Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

7 PROPERTIES
OF CURVES
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• have been reminded of the graphs of all the standard functions;
• understand how to find the important points on a graph;
• be able to find the vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes
to a given curve, where appropriate;
• be able to identify restricted regions of the plane;
• be able to sketch the curves of functions related to a given
function;
• be able to work with the curves of functions given in
parametric form;
• understand how to derive the equations of chords, tangents and
normals of a given curve;
• be able to apply standard elimination techniques to curves
defined parametrically in order to determine their cartesian
equations.

7.0 Introduction
Note on graphics calculators
During the work in this chapter you will be expected to have
access to graph-plotting software or a graphics calculator. You are
encouraged to use these facilities not only to confirm answers
gained analytically, but also to help guide you in your line of
attack to many of the problems. More importantly, you should be
willing to experiment: the use of such aids as a companion to
intelligent mathematical thought could boost your understanding
of functions and their graphs enormously. Used as a substitute for
intelligent mathematical thought, they will merely prove to be
little more than expensive toys.

You should note that, when questions are set on examination

papers, working must be shown which supports any answers
which you have arrived at. It is, therefore, important that you
develop the necessary analytical skills outlined here.

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Activity 1
(a) Copy and complete the following table of coordinates for the
1 3 2
( )
2
function y = x x −7 :
36
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y

Now plot these points on a piece of graph paper, taking 1 cm to

1 unit on each of the coordinate axes, and join them up.
(b) Comment on the graph you have just drawn in relation to its
equation.
1 3 2
( )
2
(c) Plot the graph of y = x x − 7 on a graph-plotter/graphics
36
calculator for x from –3 to 3. Compare this with your graph and
discuss the results in your class or group.

The above activity was really a warning about the difficulties that
could arise by plotting points without doing any detailed analysis.
1 3 2
( )
2
The function y = x x − 7 is a polynomial of degree 7
36
(presumably called a heptic rather than a septic!), and as such could
have up to 7 crossing points on the x-axis, and up to 6 turning
points. The purpose of part (a) was to get you to draw a straight line
– the alarm bells should have been ringing, loudly. y
y = ex

Another problem with accurate scale-drawings is that they might

miss out on the key features. If this sounds stupid, think of the
graph of y = e x , which is shown opposite, and should be very
familiar to you.
1
Such a diagram gives the general impression of exponential growth.
It is, however, remarkably inaccurate! Try it on your graph plotter, 0 x
and see if you can scale it so that the part of the graph for x > 0
stays on the screen while the other part of the graph for x < 0 does
not simply become the negative x-axis.

Consider taking 1 cm to 1 unit on each axis and plotting points for

x = 0 ,1, 2, 3,... When you get to x = 64 (64 cm is approximately 2
feet from the origin), the y-coordinate is

e 64 ≈ 6 × 10 27 cm = 6 × 10 25 m.

Now the radius of the observable universe is only about 3 × 10 26 m,

so your diagram of accurately plotted points would be halfway
across the universe by now. The point of all this is that the
exponential function not only outgrows all finite polynomials

170
 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

(sooner or later), but that it cannot be drawn both accurately

and realistically.

You will see now why it is important not to let the graph-
plotters do all your thinking for you. At best, they only work
with a limited number of points on the screen, and what they
draw for you is only an approximation to a continuous line,
straight or curved. The purpose of this chapter is to enable you
to handle a wide range of functions, given in a number of ways
and justify the key features of their graphs analytically.

7.1 Graphs of standard

functions
Activity 2
Try to sketch as many of the graphs of the following functions
without the aid of a graph-plotter in the first instance. If you get
stuck, or wish to experiment a little, then use whatever facilities
you have to continue with.

In the relevant cases, try different sets of values of the constants

involved (a, b, c, ...); in particular, consider the cases a < 0 and
a > 0.

1. (a) y = ax 2 + bx + c
(b) y = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d

How many different 'sorts' of quadratics/cubics are there?

2. (a) y = ae x
(b) y = e ax
(c) y = ln ( ax ) ( x > 0 )
(d) y = a ln x ( x > 0 )
(e) y = a sin x
(f) y = a cos x
(g) y = a tan x
(h) y = a sinh x
(i) y = a cosh x
(j) y = a tanh x
a a
3. (a) y = (b) y =
x x2
4. In each case in Questions 1, 2 and 3, comment on any
symmetric properties possessed by the graphs of these
functions (e.g. reflection, rotation, translation, ...).

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

7.2 Important points

While there are some features of functions which are best looked at
generally, there are a number of points on a curve which must be
determined exactly. These are

(a) the crossing points on the axes;

(b) the turning points (T.P.) of the curve;
(c) points of inflexion (P. of I.).

Reminders: Given a curve with equation y = f ( x ) :

(a) the crossing points on the axes occur when x = 0 (on the
y-axis) and when y = 0 (on the x-axis). These crossing points
then have coordinates ( 0, f ( 0 )) and ( a1 , 0 ) , ( a2 , 0 ) , ..., ( an , 0 )
where the ai's (i = 1 to n ) are the n solutions to the equation
f (x) = 0 .

(b) the stationary values (i.e. the turning points and horizontal
dy
points of inflexion) occur when = 0 , having coordinates
dx

(b1, f (b1 )), (b2 , f (b2 )), ..., (bk , f (bk )) ,

where the bi's (i = 1 to k ) are the k solutions to the equation
f ′( x ) = 0 .

( )
If f ′′( bi ) < 0 then bi , f ( bi ) is a maximum point, while if

( )
f ′′( bi ) > 0 then bi , f ( bi ) is a minimum point.

d2y
(c) points of inflexion, in general, occur when = 0 . It is not
dx 2
dy
necessary that = 0 . Unfortunately, it is not always the case
dx
d2y
that = 0 ⇒ inflexion. [Think of the graph of y = x 4 : when
dx 2
dy d2y d3y d4y
x = 0 , y = 0, = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 0 but = 24 . The
dx dx dx dx 4
point (0, 0) is in fact, a minimum turning point.]

As a general rule, however, complications are kept to a minimum at

A Level, and as you are not required to work beyond the second
d2y
derivative , or f ′′( x ) , in this context, it will generally be
dx 2
d2y
assumed that = 0 implies a point of inflexion.
dx 2
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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Example
ln x
For x > 0 , a curve has equation y = .
x
(a) State the coordinates of the point A where the curve crosses
the x-axis.
(b) Calculate, in terms of e, the coordinates of B, the turning point
d2y
of the curve, and the value of at B. Describe the nature
dx 2
of B.
(c) Find the coordinates of C, the point of inflexion of the curve.
(d) Sketch the curve.

Solution
(a) When y = 0, ln x = 0 ⇒ x = 1 so A = (1, 0 ) .
1
x. − ( ln x ).1
dy x
(b) = by the Quotient Rule
dx x2
1 − ln x
=
x2

= 0 ⇒ ln x = 1 ⇒ x = e and B =  e,  .
dy 1
For a T.P.,
dx  e

x 2  −  − (1 − ln x )2x
1
d2y  x
= by the Quotient Rule
dx 2 x4
2 ln x − 3
=
x3
d2y 1
When x = e (at B), 2 = − 3 < 0 , and B is a maximum point.
dx e

d2y 3 3
(c) For a P. of I., 2 = 0 ⇒ ln x = ⇒ x = e 2 and
dx 2
 3 3 
C = e2 , 3  .
 2e 2 
ln x
(d) Now > 0 for all x > 1 , but as ex grows more quickly than
x
any polynomial in x, so ln x grows more slowly than any
polynomial, including a linear one (in this case, just x).
ln x
Thus → 0 as x → ∞ .
x
For 0 < x < 1 , the reverse is true: ln x → −∞ as x → 0 ; also
1 1
→ ∞ as x → 0 , so that ln x. → −∞ .
x x

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

The results are summarised below. y

As x → 0 + (i.e. from the positive side), y → −∞ (diagram 1) and as

0 x
x → ∞ , y → 0 + (diagram 2).
Diagram 2

The curve crosses the x-axis at A(1, 0), has a single turning point at
y

B  e,  ≈ ( 2. 72, 0.368)
1
 e

and a (non-horizontal) point of inflexion at 0 x

 3 3  Diagram 1
C  e 2 , 3  ≈ ( 4. 48, 0.335) .
 2e 2 
y
B

The sketch of the curve then looks like the one opposite. A x
0

Notice that no attempt has been made to impose a scale on the

graph, yet all essential features have been incorporated and fully
justified. This is what curve-sketching is all about.

