BHIC-101

B. A. HON. IN HISTORY (BAHIH)

Term-End Examination December, 2020
BHIC-101 : HISTORY OF INDIA-I

Time : 3 Hours Maximum Marks : 100

Note : Attempt any five questions in about 400 words each. Attempt at least
two questions from each Section. All questions carry equal marks.

PART-I

1. Discuss the main sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history? 20

Ans: The reconstruction of ancient Indian history relies on a rich tapestry of sources that can be
broadly categorized into literary and archaeological evidence.
Literary Sources: These include religious and secular texts, providing a wealth of information
about the cultural, political, and social aspects of ancient India. The Vedic texts, such as
the Rigveda, offer insights into the early Vedic civilization, while later texts like
the Upanishads and Sutras delve into philosophical thoughts and societal norms. The two great
epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, not only serve as religious scriptures but also as
historical documents that shed light on the life and times of their eras.
Additionally, Buddhist and Jain scriptures, like the Tripitakas and Jataka tales, provide valuable
historical details.
Archaeological Sources: These consist of material remains from the past, such
as monuments, inscriptions, coins, and artifacts. Excavations at various sites have unearthed
ruins of ancient cities, temples, and other structures that reveal the architectural and cultural
achievements of the time. Inscriptions on pillars, rocks, and temples, like the edicts of Emperor
Ashoka, are crucial for understanding the administrative systems and societal values. Coins from
different periods help in dating historical events and understanding economic conditions.
Foreign Accounts: The observations of foreign travelers like Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang,
and Megasthenes offer an outsider’s perspective on the Indian subcontinent, providing
corroborative evidence to the indigenous sources.
Scientific Techniques: Modern scientific methods like Carbon-14 dating and radiocarbon
dating have been instrumental in validating the chronology of historical events and artifacts.
Together, these sources form a composite picture of ancient India, allowing historians to piece
together the complex puzzle of its past. They not only narrate the story of India’s rich heritage but
also highlight the continuous thread of human civilization that has thrived on the subcontinent for
millennia.

2. Define Prehistory. Discuss the Lower Palaeolithic with reference to the site of
Hunsgi. 20

Ans: Prehistory refers to the period of human history before recorded events, primarily known
through archaeological discoveries. It spans from the first known use of stone tools by
hominins (around 3.3 million years ago) to the advent of writing systems. While symbols and
images appeared early among humans, the earliest known writing systems emerged around 5,200
years ago. Prehistory ended at different times in different places, as writing systems gradually
spread across cultures. In India, the transition from prehistory to history occurred with the
development of indigenous scripts and historical records1.
Lower Palaeolithic and the Hunsgi Site:
a) Lower Palaeolithic:
 o The Lower Palaeolithic represents an ancient stage in human cultural and biological
evolution.
o During this period, early humans made significant advancements, including bipedal
posture, brain enlargement, and the intentional preparation of tools from natural materials
like stone and wood.
o It covers a vast time span of approximately 2.5 million years.
o The branch of archaeology that studies this initial stage of human history is
called prehistory.
o Prehistory deals with the origins and growth of human societies before the advent of
writing systems.
o In India, a transitional stage called protohistory bridges the gap between prehistory
and history, characterized by early agropastoral Neolithic-Chalcolithic communities2.
b) Hunsgi Site:
o Hunasagi (also known as Hunsagi) is a taluk in Yadgir district, Karnataka, India.
o Several early Palaeolithic sites have been discovered in Hunasagi.
o Notably, the Hunasagi-Baichbal Valley has yielded significant archaeological
evidence.
o Excavations at this site revealed stone tools and animal remains.
o These findings shed light on the subsistence patterns and ecological
adaptations of early humans.
o The stone tools found here are considered older than those in Pallavaram, Tamil
Nadu.
o About 15,000 stone tools have been found in abundance, providing valuable insights
into the Lower Palaeolithic period3.
In summary, prehistory encompasses the ancient journey of human evolution, and the
Hunsgi site in Karnataka offers a glimpse into the early stages of human culture through its
rich archaeological record2.

