CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY,

PATNA

FINAL DRAFT: HISTORY

TOPIC: “MESOLITHIC CULTURE”

AUGUST 2023

SUBMITTED TO: -

DR PRIYA DARSHINI
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY

THIS FINAL DRAFT IS SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE(B.A. L.L.B) COURSE IN HISTORY.

SUBMITTED BY:
ANSH PRIY SRIVASTAVA
ROLL NO – 23112
BA LLB, 1 SEMESTER
ST
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Declaration

Acknowledgement

1.Introduction………………………………………………………………(3-4)

 Aims and objective………………………………………………..(7)

 Research Methodology
 Sources of data collection
 Limitations of Study

2. Meaning and Significance of Mesolithic ……………………………..

2.1) Mesolithic Chronology

3. Discovery of Mesolithic Tools ………………………………….......................

4. Nature of Archaeological Sites .............................................................................

4.1) Mesolithic Sites on Indian Map

5. Mesolithic Age in India .……………………………........………………………..

6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………..(26-27)

Bibliography……………………………………………………………(28-29)
 Declaration
I, Ansh Priy Srivastava do hereby declare that the project titled "Mesolithic Culture " submitted to
Chanakya National Law University is partial fulfillment of requirement of award of degree in undergraduate
in law is a record of original work done by me under the supervision and guidance of Dr Priya Darshini
Mam, Chanakya National Law University and has not formed basis for any award of any degree or diploma
or fellowship or may other title to any other candidate of any university.

ANSH PRIY SRIVASTAVA (23112)

B.A.L.L.B.(Hons), 1st Semester,
Chanakya National Law University
 Acknowledgement

I would like to take this opportunity to express my pleasure of gratitude and deep regard to Dr
Priya Darshini Mam , Associate Professor of History, for her exemplary guidance, valuable
feedback and constant support through the completion of the project.

Next, I would like to convey my deepest regards to the Vice Chancellor and the
Administrative staff of Chanakya National Law University who helped the project in high
esteem by providing reliable information in the form of library infrastructure and online-
databases at the time of need.

I would also like to give my sincere gratitude to all my friends and colleagues who gave
constant motivation and without which the research would be incomplete. Their part is also
highly solicited Finally, I thank the almighty who gave me the courage and stamina to
confront all the hurdles during the making of this project. These words are not sufficient to
express the incredible help leaded by people to finish this project. I once again, who-heartedly
thank all the people who helped me finish this project with the best outcome.