Exercise 7A
1. Find the coordinates of the point of inflexion of 6. The diagram below shows the shape of the graph
the curve with equation y = x − x − x −15 .
3 2
of the function f, where f : x → xe x for real x.

1 y
2. A curve has equation y = x −1 + . Calculate
x +1
the coordinates of the turning points of the curve
and determine their nature.
3. Determine the coordinates of the points of
inflexion of the curve with equation y = sech x . 0 x
A
Sketch the curve y = sech x .
4. A curve has equation y = x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3x + 10 .
(a) Find the coordinates of the points at which Determine the coordinates of the stationary point
this curve meets the coordinate axes. A and hence write down the range of f.
(b) Find also the coordinates of the point of x −1 dy
7. A curve has equation y = . Find and
inflexion of the curve. Sketch the curve. x2 + 2 dx
5. Find the coordinates of the turning points of the hence find the coordinates of the turning point of
curve with equation y = x 2 e −3x , and determine the curve. Determine whether this turning point
their nature. Sketch the curve. is a maximum or a minimum.
8. Determine the coordinates and nature of the
turning point of the curve y = 5cosh x + sinh x .
Sketch the curve.

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

7.3 Asymptotes
In the example in Section 7.2, the crossing point, turning point and
point of inflexion were found and yet it was still not possible to do
more than guess about the complete behaviour of the curve of the
ln x
function .
x
y = tan x
In order to complete the picture, it was necessary to see what
happened near x = 0 ( on the positive side) and for very large
values of x. The 'limiting behaviour' of the function for such
values of x was made clear without having to resort to plotting
individual points. Such 'limiting behaviour' is called the
asymptotic behaviour of the function, or of its curve, as it −π π x
approaches, but in practice never quite reaches, a steady state:
usually a straight line which is call an asymptote of the curve.

The graph of y = tan x has vertical asymptotes at regular intervals

of π radians, occurring when Diagram 1

π π π y
x = K, − , , 3 , K (diagram 1 opposite).
2 2 2 1
y = tanh x
The graph of y = tanh x has horizontal asymptotes at

y = ±1 (diagram 2).
0 x
1
The graph of y = has one horizontal asymptote, y = 0 , and one
x
–1
vertical asymptote, x = 0 (diagram 3).
Diagram 2
Unless the asymptote approached by the curve coincides with one
of the coordinate axes, it should be drawn as a broken line. It is y
important to mark asymptotes on diagrams, if for no other reason
than to prevent your diagram going where it should not.

Vertical asymptotes are more easily spotted than others since they
0 x
are usually associated with values of x which cannot be input in
the given function, since it would become undefined.
Diagram 3

Example
Sketch the graphs of the following functions, and state the
equations of any asymptotes.

(a) y = ln ( x − 1) ( x > 1)
3
(b) y = ( x ≠ 2)
x−2
1
(c) y = ( x ≠ 1, x ≠ 4)
( x − 1)( x − 4)
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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Solution
y
(a) As x → 1+ (x approaches 1 from the positive side, i.e. from
above), ln ( x − 1) → −∞
0 1 2 x
For x ≤ 1 , ln ( x − 1) is undefined.
Then x = 1 is a vertical asymptote, and the graph is simply a
translation of y = ln x .
The crossing point occurs when x = 2 , since ln ( 2 − 1) = 0 .
3
(b) y = is not defined for x = 2 , since division by zero is
x−2
not permissible: the vertical asymptote is thus x = 2 .
3 y
Also, when x = 0, y = − , but y = 0 gives no values of x, so
2
the curve does not cross or touch the x-axis. However, as 10
x → ∞, y → 0 + and as x → −∞, y → 0 − , so the x-axis is also
an asymptote of the curve. –1.5 1 2 3 x
In fact, although this example is a simple case, it is not –10
always clear which side of the asymptote the curve is.
Here, as x → 2 + (x approaches 2 from above), y → +∞ , and
as x → 2−, y → −∞ .
[It is easy to check these results using any calculator by
choosing, say, x = 2.001 and x = 1.999 in turn.]

(c) y =
1 = 1 
( x − 1)( x − 4)  x 2 − 5x + 4 

so ( 0, 14 ) is the only crossing point

1
When x = 0, y =
4
here. As x → +∞, y → 0 + and as x → −∞, y → 0 + .
[Note that when x is very large (positively or negatively),
the '–5x' and the '4' become insignificant in comparison to
1
the x 2 and the curve is approximately 2 for large x . ]
x
Thus y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

x = 1 and x = 4 are vertical asymptotes, and

y
as x → 4 + , y → +∞ ;

as x → 4 − , y → −∞ ;

as x → 1+ , y → −∞ ;

as x → 1− , y → +∞ . 0 1 4 x

A preliminary sketch might look something like the diagram

opposite.

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

It is clear that, since the curve does not cross the x-axis between
x = 1 and x = 4 , there is a maximum point somewhere in this
interval. For the present, there is no suggestion that finding the
coordinates of this maximum is necessary (under exam conditions
never do more than is asked of you – there isn't time!) but a little
calculus would do the trick.

An alternative is to complete the square of x 2 − 5x + 4 by writing

2
it as  x −  −
5 9
which has a minimum at 5,− 9
so that its
 2  4 2 4 y

reciprocal has a maximum at  , −  .

5 4
2 9

The completed graph is shown opposite.

0 1 4 x

Example
Determine the equations of all the asymptotes of the curve with
equation
x2 − x − 6
y=
1 − x2
Find all the crossing points of the curve with the coordinate axes,
and sketch the curve.

Solution

x2 − x − 6
The function is called a rational function, being the
1 − x2
quotient of two polynomials. Such a 'fraction' is considered
proper if the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator.
In this example, the 'fraction' is improper (i.e. top heavy) and long
division can be undertaken as follows:

=
(
2
)
x2 − x − 6 − 1 − x − x − 5
= −1 −
x+5
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 − x2
x+5
(or −1 − )
(1 − x )(1 + x )

Now, clearly, x = 1 and x = −1 are vertical asymptotes of the curve.

As x → 1+, y → +∞ and as x → 1−, y → −∞

As x → −1+, y → −∞ and as x → −1−, y → +∞ .

x+5 x 1 x2 − x − 6 1
Also, for large x , ≈ = − so that ≈ −1 +
1− x 2
−x 2
x 1− x 2
x
for large values of x .

177
Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Then, as x → +∞, y → −1+

and as x → −∞, y → −1−

and y = −1 is a horizontal asymptote.

y
Next, when x = 0 , y = − 6 ;

and when y = 0 , x2 − x − 6 = 0

⇒ ( x − 3)( x + 2 ) = 0
⇒ x = −2, 3
–1–1 1 3 x
The curve looks like the one shown opposite.

Notice that the curve actually crosses the horizontal asymptote –6

before turning and approaching it again as x → −∞ . There is no
reason why this should not happen, but some students have
difficulty with the idea and think they have made a mistake
where the 'as x → −∞, y → −1− ' is concerned.

The other point to note is that the curve is clearly not symmetric
in any vertical axis: the point (0, –6) may well not be the turning
point. Calculus would be needed to determine the positions of
the maximum and minimum points sketched here.

Oblique asymptotes
x 2 − 5x + 11
Consider the curve with equation y = . This is
x+2
definitely a 'top heavy' algebraic fraction. Long division would
give
x 2 − 5x + 11 C
≡ Ax + B +
x+2 x+2

for some constants A, B and C.

x2
A is clearly 1 since the LHS here is essentially = 1. x and C
x
could be deduced by the Cover-up Method. This standard
'multiplying-through-and-substituting-values/composing-
coefficients' method can be used as an alternative to long-
division. Another alternative is the algebraic 'long-division'
manipulation method used in the last example:

x 2 − 5x + 11 x ( x + 2 ) − 7x + 11
≡
x+2 x+2

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

x ( x + 2 ) − 7( x + 2 ) + 25
≡
x+2

25
≡ x −7+
x+2

The curve here has vertical asymptote x = −2 (as x → −2 + ,

y → +∞ and as x → −2 −, y → −∞ ).

25
Now as x → +∞, → 0 + and y ≈ ( x − 7) + ,
x+2

25
while as x → −∞, → 0 − and y ≈ ( x − 7) − .
x+2

Thus the curve has no horizontal asymptote, but has the line
y = x − 7 . Such an asymptote is called oblique.

11
When x = 0, y = , y
2 30

and when y = 0 , x 2 − 5x + 11 = 0

5 ± −19
⇒ x=
2
and there are no crossing points on the x-axis. –10 –2 0 7 10 x
–7
The curve looks like the one shown opposite.