3. Explain the characteristics of the Neolithic culture. 20

Ans: The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, marked a profound transformation
in human history, characterized by several groundbreaking developments.
Transition from Nomadic to Settled Life: One of the most significant changes during the
Neolithic era was the shift from a nomadic lifestyle to settled farming communities. This transition
allowed for the establishment of permanent villages and the construction of more complex
societal structures.
Advancements in Toolmaking: Neolithic people developed advanced stone tool technology,
characterized by polished and ground stone tools. These were more efficient and durable than
the earlier flaked stone tools of the Paleolithic era.
Domestication of Plants and Animals: Agriculture was a cornerstone of Neolithic culture, with
the domestication of plants like wheat, barley, and rice, and animals such as cattle, sheep,
and goats. This led to a more reliable food supply and the beginnings of food surplus storage.
Development of Pottery: The Neolithic era saw the invention of pottery, which revolutionized the
way people stored, cooked, and transported food and water. Pottery also became an artistic
expression, with various styles and decorations reflecting different cultures.
Textile and Weaving: The period also witnessed the birth of weaving, with the production of
textiles from plant fibers and animal wool. This craft not only provided clothing but also became a
significant economic activity.
Social Organization and Division of Labor: As communities grew, a more complex social
organization emerged, including a division of labor. Specialized roles such as toolmakers, weavers,
and potters became common, leading to the first semblance of an economy based on trade and
barter.
Architectural Developments: Neolithic architecture included mud-brick houses and monumental
structures like megaliths. These constructions demonstrate the increasing ability of Neolithic
societies to manipulate their environment and create lasting landmarks.
Cultural and Religious Practices: The era also saw the development of religious and cultural
practices, with evidence of burial rituals and artistic expressions such as cave paintings and
carvings.
Spread and Regional Variations: The Neolithic culture spread from its origins in the Fertile
Crescent across Asia and Europe, with each region developing its unique characteristics based on
local resources and traditions.
In summary, the Neolithic period was a time of great innovation and change, laying the
foundations for modern civilization through the development of agriculture, technology, and social
structures.

4. Discuss any two of the following: 10+10

(a) Emergence of Iron

Ans: The emergence of iron fundamentally changed ancient societies. The Iron
Age began between 1200 B.C. and 600 B.C., varying by region, following the Stone and
Bronze Ages1. Initially, iron was not favored over bronze, as early iron tools and weapons
were less durable1. However, the discovery of steel-making, which involved heating iron
with carbon, revolutionized its use, making it a superior material due to its hardness 1.
Iron’s prevalence began in the Middle East and southeastern Europe around 1200
B.C., but it reached China much later, around 600 B.C.2. The Hittites of Asia Minor are
credited with being the first to smelt iron from its ores around 1500 B.C., giving them
significant power due to iron’s strength3.
The widespread use of iron led to new patterns of settlement and the armament of
the masses, sparking large-scale migrations and social transformations that lasted for
millennia. It facilitated the development of more permanent communities, as iron implements
significantly improved agricultural efficiency and productivity2.
In essence, the advent of iron technology marked the end of the Bronze Age and the
beginning of a new era characterized by advanced metallurgy, which had profound
implications for the development of human civilization.

(b) Teachings of the Buddha

Ans: The teachings of the Buddha, also known as Dhamma, are profound and aim to
liberate individuals from suffering. Central to his teachings are the Four Noble Truths and
the Noble Eightfold Path.
i) The Four Noble Truths:
o Suffering (Dukkha): Acknowledges that suffering exists in life.
o Cause of Suffering (Samudaya): Identifies desire and attachment as the
causes of suffering.
o End of Suffering (Nirodha): Asserts that it’s possible to end suffering.
o Path to End Suffering (Magga): Prescribes the Eightfold Path as the means
to end suffering.
ii) The Noble Eightfold Path:
o Right Understanding: Comprehending the Four Noble Truths.
o Right Intent: Cultivating pure thoughts and intentions.
o Right Speech: Engaging in truthful, positive, and helpful communication.
o Right Action: Behaving ethically and morally.
o Right Livelihood: Choosing a profession that does not harm others.
o Right Effort: Making an active effort to improve oneself.
o Right Mindfulness: Being aware of thoughts, feelings, and actions.
o Right Concentration: Practicing meditation to develop focus and insight.
These principles guide followers toward a moral life, mindful and aware of thoughts
and actions, and developing wisdom and understanding 1. The Buddha’s teachings
emphasize the impermanent and interconnected nature of all things, encouraging a path of
ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom for the cessation of dukkha.