Ansh Priy Srivastava

 1.Introduction

Human history is divided into three

distinct eras: the Stone Age, the
Bronze Age, and
the Iron Age. These are not merely
technological stages, implying that
stone tools
and weapons were made during the
Stone Age, bronze tools and
weapons during the
Bronze Age, and iron tools and
weapons during the Iron Age.
These Ages imply far
more than technological
advancements. They imply
subsistence economies or
methods of food acquisition, social
organisation, including care for the
weak, sick,
and elderly, a mode of disposition
for the dead, and other facets of life.
The Stone Age is divided into three
distinct periods: the Palaeolithic or
Old Stone
Age, the Mesolithic or Middle
Stone Age, and the Neolithic or
New Stone Age. The
term lithic comes from the Greek
lithos, which means stone. The
terms Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic refer to the Old
Stone Age, Mesolithic to the
Middle Stone Age, and
Neolithic to the New Stone Age
Human history is divided into three
distinct eras: the Stone Age, the
Bronze Age, and
the Iron Age. These are not merely
technological stages, implying that
stone tools
and weapons were made during the
Stone Age, bronze tools and
weapons during the
Bronze Age, and iron tools and
weapons during the Iron Age.
These Ages imply far
more than technological
advancements. They imply
subsistence economies or
methods of food acquisition, social
organisation, including care for the
weak, sick,
and elderly, a mode of disposition
for the dead, and other facets of life.
The Stone Age is divided into three
distinct periods: the Palaeolithic or
Old Stone
Age, the Mesolithic or Middle
Stone Age, and the Neolithic or
New Stone Age. The
term lithic comes from the Greek
lithos, which means stone. The
terms Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic refer to the Old
Stone Age, Mesolithic to the
Middle Stone Age, and
Neolithic to the New Stone Age
Human history is divided into three distinct eras: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. These
are not merely technological stages, implying that stone tools and weapons were made during the Stone Age,
bronze tools and weapons during the Bronze Age, and iron tools and weapons during the Iron Age. These
Ages imply far more than technological advancements. They imply subsistence economies or methods of
food acquisition, social organisation, including care for the weak, sick, and elderly, a mode of disposition for
the dead, and other facets of life. The Stone Age is divided into three distinct periods: the Palaeolithic or Old
Stone Age, the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age, and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. The term lithic comes
from the Greek lithos, which means stone. The terms Palaeolithic and Mesolithic refer to the Old Stone Age,
Mesolithic to the Middle Stone Age, and Neolithic to the New Stone Age Mesolithic, also called Middle
Stone Age, is an ancient cultural stage that existed between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), with its chipped
stone tools, and the Neolithic (New Stone Age), with its polished stone tools. Mesolithic material culture is
characterized by greater innovation and diversity than is found in the Paleolithic. In India, this age spanned
from 9,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C., and is characterized by the appearance of Microliths (small bladed stone
tools). Mesolithic period in human cultural history is defined as the earliest Holocene culture that occurs
before agriculture was started. According to Clark (1932) the term "Mesolithic" implies a particular group of
cultures included in point of time between Palaeolithic and Neolithic.

The Mesolithic like other basic archaeological divisions is borrowed from European prehistory.
Its applicability in the Indian context is well established both in terms of its meaning and culture
concept. Major characteristics of the Mesolithic cultures are as follows. They are Holocene in age in most
parts of the Old World, but there are situations in tropical Asia and Africa where the microlithic technology
extends back to Late Pleistocene. They are characterized by hunting and gathering, fishing and foraging
way of life. Mesolithic cultures are a continuation of the Palaeolithic economy but here the
emphasis shifts from big game to small game hunting and catching fish and exploitation of
marine food resources. This difference is reflected both in the ecology and technology of the
Mesolithic cultures. There is increasing emphasis on coastal adaptations. The technology is
distinguished by the use of composite tools and the production of microlithic tools on a large
scale. The preference for crypto-crystalline silica is distinct. They are generally pre-Neolithic
and continued to coexist with the later advanced food-producing cultures in a symbiotic
relationship.

The first discovery Mesolithic tools anywhere in the Old World was made by Carlleyle in the
previous century. Unfortunately, his finds were not adequately published. He reported a few
rock shelter and cave sites in the Kaimur range of hills in the Mirzapur Districts of Uttar
Pradesh and Rewa, Budelkhand and Baghelkhand areas of Madhya Pradesh. "Epipaleolithic" is sometimes
also used alongside "Mesolithic" for the final end of the Upper
Palaeolithic immediately followed by the Mesolithic. As "Mesolithic" suggests an intermediate
period, followed by the Neolithic, some authors prefer the term "Epipaleolithic" for huntergatherer
cultures who are not succeeded by agricultural traditions, reserving "Mesolithic" for
cultures who are clearly succeeded by the Neolithic Revolution, such as the Natufian culture.
Other authors use "Mesolithic" as a generic term for post-LGM hunter-gatherer cultures,
whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not. In addition, terminology appears to
differ between archaeological sub-disciplines, with "Mesolithic" being widely used in
European archaeology, while "Epipalaeolithic" is more common in Near Eastern archaeology.

Aims and Objectives:-

 Explain the meaning of the term Mesolithic.
 Identify the tool technology associated with this culture.
 Discuss about the different sites of Indian Mesolithic.

Research Methodology: -

Mostly doctrinal method and primary method of research was adopted in the making of
this project. Few primary and secondary methods were used. Some literary works and
books and articles were referred and the internet through various websites was used
 extensively for the collection of data which was required for the study needed for this
research.

