Adama science and Technology University

Department of freshman division

General Chemistry (Chem1101)
Assignment 2
Name Misgana Markos
Id number Ugr/30947/15
Section 2

Submission date: 30/01/24

Submitted to: Dr.Ankita Garg
Title: The Gas Laws
Introduction:
The Gas Laws are a set of fundamental principles that describe the behavior of gases. They provide
insights into the relationships between various properties of gases, such as pressure, volume,
temperature, and the number of particles. Understanding the Gas Laws is essential in fields like
chemistry, physics, and engineering, as they form the basis for studying and predicting gas behavior.

Body:

1. Boyle's Law:
Boyle's Law, formulated by Robert Boyle, states that at a constant temperature, the pressure
of a given amount of gas is inversely proportional to its volume.
This means that as the volume of a gas decreases, its pressure increases, and vice versa, as long as the
temperature remains constant. Mathematically, Boyle's Law is expressed as P₁V₁ = P₂V₂, where P₁ and
V₁ are the initial pressure and volume, and P₂ and V₂ are the final pressure and volume.
Example:
Consider a balloon filled with a fixed amount of gas. If you squeeze the balloon, decreasing its
volume, the pressure inside the balloon increases. This phenomenon is explained by Boyle's Law.

2. Charles's Law:
Charles's Law, named after Jacques Charles, states that at a constant pressure, the volume of a
given amount of gas is directly proportional to its temperature.
According to Charles's Law, as the temperature of a gas increases, its volume increases, as long as the
pressure remains constant. Mathematically, Charles's Law can be represented as V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂,
where V₁ and T₁ are the initial volume and temperature, and V₂ and T₂ are the final volume and
temperature.
Example:
If you heat a gas-filled balloon, the increased temperature causes the gas molecules to move faster
and occupy a larger volume, leading to the expansion of the balloon.

3. Gay-Lussac's Law:
Gay-Lussac's Law, formulated by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, states that at a constant volume,
the pressure of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its temperature.
For Example:
When a sealed container of gas is heated, the increased temperature causes the gas molecules to
move with greater energy, resulting in more frequent collisions with the container walls and an
increase in pressure.

Gay-Lussac's Law states that as the temperature of a gas increases, its pressure also increases, provided
the volume remains constant.
Mathematically, the law can be expressed as P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂, where P₁ and T₁ are the initial pressure
and temperature, and P₂ and T₂ are the final pressure and temperature.
Conclusion:
The Gas Laws, including Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law, play a
crucial role in understanding and predicting the behavior of gases. They provide
mathematical relationships that help explain how changes in pressure, volume, and
temperature affect each other. The Gas Laws find applications in numerous fields,
such as gas storage and transportation, weather forecasting, chemical reactions,
and engineering design. By studying and applying these laws, scientists and
engineers can make accurate predictions and develop practical solutions related to
gas systems.

Title: The Ideal Gas Equation

Introduction:
The Ideal Gas Equation is a fundamental equation in thermodynamics that describes the relationship
between the pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of an ideal gas. It provides a
mathematical framework for understanding and calculating the behavior of gases under various
conditions.

Body:

1. Equation and Variables:

The Ideal Gas Equation is represented by the equation PV = nRT, where P is the pressure, V is
the volume, n is the number of moles of the gas, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the
temperature.
The equation shows that the product of pressure and volume is directly proportional to the number of
moles of gas and the absolute temperature. The ideal gas constant, R, serves as a proportionality
constant and has a specific value depending on the units used.
For Example: If we have a sample of gas with a known number of moles, temperature, and volume.
By rearranging the equation, we can calculate the pressure of the gas or any other variable if the
others are known.

2. Assumptions of the Ideal Gas Law:

The Ideal Gas Equation is based on a set of assumptions that define an ideal gas.
The assumptions include that the gas particles have negligible volume, do not interact with each other,
and follow the principles of kinetic theory. These assumptions are valid under conditions of low
pressure and high temperature, where the effects of intermolecular forces and particle volume become
negligible.
For Example: Consider a gas in a container at low pressure and high temperature. The gas particles
will be widely spaced, and their individual volumes and interactions can be ignored. In such cases, the
behavior of the gas can be accurately approximated using the Ideal Gas Equation.