(c) Ajivikas
Ans: Ajivika (Sanskrit: आजीविक, IAST: Ājīvika) was an ancient philosophical and ascetic
movement in the Indian subcontinent. Here are the key points about the Ajivikas:
i) Founding and Rivalry:
o Founded around the 5th century BCE by Makkhali Gosāla, the Ajivikas were
a Śramaṇa movement.
o They emerged as a major rival to Vedic religion, early Buddhism,
and Jainism.
o The precise identity of the Ajivikas remains unclear, and they may have been a
divergent sect of either Buddhists or Jains.
ii) Philosophical Doctrine:
o The Ajivikas adhered to the doctrine of absolute
fatalism or determinism (Niyati).
o They believed that everything—past, present, and future—was entirely
preordained by cosmic principles.
o Individual free will was denied, and liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth,
death, and rebirth was considered impossible.
iii) Metaphysics and Atomism:
o Ajivika metaphysics included a theory of atoms, which later influenced
the Vaiśeṣika school.
o They believed that everything was composed of atoms, and qualities emerged
from aggregates of these atoms.
o The aggregation and nature of atoms were predetermined by cosmic laws and
forces.
iv) Change and Illusion:
o Ajivikas considered all change to be illusory, believing that everything was
eternally immobile.
o Their philosophy gained prominence during the Mauryan rule.
o In summary, the Ajivikas were known for their fatalistic worldview, denying free
will and emphasizing predetermined cosmic forces. Their influence waned over time,
but their unique perspective left a mark on ancient Indian thought.

(d) Alexander’s Invasion of India

Ans: The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great began in 327 BC and lasted until 325
BC. After conquering the Achaemenid Persian Empire, the Macedonian army undertook
an expedition into the northwestern Indian subcontinent. Within two
years, Alexander expanded the Macedonian Empire to include present-
day Punjab and Sindh in what is modern-day Pakistan, surpassing the earlier frontiers
established by the Persian conquest of the Indus Valley.
Following Macedon’s absorption of Gandhara, including the city of Taxila, Alexander
and his troops advanced into Punjab, where they were confronted by Porus, the regional
Indian king. In 326 BC, Alexander defeated Porus during the Battle of the Hydaspes, but
that engagement was possibly the Macedonians’ most costly battle. Alexander’s continued
eastward march led his army into a confrontation with the Nanda Empire, based
in Magadha. The Nanda army was reportedly five times the size of the Macedonian army.
Facing exhaustion and anxiety, Alexander’s troops mutinied at the Hyphasis River, refusing
to advance further east. He subsequently turned southward, conquering more tribes along
the lower areas of the Indus River before finally returning westward to reach Macedon12.
Although Alexander’s invasion of India had relatively little long-term influence on
Indian society, it facilitated the establishment of a strong empire by clearing the way for
Chandragupta Maurya to rule the numerous kingdoms and tribes of Punjab. Additionally, it
opened up new trade routes, enhancing commerce between India and European countries.
 Part-II

5. Discuss the geographical spread of Harappan Civilization. What are the chief
characteristics of the early Harappan Phase. 20

Ans: The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was one of the
earliest urban cultures in the Indian subcontinent. Its geographical extent was vast, covering an
area that included present-day India, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan. Here are some key
points about its spread:
a) Western Boundary: The civilization extended from Balochistan in the west to the Yamuna
River in the east.
b) Northern Boundary: It reached as far north as Jammu and Kashmir.
c) Southern Boundary: The southern reaches of the Harappan Civilization may have lasted
long into the second millennium BCE.
d) Major Regions: The civilization flourished in regions that now correspond
to Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
Chief Characteristics of the Early Harappan Phase
The Early Harappan phase laid the foundation for the mature civilization. Here are its key features:
a) Town Planning:
o Harappan cities followed a grid system in their layout, with roads intersecting at right
angles.
o The cities were divided into blocks, and house drains efficiently carried wastewater to
street drains.
o The Citadel (raised area) and the lower town were distinct parts of the cities.
b) Central Administration:
o The civilization had a centralized authority controlling water distribution and other
resources.
o Standardization was evident in the size of bricks (in a ratio of 1:2:4) and weights
(increasing proportionally by 8).
o Majestic non-residential buildings served as public administrative offices.
c) Social Organization:
o The society was stratified, with a middle class engaged in highly developed civic life.
o Division of labor existed based on specialization (craftsmen, traders, potters, etc.).
o Evidence of burials indicates rituals after death.
In summary, the Harappan Civilization was characterized by advanced urban planning,
standardized systems, and a stratified social structure. It left a lasting legacy in the Indian
subcontinent.

6. Discuss economy and society of the later Vedic period. 20

Ans: Economy of the Later Vedic Period:

a) Agriculture and Animal Husbandry:
o Backbone of the Economy: Agriculture and animal husbandry remained central to
the economy.
o Crops: Wheat and barley were staple crops.
o Domesticated Animals: Cattle, sheep, goats, and horses were reared.
o Trade and Commerce: Urbanization led to increased trade and commerce along the
Ganges valley.
b) Craftsmanship and Urbanization:
o Craft Specialization: Different occupations emerged, including pottery, blacksmiths,
musicians, goldsmiths, etc.
o Urban Centers: Cities like Kuru, Panchala, and Videha witnessed growth due to
urbanization.
c) Writing System and Standardization:
o Developed Writing System: The Later Vedic period saw the use of a more
developed writing system.
 o Standardization: Uniform weights and measures were introduced, ensuring
accuracy in trade and transactions.
Society of the Later Vedic Period:
a) Social Hierarchy:
o Varna System: Society was divided into varnas (classes) based on occupation.
o Aryans and Dasas: The struggle between the Aryan community (white race) and the
Dasa/Dasyu community (black race) persisted.
o Position of Women: Women had limited rights, no ritualistic roles, and lacked Vedic
education.
b) Middle-Class Urban Society:
o Egalitarian Society: The Later Vedic society was more complex than the Rig Vedic
age.
o Middle Class: The middle class played a significant role in civic life.
o Division of Labor: Specialization in crafts and professions emerged.
c) Religious Practices and Rituals:
o Cult of Sacrifice: Rituals like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha symbolized imperial sway
and power.
o Titles and Imperialism: Kings adopted impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat,
and Virat to signify growth of imperialism.
In summary, the Later Vedic period witnessed economic growth, urbanization, and social
stratification. It laid the groundwork for subsequent developments in ancient Indian
civilization.

7. Discuss the factors which led to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism in the sixth
century BCE. 20

Ans: The rise of Buddhism and Jainism in the sixth century BCE was a significant event in Indian
history, marking a shift from Vedic religious practices to these new philosophical doctrines. Here
are the key factors that contributed to their emergence:
a) Reaction Against Ritualism:
o The Vedic religion had become complex and ritualistic, with an emphasis on
ceremonies and sacrifices that were beyond the comprehension and means of common
people1.
o Buddhism and Jainism offered simpler, more personal paths to spiritual growth, free
from elaborate rituals1.
b) Corruption in Religion:
o The priestly class, or Brahmins, exerted significant control over society, often forcing
people to perform expensive rituals and sacrifices1.
o Both Buddhism and Jainism rejected this priestly dominance, appealing to those who
were disillusioned with the existing religious order1.
c) Rigid Caste System:
o The Aryan society was divided into a strict caste system that was oppressive for the
lower castes1.
o Buddhism and Jainism preached equality and did not recognize caste distinctions,
attracting those marginalized by the caste system1.
d) Difficulty in Understanding Sanskrit:
o Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, was not understood by the masses 1.
o The teachings of Buddha and Mahavira were delivered in Prakrit languages, which
were more accessible to the common people1.
e) Political Patronage:
o The powerful kingdom of Magadha, under rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru,
provided patronage to these new religions1.
o This support helped Buddhism and Jainism to flourish and spread far and wide1.
f) Agricultural Economy:
o The killing or sacrifice of animals was against the interests of the predominantly
agrarian society, as animals were essential for plowing the land1.
 o Both religions advocated non-violence and the protection of animal life, resonating
with the farming community1.
g) Intellectual Awakening:
o The period saw a general intellectual awakening, with people questioning established
norms and seeking answers to existential questions1.
o Buddhism and Jainism provided alternative philosophical perspectives that satisfied
this intellectual curiosity1.
h) Urbanization:
o The growth of cities and trade led to the rise of a new merchant class that sought a
religion that supported their way of life1.
o The egalitarian principles of Buddhism and Jainism were attractive to these new
urban dwellers1.
o In conclusion, the rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the result of a confluence of
social, economic, religious, and political factors that resonated with the needs and
aspirations of a changing society in ancient India.

8. Discuss any two of the following: 10+10

(a) Janapadas and Mahajanapadas of sixth century BCE

Ans: The Janapadas and Mahajanapadas were significant political entities in ancient
India during the sixth century BCE. Here’s a concise explanation:
Janapadas:
• The term “Janapada” literally means the foothold of a people.
• These were the major kingdoms or realms where the Aryans settled and formed
communities.
• The Janapadas represented the initial phase of state formation and urbanization in
Vedic India1.
Mahajanapadas:
• “Mahajanapada” translates to a “great realm” or “great country”.
• They were the larger and more established kingdoms that emerged from the union of
smaller Janapadas.
• The Anguttara Nikaya, a Buddhist text, mentions 16 great kingdoms or
Mahajanapadas that flourished during this period2.
The Mahajanapadas marked a shift towards centralized governance and were characterized
by:
• Monarchies or Republics: Some were ruled by kings, while others
like Vajji and Malla were Gana-Sanghas or oligarchic assemblies1.
• Socio-Economic Development: The use of iron tools in agriculture and warfare led
to socio-economic progress and expansion of these states1.
• Second Urbanisation: This era saw the rise of urban centers and the shift of political
power from the west to the east of the Indo-Gangetic plains due to fertile lands and proximity
to iron production centers1.
In essence, the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas represent the evolving political landscape
of ancient India, setting the stage for the emergence of large empires like the Maurya and
Gupta empires.