Sources of data:-

For research work, researcher will be relying for upon secondary sources.

Secondary Sources-

 Books
 Websites

 Limitations:-

Since the researcher is a student of law, he has access to a limited area. The researcher
having read the content through various websites is able to understand the topic but its
practical implementation would have been clearer if some more cases were referred. The
researcher has limited time for the project. The historical need and background is also
necessary for having a bird’s eye view of the particular topic and it gets developed only by
effective and extended reading over a long period of time. But the required materials are not
available in our library. But still researcher with his hard work will manage to take out the best
possible work.

 Mode of citation:-

The researcher will follow Harvard Bluebook[20th edition]

 Review of Literature:-

1) Mesolithic Period - INSIGHTSIAS (insightsonindia.com)

Insight IAS emerges as an exceptional and dependable online resource for research. With its
well-curated literature, the platform consistently delivers accurate and authentic information.
Researchers can confidently rely on Insight IAS for credible insights, making it an invaluable
asset for academic pursuits

2) India’s Ancient Past by R.S. Sharma

. RS Sharma's 'Ancient India' stands as a cornerstone in historical literature, offering an authentic

and reliable account of India's past. Meticulously researched and well-documented, the book
provides a comprehensive understanding of the nation's ancient history. With its scholarly
approach and thorough analysis, it has earned a reputation as an indispensable resource for history
enthusiasts and scholars alike.

 Meaning and Significance of Mesolithic

Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a much shorter period than Palaeolithic, having lasted from
over thirty thousand years in Sri Lanka and parts of Africa to only about ten thousand years in
India and West Asia. The Mesolithic period coincides with the beginning of the Holocene
age, around 10,000 BP or 8,000 BC. This age, as mentioned earlier, witnessed a change
in climate from cold and arid to warm and will account for the gradual recession of the
glaciers. This change led to the melting of snow and the formation of rivers resulting in
the growth of forests and vegetation. Though our knowledge on palaeoclimatic
variation in India is still limited, the study of pollens and sediments by Gurdip
Singh and his associates in Rajasthan and the geological studies by Williams and Clark
in eastern Madhya Pradesh indicate that there was a marked increase in rainfall in these
regions at the beginning of the Holocene age1.The change in climate naturally affected
both flora and fauna. The giant animals that roamed the surface of earth in the
"Ice-age" gradually vanished and these were replaced with swifter and smaller
animals such as various species of deer, cattle, sheep, goat, etc. The fish also
became more abundant. The new environment thus created conditions for the
availability of new resources, and in order to exploit them more effectively, it became
essential for the Mesolithic man to make necessary modifications in his tool-types. The
characteristic tool of the Mesolithic period was the microlith, a small tool which could
be attached to a wooden or a bone handle to make a composite tool such as spear,
arrow, sickle or saw. These tools could be employed more profitably for hunting as well
as for collecting vegetable food.