3. Applications and Limitations:

The Ideal Gas Equation finds applications in various scientific and engineering fields.
It is used in calculations involving gases, such as determining the amount of gas produced or
consumed in a chemical reaction (using the concept of stoichiometry), understanding the behavior of
gases in industrial processes, and designing gas storage systems and for instance they are applicable
In the field of chemical engineering, the Ideal Gas Equation is used to model and predict the behavior
of gases in chemical reactors. It helps engineers optimize reaction conditions, such as temperature
and pressure, to achieve desired product yields.
Limitations: However, it's important to note that the Ideal Gas Equation is an approximation
and becomes less accurate at high pressures and low temperatures. At such conditions, gases
deviate from ideal behavior due to intermolecular interactions and the finite size of gas
molecules.

Conclusion:
The Ideal Gas Equation is a versatile tool for understanding and predicting the
behavior of gases. It provides a mathematical relationship between pressure,
volume, temperature, and the number of moles of gas. While it is based on
assumptions of ideal gas behavior, it remains a valuable approximation in many
practical situations. Understanding and applying the Ideal Gas Equation is essential
in fields such as chemistry, physics, and engineering, where gases play a significant
role.

Title: Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

Introduction:
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure is a fundamental principle that describes the behavior of a mixture of
non-reacting gases. It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum
of the partial pressures of each individual gas component.

Body:

1. Explanation of Dalton's Law:

Dalton's Law, formulated by John Dalton, states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the
total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each gas component.
When multiple gases are present in a mixture, they exert pressure independently of each other. The
partial pressure of a gas is the pressure it would exert if it occupied the entire volume alone at the same
temperature. The total pressure of the mixture is the sum of these individual pressures.

2. Calculation of Partial Pressure:

To calculate the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture, Dalton's Law provides a formula based
on the mole fraction of the gas and the total pressure of the mixture.
The partial pressure of a gas (PA) can be calculated using the equation
PA = XA (=n_gas / n_total) * P_total,

Where n_gas is the number of moles of the gas, n_total is the total number of moles of all gases, and
P_total is the total pressure of the mixture.
Example:
Suppose a mixture contains 3 moles of gas A and 2 moles of gas B in a container with a total pressure
of 4 atmospheres. To calculate the partial pressure of gas A, we can use the equation:
P_A = (3 / (3 + 2)) * 4 = 2.4 atmospheres.

3. Application of Dalton's Law:

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure finds applications in various areas, including gas mixtures,
atmospheric science, and industrial processes.
In gas mixtures, Dalton's Law helps determine the individual contributions of different gases to the total
pressure. It is used in various industries, such as the production and storage of gases, where knowing
the partial pressures is crucial for maintaining desired conditions.
Example:
In scuba diving, Dalton's Law is significant for understanding how gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen,
behave under increased pressure at different depths. It helps in calculating the partial pressures of
these gases, which is essential for ensuring diver safety and preventing conditions like decompression
sickness.

Conclusion:
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure provides valuable insights into the behavior of gas
mixtures. It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting
gases is the sum of the partial pressures of each gas component. Understanding and
applying Dalton's Law is essential in various scientific, industrial, and
environmental contexts, as it enables accurate calculations and predictions related
to gas systems.

Title: Deviation from Ideal Behavior of Gases

Introduction:
While the Ideal Gas Law provides a useful approximation for many gases under certain conditions, it
is important to acknowledge that real gases often deviate from ideal behavior. Deviations occur due
to factors such as intermolecular interactions, the finite size of gas molecules, and high pressures or
low temperatures. Understanding and characterizing these deviations is crucial for accurate gas
calculations and predictions.

Body:

1. Causes of Deviation from Ideal Behavior:

Real gases deviate from ideal behavior due to various factors.
Deviations occur primarily because the assumptions of the ideal gas model, such as negligible volume
and no intermolecular forces, do not hold true for real gases. Intermolecular forces, such as Van der
Waals forces, become significant at lower temperatures and higher pressures. Additionally, the finite
size of gas molecules can lead to volume exclusion effects.
For Example: Consider a gas at high pressure. As the gas molecules come closer together, the
attractive forces between them become more significant, causing the gas to occupy a smaller volume
than predicted by the ideal gas model. This is an example of a deviation from ideal behavior.

2. Types of Deviation:
Deviations from ideal behavior can be categorized into two types: positive and negative
deviations.
- Positive Deviation: In positive deviations, real gases occupy more volume and exert lower pressure
compared to the ideal gas model. This occurs when there are significant intermolecular attractive
forces or when the gas molecules are larger in size. Examples of gases that exhibit positive deviations
include ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen chloride (HCl).
- Negative Deviation: In negative deviations, real gases occupy less volume and exert higher pressure
compared to the ideal gas model. This happens when there are weak intermolecular forces or when
the gas molecules are smaller in size. Ethane (C2H6) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are examples of gases
that exhibit negative deviations.