(b) Reasons for the rise of Magadha

Ans: The rise of Magadha as a powerful state in ancient India can be attributed to several
factors:
i) Geographical Advantage:
o Magadha’s strategic location in the Ganges valley provided access to fertile
lands and abundant natural resources.
o The confluence of the Ganga, Gandak, and Sone
rivers near Pataliputra (modern-day Patna) facilitated trade and economic
prosperity1.
ii) Abundance of Iron:
o Magadha had significant deposits of iron ore.
o The availability of iron allowed Magadha to equip its army with effective
weapons, giving it a military edge1.
iii) Agricultural Productivity:
o The fertile Gangetic plain supported agriculture, contributing to Magadha’s
prosperity.
o A large population engaged in farming, mining, and city-building1.
iv) Political Patronage:
o Rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru provided strong political support to
Magadha.
o Bimbisara’s matrimonial alliances with neighboring states strengthened
Magadha’s position2.
v) Effective Administration:
o Bimbisara established an efficient administrative system.
o His officers were divided into executive, military, and judicial categories,
ensuring effective governance2.
vi) Diplomacy and Alliances:
o Bimbisara maintained friendly relations with distant neighbors
like Gandhara and Avanti.
o He even sent his physician to Ujjain when the Avanti king was ill,
demonstrating diplomatic wisdom2.
In summary, Magadha’s rise was fueled by its geographical advantages, iron
resources, agricultural productivity, political astuteness, and effective administration.

(c) Megasthenes’ Indica

Ans: Megasthenes’ “Indica” is a significant historical account that offers a glimpse into
ancient India during the Mauryan Empire. Although the original text is lost, fragments have
survived through later Greek and Latin authors1. Megasthenes, a Greek diplomat and
historian, served as an ambassador to the Mauryan court of Chandragupta Maurya around
305 BCE2.
“Indica” provides a detailed description of Indian society, culture, governance, and
geography. Megasthenes depicted India as a land of great wealth, diversity, and complexity.
He wrote about the caste system, urban centers, and the flourishing economy. His accounts
include observations on Indian philosophy, food, clothing, and wildlife, offering a foreign
perspective on the subcontinent1.
Despite its value, “Indica” has been subject to scrutiny regarding its accuracy. Some
ancient writers like Strabo criticized Megasthenes for exaggerations and
inaccuracies. Nevertheless, “Indica” remains an essential source for understanding India’s
history, as it represents one of the earliest detailed descriptions of the country by a foreign
visitor.

(d) Ashoka’s Dhamma

Ans: Ashoka’s Dhamma was a unique and pragmatic set of guidelines aimed at ensuring
the welfare of his subjects and promoting social harmony within his vast empire. It was not a
religion but a secular, moral code of conduct, emphasizing ethical living, non-violence, and
respect for all forms of life.
Key Elements of Ashoka’s Dhamma:
• Non-violence (Ahimsa): Advocated peace and non-violence towards all beings1.
• Tolerance: Encouraged tolerance and respect for all religions and philosophies 2.
• Duty towards Others: Emphasized the importance of duty towards one’s parents,
teachers, friends, servants, and fellow beings2.
• Social Responsibility: Promoted the welfare of the public, including healthcare,
infrastructure, and animal welfare1.
Ashoka propagated his Dhamma through inscriptions on pillars and rocks across his empire.
These edicts were written in the local languages for everyone to understand. The Dhamma
was a reflection of Ashoka’s personal transformation after the Kalinga War, which led him to
embrace Buddhism and seek a path of peace and righteousness 3.
In essence, Ashoka’s Dhamma was a set of ethical principles that guided the Mauryan
Empire towards a more humane and just society.
 BHIC-101
B. A. (HONOURS) HISTORY (BAHIH)
Term-End Examination December, 2021
BHIC-101 : HISTORY OF INDIA- I

Time : 3 Hours Maximum Marks : 100

Note : Attempt any five questions in 400 words each. Attempt at least two
questions from each Part. All questions carry equal marks.

