains only one capacitor, its response will contain just one exponential
time factor. The
initial condition for the capacitor voltage is given by

uour(t)-0 atf:0 (1.83)

Similarly, the final condition at time / : oo, when all the transients of the circuit
have
settled down and the capacitor behaves as a dc open circuit, becomes

u6U7G):I/, atl:oo (r.84)

The value of ugul at t : oo corresponds to the parTicular solution, or
forced response, of the
circuit of Fig.1.31.
Between t : 0 and f : oo, uour(/) makes the transition between the limits
0.g3) and
(1.84) with time constant RC, following an exponential charging equation given
by
uour(r):Vo(l-e-t/RC) for/>0 (1.g5)
Note that Eq. (1.85) does indeed satisfy the initial and final conditions (1.g3) and (1.g4).
Figure 1.32 uour
Plot of the voltage
across the capacitor
versus time. At
t : RC, uovt
becomes
Vo(l - e-t) x 0.63Vo
0.63V".

A plot of this response is shown in Fig. r.32. At time t: RC,Eq. (1.g5) yields an output
voltase of
uour(t:Rc) : Vo(l - e-') x 0.63vo (1.86)
The current la during the voltage transition depicted in Fig. r.32 can be found by first
computing the voltage drop across the resistor:

UR:UIN-UOUT (1.87)
The current for / > 0 then follows from Ohm's iaw:

-. urN - uour Vo - Vo(l - ,-t/RC\ _ Vo

lR: --------;-: -_,/0,
R --------------- - -(
R
(1.88)

From the results (1.85) and (1.88), we note the often stated rule-of-thumb that the voltage drop
-
across a step-excited capacitor fed through a series resistor cannot change instantaneously. Con-
versely the current into the capacitor experiences a step change, determined by the initial drop
across R1 at t : 0, and decays to zero as t approaches infinity. The condition at t : 9p
is consistent with the capacitor's behavior as a dc open circuit after the charging transient has
occurred.
 Section 1.9 Singfe-Time-ConstantResistor-CapacltorCircuits . 25
Figure 1.33 C

Simple linear RC
circuit
topologically
identical to the
V u(t)
circuit of Fig. 1.31.

Equation (1.88) also provides an expression for usgl in the case where the positions ofthe
resistor and capacitor are reversed, as in Fig. 1.33. With u9g1 taken across the resistor instead of
the capacitor, the output becomes

UOLII:i1qR:Vos-t/Rc (1.8e)

where lp is given by Eq. (1.88).

Figure 1.34
Plot of the voltage
across the resistor
versus time. At
t : RC, vovt
becomes
Vof e x 0.37V,.

0.37V.

ORC5RCt

A plot of Eq. (1.89) is shown in Fig. 1.34. In this case, the value of the output at t: RC
becomes
vo
uour(t:RC): = 0.37Vo (1.e0)
e

and the value of u9g1 for t : & becomes zero.

1.9.2 RC Circuit Response in the Sinusoidal Steady State

The analysis of the preceding section describes the response of a single-time-constant RC circuit to
a step-function input voltage. The equations derived describe the transient properties of the circuit
in the time domain. The response of the circuit in the frequency domain can be found by applying
a sinusoidal input ofconstant frequency. Such an approach is particularly useful for linear circuits,
because an arbitrary input signal can always be represented as a Fourier superposition ofsinusoids
of different frequencies.
In the sinusoidal steady-state frequency domain, the impedance representation transforms
the differential equations that describe the circuit into simple algebraic equations in which all
voltages and currents are expressed as complex numbers called phasors. Each phasor in a circuit
has a specific magnitude and phase angle (measured relative to the circuit's input signal) that can
26 o Chapterl o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

be used to represent the voltage or current's real physical value. The voltage across a capacitor,
for example, can be represented in the frequency domain by the phasor V, in the foilowing
expressron;
ug(t): Re[V"erct] (1.e1)
where V. is a complex number with magnitude and phase. The u-i characteristic for a capacitor
in the time domain,

duc_ ic
(r.e2)
dtC
Ic
becomes IAV. : (1.e3)
-C

in the frequency domain. The complex impedance of the capacitor is expressed as

o':T:V. I
ll'94)
irc
Similar derivations yield the impedances of resistors and inductors, which are given by Zp : p
and 21 : jroL, respectively.
If the input voltage to the circuit of Fig.1.31 consists of a sinusoidal voltase of fixed
frequency, it too can be expressed by a phasor:

unq(r) : Re[Vloerot] (r.9s)