An important feature of the

Mesolithic period was the
significant growth in population
and the change in demographic
profile. It, according to V.N.
Misra [2002: 114], is evident
from the fact that sites of this
period are much larger in
number than those of the
preceding Paleolithic stage. At
1
India, An Archaeological History by Chakrabarti (1999)
Bhimbetka, for example, while
evidence of Paleolithic
occupation has been found in
only a few shelters, that of the
Mesolithic period is found in
almost every shelter. Further,
it is during this period that the
humans extended their habitat
into the alluvial plains of the
Ganga in south-central Uttar
Pradesh. Interestingly, two of
the sites, viz., Chopani Mando
and Sarai Nahar Rai (Allahabad-
Pratapgarh area) in this
region are situated as far as
eighty km from the nearest
source of basic raw material of
stone. It has led V.N. Misra to
 argue that it was the growth in
population which must have
forced these human groups to
settle in far off areas where
they had to import stone for
their requirements. U.C.
Chattopadhyaya [1996] is of the
opinion that these people of the
Gangetic valley might have been
producing, on account of better
environment, meat in excess of
their requirement and
were thus in a position to exchange
it with the raw material for their
stone tools from the neighboring
regions
An important feature of the Mesolithic period was the significant growth in population
and the change in demographic profile. It, according to V.N. Misra is evident from
the fact that sites of this period are much larger in number than those of the
preceding Paleolithic stage. At Bhimbetka, for example, while evidence of
Paleolithic occupation has been found in only a few shelters, that of the Mesolithic
period is found in almost every shelter. Further, it is during this period that the humans
extended their habitat into the alluvial plains of the Ganga in south-central Uttar
Pradesh. Interestingly, two of the sites, viz., Chopani Mando and Sarai Nahar Rai
(Allahabad-Pratapgarh area) in this region are situated as far as eighty km from the
nearest source of basic raw material of stone. It has led V.N. Misra to argue that it was
the growth in population which must have forced these human groups to settle in far
off areas where they had to import stone for their requirements. is of the opinion that
these people of the Gangetic valley might have been producing, on account of better
environment, meat in excess of their requirement and were thus in a position to exchange it
with the raw material for their stone tools from the neighbouring regions. It is suggested that
greater availability of food and better health of the people were probably the main
factors which led to decrease in mortality rate and the increase in population.
While better rainfall in the Holocene age contributed to greater plant growth as well
as increase in fish and animal population, the use of microliths as arrows or spear-heads
greatly improved the hunting efficiency of the Mesolithic man. The evidence of querns
and mullers which appear for the first time in this period further confirms that plant
food was supplementing the animal diet. Thus, assured of better food supply, the
Mesolithic man led a healthier and a longer life.

The Mesolithic period is also significant because the evidence of burials or the ritual of
intentional disposal of the dead appears for the first time during this period. The grave
goods such as bone beads, rings, etc., put along with the dead in some of the graves,
are greatly helpful in giving us an insight into the beliefs, rituals and the craft
activities of the Mesolithic man. Finally, the earliest rock paintings in India belong
primarily to this period. They throw valuable light not only on the aesthetic sense
and artistic taste of the Mesolithic people, but also enable us to reconstruct their
socio-economic behavior. Chronologically, Indian Mesolithic cultures are normally
placed between 8,000 BC to 5,000 - 4,000 BC. But on the basis of a copper
knife reported from Langhnaj (Gujarat) and the C-14 dates received from various
other sites, it is assigned to a broad time-span ranging from 8,000 BC - 2,000 BC,
surviving well into the Neolithic and Chalcolithic phases2.

 Mesolithic Chronology
• In North/Western Europe, the Mesolithic lasted from 10,000 to 4,000 BCE

• In Central Europe, it lasted from 10,000 to 5,500 BCE

• In East Asia, it lasted from 10,000 to 6,000 BCE

• In Southeast Europe, it lasted from 10,000 to 7,000 BCE

• In the Middle East and elsewhere, it lasted from 10,000 to 8,000 BCE

NOTE: Dates are given as a rough guide only, as disagreement persists as to classification and
chronology. Some scholars, for instance, only use the term "Mesolithic" to refer to north western
Europe. Some archaeologists call the non-European Mesolithic "Epipaleolithic". For more dates,
see: Prehistoric Art Timeline.

2
The Chronology of Prehistoric India: from Earliest Times to the Iron Age by Possehl and Rissman(1992)
 Discovery of Mesolithic Tools

 Work of A.C.L. Carlleyle:

The earliest discovery of microliths and other Mesolithic tools was made by A.C.L. Carlleyle, an
Assistant to Alexander Cunningham, founder Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI). Carlleyle was the first person to discover microliths, rock paintings, pigment pieces with
marks of grinding, human skeletons, animal bones, ash, and charcoal pieces in rockshelters in
Mirzapur District of the Northwestern Provinces of Agra or Oudh (present Uttar Pradesh). He also
discovered paintings depicting scenes of wild animals being hunted with spears, bows and arrows
and hatchets, and living floors containing hearths with ash, charred animal bones. This was the first
discovery of the paintings portraying the Mesolithic way of life.