PART-I

1. Discuss the literacy sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history. What
difficulties do historians face while dealing with literacy sources in India? 20

Ans: The reconstruction of ancient Indian history heavily relies on literary sources, which
provide valuable insights into the past. However, historians encounter several challenges
when dealing with these sources. Let’s explore both aspects:
Literary Sources for the Reconstruction of Ancient Indian History:
a) Vedic Texts:
o The Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) are the oldest
religious texts. They contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical ideas.
o Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads provide further insights into
religious practices, cosmology, and metaphysics.
b) Epics and Puranas:
o The Ramayana and Mahabharata are epic poems that offer historical and
cultural information.
o Puranas contain mythological stories, genealogies, and descriptions of ancient
dynasties.
c) Buddhist and Jain Literature:
o Tripitakas (Buddhist texts) and Jain scriptures provide details about the lives
of Buddha and Mahavira, as well as their teachings.
o Jataka stories narrate the previous lives of Buddha.
d) Foreign Travelers’ Accounts:
o Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, wrote about India during the Mauryan
period.
o Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese pilgrim, documented his travels to India during the
Gupta era.
Challenges Faced by Historians:
a) Language and Translation:
o Many ancient texts were written in languages like Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit,
which require specialized knowledge for accurate interpretation.
o Translating these texts into modern languages can lead to nuances being lost.
b) Selective Preservation:
o Manuscripts were often selectively preserved, leading to gaps in historical
records.
o Some texts were lost due to natural decay, wars, or deliberate destruction.
c) Biased Perspectives:
o Literary sources often reflect the biases of their authors, such as religious or
regional biases.
o Historians must critically analyze these perspectives to extract objective
information.
d) Lack of Chronology:
 o Many texts lack precise dating, making it challenging to establish a
chronological sequence of events.
o Historians rely on cross-referencing and contextual clues.
e) Fragmented Information:
o Literary sources provide fragmented information. Historians must piece
together the puzzle using multiple texts.
o Different texts may present conflicting accounts.
f) Interpretation and Bias:
o Historians interpret literary sources differently, leading to varying historical
narratives.
o Personal biases and cultural contexts influence interpretations.
In summary, while literary sources are invaluable for reconstructing ancient Indian
history, historians must navigate linguistic complexities, biases, and gaps to create a
comprehensive understanding of the past.

2. How do you define the Mature Harappan period? Discuss its chief characteristics
with reference to any two sites. 20

Ans: The Mature Harappan period is a crucial phase within the Indus Valley
Civilization, spanning from approximately 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE1. It followed the Early
Harappan phase and preceded the Late Harappan phase. Let’s delve into its chief
characteristics and explore two significant sites:
a) Urbanization and Large Cities:
o During the Mature Harappan period, the civilization witnessed the emergence
of large urban centers such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
o These cities were meticulously planned, featuring grid-like layouts, well-
organized streets, and brick-built structures.
o Elaborate drainage systems ensured efficient waste disposal, and public
wells provided water supply.
b) Trade and Economy:
o The Indus Valley Civilization engaged in extensive trade networks with
regions as far as Mesopotamia.
o Seals with inscriptions were used for trade and administrative purposes.
These seals depict various animals and symbols.
o The economy was based on agriculture, with crops like peas, sesame
seeds, dates, and cotton being cultivated.
c) Craftsmanship and Metallurgy:
o The Harappans were skilled artisans. They produced
intricate pottery, jewelry, and figurines.
o Bronze and copper were used for making tools, ornaments, and statues.
o The famous bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro exemplifies their
craftsmanship.
d) Social Organization and Governance:
o The society was likely hierarchically structured, with a ruling elite and a
laboring class.
o Centralized authority managed urban planning, trade, and administration.
o However, the Indus script remains undeciphered, limiting our understanding
of governance.

Now, let’s explore two key sites:

• Harappa:
o Located on the bank of the Ravi River in modern-day Pakistan.
o Notable findings include sandstone statues, granaries, and bullock carts.
o Harappa’s urban layout showcases the sophistication of the Mature Harappan
period.
• Mohenjo-Daro:
 o Situated along the Indus River in Larkana district, also in present-
day Pakistan.
o Features the iconic Great Bath, a massive granary, and the intriguing seal of
Pasupathi Mahadeva.
o The city’s advanced infrastructure reflects the pinnacle of Harappan
civilization.
In summary, the Mature Harappan period was characterized by urbanization, trade,
craftsmanship, and a well-organized society. Despite the mysteries surrounding its
governance, this ancient civilization left an indelible mark on human history.