The circuit can then be analyzed using the complex impedance representation. In this case the
output voltage phasor can be found by using the voltage-divider relation with complex impedances:

(1.e6)
: Vin

T\e magnitude of the output voltage relative to the input is given by

(r.97\

and the phase angle of the output voltage relative to the angle of the input, assuming 4Vio : 0,
is given by
4Vout : -tan-r otRC (1.e8)

The response (1.96) has the canonical form of a low-pass filter. At frequencies well below the
cu frequency a : ll RC, the response approaches unity, indicating that the circuit will pass
the input signal to the output terminals unattenuated. Conversely, at frequencies well above the
cutofffrequene! o : l/RC, the response can be approximated by lV6o1/V;n I x l/aRC. This
expression approaches zero for very high frequencies a ) ll RC .
The frequency domain response of the circuit of Fig. 1.33 to a single-frequency sinusoid
also can be found by direct application of the complex voltage divider:

(1.ee)
 Chapterl . Summary . 27
This output has a relative magnitude of

l]t=t
lvi"
|
I
: ll + @nc)zlttz
aRC
(1.100)

and a phase angle relative to u6r of

4Vout : 90" - tan-l otRC : r /2 - tan-1 o>RC (1.101)
Theresponse(1.100)hasthecanonicalformof ahigh-passfilter. Atinputfrequencieswellabove
the cutoff frequency ot : | / RC , the circuit response approaches the limit

lV.u,l
|-|:
oRC
I (r.r02)
lVi" I oRC
indicating that the circuit passes the signal from input
-: to output with no attenuation. Conversely, at
input frequencies well below the cutoff frequency @ - | / RC , the response can be approximated
by lVou/Vinl : roRC. This expression approaches zero for a 4 l/RC, indicating that the
circuit attenuates the incoming signal.

SUMMARY
The sum ofcurrents flowing into a node equals the sum ofcurrents flowing out ofthe node
(Kirchhoff 's current law).
The sum of element voltages between any two nodes yields the same result, regardless of
the path taken (Kirchhoff's voltage law).
The voltage--current (u-i) characteristic of a circuit element describes the relationship
between the voltage across and the current through its terminals.
o A resistive circuit contains only resistors, independent sources,
and linear dependent sources.
O A resistive
circuit obeys the important property of superposition.
o Superposition states that the total response of a circuit to simultaneously
applied inputs will
be equal to the sum ofthe responses obtained with each input applied separately.
o A port can be formed from any pair of circuit terminals.
o Any port of a resistive circuit can be modeled by a Th6venin equivalent
circuit consisting
of a voltage source and series resistor.
Any port of a resistive circuit can also be modeled by a Norton equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source and parallel resistor.
In analyzing a resistive circuit, the voltage- and current-divider relations provide useful
shortcuts to KVL and KCL.
Resistor--capacitor (RC) circuits can be analyzed in the time domain or the frequency
domain.
The time domain is appropriate for determining the transient response of an RC circuit
excited by a voltage or current step function or other transient waveform. The frequency
domain is appropriate when the circuit is driven in the steady state by a sinusoidal voltage
or current of constant frequency.
A single-time-constant (STC) resistor-capacitor circuit has an exponential response when
excited by a step voltage or current.
When a step function is applied to an RC circuit, an uncharged capacitor will initially behave
as a short circuit. After a long time (many RC time constants), the capacitor will behave as
an open circuit.
A capacitor in the sinusoidal steady state can be represented by an impedance of value
Z : l/iroC.
 28 o Chapter 1 o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

PROBLEMS
n
\-/ lt
Even more
difficult Ort
1.1 Kirchhoff's Voltage and Current Laws
Ra
I 1 Use KVL in the circuit of Fig. l. I to find an expres-
.

sion for u4 in terms of other voltages in the circuit.