3. Modeling Deviations:
To account for deviations from ideal behavior, various equations of state have been developed.
Equations such as the Van der Waals equation or the Redlich-Kwong equation introduce correction
terms to the ideal gas equation, considering factors like intermolecular interactions and molecular size.
These modified equations provide more accurate predictions of gas behavior under non-ideal
conditions.
Example:
The Van der Waals equation, which incorporates attractive forces and molecular size, is given as (P + a
(n/V) ^2) (V - nb) = nRT, where a and b are Van der Waals constants. This equation improves
predictions for real gases by accounting for deviations from ideal behavior.

4. Practical Implications:
Understanding deviations from ideal behavior has practical implications in various fields.
In chemical engineering and process industries, accurate predictions of gas behavior are crucial for
designing and optimizing systems. Knowledge of deviations helps engineers select appropriate
equipment, adjust operating conditions, and account for non-ideal effects to ensure safe and efficient
processes.
In natural gas processing, the deviation from ideal behavior is considered when designing pipelines
and gas processing plants. The presence of impurities, such as water vapor or heavy hydrocarbons,
can lead to deviations and affect the efficiency of separation processes.

Conclusion:
While the ideal gas model provides a useful approximation in many situations, real
gases often deviate from ideal behavior due to factors like intermolecular
interactions and molecular size. Understanding deviations is critical for accurate
gas calculations and predictions. Positive and negative deviations occur when real
gases occupy more or less volume, respectively, compared to ideal gases. Various
equations of state, such as the Van der Waals equation, have been developed to
model non-ideal behavior. Recognizing and accounting for deviations from ideal
behavior is essential in fields involving gases, such as chemical engineering, process
industries, and gas transport and storage.

Title: Kinetic Molecular Description of the State of Matter

Introduction:
The kinetic molecular description of the state of matter is a theoretical framework that explains the
behavior and properties of different states of matter (solid, liquid, and gas) based on the motion and
interactions of individual particles at the molecular level. This description provides insights into the
macroscopic properties of matter by considering the microscopic behavior of its constituent particles.

Body:

1. Kinetic Theory of Gases:

The kinetic theory of gases is a fundamental concept within the kinetic molecular description.
According to this theory, gases consist of a large number of tiny particles (atoms or molecules) that are
in constant random motion. The particles collide with each other and with the walls of the container,
exerting pressure and exhibiting other macroscopic properties.
Example:
Consider a container with a gas. The kinetic theory explains that the pressure exerted by the gas is a
result of the constant collisions of gas molecules with the walls of the container. The average kinetic
energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to the temperature, and the speed of the particles
increases with higher temperatures.

2. States of Matter:
The kinetic molecular description helps explain the characteristics and behavior of each state of
matter.
- Solid: In a solid, the particles are closely packed and have strong intermolecular forces. They vibrate
about fixed positions and have the least amount of kinetic energy among the three states. Solids have
definite shape and volume.
- Liquid: In a liquid, the particles are still close together but have weaker intermolecular forces
compared to solids. They have more freedom of movement, allowing them to slide past each other.
Liquids have a definite volume but assume the shape of their container.
- Gas: In a gas, the particles are widely spaced with negligible intermolecular forces. They move
randomly and freely, colliding with each other and the container walls. Gases have no definite shape
or volume, as they assume the shape and volume of their container.
Example:
Water exists in all three states. At low temperatures, it is a solid (ice) with tightly packed molecules.
As it is heated, it transitions into a liquid state, where the molecules can move more freely. At even
higher temperatures, water vaporizes and becomes a gas, with molecules moving rapidly and
independently.

3. Phase Changes:
The kinetic molecular description explains phase changes that occur between different states
of matter.
Phase changes, such as melting, boiling, and condensation, are a result of changes in the arrangement
and behavior of particles due to the input or removal of energy.
Example:
When a solid undergoes melting, heat energy is supplied to the solid, increasing the kinetic energy of
its particles. This energy overcomes the intermolecular forces, causing the particles to gain enough
energy to break free from their fixed positions, resulting in the transition to a liquid state.

4. Brownian Motion:
Brownian motion is a phenomenon observed in fluids that helps validate the kinetic molecular
description.
Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid due to collisions with fluid
molecules. It provides evidence for the existence of tiny particles and supports the kinetic theory by
demonstrating the continuous motion of particles at the microscopic level.
Example:
When observing microscopic particles, such as pollen grains in water, under a microscope, they
exhibit a random and erratic motion. This motion is caused by the continuous collisions of water
molecules with the suspended particles, validating the kinetic molecular theory.
Conclusion:
The kinetic molecular description of the state of matter provides a theoretical
framework for understanding the behavior and properties of different states of
matter. By considering the motion and interactions of individual particles, it
explains various macroscopic phenomena, such as pressure, phase changes, and
Brownian motion. This description enhances our understanding of the microscopic
origins of the macroscopic properties of matter and plays a crucial role in fields such
as physics, chemistry, and materials science.