3. What are the main sources for the early Vedic period? Was it an egalitarian
society? Discuss. 20

Ans: The Early Vedic Period, also known as the Rigvedic Period, dating from
around 1500 to 1000 BCE, is a significant era in ancient Indian history. The primary sources
for understanding this period are:
a) Literary Sources:
o The Vedas are the foremost literary sources, with the Rigveda being the
oldest and most important text of this period1.
o The Samhitas, which are collections of hymns, mantras, and rituals.
o The Brahmanas, prose texts that explain the Samhitas.
o The Aranyakas and Upanishads, which provide philosophical insights and
discussions on rituals2.
b) Archaeological Sources:
o Remains of fire altars and pottery such as the Painted Grey Ware.
o Burial sites and material culture that reflect the lifestyle of the Vedic people.
c) Linguistic Analysis:
o Study of the Sanskrit language used in the Vedas, which provides insights
into the social structure, culture, and beliefs of the period.
Regarding the societal structure, the Early Vedic society was largely egalitarian:
• Tribal Organization:
o Society was organized into tribes or clans known as ‘jana’ and 'vis’3.
o There was no rigid social hierarchy, and the society was based on kinship and
familial ties4.
• Occupational Flexibility:
o Occupation was not strictly hereditary, and individuals could choose their
profession3.
o The concept of Varna (color) was present but was more fluid and not linked to
occupation or birth.
• Role of Women:
o Women had a relatively higher status, participating in religious rituals and
enjoying some degree of freedom3.
• Absence of Caste System:
o The rigid caste system, known as the Varna system, had not yet developed
during the Early Vedic Period1.
o The society was pastoral and nomadic, with wealth measured in terms of cattle
rather than land or gold.
In conclusion, the Early Vedic Period is characterized by its rich literary sources that
offer a glimpse into the life and beliefs of the Vedic Aryans. The society of this time was
more egalitarian, with less emphasis on social stratification and more on communal and
tribal affiliations. This period laid the foundation for the complex societal structures that
would emerge in the later Vedic Period.

4. Discuss any two of the following: 10+10

(a) Mesolithic Rock Art

Ans: Mesolithic Rock Art, bridging the gap between

the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods, is a testament to the artistic and cultural
evolution of early humans during the Mesolithic era (10,000 - 7,000 BCE)1. This art
form is characterized by:
• Transition in Location: Unlike the Paleolithic cave paintings, Mesolithic rock
art often moved outdoors to vertical cliffs or natural rock faces, frequently
sheltered by overhangs due to the warmer climate1.
• Diverse Techniques: It includes both rock paintings
(petrographs) and engravings (petroglyphs), showcasing a variety of artistic
expressions2.
• Themes and Subjects: The art features small painted figures
of humans and animals, reflecting the daily life and environment of Mesolithic
communities3.
• Cultural Significance: These artworks provide insights into the social
structure, hunting practices, and spiritual beliefs of the people of that time2.
• Geographical Spread: Mesolithic rock art sites are found across Europe, with
a notable concentration on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, indicating widespread
human activity and artistic endeavor3.
In essence, Mesolithic Rock Art represents a significant shift in prehistoric art,
marking the progression from cave dwellings to open-air expressions and highlighting
the adaptability and creativity of early human societies.

(b) Geographic extent of Harappan civilization

Ans: The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was
one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, alongside those of Mesopotamia and
Ancient Egypt. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of
Asia, and extended into the Ganges-Yamuna Doab12.
Geographically, the civilization extended from Balochistan in the west to
the Yamuna river in the east, and from Jammu and Kashmir in the north to the Gulf
of Khambhat in the south1. This vast region included parts of what is
today Pakistan, northwest India, and eastern Afghanistan.
Key sites that mark the civilization’s boundaries are Manda in Jammu and
Kashmir; Shortughai in Afghanistan; Harappa in Western Punjab; Mohenjo-
Daro and Chanhudaro in Sindh; Kalibangan in Rajasthan; Lothal and Dholavira in
Gujarat; Banawali and Rakhigarhi in Haryana; Daimbad in Maharashtra;
Sutkagendor on the Makran Coast near the Pakistan-Iran border; and Alamgirpur in
western Uttar Pradesh2.
The Harappan Civilization’s heartland was the Harappa, Kalibangan, and Mohenjo-
Daro axis, with most settlements located in this fertile region, which relied on
monsoon rains and Himalayan rivers for water2. The civilization’s urban centers were
characterized by advanced city planning, with well-laid streets, drainage systems, and
impressive architecture.