+
1.2 Use KVL to express the voltage drop across resistor VA

R1 in the circuit of Fig,Pl.2in terms of V1 and u2.

Rg
Rr=10kO

Fig. P1.5
Vt= 12Y R:= l0ko
1.8 O Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.65(b). Use KVL
and KCL to find an expression for the voltage across
R1 . Note that the current flowing through R2 will be
equal solely to the cunent flowing through the dependent
Fig. Pl.2
source.
1.9 O Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.65(c). Use KVL
1.3 Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.3. Write down a set
and KCL to find an expression for the voltage across
of KVL and KCL equations and use them to find voltage
R2. Note that the current flowing through R2 will be
u3 &CrOSS resistor R3.
equal solely to the current flowing through the dependent
source.
Rr=l0kfl Ru=20kQ u 1.10 Use L and KCL to find an expression for the
voltage across resistor R2 in the circuit of Fig. P1.10.

Vr=6V R:=10kQ

Fig. P1.3

L4 In the circuit of Fig. P1.3, solve for the voltage drop

across R1 by writing down KVL for each loop in the
circuit and KCL for each node.
1.5 Suppose that a load element is connected to terminals
Fig. Pr.10
a-a' inthe circuit of Fig. P1.5. Use KVL to write down
an expression for the voltage I in terms of the current
11 flowing through R1. 1.2 Voltage Bus Notation
1.1 I A circuit is powered by two voltage sources V4 :
i.6 Write down KVL for the left-hand and right-hand
loops in the circuit of Fig. P1.34. 10V and Vr : -10V, as in Fig.l.2(b). If 16
flows out of the positive terminal of the upper supply,
1.7 Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.65(a). Use KVL once and mA flows out of the positive terminal of the lower
11
for each loop in the circuit to find a value for usu1. supply, what is the net current (magnitude and direction)
 Chapterl o Problems . 29
flowing into the ground node G between the two sup- (a) Draw a diagram of the supply buses, circuit, load
plies? What is the total power dissipated in the circuit? element, and current flow direction from each bus.
1.12 A circuit is powered by two voltage sources V1 : (b) Compute the power dissipated in the circuit (not
l2Y and Vz : -12Y. The properties of the circuit including the power dissipated in the load) with the
are such that its output voltage relative to ground can
load connected.
approach to within 0.7 V of either supply bus. What
are the most positive and most negative values possible (c) What is the power dissipated in the circuit with the
for the output voltage? What is the total possible output load disconnected?
voltage "swing"?
1.13 Consider the circuit of Fig. 1.2(b). Suppose thar 1.3 Definition of Voltage-Current
each of the various circuit elements are resistors of the Characteristic
following values: Rr : 8.6kO, R2 : 2.2kt1, R3 :
1 . 17 On the same set of axes, plot the u-i characteristics
l2k0, Rq:4lkQ.
for resistors of value 4.7 kA, 4'7 ke", and 470 kf2.
(a) Find the current flowing through each resisror in
the circuit. 1.18 A 27-kA resistor is connected in series with a 14-
(b) ShowthatKCL is satisfied atnode G forthe currenr
V voltage source. Plot the resulting u-l equation with
voltage on the horizontal axis and current on the vertical
values found in part (a).
axis. The arrow ofthe dc current source points toward the
1.14 Consider the circuit of Fig.P1.14 with Vr : l2y, positive output terminal.
Vz:5 V, and all resistors equal to 10kO.
(a) Find 1.19 A 100-k0 resistor is connected in parallel with a
the open circuit voltage Va measured between
terminals a-a'. 1-mA dc current source. Plot the circuit's u-i equation
with voltage on the horizontal axis and current on the
(b) This circuit can be represented by the equivalent
vertical axis.
circuit of Fig. P1.5. Find appropriate numerical
values for Vz, V+, Ra , and R6 .
1.20 Consider rhe circuir of Fig. 1.4(a). Suppose thar V1
(c) What is the short-circuit current measured between is set to the value
-10V. Plotthe resulting u-i equation
terminals a-a' for each circuit? with voltage on the horizontal axis and current on the
vertical axis.
1.21 Showthatthe slope ofthe u-i equation ofthecircuit
of Fig. 1.4(a) depends only on Ri, and not on V1 . Plot
each ofthe u-l equations, with uy on the horizontal axis
and iy on the vertical axis, for
-2V < V1 < 2Y in steps
oflV.
1.22 (a) Under what conditions can the circuit of Fis.
1.4(a) have a negative value of ux ?