–30

Exercise 7B
1. For each of the following curves find the 2. Find the constants A, B and C such that
coordinates of any crossing points of the curve
x2 − 5 C
with the coordinate axes, and obtain the ≡ Ax + B +
equations of the asymptotes. x−2 x−2
Determine the equations of the two asymptotes
x2 + 2x − 3
(a) y = ( x ≠ −2 ) of the curve
x+2
x2 − 5
x −3 y=
(b) y = 2 ( x ≠ −3, x ≠ 1) x−2
x + 2x − 3
and show that the curve has no real turning
4
(c) y = x + 2 ( x ≠ 0 )
points. Sketch the graph of the curve.
x

x2
(d) y =
x +1
2

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

x2 + x
3. For x ≠ 1 , a curve is defined by the equation 5. A curve has equation y = . Find the
x −3
x+2
y= . Find coordinates of any crossing points of the curve
( x −1)2 with the coordinate axes, and any turning points
(a) the coordinates of the crossing points of this of the curve. Determine also the equations of the
curve with the axes; curve's asymptotes and sketch this curve.

(b) the coordinates of any turning points of the 4 − ax 2

6. Given that the curve y = has asymptotes
curve; b+x
(c) the equations of the asymptotes of the curve. x = −1 and y = 1 − x , find the values of a and b.
dy
x 2 + ax − 2a 2 Show that, at all points of the curve, is
4. The curve C has equation y = where dx
x+2 negative. Sketch the curve. (Cambridge)
a is a constant such that a ≠ 1 and a ≠ −2 .
7. A curve has equation y = − ln 1 − x 2 , x ≠ ±1 .
dy
(a) Find and deduce that if C has stationary Determine
dx
(a) the coordinates of the points where the curve
points then −2 < a < 1 .
crosses the axes;
(b) Find the equations of the asymptotes of C.
(b) the equations of the asymptotes of the curve.
(c) Draw a sketch of C for the case where
0 < a < 1.
(d) Draw a sketch of C for the case where
1< a < 2. (Cambridge)

7.4 Restricted regions

In an equation of the form y = f ( x ) , there are very often either
individual values of x, or whole ranges of values of x, which
cannot be used. Usually these are either immediately obvious,
or in most cases, explicitly excluded in the question, and present
little difficulty.

However, looking back at the final three curves in the examples

of Section 7.3, you will note that there are ranges of values of y
which cannot be obtained as output values from the function
concerned. They are restricted regions of the plane, or
'forbidden areas', where the function cannot go.

x 2 − 5x + 11
Take the example y = : in the region above the
x+2
maximum point and below the minimum point, there are no
values of y obtained by the function. One way to find this range
of values would involve sketching a graph of the whole curve;
noting that such a restricted region exists; then using calculus to
determine the positions of the two turning points.

180
 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

In cases like this, however, there is an alternative approach that

can be used to begin with which is based on the observations
relating to the solution of quadratic equations which led to the
study of complex numbers in Chapter 3.

The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has solutions

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

If these values of x are to be real, then the discriminant,

' b 2 − 4ac ', must be greater than or equal to 0.

Now
x 2 − 5x + 11
y=
x+2

⇒ ( x + 2 ) y = x 2 − 5x + 11
⇒ 0 = x 2 − (5 + y ) x + (11 − 2y )

For real values of x,

(5 + y )2 − 4.1. (11 − 2y ) ≥ 0 ( a = 1 , b = − (5 + y ) , c = 11 − 2y )

⇒ y 2 + 10y + 25 − 44 + 8y ≥ 0

f (y)
⇒ y 2 + 18y − 19 ≥ 0

⇒ ( y + 19)( y − 1) ≥ 0 –19 0 1 y

⇒ (see graph) y ≤ −19 or y ≥ 1

Hence, the restricted region in this case is −19 < y < 1, and the
curve in question does not enter this mathematical 'no-go area'.

A bonus of this method is that –19 and 1 must be coordinates of

the turning points of the curve.

y = −19 ⇒ 0 = x 2 + 14x + 49 = ( x + 7) ⇒ x = −7 .
2

y = 1 ⇒ 0 = x 2 − 6x + 9 = ( x − 3) ⇒ x = 3 .
2

The curve then has a maximum point at (–7, –19) and a

minimum point at (3, 1), and there are no values of y between –
19 and 1.

In both cases above, the value of y gave rise to a quadratic

equation in x which had double roots. Explain why this is so.

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Example
For the curve whose equation is

4 1
y= −
( x − 4) x −1

find the equations of the three asymptotes. Determine the set of

values of y for which no part of the curve exists and deduce the
coordinates of the turning points of the curve. Sketch the curve.

Solution
4 1 3x 3x
Note, first, that y = − = or 2
x − 4 x − 1 ( x − 4 )( x − 1) x − 5x + 4

The vertical asymptotes are x = 1 and x = 4 .

[As x → 1+, y → −∞; x → 1−, y → +∞ . As x → 4 +, y → +∞ ; as

x → 4 −, y → −∞ .]

Next, as x → ∞, y → 0 + and as x → −∞, y → 0 − so that y = 0 is a

horizontal asymptote.

y=
3x
x − 5x + 4
2 ( )
⇒ x 2 − 5x + 4 y = 3x ⇒ yx 2 − (5y + 3) x + 4y = 0

For real values of x,

(5y + 3)2 − 4. y. 4y ≥ 0 ⇒ 25y2 + 30y + 9 − 16y2 ≥ 0

⇒ 3y2 + 10y + 3 ≥ 0 f (y)

⇒ (3y + 1)( y + 3) ≥ 0
1
⇒ y ≤ −3, y ≥ −
3 –3 0 y
1
and the curve takes no values of y such that −3 < y < − .
3

When y = −3, − 3x 2 + 12x − 12 = 0 ⇒ x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0 ⇒ ( x − 2 ) = 0 ⇒ x = 2

2

1 1 4 4
When y = − , − x 2 − x − = 0 ⇒ x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0 ⇒ ( x + 2 ) = 0 ⇒ x = −2
2
3 3 3 3

The turning points are then

a maximum at (2, −3 ) and a minimum at ( −2 , − 13 ).

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

y
When x = 0 , y = 0 and vice versa, so there is only one crossing
point.

The curve looks like the one opposite.

–2 0 1 2 3 4 x

–3

Exercise 7C
( x − 1)2
1. A curve has equation y = . Show that (c) the shape of the curve for large values
x+2
of x .
there are no values of x for which − 12 < y < 0 .

2 + 10 x − x 2 x 2 + 3x + 9
2. Given that y = , find the range(s) of 6. A curve has equation y = . Find the
1+ x2 x2 − 2x + 2
possible values of y. range of values of y which exist for real x.
Deduce the coordinates of the turning points of
3. Find the set of values of k for which the equation the curve and sketch the curve.
2 x 2 + 4 x + 5 = kx has no real roots.
( x − 2 )2
4. Determine the possible values of y in the 7. Given that x is real and y = , show that
following cases: x2 + 4
0 ≤ y ≤ 2 . Hence write down the coordinates of
3 − x2 x+2
(a) y = (b) y = the two stationary points on the curve with
x+2 3 − x2
equation y =
( x − 2)2 . Sketch the curve showing
4x − 3 x +4 2
5. Given that x is real, show that −4 ≤ ≤1
x2 +1 clearly how the curve approaches its asymptote.
4x − 3 With the aid of your sketch, explain why the
Sketch the curve with equation y =
( )
,
x2 +1 equation x x 2 + 4 = ( x − 2 ) has only one real
2

showing clearly on your sketch root.

(a) the coordinates of the points where the curve
crosses the coordinate axes;
(b) the coordinates of the maximum and
minimum point;

7.5 Symmetry
In Chapter 4 of Pure Mathematics, you encountered a number of
transformational symmetries using functions.

The results you should be aware of are as follows:

Given the graph of function y = f ( x ) , and a non-zero constant a,

(i) the graph of y = f ( x ) + a is a translation of y = f ( x ) ,

 0
parallel to the y-axis of   ;
 a

(ii) the graph of y = f ( x + a ) is a translation of y = f ( x )

 −a
parallel to the x-axis of   ;
 0

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

(iii) the graph of y = a f ( x ) is a stretch of y = f ( x ) , parallel

to the y-axis, by a scale factor of a;
(iv) the graph of y = f ( ax ) is a stretch of y = f ( x ) , parallel
1
to the x-axis, by a scale factor of .
a
Two results, in particular, were noted:
y = f ( − x ) is a reflection of y = f ( x ) in the y-axis

and y = − f ( x ) is a reflection of y = f ( x ) in the x-axis.