 J.C.Cockburn, Rivett-Carnac, and Robert Bruce Foote:

Subsequently, discoveries of microliths and bone tools were made by J.C. Cockburn and Rivett-
Carnac in rockshelters as well as at open-air sites in the same area. Robert Bruce Foote, Father of
Indian prehistory discovered microliths in Kurnool caves and several other sites in South India as
well as at sites on the Sabarmati river and away from it in Baroda, Sabarkantha and Mehsana
Districts of Gujarat. Thus Mesolithic sites are found almost all over India, except the northeast but
including the Indo-Gangetic plains where stone, the raw material for making tools and weapons is
scarce. This shows that Mesolithic hunter-gatherers had colonised the whole country. This had
happened for the first time during the entire prehistoric period of two million years.

The chief feature of the

Mesolithic period was the use of
a large number of microliths or
blades and bladelets, produced
 from a well-prepared cylindrical
or rectangular core by pressure
flaking with the help of a bone
or a wooden hammer. It
represents a technological
improvement on the earlier tool-
making techniques which were
based on direct or indirect
hitting or flaking. There was
also a change in the use of
raw material in most areas.
Except in parts of south India
where a fine type of quartzite
was available, in all other areas
people switched over to chert,
chalcedony, agate, jasper
 and other fine-grained stones
which occur in the form of small
nodules.
The chief feature of the Mesolithic period was the use of a large number of blades and bladelets,
produced from a well-prepared cylindrical or rectangular core by pressure flaking with
the help of a bone or a wooden hammer. It represents a technological improvement on
the earlier tool-making techniques which were based on direct or indirect hitting or
flaking. There was also a change in the use of raw material in most areas.
Except in parts of south India where a fine type of quartzite was available, in all other
areas people switched over to chert, chalcedony, agate, jasper and other fine-grained stones
which occur in the form of small nodules. The pressure technique economized the precious
raw material and produced more blades in lesser time. The blades thus produced were
further retouched or trimmed on one or more edges to produce a variety of "geometric"
type microliths in the shape of triangles, lunates or crescents, trapezes, etc. These
tools, the size of which varied from less than one centimeter to five centimeters, could
be hafted on bone or wooden handles with natural gum to produce a "composite tool"
or a weapon such as an arrow or spear. Many contemporary paintings at Bhimbetka
and other places reveal the use of such arrowheads and spearheads. The main
advantage of these 'composite tools' was that being made of a number of microliths,
if one of the teeth broke down, it could easily be replaced without having to discard
the whole tool as was the case with a single-piece tool of earlier times. Besides
microliths, small non-geometric tools also formed a part of the Mesolithic tool-kit. These
were usually made on flakes by secondary trimming along the margin. This group of
tools included various types of scrapers, burins, etc. The site of Mohrana Pahar in
Mirzapur (U.P.) reveals a gradual process of evolution of lithic tools from non-
geometric to geometric ones. Large flake-tools like chopper and chopping tools are by
and large absent, though some examples of these could be found in Tamil Nadu region.
Apart from flake stone tools, the
Mesolithic people also used other
tools which included
hammerstone, perforated discs
or ring stones, querns and
rubbers. The hammerstone was
used, besides other things, for
splitting animal bones; the
function of the ring stone
appears to have been to serve
either as a mace-head or a
weight for a digging stick with
the
help of a wooden handle.
Querns and rubbers must have
been used for processing both
plant and animal food. It may be
 mentioned that some of the
sites such as Langhnaj and
Bagor have also reported hand-
made pottery. The shards are,
however, very small and generally
shapeless, and there is no evidence
that these vessels were used for
cooking [Varma:
1985: 32-3]. There is also
evidence of the use of tools and
ornaments made of bone and
antler by the Mesolithic people.
These include arrowheads,
blades, knives and also rings
which have been found worn as
earrings and necklaces in the
burials. Such bone tools have
been reported from Sarai Nahar
Rai and Mahadaha in the
Gangetic Valley [V.N. Misra:
2002: 118]. (Antler is a solid bony
horn shed by a male deer once a
year. It grows back again next
year).
Apart from flake stone tools, the Mesolithic people also used other tools which included
hammerstone, perforated discs or ring stones, querns and rubbers. The hammerstone
was used, besides other things, for splitting animal bones; the function of the ring
stone appears to have been to serve either as a mace-head or a weight for a digging
stick with the help of a wooden handle. Querns and rubbers must have been used for
processing both plant and animal food. It may be mentioned that some of the sites
such as Langhnaj and Bagor have also reported hand-made pottery. The shards are,
however, very small and generally shapeless, and there is no evidence that these vessels were
used for cooking [Varma: 1985: 32-3]. There is also evidence of the use of tools and
ornaments made of bone and antler by the Mesolithic people. These include arrowheads,
blades, knives and also rings which have been found worn as earrings and necklaces in
the burials. Such bone tools have been reported from Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha in
the Gangetic Valley [V.N. Misra: 2002: 118]. (Antler is a solid bony horn shed by a male deer
once a year. It grows back again next year). In addition to microliths, Mesolithic people used a
variety of non-microlithic tools made on flakes, cores and blades. These comprised choppers,
scrapers, notched flakes, borers and points, made on cores, flakes and blades.
NOTE: The term ‘microlith’ is strictly to be applied only to tools made on microblades or bladelets
(having a maximum length of 50 mm and a width of 12 mm) or occasionally on small flakes, by
blunting one or more margins by steep retouch. Microliths comprise non-geometric forms like
rectangular blunted back blades and points, and geometric forms like crescents or lunates, triangles
and trapezes. Microliths were too small to be used as tools individually; instead, they were used as
components of tools and weapons by being hafted in bone, wood or reed handles and shafts.
 Nature of Archaeological Sites