Fig. Pl.14 (b) Under what conditions can the circuit have a nesa-
tive value of i1?
1.15 A circuit powered from a 15-V voltage supply bus
drives a load element at 10V. The load element draws (c) Under what conditions will the slope of the circuit's
l0 of current. The entire circuit draws 18 mA from u-l equation become negative?
the supply. 1.23 Suppose that the voltage source V1 in Fig. 1.4(a)
(a) What is the power dissipated in the circuit exclusive is replaced by a dc current source of value It : 5
of the load? (arrow pointing up). Plot the u-i equation of the modifi ed
(b) What is the power dissipated in the load? circuit.
I .16 A particular circuit delivers 1 V to a l-ko resistive 1.24 A dc current source of value 1r : l5mA is con-
load. The circuit is powered from t15-V supply buses. nected inparallel with aresistorofvalue R1 : 2 kO. Plot
With the load connected. the circuit draws 10mA from the resulting u-l equation of the circuit if the direction
each supply bus. With the load disconnected, the circuit of current flow from the source points into the positive
draws I mA from each bus. outout terminal.
 30 o Ghapter I o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

1.4 Superposition in Linear Circuits Rr=1kC) Rz=lkQ a

\.25 A particular circuit can be described by Eq. (1.13)

with coefficients d : 0.5V/mA and b : l.2V / n,A. vt = 72v
Show that the circuit obeys supeqposition for two sets of
inputs given by (i1 : lmA; i2: 2mA) and (ir :
3.3mA; iz:4mA). a'

1.26 O A particular linear circuit can be described by a Fig. P1.32

matrix equation of the form

a'. Use superposition to find voltage u2. In this

[;;]: [: 3]l',:l V1 be a 6-V rms, 60-Hz ac source.
case, let

where a, b, c, and d are constants. Show that this circuit Rr=lokQ Rz=l0kQ a
obeys superposition.

1.27 Consider the circuit of Fig. 1.5 with ur : 15V, /r=5rn{

uz : -6Y , and Ie : 10 mA. Use superposition to find
the currents through R1 and R2.

1.28 Consider the circuit of Fig. 1.5 with ur : -10V, a'

uz :
3 V, and Io : -l.l
mA. Use superposition to find Fig. P1.33
the currents through R1 and R2.
l 34 Use superposition to find the Th6venin equivalent of
1.29O Consider the circuir of Fig. L5 with ur : 2y , the resistive circuit connected to the diode in Fig. p1.34.
uz: -l V, and 1o : 30mA. Use superposition to find Note that the Th6venin equivalent found in this way can
the current flow through the u1 and u2 sources. subsequently be used to determine the current i2 through
the diode. However, superposition cannotbeused to find
1.30 Use superposition to find an expression for the volt-
age measured between terminals a-a' in the two-source
ip directly. Why?
circuit of Fig. P1.30.
i3 R3=4kO a

li

+''
Rz=2k{t +
Diode VD

Fie. P1.30

Fig. P1.34
1.31 Consider the two-source circuit of Fig.pl.30. If
Vr : lOV, 1r : -10mA, and Rr : lkg, choose
1.35 A voltage source Vt : lOV is connected from the
values of R2 through Ra such that the voltage measured top terminal of the circuit of Fig. p1.35 to ground. A
between terminals a-a' is zero. second voltage source Vz : 5V is connected from the
lower terminal of the circuit to ground. If R1 : 1.5 kf,2,
l, .32 The chcuit of Fig. Pl.2 and the circuit of F ig. p1.32 Rz : 1.8kf,2, R3 : 2.7kA, and R+ : 3.9kO. find the
are connected together in parallel at terminals a-a, . IJse voltage measured from the junction of R1 and R2 to the
superposition to find the voltage u2. junction of R3 and Ra.
 Ghapterl o Problems . 31