It is these final two results which will be developed further in

this section.

Activity 3
Using a graph-plotting facility, draw the graphs of y = f ( x ) in
each of the following cases. For each example, plot on the same
diagram the graph of y = f ( − x ) , and comment on the type of
symmetry (if any) relating f ( x ) to f ( − x ) .

1. f (x) = x2 2. f ( x ) = 2x 3 3. f ( x ) = x 5 − 4x
7
4. f ( x ) = x 4 + 2x 2 − 1 5. f ( x ) = x − 6. f ( x ) = 2 sin 3x
x
7. f ( x ) = 2 cos 2x + 1 8. f ( x ) = tan 2x 9. f ( x ) = cosh 12 x

10. f ( x ) = tanh x 11. f ( x ) = x 2 + sin x

12. f ( x ) = sec x + tan x

In Activity 3, you should have noted that the functions in 1, 4,

7, 9 exhibited reflection symmetry in the y-axis; while those in
2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 10 exhibited two-fold, (i.e.180° ) rotational
symmetry about the origin.
Use the series from Chapter 6, if necessary, to explain why
the above results turned out to be as they did.

Check your ideas for the functions in 11 and 12, which failed to
exhibit either type of symmetry.

Odd and even functions

A function f is said to be an even function if and only if

f (− x ) = f ( x )

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

for all x in the domain of f. Such a function has reflection

symmetry in the y-axis.

A function f is said to be an odd function if and only if

f (− x ) = − f ( x )

for all x in the domain of f. Such a function has (two-fold)

rotational symmetry about the origin.

Example
Determine whether the following functions are odd, even or
neither:

(a) f ( x ) = sin x cos x ; (b) g( x ) = sin x cos x + 1

1
(c) h( x ) = x 2 − + 4; (d) i( x ) = x tan x
x

Solution
(a) f ( − x ) = sin( − x ) cos( − x )
= − sin x.cos x [ sin( − x ) = − sin x and cos( − x ) = cos x ]
= − (sin x cos x )

= − f (x)
and f is an odd function.
Alternatively: f ( x ) = 12 sin 2x so
f ( − x ) = 12 sin( −2x ) = − 12 sin 2x = − f ( x ) .
(b) g( − x ) = − sin x cos x + 1, and g is neither odd nor even.
1 1
(c) h( − x ) = ( − x ) − + 4 = x 2 + + 4 , and h is neither odd
2
(− x ) x
nor even.
(d) i( − x ) = ( − x ) tan ( − x ) = − x. − tan x = x tan x = i( x ) , and i is an
even function.

Two immediate consequences

a a
For an even function f, ∫ −a
f ( x ) dx = 2 ∫
0
f ( x ) dx since the area
under the curve (and above the x-axis) from –a to 0 is equal to
the area under the curve from 0 to a.
a
For an odd function f, ∫
−a
f ( x ) dx = 0 since the area on one side
of the y-axis has area of equal magnitude to that on the other
side, but of opposite sign.

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Exercise 7D
x
1. Determine whether the following functions are Show that is an odd function, and hence
odd or even or neither: 1+ x2
sketch the graph of this curve for all real values
(a) f ( x ) = 2 x 2 − 3 (b) f ( x ) = sin 2 x of x.
sin x
tan x 3. The function g is given by g( x ) = . By
(c) f ( x ) = ( x ≠ 0 ) (d) f ( x ) = sinh x − x cosh x x
x
considering the Maclaurin series of sin x , or
(e) f ( x ) = x ( )
(f) f ( x ) = cos x 3
otherwise, show that xlim {g( x )} = 1 . Prove that
→0

(g) f ( x ) = 5 x (h) f ( x ) =
x
( x ≠ 0) the graph of y = g( x ) is symmetric in the y-axis.
Sketch the graph of y = g( x ) for − 3 π ≤ x ≤ 3 π .
x

(i) f ( x ) = ln x ( x ≠ 0) . 4. The function f is a polynomial of degree four

(quartic). Functions g and h are defined by
2. For x ≥ 0 , find the coordinates of the stationary
point, the point of inflexion and any crossing g ( x ) = f ( x ) + f ( −x ) , h ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( −x ) .
x Show that g is an even function and h is an odd
point on the axes of the curve of y = .
1+ x2 function.

7.6 Associated graphs

Activity 4
You will need to use a graph-plotting facility in this activity.

Choose a function; call it y = f ( x ) . Draw the graph of this

function.

What do you think the graphs of

1
(a) y = (b) y = f ( x ) (c) y 2 = f ( x )
f (x)
will look like? Try and decide before you draw them.
Now try a linear function, a quadratic function, a rational
function, log functions, exponential functions, trigonometric or
hyperbolic functions; a function of your own devising.

Decide how you would answer the following questions:

what happens to the zeros of a function?

what happens to asymptotes?
what about restricted regions?

Write out your conclusions in detail.

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Example
x(4 − x )
Sketch the curve of y =
4+x

x(4 − x )
Hence draw the curve of y 2 =
4+x

Solution
x ( 4 − x ) − x ( x + 4 ) + 8x − x ( x + 4 ) + 8( x + 4 ) − 32
≡ ≡
4+x x+4 x+4

32
≡ −x + 8 −
x+4

x(4 − x )
Then y = has a vertical asymptote x = −4 and an
4+x
oblique y

asymptote y = − x + 8 .

When x = 0, y = 0 and when y = 0, x = 0 or 4,

so there are crossing points at (0, 0) and (4, 0).
y=–x+8
x(4 − x )
The graph of y = is shown opposite. –2 0 4 x
4+x
x(4 − x )
What about the graph of y 2 = ?
4+x
Firstly, y 2 ≥ 0 for real values of y, so that

x(4 − x )
≥ 0. y
4+x

From the above graph, it can be seen that

x(4 − x )
is only ≥ 0 for x < −4 and 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 .
4+x

The regions of the plane represented by

−4 ≤ x < 0 and x ≥ 4 are thus restricted regions.

Also, for those values of x for which real values –4 0 4 8 x

x(4 − x )
of y exist, y = ± , and the curve is
4+x
necessarily symmetric in the x-axis.

Finally, the curve looks like the one shown

opposite.

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

It is worth noting that vertical asymptotes remain unchanged;

horizontal asymptotes would become pairs of horizontal
asymptotes such that, for example, the asymptote
y = a for y = f ( x ) would give rise to y = ± a for y2 = f ( x )
provided that a ≥ 0 . An oblique asymptote such as y = 8 − x
here would give rise to a curved asymptote y 2 = 8 − x , which is
the parabola indicated on the diagram. 0 4

Another minor, but common, oversight amongst students is to

draw the closed curve portion for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 with 'pointed' end
points on the x-axis, as shown in the diagrams opposite. instead of

In the next chapter you will learn how to differentiate functions

x(4 − x ) 0 4
such as y 2 = implicitly to get (in this instance)
4+x

dy 16 − 8x − x 2
2y =
dx ( 4 + x )2

dy 16 − 8x − x 2
so that =
2y( 4 + x )
2
dx

where y = 0 gives an infinite gradient.

Example
Sketch the graph of y = f ( x ) , where f ( x ) = ( 2x − 1)( 2x + 1) .
Hence draw, on separate axes, the graphs of y = f ( x ) ,
1
y 2 = f ( x ) and y = .
f (x)
y
Solution
The first part is easy: f ( x ) is a quadratic with crossing points on
the axes at ( 12 , 0), ( − 12 , 0) and (0, − 1) with the graph shown
opposite. – 0.5 0 0.5 x
–1
Now the modulus function x changes only the sign of x if it is
negative, and leaves x unchanged if x ≥ 0 .

The graph of y = f ( x ) then simply converts any negative part

of the graph into its positive reflection.

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Thus y = (2x − 1)( 2x + 1) looks like diagram 1 opposite. y

Note here (for example) that at x = − 12 , the 'turning point' is not

dy
a smooth one ( ≠ 0 for instance), so do not be tempted to
dx – 0.5 0 0.5 x
round it off as shown in diagram 2. –1

For y 2 = ( 2x − 1)( 2x + 1) , the key points are Diagram 1

(i) the graph is symmetric in the x-axis;

(ii) no values of x can be taken for which y 2 < 0 ;
(iii) the curve crosses the x-axis vertically. Diagram 2

The gradient of the curve of y 2 = f ( x ) will in general differ

y

from that of y = f ( x ) at corresponding points of the curves, but

a sketch is not intended to display such fine detail.