Archaeological sites are of two types: primary and secondary. Primary sites are those where
cultural material is found in its original context and relatively undisturbed condition. In such a
context organic material is relatively better preserved. Secondary sites are those where
cultural material from spatially, culturally and chronologically unrelated contexts is found
buried in geological deposits after being transported by fluvial agency. However, as most
Mesolithic sites belong to Holocene or Recent period and are only a few thousand years old,
archaeological material on them is found in a primary context either on the surface or buried
in open air or cave/rock shelter habitation deposits. At such sites biological and dating
materials are better preserved. For the reconstruction of life ways, environment and dating,
habitation sites are ideal.

It is suggested that greater

availability of food and better
health of the people were
probably the main factors which
led
to decrease in mortality rate
and the increase in population.
While better rainfall in the
Holocene age contributed to
greater plant growth as well
as increase in fish and animal
population, the use of microliths
as arrows or spear-heads
greatly improved the hunting
efficiency of the Mesolithic man.
The evidence of querns and
mullers which appear for
the first time in this period
further confirms that plant food
was supplementing the animal
diet. Thus, assured of better
food supply, the Mesolithic man
led a healthier and a longer life.
The Mesolithic period is also
significant because the evidence
of burials or the ritual of
intentional disposal of the dead
appears for the first time during
this period. The grave goods
such as bone beads, rings, etc.,
put along with the dead in
some of the graves, are
greatly helpful in giving us an
insight into the beliefs, rituals
and the craft activities of the
Mesolithic man. Finally, the
earliest rock paintings in India
belong primarily to this period.
They throw valuable light
not only on the aesthetic
sense and artistic taste of the
Mesolithic people, but also
enable us to reconstruct their
socio-economic behavior.
Chronologically, Indian
Mesolithic cultures are normally
placed between 8,000 BC to
5,000 - 4,000 BC. But on the
basis of a copper knife
reported from Langhnaj
(Gujarat) and the C-14 dates
received from various other
sites, it is
assigned to a broad time-span
ranging from 8,000 BC - 2,000
BC, surviving well into the
Neolithic and Chalcolithic
phases [Possehl and Rissman:
1992: 465].
Regional
Distribution
In the last five decades, a
large number of Mesolithic sites
have been discovered and
excavated. They are located all
over the country, except in the
regions of northeast India and
the delta of Bengal in the east,
the Punjab plains and the
Gangetic plain beyond
Allahabad in the north, and
Kerala in the south. It is
believed that the absence of
microlithic
sites in these areas was due either
to the lack of stone for making tools
or to the heavy rainfall and dense
vegetation.
In the last five decades, a large number of Mesolithic sites have been discovered
and excavated. They are located all over the country, except in the regions of
northeast India and the delta of Bengal in the east, the Punjab plains and the
Gangetic plain beyond Allahabad in the north, and Kerala in the south. It is
believed that the absence of microlithic sites in these areas was due either to the lack of
stone for making tools or to the heavy rainfall and dense vegetation.