ur < 5 V in steps of 1V. Voltage u2 should remain con-

stant at the indicated value. This plot is called the circuit's
uTuy transfer characterislic. Evaluate graphically the
slope of the transfer characteristic and compare with the
derivative |uyl\uy of Eq. (1.38).

1.44 Suppose that the pi 1 dependent source in Fig. l.1l

is replaced by a current-dependentvohage source ofvalue
rf1. Find the resulting open-circuit value of ua.
1.45 Show that each of the circuits of Fig. p1.45 is resis-
trve.
Fig. P1.35

1.36 A voltage source yl : 11 V is connected from the

top terminal of the circuit of Fig.P1.35 to ground. A
current source 1z : 6mA is connected from the lower
terminal of the circuit to ground (current flowing into
ground from the circuit). If Rl : l0kQ, Rz : 20kO,
R: : 33 kQ, and R+ : 56 kO, find the voltage measured
from the junction of R1 and R2 to the junction of R3 and
Ra.

1.5 Resistive Circuits

(aJ (b)
1.37 Prove that a resistor is a linear circuit element by
showing that it obeys the property ofsuperposition. Test Fig. P1.45
your proof by considering the case of a 10-kO resistor
connected in series with two voltage sources ur : lOV
and uz :5V. 1.46 C Consider the circuit of Fig.P1.46 in which a
1.38 Under what conditions will the u-i equation of i I voltage-dependent voltage source of value duA is con-
forthecircuitofFig. l. I I have apositive slope?
versus ux nected in series with a resistor R1 . Show that the re-
lationship between u1 and ia is linear, indicatins the
1.39 Consider the circuit of Fig. l.ll. What condition combination to be a resistive circuit.
will yield the output ux : 0? What is the value of i1
when this condition occurs?
1.40 Plot the u-l equation of the circuit of Fig. 1.1 I as
seen at the uli-ia portif B : J5, ut: 1V, uz :3Y,
Rr : 82kO, and Rz : 10kO.
I u-i equation of the circuit of Fig. . I I as
.41 Plot the 1

seen at theuy-iy port if f : 250, ur : -4Y, uz -

5V, Rr : 1.2kQ, and R2 :2.2k52.
1.42 For the circuit of Fig. 1.11, how large must p be
if the magnitude of uy is to be larger than the quantity Fig. P1.46
luz - utl ? A circuit that meets this condition is said
to amplify the difference signal between the two inpurs.
1.41 O The circuit of Fig. P1.47 contains a volrage-
If luy| is smaller than lu2 - u1 l, the circuit is said to dependent voltage source and a current-dependent cur-
attenuate the difference signal.
rent source. Show that the relationship between u4 and
1.43 For the circuit of Fig. 1.11, plot the open-circuit la is linear, indicating the entire combination to behave
voltage value of U; as u1 changes over the range 0 < as a resistive circuit.
32 o Chapterl o Review of Linear Circuit Theory

Ltr
R2 1.54 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the circuit of Fig.
P1.30 as seen at terminals a-a'.

1.55 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the circuit of Fig.

P1.33. Note that a current is set to zero bv makins it an
open clrcult.

1.56 A l-kQ load resistor is connected across terminals

Fig. P1.47 a-a' inthe circuit of Fig. P1.3. Find the resulting voltage
u2 by first finding the Th6venin equivalent of everything
1.6 Th6venin Equivalent Circuits connected to the load resistor.