Title: Solids, Liquids, and Phase Transitions (Phase Diagrams)

Introduction:
The study of solids, liquids, and phase transitions is crucial in understanding the behavior and
properties of matter. Phase transitions occur when a substance changes from one state to another
due to changes in temperature and pressure. Phase diagrams provide a graphical representation of
the relationship between these variables and help us understand the conditions under which
different phases exist.

Body:

1. Solids:
Solids are one of the three fundamental states of matter, along with liquids and gases.
Solids have a definite shape and volume. The particles in a solid are closely packed and have strong
intermolecular forces, leading to a rigid and fixed structure. The particles vibrate around fixed positions
but do not change their relative arrangement.
- Example: Common examples of solids include metals, wood, and rocks. In metals, the positive
metal ions are arranged in a regular lattice structure, held together by a sea of delocalized electrons.

2. Liquids:
Liquids are another state of matter that exhibits distinct properties.
Liquids have a definite volume but no fixed shape. The particles in a liquid are still close together but
have weaker intermolecular forces compared to solids. They have more freedom of movement and can
slide past each other, allowing liquids to flow and take the shape of their container.
- Example: Water is a common example of a liquid. Its molecules are held together by hydrogen
bonds, which give water its unique properties such as high boiling and melting points, as well as
surface tension.

3. Phase Transitions:
Phase transitions occur when a substance changes from one state to another.
These transitions are driven by changes in temperature and pressure. Adding or removing energy (in the
form of heat) can induce these transitions. The most common phase transitions include melting,
freezing, evaporation, condensation, and sublimation.
- Example: When ice (solid) is heated, it undergoes a phase transition to water (liquid) at its melting
point of 0 degrees Celsius. Further heating will cause the liquid water to transition into water vapor
(gas) through the process of evaporation.

4. Phase Diagrams:
 Phase diagrams provide a visual representation of the relationships between temperature,
pressure, and the different states of matter.
Phase diagrams typically consist of a graph with temperature on the x-axis and pressure on the y-axis.
Different regions on the diagram represent different phases (solid, liquid, gas), and the boundaries
between the regions indicate phase transitions.
- Example: The phase diagram for water shows the regions representing solid ice, liquid water, and
water vapor. The lines on the diagram indicate the conditions at which phase transitions occur, such
as the melting point and boiling point of water.

Conclusion:
Understanding the behavior of solids, liquids, and phase transitions is essential in
comprehending the properties and transformations of matter. Solids have a definite
shape and volume, while liquids possess a definite volume but no fixed shape.
Phase transitions occur when substances change from one state to another due to
changes in temperature and pressure. Phase diagrams visually represent these
relationships, providing valuable information about the conditions under which
different phases exist. By studying solids, liquids, and phase transitions, we gain
insights into the diverse nature of matter and its behavior under varying
conditions.

Title: Solutions

Introduction:
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures composed of two or more substances. They play a vital role in
various fields, including chemistry, biology, and everyday life. Understanding solutions involves
studying their components, properties, and the factors that influence their formation and behavior.

Body:

1. Composition of Solutions:
Solutions consist of a solvent and solute(s).
The solvent is the component that exists in the largest amount and dissolves the solute(s). The solute(s)
are the substances that are dissolved in the solvent.
- Example: A common example is saltwater, where water is the solvent and salt is the solute. The
water molecules surround and separate the sodium and chloride ions, resulting in a homogenous
mixture.

2. Types of Solutions:
Solutions can be classified based on the state of the solvent and solute.

- Aqueous Solutions: These solutions have water as the solvent. A significant number of chemical
reactions occur in aqueous solutions, making them crucial in biological and chemical processes.
- Solid Solutions: In these solutions, both the solvent and solute are solids. Alloys, such as brass (a
mixture of copper and zinc), are examples of solid solutions.
- Gaseous Solutions: Gaseous solutions involve gases as the solvent and solute. Air, which is a
mixture of several gases, is an example of a gaseous solution.
- Example: Carbonated beverages, like soda, are gaseous solutions where carbon dioxide gas is
dissolved in a liquid solvent.
3. Solubility:
Solubility is a measure of how much solute can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a given
temperature and pressure.
Solubility depends on factors such as the nature of the solute and solvent, temperature, and pressure.
Substances with high solubility dissolve readily, while those with low solubility dissolve to a lesser
extent.
- Example: Sugar has high solubility in water, as it readily dissolves when added to a glass of water.
In contrast, oil has low solubility in water and forms a separate layer when mixed.