1
compared to y = f ( x ) , it should be obvious that
– 0.5 0 0.5 x
For y =
f (x)

1
as y → +∞ in y = f ( x ), y → 0 + in y = ;
f (x)

1
as y → −∞ in y = f ( x ), y → 0 − in y = ;
f (x)

1
as y → 0 + in y = f ( x ), y → +∞ in y = ; and
f (x)

1
as y → 0 − in y = f ( x ), y → −∞ in y = .
f (x)

1
Thus vertical asymptotes of f ( x ) become zeros of , and
f (x)
1
zeros of f ( x ) give rise to vertical asymptotes of .
f (x)
y

1
Then y = has the graph as shown on the right.
( 2x − 1)(2x + 1) 0
– 0.5 –1 0.5 x

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Exercise 7E
In Questions 1 − 4 you are given the graph of 5. The diagram shows the graph of y = g( x ) where
y = f ( x ) . In each case draw the graph of the
x−2
associated function(s) stated. g( x ) = . Draw the graphs of
y x
1. y
x2 − 4
(a) y =
x2

x−2 1
–1 0 1 x (b) y =
x 0 2 x
–1
x2 − 4
(c) y = .
x2
Draw the graph of y 2 = f ( x ) .
x
2. 6. Show that f ( x ) = is an odd function.
1+ x2
y
Determine the coordinates of the turning points
on the graph of y = f ( x ) . Sketch the curves of
y = f ( x ) and y 2 = f ( x ) .
2 4 x 7. For −2 π ≤ x ≤ 2 π , sketch the graph of y = cos x .
–1
–2 Hence draw the graph of y = sec x .
8. Sketch the graphs of the curves with equations
(a) y = x 4 (1 − x ) (b) y 2 = x 4 (1 − x )

Draw the graph of y = f ( x ) . (c) y = x 4 (1 − x ) .

3. y Find the coordinates of the turning points of the
curve (b).
9. Sketch the graph of the curve with equation
y = f ( x ) , where f ( x ) = x 3 − x . Hence draw the
graphs of
–1 0 3 x
1
(a) y = (b) y = f ( x ) .
f (x)

10. Sketch the graph of y = ( x + 1)( 3x + 1) . Sketch

Draw the graphs of
also the graph of y 2 = ( x + 1)( 3x + 1) and state the
(a) y = f ( x ) (b) y 2 = f ( x ) . equations of its asymptotes.
x+2
4. y 11. The graph of the function y = is given.
x+5
y

–5 0 5 x

0 x

Determine
Draw the graphs of (a) the equations of the asymptotes of this curve;
(a) y = f ( x ) (b) y = f ( x ) 2
(b) the coordinates of the crossing points with
the axes.
1 x+2
(c) y = . Sketch the curve of y 2 = .
f (x) x+5

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

12. Sketch the graph of the curve with equation

y = x ( x − 4 ) . Determine the coordinates of that
2

turning point of the curve which does not lie on

the x-axis. Sketch the graph of y 2 = x ( x − 4) and
2

deduce the range of values of the real number k

such that x ( x − 4 ) = k 2 has exactly one real root.
2

7.7 Parametric forms

In many cases, the variables x and y are both dependent upon a
third variable or parameter. If you have done any Mechanics,
you will know that this extra variable is very often time. In
other instances the parameter may be some angle, θ (say). In
this way, a function may not appear in the form y = f ( x ) ; but
rather each of the x– and y– components are given as functions
of the parameter;

e.g. x = f (t ), y = g(t )

Note: t does not have to indicate time.

Elimination
If you are asked to draw the curve of a function given
parametrically (in terms of t, say) the most natural thing to do is
to get back to an equation involving only x's and y's; its
cartesian equation. This process, not unsurprisingly, is called
elimination.

Example
A curve is defined parametrically by the equations

1
x = t2, y = (t ≠ 0 ) .
t

Sketch the curve.

Solution y

1 1  1 1
Now y = ⇒ t = ⇒ x =  2  or y 2 = .
t y y  x
0 x

1
The graph of y = (shown opposite ) is well known.
x

191
Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

y
1
and the graph of y 2 = can then be deduced as shown.
x

However, there are difficulties that could arise, as you will see in
0 x
the example below. You should be aware of these problems.

Example
A curve is defined parametrically by the equations x = 2t 2 , y = t 4 ,
where t is a parameter. Determine the cartesian equation of this
curve. Sketch the curve.

Solution
x = 2t 2 ⇒ x 2 = 4t 4 ⇒ x 2 = 4y ,

so that the cartesian equation is y

x2
y= .
4

This is a parabola, with graph shown opposite.

0 x
y
But wait! t = 0 ⇒ x = 0 and y = 0 .

Otherwise, x > 0 and y > 0 so the graph should be only the

right-hand 'half' of the one drawn above.

0 x
The elimination process is not always as straightforward as this.

Example
The parametric representation of a curve C is

x = 3cos θ + cos3θ , y = 3sin θ − sin 3θ .

Determine the cartesian equation of C.

Solution
The identities cos 3θ ≡ 4 cos3 θ − 3cos θ and
sin 3θ ≡ 3sin θ − 4 sin 3 θ are easily established. Thus

x = 4 cos3 θ and y = 4sin3θ

1 1

cos θ =   and sin θ =   .

x 3 y 3
or
 4  4

192
 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

To eliminate θ , use the well known identity cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1 to

get
2 2
 x 3 +  y 3 = 1
 4  4

Exercise 7F
Eliminate the parameter in each of the following sets
of parametric equations in order to find the cartesian
equation of the curve they represent.

(t ≥ 0 ) ( )
3
1. x = 2t 2 , y = 3t 7. x = 2t 2 , y = t 1 − t 2

t t2 8. x = asin θ cos2 θ , y = asin 2 θ cos θ

2. x= 3 , y=
1+ t 1 + t3
y
[Hint: and x y ]
y x
[Hint: ]
x
 1 + t2  2bt
3. x = cosh θ , y = sinh θ 9. x = a  , y=
 1 − t2  1 − t2
4. x = cost, y = tan t
1
[Hint: t = tan θ ]
5. x = t 3 − 3t + 2 , y = 3 t 2 −1 ( ) 2
10. x = 2 cos θ + 3cos2 θ ,
( )
[Hint: x = t t − 3 + 2 and t 2 = ... ]
2

y = 2sin θ + 3sin 2 θ
2
6. x = , y = 3et [Hint: simultaneous equations]
cosh t

A perfectly natural question to ask

If it is possible to eliminate the parameter and derive the
cartesian equation of a curve, why have curves defined
parametrically in the first place? To put it another way,
what extra information can you deduce from the parametric
form of an equation that cannot be found in the cartesian
equation?
Note: it is not always possible to eliminate the parameter. Even
when it is, as you will have seen in Exercise 7F, the cartesian
equation may be of a form that does not easily lend itself to
analysis.

It is easy, conceptually, to think of the parameter t as

representing time: then, for any value of t, the parametric
equations give the coordinates (x, y) of a point which is in
motion as t varies. The parametric equations then indicate how
that point is moving along the curve in question.

Consider the parametric equations

x = cost , y = sin t for 0 ≤ t < 2 π .

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Using the identity cos2 t + sin2 t = 1, the curve is seen to be

x 2 + y2 = 1 ,

which is a circle, centre the origin and radius 1.

Next, consider the equations

x = sin t , y = cost for 0 ≤ t < 2 π .

Again, sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 gives the circle x 2 + y2 = 1.

What is the difference?

As t increases from 0 to 2 π , choose some easy values of t to

work with.
π 3π
t=0 t= t=π t= ....
2 2

x = cost , y = sin t (1, 0) (0, 1) (–1, 0) (0, –1) ...

x = sin t , y = cost (0, 1) (1, 0) (0, –1) (–1, 0) ... y

1

Start
In the first case you will see that as t increases from 0 to 2 π , the
point (x, y) moves around the circle in an anticlockwise –1 0 1 x
direction, starting from the point (1, 0).

–1

y Start

In the second case, however, the same circle is traversed, but

this time in a clockwise direction, starting from (0, 1). –1 0 1 x

–1
Although it is helpful for you to be aware of this aspect of
parametrisation, it is most unlikely that you will be required to
employ such notions in a Pure Mathematics examination.