1.48 Equation(1.47) describes the voltage-current equa- 1.57 A 500-0 load resistor is connected across termi-
tion of the resistive portion of the circuit of Fig. I . I 7 and nals a-a' in the circuit of Fig. P1.32. Find the resulting
also ofthe Th6venin equivalent circuit ofFig.1.18. The voltage u2 by first finding the Th6venin equivalent ofev-
equation is written in terms of a function uy : f (iy). erything connected to the load resistor.
Express this same equation as a function iy : g(vy). 1.58 Considertheresistive circuit of Fig. p1.32. Find the
1.49 Find u6 and R1, for the resistive portion of the Th6venin equivalent at terminals a-a/ if the V1 source
circuit in Fig.l.l7 if Vt : 8 V, Rr : 15 kO, and R2 - shown is replaced by a60-H2,5-V rms ac voltage source.
22kA.
1.59 Consider the resistive circuit of Fig. p1.33. Find the
1.50 Find the Th6venin equivalent for the two resis- Th6venin equivalent if the 11 source shown is replaced
tive circuits in Fig. 1.20 if Vcc : 2Y, V6s : by a 100-Hz, 1.2-mA rms ac current source in parallel
-5V,
Re : l20ko, Rr : lgOkg, Rc : g.l kg, and with a l-mA dc current source.
Rt : 22kQ. What is the maximum current available
from each resistive circuit? I .60 C
Measurements with a high input-resistance volt-
meter are made at the port of a circuit that contains only
1.51 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the circuit shown
resistors and dc sources. When a 2-kQ resistor is con-
in Fig. P1.2. What is the role of resistor R2 ?
nected across the terminals of the port, the port voltage
1.52 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the circuit of Fig. is 12 V. If the load resistor is reduced to I kO, the port
P1.14 as seen at the ua terminals if Vt : l5Y , V2 : voltage drops to l0V.
20v, Rl : loko, Rz : 12ko, Rr : g.lko, and
Ra : 8.2kQ. (a) Find the Th6venin equivalent of the circuit as ob-
served at the measured port.
1.53 Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.5. Determine the
conditions under which the Th6venin equivalent seen at (b) How large must the input resistance of the meter
the u1 terminals will have a Th6venin voltage of zero. be if your answer to part (a) is to be valid to better
What will be R1, under these conditions? than l%o?

Is(/.)
100

va (v)

Fieure Pl.61
 Chapteri o Problems . 33
1.61 A l2-V storage battery has the measured voltage- Rz= I kO
current curve shown in Fig. P1.61. For small currents and
Y
for large currents, the battery can be modeled by Th6venin
nq Rr=' t

10kQ €R:=
equivalent circuits. Find appropriate values for V11., and 16=J Uy

Rq in each regime. +2ko

1.62 Find the Th6venin equivalent of the circuit of Fig.
P1.62 as seen from the u2 terminals if Vp : 20 V, Rr :
Rz :20 Q, and Rz : 100 O. Fig. P1.64

1.65 O Each of the circuits in Fig. p1.65 contains a de-

pendent source. Find the Th6venin equivalent of each
circuit as seen from terminals a-a, . lJse the test-source
method to find R1r. These circuits all represent the signal
behavior of transistor amplifiers and will be examined in
more detail in later chapters.

R5

Fig. P1.62
1.63 The circuit of Fig. P1.63 contains an unknown (and
presumably nonlinear) element.
(a) Find the Th6venin equivalent of everything con-
nected to the unknown element if yl : 10V rela-
tive to ground.
(b) Write down an equation that relates i1 to ua as
determined by the resistive portion of the circuit.

Rr=6kO

R: ='
0.9 kQ

Rz=4kO
Y
l,r
;*

Fig. P1.63
1.64 The circuit of Fig. P1.64 contains a nonlinear ele-
ment.
(a) Find the Th6venin equivalent of everything con-
nected to the nonlinear element.
(b) Write down an equation that relates 11 to uy as
(c)

determined by the resistive portion of the circuit.