Some of the important sites are :

Teri

Teri sites are located on red-coloured dunes, along the eastern coast of Tamil Nadu. They were
first discovered by Robert Bruce Foote, Father of Indian Prehistory, towards the end of the
nineteenth century. These dunes were formed during the Terminal Phase of the Last Ice Age or
Upper Pleistocene, when sea level had fallen several metres lower than the present one. Because
of lowered sea level large areas were exposed along the coast, and sand from exposed beaches
was blown by wind and deposited along the coast. Hunter-gatherer groups occupied the surfaces
of the dunes to exploit the marine resources of the shallow sea and vegetable resources of the trees
and plants growing in the vicinity of the beach.

The Teri sites, particularly Sawyerpuram, one of the largest, were explored by anthropologist, A.
Aiyappan in the early 1940s. Later, in 1949, F.E. Zeuner, Professor of Environmental Archaeology
at the Institute of Archaeology, London University examined the dunes, studied the red
weathering, and collected stone artifacts from them. Zeuner took the artifacts with him to England
where they were studied by archaeologist, Bridget Allchin. Together they published a
comprehensive article on them, along with a reasoned interpretation of the climate during and
after the formation of the dunes and their occupation by man. Their interpretation continues to be
valid to this day

Sarai Nahar Rai

The site of Sarai Nahar Rai is located in the plain of the Sai river, a tributary of the Gomati, in
Pratapgarh district of Uttar Pradesh. The flat ground outside the village was used by the farmers
for threshing of harvested crop by trampling under oxen hooves. Because of this activity over
many years, stone artifacts, animal bones, and human skeletons buried below the surface got
exposed and came to the notice of the village people. The news spread by word of mouth and
people of surrounding villages started visiting the place out of curiosity.

The news reached the ears of Dr. Ojha, a lecturer in the Department of Ancient Indian History,
Culture & Archeology, Allahabad University and Acting Director of U.P. State Archaeology
Department. Through Dr. Ojha, it came to the notice of G.R Sharma, Head, of Archaeology
department, Allahabad University, who carried 22 Mesolithic Cultures out an excavation at the
site and discovered a large quantity of stone artefacts, clay-coated fresh water shells, animal
bones, and 14 human skeletons in excellent state of preservation.

Langhnaj
This important microlithic site is situated on the eastern bank of the Sabarmati River. Three
distinct phases could be recognized:

 The first phase contained microliths, pot-sherds, graves and fossilized bones of animals.

 In the second phase, a larger number of such findings could be discovered along with some
polished Celts and ring-stones and fragments of pots.

 The third phase is composed of numerous pot-sherds, stone arrow heads, and fragments of corn-
grinders.

Birbhanpur

Birbhanpur is in the district of Burdwan in West Bengal. Microliths of different geometric

designs, points, scrapers, borers of very small size are common in this site. Aspects of the
Mesolithic way of life3.