194
 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

dy d2y
7.8 and from the
dx d x2
parametric form
When a curve is given in the explicit form y = f ( x ), it is easy to
dy d2y
find and by direct differentiation. At your disposal you
dx d x2
have the product rule, the quotient rule and the Chain Rule for
complicated functions, f. Do not worry if you have not heard the
term 'Chain Rule' before, it is simply a statement of the rule for
differentiating composite functions, and it is summed up by

dy dy dt dy dx
= . or
dx dt dx dt dt

Although d x, d y, dt, du, dv, d z, ... do not actually make sense

by themselves, they do behave in the same way algebraically as
genuinely finite variables, and can be thought of as cancelling: so
dy dy dt
= . because the dt 's 'cancel'.
dx dt dx

[Note that higher derivatives do not cancel in this way:

d 2y d 2y d 2t
2
≠ 2 .
dx dt d x2
Indeed one reson for writing the '2' in different places in the
numerator and denominator of the higher-order derivatives is to
avoid the temptation to cancel in this way.]

Given a curve in parametric form

x = f ( t ) , y = g( t ) ,

the Chain Rule gives

g (t )
= ′
dy dy dx
=
dx dt dt f ′(t )

which, in general, will be a function of t and not of x. This is

d2y
crucial in finding in any form.
d x2

195
Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Example
Given the curve with parametric representation

x = 4 cos3 t , y = 4 sin3 t

dy d2y 1
find in terms of t and show that 2 = cosect sec4t .
dx dx 12

Solution
dx
= 4.3cos2 t. ( − sin t ) = −12 sin t cos2 t
dt

dy
and = 4.3sin2 t.cos t = 12 sin2 t cos t.
dt

Then
d y dy dx 12 sin2 t cos t
= = = − tan t
d x dt dt −12 sin t cos2 t

dy
Now, as is a function of t, it is no good trying to
dx
differentiate it as if it were a function of x, since
d2y d  dy dy
=   . The next part is easier to understand if is
dx 2
dx  dx dx
assigned a label, say m.

d2y d m d m dt dm d x
Then 2
= = . or by the Chain Rule.
dx dx dt d x dt dt

 dy dm
Since m  =  is a function of t, presents no problem (in
 dx dt
dx
principle, that is) and has already been found.
dt

To continue:

d 2y d  dy d  dy d t
=   =  .
d x2 d x  d x  d t  d x  d x
d 1
= ( − tan t ) .
dt −12 sin t cos2 t
1
= − sec2 t .
−12 sin t cos2 t
1
= cosect sec4 t
12

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Example
The curve C has parametric form

( )
x = t 3 − 3t + 2, y = 3 t 2 − 1 .

dy d2y
Find and as functions of t. Hence show that C has a
dx d x2
turning point at the point (2, –3) and determine its nature.

[Look back at your answer to Exercise 7F, Question 5, for the

equivalent cartesian form of C. After working through Chapter 8
you should be able to differentiate this equation implicitly, but for
now the parametric approach is a big advantage in this respect.]

Solution
Firstly, the point (2, –3) occurs when t = 0.

dx dy
= 3t 2 − 3 and = 6t
dt dt

so that

dy 6t 2t
= =
d x 3t 2 − 3 t 2 − 1

dy
When t = 0, = 0 so the curve C has a stationary value
dx
at (2, –3).

Next,

d2y d  d y  dt  (t − 1).2 − 2t.2t  −2(1 + t2 )

2
1
=   . =   . =
d x2 dt  d x  d x 
 (t2 − 1)  3(t2 − 1) 3(t2 − 1)3
2

d2y 2
and when t = 0, = > 0 and (2, –3) is a minimum point.
d x2 3

7.9 Conic sections

There is a family or curves which are known collectively as conic
sections.
[The interested reader might like to find out why.]
These are the circle, the ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola.
Although a general treatment of these, and the coordinate geometry

197
Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

associated with them, is not required here, they are worth looking
at in some detail as their parametric forms are easy to work with
and widely used.

The circle
y
The circle, centre the origin and radius r has cartesian equation r
P (x, y)
x 2 + y2 = r 2

and parametric representation –r 0 r x

x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ
–r
The circle, centre (a, b) and radius r has cartesian equation

( x − a )2 + ( y − b )2 = r2

and parametric representation

x = a + r cos θ , y = b + r sin θ

The ellipse
An ellipse can be considered as a circle, stretched parallel to its
two axes by different scale factors, say by a parallel to the x-axis,
and by b parallel to the y-axis. y
b
The cartesian equation is then

–a 0 a x
x 2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2 –b

x 2 y2
(compare with + = 1 for the circle when a = b = r ), and the
r2 r2
parametric representation is

x = a cos θ , y = b sin θ .

The parabola
The parabola for which the x-axis is the central axis has cartesian
equation y

y2 = 4ax ( a > 0 )

and parametric form 0 x

x = at 2 , y = 2at

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

The hyperbola
y
The hyperbola has cartesian equation

x 2 y2
− =1
a2 b2 –a 0 a x
and parametric representation

x = a cosh θ , y = b sinh θ .

x2 y2
Note that, for large x and y , ≈ so the hyperbola has a
a2 b2
pair of oblique asymptotes

b
y=± x.
a

The rectangular hyperbola

When the two asymptotes of the hyperbola ar

e perpendicular to each other, the curve is called a rectangular y

hyperbola. An example which you have encountered before is
the curve of
c2
y= (c ≠ 0) 0 x
x
which has the parametric form
c
x = c t, y = for t ≠ 0.
t
A rotation of the axis about the origin will transform this graph
into a standard hyperbola.

Exercise 7G
1. Sketch the curve defined parametrically by 3. Given
x = t − 2, y = t .
2
x = θ + sin θ , y = 1 − cos θ (0 ≤ θ < 2 π )
2. In each of the following cases, determine show that
dy 1
dy d2y = tan θ .
and as functions of t. dx 2
dx d x2
Simplify your answers as much as possible. Sketch the curve represented by these parametric
equations and state the line of symmetry.
(t ≥ 0 )
3
(a) x = 2t 2 , y = 3t 4. By completing the square, determine the
t t coordinates of the centre, and the radius, of each
(b) x = , y= ( t ≠ −1) of the circles with equations
1+ t3 1+ t3
(c) x = 1 + t 2 , y = sinh −1 t (a) x 2 + y2 + 4 x − 6 y = 12

(d) x = a cosh θ , y = bsinh θ (b) x 2 + y2 + 2 x − 6 y − 26 = 0

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

5. Show that the parametric equations

1 1
x 2 − y2 = 4. x = t + , y = t − (t ≠ 0 )
t t
are a representation of the hyperbola with
cartesian equation
x 2 − y2 = 4.

7.10 Applications
In Chapter 8 of Pure Mathematics, you worked with the
following results relating to a curve with equation y = f ( x ).

dy
The derived function, or derivative, = f ′( x ), gives the
dx
gradient of the curve at any point, and also the gradient of
the tangent to the curve at each point.
The normal to a curve at any point is the line through that
point which is perpendicular to the curve ( and hence also
perpendicular to its tangent).
You will do some further work in these areas.

Another application of the work on parameters (in particular) is

in finding the locus of points (i.e. the curves traced out by these
points) under certain controlling conditions.

The final area of application is in noting the existence, or

number, of roots to a given equation f ( x ) = 0, say. If this
equation is rewritten as

g( x ) = h( x ) for two functions g and h,

and the graphs of y = g( x ) and y = h( x ) are drawn, then the

points of intersection represent the roots of f ( x ) = 0. This
method will only be used in simple cases.

Example
Show that the parametric form

x = 5 cos θ , y = 4 sin θ
is a representation of the ellipse with equation

16x 2 + 25y2 = 400.

Sketch the ellipse and mark on it the coordinates of the points

where the ellipse crosses the coordinate axes.

200
 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

The point P  3,
16 
lies on the ellipse. Find the equation of
 5
both the tangent and the normal to the ellipse at P.

This tangent meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B, while the
normal meets the x-axis at C and the y-axis at D. Determine the
coordinates of A, B, C and D.