4. Factors Affecting Solubility:

Several factors influence the solubility of solutes in solvents.
- Temperature: In general, the solubility of solid solutes in liquids increases with increasing
temperature, while the solubility of gaseous solutes in liquids decreases with increasing temperature.
- Pressure: The solubility of gases in liquids is affected by pressure. Henry's law states that the
solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
- Nature of Solvent and Solute: The nature of the solvent and solute, including their polarity and
intermolecular forces, affects solubility.
- Example: Increasing the temperature of water allows more sugar to dissolve, resulting in a more
concentrated solution.

5. Concentration of Solutions:
Concentration describes the amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution.
Various methods are used to express the concentration of solutions, such as molarity, mass/volume
percent, and parts per million (ppm).
- Example: A 0.1 Molar (M) solution of sodium chloride means that there are 0.1 moles of sodium
chloride dissolved in 1 liter of solution.

Conclusion:
Solutions are important in various scientific disciplines and everyday life. They are
composed of a solvent and solute(s), with the solvent dissolving the solute(s).
Solutions can be aqueous, solid, or gaseous, depending on the state of the solvent
and solute. Solubility, influenced by factors such as temperature, pressure, and the
nature of the solute and solvent, determines how much solute can dissolve in a
given solvent. The concentration of a solution is a measure of the amount of solute
present in a given amount of solvent or solution. Understanding solutions and their
properties is crucial in fields such as chemistry, biology, and medicine.

Title: Colligative Properties

Introduction:
Colligative properties are a set of physical properties that depend on the concentration of solute
particles in a solution, regardless of the nature of the solute. These properties play a crucial role in
various scientific fields, including chemistry, biology, and industry. Understanding colligative
properties helps in predicting and explaining the behavior of solutions.

Body:
1. Definition of Colligative Properties:
Colligative properties are properties that depend on the number of solute particles present in a
solution, rather than their identity.
These properties arise due to the effect of solute particles on the physical behavior of the solvent. The
more solute particles present, the greater the impact on the colligative properties of the solution.
- Example: Examples of colligative properties include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.

2. Vapor Pressure Lowering:

Vapor pressure lowering is a colligative property that affects the evaporation of a solvent in the
presence of a non-volatile solute.
The presence of solute particles reduces the number of solvent particles available to escape into the
vapor phase, leading to a decrease in vapor pressure.
- Example: Adding salt to water reduces its vapor pressure, resulting in slower evaporation
compared to pure water. This is why saltwater takes longer to boil than pure water.

3. Boiling Point Elevation:

Boiling point elevation is a colligative property that causes the boiling point of a solvent to
increase when a non-volatile solute is added.
The presence of solute particles disrupts the solvent's vapor pressure, requiring a higher temperature to
reach the vapor pressure necessary for boiling.
- Example: When a solute, such as sugar, is added to water, the boiling point of the solution
increases. This is why it takes longer to cook food in a sugar solution compared to cooking in pure
water.

4. Freezing Point Depression:

Freezing point depression is a colligative property that lowers the freezing point of a solvent
when a solute is added.
The presence of solute particles disrupts the formation of the solvent's crystal lattice, making it more
difficult for the solvent to freeze.
- Example: Adding antifreeze (ethylene glycol) to water lowers its freezing point, preventing it from
freezing at low temperatures. This property is crucial in preventing engine coolant from freezing in
cold climates.

5. Osmotic Pressure:
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property associated with the flow of solvent molecules across
a semipermeable membrane in response to a concentration gradient.
The solute particles in a solution create a difference in solute concentration between the solution and a
pure solvent, leading to the flow of solvent molecules from an area of lower solute concentration to an
area of higher solute concentration.
- Example: The process of osmosis, where water flows through a plant's root cells to balance solute
concentrations, is driven by osmotic pressure.
Conclusion:
Colligative properties are important in understanding the behavior of solutions.
They depend on the number of solute particles present in a solution, rather than
the nature of the solute itself. Vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation,
freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure are examples of colligative
properties. These properties find applications in various fields, including chemistry,
biology, and industry. Understanding colligative properties allows us to predict and
explain the behavior of solutions and their impact on physical processes.

References
http://www.kahanacdemy.org/
Chang,_Goldsby_-_Chemistry_10th_edition pdf
en.m.wikipedia.org
www.khanacademy.org