Fig. P1.65
34 . Chapter 1 . Review of Linear Circuit Theory

1.66 Replace the voltage-dependent current source SUa 1.78 Consider the circuit of Fig.P1.14 with V1 : l0V,
in Fig.P1.65(a) by an appropriate current-dependent Vz :20Y, Rr : 10kO, Rz : 20kO, R: : 200kQ,
current source such that the new circuit has the same and Ra : 100kQ. Use voltage division to find voltage
Th6venin equivalent as the original. Va.
1.67 Consider the amplifier circuit of Fig. P1.65(b). Re- 1,19 C In the circuit of Fig.P1.63, the unknown load
place the voltage-dependent current source gux and par- element has an operating point ux : l.2Y; ix : I mA.
allel resistor R1 by a voltage-dependent voltage source of Show that an attempt to use "inverse" voltage division to
value pcul and series resistor R5. The new circuit should find Vr leads to an erroneous result.
have the same Th6venin equivalent as the original. Ex- 1.80 In the circuit of Fig.P1.3, the current through R1
press p and R5 in terms of g and R1 .
has a root-mean-square (rms) magnitude of 0.33mA.
Use current division to find the rms masnitude of the
1.7 Norton Equivalent Circuits
current through Ra.
1 .68 Prove that the series resistor in the Th6venin equiva-
1.81 Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.30 with Vr : 0 (Vt
lent of a given circuit and the parallel resistor in the Norton
set to a short circuit). Use current division to find the
equivalent of the same circuit have the same value.
current through R1.
1.69 Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit of Fig.
1.82 The V1 source in Fig.P1.30 is replaced by an open
P1.2. What effect does resistor R2 have?
circuit. Use current division to find the currents throueh
1.70 Two 500-S2 load resistors are connected in parallel R1 and Ra.
across terminals a-a' in the circuit of Fig. P1.3. Find the
resulting voltage u2 by first finding the Norton equivalent 1.9 Single-Time-Constant Resistor-Capacitor
of everything connected to the parallel combination of Circuits
load resistors.
1.1 1 A l-kO load resistor is connected across terminals I.9.1 RC Circuit Tiansient Response
a-a' in the circuit of Fig. P1.32. Find the resulting volt- 1.83 Determine the response of the circuit of Fig. P1.83
age u2 by first finding the Norton equivalent of everything to an input step of value u61 : 5 V if Rr : 5.6 kO and
connected to the l-kO load resistor. Cr :22 P'F.
1.12 Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit shown in
R,
Fig. P1.33.
i.73 Consider the resistive circuit of Fig. P1.32. Find
the Norton equivalent if the Vr source shown is replaced
by a 150-Hz, 12- rms ac current source.
1.74 Consider the resistive circuit of Fig.P1.33. Find
the Norton equivalent if the 1r source shown is replaced
Fig. P1.83
by a 100-Hz, 5-V rms ac voltage source.
1.75 Find the Norton equivalent of everything connected 1.84 The usgl terminal of the circuit of Fig. P1.83 drives
to the nonlinear diode in the circuit of Fig. P1.34. For a a load resistor Rz - 10kg to ground. If qp is a l-V
specific diode, irr : 1.7mA. What is the value of the step function, Rl : 41 kfz, and C1 : 0.339.F, plot
diode voltage u2 ? uour versus time. Also plot the current i1 through R1 as
a function of time.
1.8 Voltage and Current Division
1,85 O Determine the response of the circuit of Fig.
1.76 Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.62 with V6 : 10 V, P1.83 to a l-Y impulse function if R1 : 10kQ and
Rr : l.2k0, Rz :2.'7kf2, and R3 : 5.6kO. Use Cr : 10 tr"cF. The impulse response can be found by ap-
voltage division to find the voltages ut, u2, and u3. plying an appropriate step input and taking the derivative
1.77 Consider the circuit of Fig. P1.5 with the a and a' of the resulting output.
terminals connected together. Suppose that V3: l0V, 1.86 Considerthe circuitofFig. P1.83 with R1 : 22kQ