Solution
16x 2 + 25y2 = 16(25 cos2 θ ) + 25(16 sin2 θ ) = 400( cos2 θ + sin2 θ ) = 400

since cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1. Thus x = 5 cos θ , y = 4 sin θ Normal

y
parametrises the ellipse.
4 P

3 4 4 Tangent
When cos θ = , sinθ = (i. e. tan θ = , θ ≈ 53.13° )
5 5 3
–5 0 5 x

x = 5 cos θ , y = 4 sin θ gives the point P  3,

16 
.
 5 –4
dx dy
Now = −5sin θ and = 4 cos θ ,
dθ dθ

dy 4 cos θ
so =−
dx 5sin θ

4. 35
=−
5. 45
3
=− at the point P.
5
3
The gradient of the tangent at P is − and the gradient of the
5
5
normal is (since their product is −1 ).
3

The equation of the tangent is then

16 3
y− = − ( x − 3)
5 5

or 5y + 3x = 25

and the equation of the normal is

16 5
y− = ( x − 3)
5 3

or 15y = 25x − 27

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

This tangent cuts the coordinate axes at A  , 0 and B( 0, 5)

25
 3 
while the normal cuts the coordinate axes at

C , 0 and D 0, −  .
27 9
 25   5

Example
A rod of length a is initially at rest standing vertically on the y-
axis, with its lower end at the origin. The rod is then moved so
that its top end remains on the y-axis, with the lower end moving
along the positive x-axis, until it comes to rest horizontally (see
diagrams below).
y y y y
a a a a

0 a x 0 a x 0 a x 0 a x

The midpoint of the rod is M. What path does M trace out

(i.e. what is the locus of M) during this motion?

Solution
At any point of the motion, let the coordinates of the end on the
x-axis be (p, 0) and those of the end on the y-axis be (0, q),
where 0 ≤ p, q ≤ a.

Then M has coordinates

 p , q , i.e. x =
p
, y=
q
 2 2 2 2

By Pythagoras' theorem

p2 + q2 = a2

⇒ (2x )2 + (2y )2 = a2

2
x 2 + y2 =  
a
⇒
 2

a
which is the equation of a circle, centre the origin and radius .
2
M traces out a quarter of this circle as this motion takes place.

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Example

The point P  ct,  lies on the rectangular hypobola x y = c2 .

c
 t

Show that the normal to the curve at P has equation

t3x − t y = c(t 4 − 1) .

The tangent at P cuts the x-axis at X, and the normal at P cuts

the y-axis at Y. Show that the locus of M, the midpoint of XY,
has cartesian equation

c4 − x 4
y=
2c2 x

Sketch the graph of this locus, stating clearly the coordinates of

the points where it crosses the x-axis.

Solution
The parametric equations of the hyperbola are

c
x = ct , y =
t

Thus

dx dy c dy 1
= c and =− 2 ⇒ =− 2
dt dt t dx t

1
So the tangent has gradient − , and the normal has gradient t 2.
t2

The equation of the normal is

ct 4 − c = t 3 x − t y

⇒ ct 4 − c = t 3 x − t y

⇒ ct 4 − c = t 3 x − t y i.e. t3x − t y = c(t 4 − 1)


This normal cuts the y-axis when x = 0 ⇒ Y =  0 , −
c t4 −1  ( )

 t 

The equation of the tangent is

c 1
y− = − 2 ( x − ct )
t t

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

⇒ t 2 y − ct = −( x − ct )

⇒ t 2 y + x = 2ct

which cuts the x-axis when y = 0 ⇒ X = ( 2ct, 0 )

The midpoint of XY is M, with coordinates

 0 + − (t 4 − 1) 
c
 2ct + 0 , t 
 2 2 
 

=  ct , − (t 4 − 1) .
c
 2t 

This is a parametric form for M with equations

x = ct , y = − (t 4 − 1)
c
2t

x c  x4 
t= ⇒ y= −  − 1
x  4 
c 2  c
 c
c2  x4 − c4 
⇒ y= −  
2x  c4 
c4 − x4
i. e. y= , as required.
2c2x

c4 − x 4
For y = , the line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical
2c2 x
asymptote, since,

x → 0 +, y → +∞ and as x → 0 −, y → −∞ .

Also, as x → +∞, y → −∞ and as x → −∞, y → +∞

When y = 0,

( )(
c 4 − x 4 = 0 ⇒ c2 − x 2 c2 + x 2 = 0 )
( )
⇒ ( c − x )( c + x ) c 2 + x 2 = 0 y

⇒ x = c or − c [x 2 ≠ −c 2 ]

–c 0 c x
The graph then looks like the one opposite.

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 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

Exercise 7H
1. A curve has equation y = ( 5 − 3x ) . Find the
−2
7. The curve with equation y2 = 4 x has parametric
equation of the tangent to the curve at the point representation x = t 2 , y = 2t. Prove that the
 1, 1  .
 4 ( )
normal at t 2 , 2t to the curve has equation

2 3x − 1 y + t x = 2t + t 3 .
2. A curve has equation y = + .
2 − x x2 + 1
The normals at A  , − 1 and B( 4, 4 ) to the
1
Determine the equation of the normal to the 4 
curve at the point (1, 3). curve meet at the point N. Determine the
3. The points P and Q lie on the curve with coordinates of N.
1 8. Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse
equation y = . At P, x = 1, and at Q,
1 + x2 x2
x = 1 + h. + y2 = 1 at the point ( 4 cost, sin t ) . This
16
Prove that the chord PQ has gradient tangent cuts the coordinate axes at Q and R, and
−(2 + h) the midpoint of QR is M. Show that the locus of
2 ( 2 + 2h + h2 )
and hence determine the equation M has cartesian equation
16 1
of the tangent at P. + =4.
x 2 y2
3tan x
4. The tangent to the curve y = at the point 9. A parabola has parametric coordinates
1 + sin x
π x = 3 p 2 , y = 6 p.
on the curve where x = cuts the x-axis at the
6 Determine the cartesian equation of this curve.
point T. Show that the equation of the normal to this
Prove that the distance OT =
1
6
( )
2 3 − π , where parabola at the point P ( 3 p2 , 6 p ) is
O is the origin. y + p x = 6 p + 3 p3 .
5. Prove that the tangent at P(4, 4) to the curve
Find the point of intersection R of the normal at
P and the normal at Q ( 3q2 , 6q ). Given that the
x2
y= has equation 2 x − y − 4 = 0.
4
straight line through P and Q passes through the
This tangent meets the line 4 x + 3y − 12 = 0 at the
point (–6, 0) show that pq = 2 and deduce that R
point Q. Calculate the coordinates of Q.
lies on the parabola.
x2
The normal at P to y = meets 4 x + 3y −12 = 0 10. Sketch the curve defined parametrically by
4
at the point R. Calculate the coordinates of R. x = 2 + t 2 , y = 4t.
6. A curve has parametric equations Write down the equation of the straight line with
gradient m passing through the point (1, 0).
x = e θ cos θ , y = e θ sin θ . Show that this line meets the curve when
Prove that the gradient at the point P with mt 2 − 4t + m = 0. Find the values of m for which
π
parameter θ is tan  θ +  , and deduce that the this quadratic equation has equal roots. Hence
 4 determine the equations of the tangents to the
tangent at P makes a fixed angle with OP, where curve which pass through the point (1, 0).
O is the origin.

205
Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

7.11 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Eliminate the parameter from each of the 6. The curve C has equation y =
( x − 3)2 .
following pairs of equations x +1
(a) By considering the set of values of y for real
(a) x = 2 + t 2 , y = t 3 −1 x, show that no part of C exists in the
(b) x = a cos 3 θ , y = asin 3 θ interval −16 < y < 0.

(b) Show that the line y = x − 7 is an asymptote

5
(c) x = 3e t , y = to C and state the equation of the other
sinh t asymptote.
2. Find the values of R and α such that Sketch C, showing the coordinates of the points
5cosh x − 4sinh x ≡ Rcosh ( x − α ) at which C meets the coordinate axes and the
way in which C approaches the asymptotes.
Hence sketch the curve with equation
π π
y = 5cosh x − 4sinh x . 7. A curve is defined for − <θ < by the
6 6
3. Sketch the graphs of y = f ( x ) and y = g( x ) parametric equations

on the same diagram, where x = sin 4 θ + 2sin 2 θ , y = cos 4 θ − 2 cos2 θ .

x +1 dy d  dy
f (x) = ( x ≠ 1) and g( x ) = x + 2 . Prove that = − tan θ . Find   and show
x −1 dx dθ  d x 
Find the x-coordinates of the four points of d2 y 1
intersection of the two graphs. that = − when θ = 0.
d x2 8
4. The points A and B lie on the curve with
8.
1
equation y = , having x-coordinates x = 1 y B
( x + 1)2
and x = 1 + h respectively. Show that the gradient y = 3 cosh x – x sinh x
A
of the line AB is