Tinnevalley

The Tinnevalley site, located at Madras, was first discovered and studied by Zeuner and Allchin
in the year 1956. Many different types of arrow heads, scrapers, curved arrow heads and borers
were found. Explorers linked these with the Middle Stone Age tools of central Sri Lanka where
the same type of Tens stratum has been found, which dates approximately 4000 B.C.

3
The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age, by Richard Rudgley
Mesolithic Sites on Indian Map:
 Mesolithic Age in India4
4
Sailendra Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, p. 23, 1999, New Age International
It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characteristic tools are
microliths, all made of stone. Microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan
Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age.

The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of
animals has also been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Tools are characterised by
parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony,
jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimetres long.

Paintings have been discovered at various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. In these paintings,
various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most
frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses.
Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting,
playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, green,
white and yellow were used in making these paintings.

The Mesolithic culture in India corresponds to the second cultural phase of Pleistocene. Early
scholars considered the Mesolithic industries as ‘Proto-Neolithic’. Most of the deposits have been
discovered from stratified sites formed by the second phase of aggradation as found in
Maharashtra, especially on Godavari river valley and its tributaries. The middle Stone Age in
India bears the following characteristics;

 Microlithism is totally absent in north India.

 There was a sudden disappearance of pebble tools, which were conspicuous in the preceding
cultures.

 Heavier tools were not be discovered in the microlithic assemblages, excepting a few sites in
Western and Central India.

 Microliths contain scrapers, points, scraper-cum-borers, and scraper-cum-points in common.

 Hand-axes, choppers, discoid have also been discovered.

Conclusion

The Mesolithic Age, also known as the Middle Stone Age, was the second period of the Stone
Age. It lasted in India from 9,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C. The evidence for the 'Mesolithic stage'
in India is both qualitatively and quantitatively stronger than the Palaeolithic Age. This stage
is much shorter when compared to Palaeolithic stage. Mesolithic period is characterised by
Microliths or the tiny tools. The diet of the Mesolithic people consisted of leaves, flowers, fruits,
seeds, roots, and tubers, flesh of wild land and water animals, and birds. Mesolithic stage in India
represented in the following states: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. Near the end of the
Palaeolithic epoch, India, like Europe, Africa, and parts of Asia, experienced a major climate
shift. These changes have had an impact on how people have lived in subsequent eras.

The Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic period were periods of major transformations and
provided the foundation for evolution of the human society. Alongside biological changes, the
early humans were making great cultural modifications. From making simple Oldowan tools
they reached the stage where they began to produce fine blades. From scavenging they
evolved as expert hunters as well as gatherers. From adapting to environmental changes, to
adjusting to newer circumstances, early humans paved their way for transformation from a
simple hunting-gathering-scavenging society to food producing economies.

The early Mesolithic sites have yielded the faunal remains of cattle, sheep, buffalo, pig, bison,
elephant, hippo, wolf, cheetah, black buck, and fish. The appearance and disappearance of the
animals has to be understood in the context of changing climatic and environmental conditions.
The diet of the people during Mesolithic Age included both meat and vegetal food. The remains of
fish, tortoise, hare, mongoose, porcupine, deer, and nilgai have been found from different
Mesolithic sites like Langhanaj and Tilwara and it seems these were consumed as food. At Bagor,
a paved floor littered with bones has been identified by V. N. Mishra as a place for butchering
animals or a slaughter house. At Bagor and Adamgarh, there is evidence of domestication of
cattle, sheep, and goat.

Bibliography
 Misra, V.N. 2002. Mesolithic Culture in India, In, Mesolithic India, (V.D. Misra and J.N.
Pal (Eds.)., PP. 1-66. Allahabad: Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology,
Allahabad University.
 India’s Ancient Past by R.S. Sharma

Websites Visited:

 Mesolithic Period - INSIGHTSIAS (insightsonindia.com)

 Mesolithic Tool Kit | Educational Images | Historic England
 Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age)10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE - Ancient India History
Notes (prepp.in)
 Mesolithic-sites-in-India.jpg (441×571) (wp.com)