V+ : -5V, Re : lOk0, and R6 : 12k9. Use and C1 : 0.22 1tF. lf u1y is a l0-V step function, find
voltage division to find the voltage between the joined an expression for the voltage across R1 as a function of
a-a' terminal and ground. tlme.
 Chapterl o Problems . 35
1.87 Consider the circuit of Fig.pl.83 with R1 : I .93 The circuit of Fig. P1.83 is fed by a sinusoidal volt-
180kS) and C1 : 0.001 pF. A second resistor R2 : age source. Plot the magnitude of ugul versus frequency
l00kO is connected in parallel with C1. plot the volt- rr., for the case R1 : 100kO and C1 : 0.0033 g.F.
age across R1 as a function of time if ury is a 5-V step
function. 1.94 Find an expression for ussl in the circuit of Fig.
P1.88 if unrl is driven by a sinusoidal input voltage of
1.88 Consider the circuir of Fig. P1.88 with Rr : 2 kO, frequency f : ot/2n. Evaluate your expression at /
Rz :5kO, and Cr :0.1prF. Plot usul and 12 as : -
l kHz if Rt I kO, R2 : 10kO, and C1 : 0.01!.F.
functions of time if u61 is a l2-Y step function.
1.95 The circuit of Fig. p1.88 is fed by a sinusoidal volr_
Rr Cl age source. Plot the magnitude of u9g1 versus frequency
uoltt ro for the case R1 Rz - :
10 kf,), and C1 :
0.22 p,F .
1.96 Find an expression for uex.1 in the circuit of Fig.
P1.90 if u6r is driven by a sinusoidal input voltage of
frequency f : a/2r. Evaluate your expression at
"f :: 100kHz if \ : l0kQ, Rz : l00ke, and
Cr 0.005 pF.
Fig. P1.88
t.97 O Thecircuitof Fig.P1.83with R1 : l0ks) and
1.89 O Consider the circuir of Fig.P1.88 with R1 : Cr : 0.033,u,F drives a second similar circuit having
component values R1 : I MO and C1 : 0.0033 pF.
2000, Rz : 5kO, and Cr :
0.5 UF. A second ca-
pacitor Cz : 200pF is connected in parallel with R2. If Find an approximate value for the overall uour if f :
un{ is a 5-V step function, plot u6u1 as a function of
of2r : lQkHz.
time over the range 0 < t < l00ns and over the range 1.98 The circuit of Fig.P1.90 feeds the circuit of Fig.
0 < / < 10ms. Use engineering approximations where 1.83. Find an expression for the overall output voltage
appropriate. Vorl in terms of the input V;n, where Vsas and Vin ar€
1.90 CFor the circuit of Fig. P1.90, derive an expres- phasors.
sion for uour as a function of time if the input is a step 1.99 O The circuit of Fig. P1.99 is found inside many
function ofvalue V6. oscilloscope probes. It is designed to attenuate the in-
coming input signal while increasing the scope's in-
put impedance. Find the condition for which the ratio
uour/un will be independent of frequency. What will
be the ratio uour/uN under these conditions? What will
be the value of Zin measured between the u11 terminal
and ground?

Fig. P1.90

1.9 1 O For the circuit of Fig. P1.90, plot the currenr i61
flowing through Cl as a function of time if Rl : l0 kO,
Rz : 22k{2, Cr : 0.01 pF, and the input is a step
function of value Vo : 5Y .
1.9.2 RC Circuit Response in the Sinusoidal Steady
State
1.92 Find expressions for uour and the voltage across R1
in the circuit of Fig. P1.83 if ury is driven by a sinusoidal
input voltage of frequency a.r. Fig. P1.99
36 o Chapter I o Review of Linear Theory

1.100 A magnetic-core ac transformer converts for a transformer that accounts for its various anoma-
I I acvoltases at low current levels to low-level lies is shown in Fig. P1.100. If the prim is driven
of the same frequency at high current levels. the by a 120-V rms 60-Hz ac voltage source, find an ap-
transformer is made by winding coils of wire over a propriate Th6venin equivalent for the terminals of the
ideal magnetic core, it exhibits inductance and secondary winding if LM : l00mH, Zs : 10mH,
in addition to ideal transformer behavior. One R,ra : 100kQ, and R5 :2f,2.

R5 L5 r]-*

Y2

Pl.100