−
(h + 4)
4( 2 + h )
2

O x
and deduce the gradient of the tangent to the
curve at A.
5. The diagram shows a sketch of the curve defined The diagram shows a sketch of the curve with
for x > 0 by the equation equation y = 3cosh x − x sinh x , which cuts the
y-axis at the point A.
y = x2 ln x. y
Prove that, at A, y takes a minimum value and
state this value.
dy
Given that = 0 at B, show that the
dx
x-coordinate of B is the positive root of the
equation
O A x
x cosh x − 2sinh x = 0 .
B 2 x2 + 2 x − 3
9. (a) Given that = k , show that
The curve crosses the x-axis at A and has a local x2 − 4
minimum at B.
( 2 − k ) x2 + 2 x + ( 4k − 3) = 0 .
(a) State the coordinates of A and calculate the
gradient of the curve at A. Hence determine the values taken by k when
x is real.
(b) Determine the coordinates of B and calculate
d2y
the value of at B.
d x2

206
 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

2 x2 + 2 x − 3 x2 + x − 2
(b) A curve has equation y = . 14. The curve C has equation y = ( x ≠ −1) .
x2 − 4 x +1
(i) State the equations of its three (a) Determine the equations of the asymptotes of
asymptotes. C, and the coordinates of the points where C
(ii) Find the coordinates of the turning crosses the coordinate axes.
points. (There is no need to establish
dy
whether they are maximum or minimum (b) Show that is positive at all points of C.
dx
points.)
(c) Sketch the graph of C.
(iii) Sketch the curve.
10. A curve is given by the equations 15. The curve C has equation y =
( x −1)2 .
x +1
x = a ( cos2t + 2 cost ), y = a ( 2sin t − sin 2t ) , where t
(a) Obtain the equations of the asymptotes of C.
is a parameter and a is a positive constant.
dy 1 (b) Show that C has two stationary points and
Prove that = − tan t . find their coordinates.
dx 2
11. Find the values of the constants A, B, C for (c) Draw a sketch of C.

2 x2 + 3x + 1 C (d) On the same diagram draw a sketch of the

which ≡ Ax + B + .
x −1 x −1 1
curve of y = − 2 and deduce that the equation
Deduce the equations of the asymptotes of the x
x2 ( x −1) + x + 1 = 0
2
2 x2 + 3x + 1
curve with equation y = .
x −1 has no real roots. (Cambridge)
Find the coordinates of the turning points of this
16. A curve is described parametrically by the
curve.
1+ t 1+ t3
Sketch the curve. equation x = , .
t t2
12. The diagram shows a sketch of the curve with Find the equation of the normal to the curve at
3cos x the point where t = 2.
equation y = for 0 ≤ x ≤ π .
2 − sin x
17. Given that t is a non-zero parameter, show that
y
 1 
the point P  2  t +  ,  t −   always lies on the
1
  t  t
hyperbola x2 − 4 y2 = 16 .
A
Show that the tangent at P to the hyperbola has
O π x
equation
2
x ( t2 + 1) − 2 y ( t2 + 1) = 8t .
Write down the equations of the two asymptotes
of the hyperbola. The tangent to the hyperbola at
(a) Find the values of x, in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ π ,
P meets the two asymptotes at L and M. Find the
dy
for which = 0 , giving your answers in coordinates of L and M in terms of t.
dx
radians. 18. A curve is defined parametrically by
2t t2
(b) Determine the range of values taken by y. x= , y= .
1+ t 1+ t
(c) Determine the equation of the normal to the Prove that the normal to the curve at the point
π
curve at the point A  , 0  .  1, 1  has equation 6 y + 4 x = 7. Determine the
2   2
13. Write down the equations of the asymptotes of coordinates of the other point of intersection of
3x − 1 this normal with the curve.
the curve y = . Sketch this curve. Hence
x+2 Find the cartesian equation of the curve.
draw the graphs of the curves
(a) 3x − 1 3x −1
y= : (b) y2 = .
x+2 x+2

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Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

x2 − 1
19. The curve C1 has equation 22. A curve has equation y = .
3x − 5
x+a (a) Prove that, for all real vaues of x, the value
y=
x−a 2
of y cannot lie between and 2.
where a is a positive constant. 9
(b) Find the coordinates of the turning points of
dy
(a) Show that < 0 at all points of C1 . the curve.
dx
(c) Show that one asymptote to the curve has
(b) Draw a sketch of C1 .
equation 9y = 3x + 5 and state the equation of
The curve C2 has equation the other asymptote.
2 (d) Sketch the curve, showing its asymptotes.
x + a
y= .
 x − a 23. The curve C has equation
a b
(c) Show by differentiation that C2 has exactly y= + 2,
one stationary point and find the coordinates x x
of this point. where a and b are constants, a > 0 and b ≠ 0 .
(a) Show that C has exactly one stationary point
(d) On a separate diagram draw a sketch of C2. and find its coordinates in terms of a and b.
(e) Show by means of a graphical argument that (b) On separate diagrams, draw a sketch of C for
there are values of m, which need not be b > 0 and a sketch of C for b < 0 , and in each
specified, such that the equation case mark the coordinates of any
intersections with the coordinate axes.
m( x − a ) − ( x + a ) = 0
3 2

has three distinct real roots. (Cambridge) (c) Use your diagrams to show that there are
positive values of m for which the equation
20. A curve is given in terms of the parameter t by m x3 − a x − b = 0
the equations
has three real roots. (Cambridge)
π
x = a cos t, y = asin t  0 < t <  ,
2 3
24. (a)
 2 y
P
where a is a positive constant. Find and simplify
dy
an expression for in terms of t.
dx
O x
π
The normal to the curve at the point where t =
6
cuts the y-axis at the point N. Find the distance Q

ON in terms of a, where O is the origin. A sketch of the curve

21. Let f be the function with domain a x2 + b x + c
y=
{ x is real, x ≠ −3, x ≠ 1} given by f ( x ) = 2 2 x − 3 . x2 + h x + k
x + 2x − 3
where a, b, c, h and k are constants, is shown
(a) Find the values of k for which the equation above. The maximum point P is at (1, 1) and
the minimum point Q is at (–1, –1). The
2x − 3
=k curve passes through the origin, and the
x2 + 2x − 3 x-axis is an asymptote to the curve. Explain
has no real roots. Hence state the range of f. why a = 0 , and find the values of b, c, h
(b) Find the coordinates of the stationary points and k.
of the graph of f.
(c) State the equations of the asymptotes of the
graph of f. Sketch the graph of f, showing
clearly the stationary points and where the
graph crosses the axes.

208
 Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

(b) 27. The parabola y2 = 4a x has parametric form

y x = at 2 , y = 2at for a constant a and real
parameter t. Show that the normal to the
parabola at the point P ( a p2 , 2a p ) has equation
y + p x = 2a p + a p3 . This normal meets the
parabola again at the point Q ( aq2 , 2aq ) .
O x
 2
Show that q = −  p +  .
 p
The tangent to the parabola at P meets the
Ax2 + Bx
A sketch of the curve y = , where A, tangent to the parabola at Q at the point R.
x+C Determine the coordinates of R in terms of a and
B and C are constants, is shown above. The p, and find the cartesian equation of the locus
lines x = −1 and y = x + 4 , also shown in the of R.
diagram, are asymptotes to the curve. Find
the values of A, B and C. (Cambridge) 28. Show that x = a cos θ , y = bsin θ is a parametric
representation of the ellipse with equation
25. The parametric equations of a curve
x2 y2
x = t − tanh t, y = secht show that if t ≠ 0 then + = 1.
a2 b2
dy
= −cosecht . Prove that the equation of the tangent to the
dx
ellipse at P ( a cos θ , bsin θ ) has equation
The point T has parameter t. Find the equation
of the tangent to the curve at T. The tangent a ysin θ + b x cos θ = ab .
crosses the x-axis at U. Show that UT has This tangent meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis
constant length. at B. M is the midpoint of AB. Find the
26. A curve is given by the parametric equations coordinates of M and a cartesian equation of the
π locus of M as θ varies.
x = sect + tan t, y = cosect + cot t for 0 < t < .
2 29. Find the equation of the chord joining the two
dy 1 − sin t
Prove that =− .  c  c
dx 1 − cost points P  c p,  and Q  cq,  on the rectangular
 p  q
Show that the normal to the curve at the point S,
hyperbola x y = c2 . By considering a suitable
−1 
3
where t = tan , has equation x − 2 y + 4 = 0 . limit, deduce that the tangent to the curve at the
 4 point P has equation
Find an equation of the normal to the curve at
p2y + x = 2c p .
−1 
4 This tangent cuts the y-axis at R and M is the
the point T, where t = tan . These normals
 3 midpoint of PR. Determine a cartesian equation
meet at the point N. Find the coordinates of N. of the locus of M as p varies.

209
Chapter 7 Properties of Curves

210