(c) Role of iron in the emergence of urbanisation in the Ganga

valley

Ans: The use of iron played a pivotal role in the emergence of urbanization in
the Ganga Valley during ancient times. Let’s explore how iron technology influenced
this transformative phase:
a) Iron Technology and Cultural Shift:
o The Iron Age marked the beginning of iron technology, production, and
its widespread use across the Indian subcontinent.
 o As iron tools replaced earlier materials (such as stone and copper), it
led to significant changes in cultural practices and economic activities.
b) Urbanization and Iron:
o The second urbanization phase emerged in the Ganga Valley and
neighboring regions around the 7th-6th century BCE.
o Urban centers like Taxila, Kosambi, Hastinapura, and others flourished
during this period.
o Iron technology facilitated agricultural expansion, leading to
substantial agricultural surplus that could sustain urban centers.
c) Key Factors:
o Clearing Forests: Iron axes were instrumental in clearing forests,
making land available for cultivation.
o Agricultural Expansion: Iron plows improved agricultural productivity,
enabling surplus food production.
o Trade and Commerce: The use of iron coins implied active trade
networks and economic growth.
o Political Power: Some urban centers served as seats of political
authority, suggesting the development of territorial units and states.
d) Three Stages of Iron Development:
o Stage I: Associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture, characterized
by hunting, animal husbandry, and basic agriculture.
o Stage II: Represented by the Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW) culture, where iron objects became more common, and craftsmanship
expanded.
o Stage III: Urban centers flourished, and iron technology reached its
zenith. Carburization techniques were used by smiths.
o In summary, iron technology transformed the cultural landscape, paving
the way for urbanization in the Ganga Valley. It allowed for agricultural surplus,
trade, and the rise of complex societies. Iron, once harnessed, became a
catalyst for progress.

(d) Teachings of Mahavira

Ans: Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, imparted profound teachings that
continue to inspire millions. Here are the key aspects of his teachings:
a) Belief in Soul and Karma:
o Mahavira emphasized that every element comprises both material and
spiritual factors.
o The soul is bound by karma, accumulated through actions. Liberation
comes from shedding passions and disintegrating karmic forces.
o As karmas decay, the soul’s intrinsic value shines, leading to infinite
greatness and becoming the pure soul (Paramatma).
b) Nirvana:
o Mahavira’s primary goal was salvation (nirvana). To achieve it:
▪ Avoid evil karmas.
▪ Follow five vows: non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness, non-
stealing, chastity, and non-attachment.
▪ Uphold right conduct, faith, and knowledge.
c) Non-Belief in God:
o Mahavira rejected the concept of a creator God.
o He believed that man’s emancipation depended on self-effort, austerity,
and renunciation.
o Liberation was not dependent on external authority.
d) Rejection of Vedas:
o Jainism disregarded the Vedas and Brahmanical rituals.
o The focus shifted to inner purity, ethical conduct, and self-realization.
 e) Ahimsa (Non-Violence):
o Ahimsa was central to Mahavira’s teachings.
o All life forms—animals, plants, rocks—possess life, and harming any
being is unacceptable.
o Ahimsa extends to speech and thoughts.
f) Freedom to Women:
o Mahavira advocated equality and freedom for women.
o Women could pursue spiritual goals, take vows, and attain liberation.
o In summary, Mahavira’s teachings emphasized inner transformation,
ethical living, and the pursuit of liberation through self-discipline and
compassion.

PART-II

5. What were the reasons for the rise of the Magadha Mahajanapada? 20

Ans: The rise of the Magadha Mahajanapada as a dominant power in ancient India was
due to a combination of geographical, political, economic, and cultural factors. Here’s an in-
depth look at the reasons for its ascendancy:
a) Geographical Advantages:
o Magadha’s location in the fertile Gangetic plains led to surplus agricultural
production without the need for additional irrigation facilities 1.
o The region was rich in natural resources, including timber from the forests and
elephants, which were crucial for military and construction purposes1.
b) Economic Strength:
o The economy of Magadha was robust, bolstered by its control over trade
routes that connected eastern and western India2.
o The availability of iron in the region allowed for the production of better tools
and weapons, giving Magadha a technological edge over its rivals 1.
c) Political Acumen:
o Magadha’s rulers, particularly from the Haryanka dynasty, were known for their
political savvy.
o Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, notable kings of Magadha, expanded their empire
through warfare, strategic marriages, and alliances3.
d) Military Prowess:
o The Magadhan army was formidable, with a standing army and a well-
organized military structure.
o The use of war elephants, a symbol of royal power, gave Magadha a
significant advantage in battles3.
e) Cultural and Religious Factors:
o Magadha was a center for cultural and religious activities, attracting scholars,
thinkers, and religious leaders like the Buddha and Mahavira 3.
o The patronage of these religions helped Magadha gain support from various
social and economic groups.
f) Administrative Innovations:
o The administrative system in Magadha was efficient and centralized, with a
bureaucracy that managed various aspects of governance.
o The use of spies and a network of informants kept the rulers informed and
helped maintain internal stability3.
g) Strategic Conquests:
o Magadha’s expansionist policies led to the annexation of neighboring states
and the control of important trade routes.
o The conquest of Anga was particularly significant, as it provided access to the
Bay of Bengal and further trade opportunities3.
In conclusion, the rise of Magadha as a powerful Mahajanapada was not an accident
but the result of strategic geographical positioning, economic development, military strength,
political foresight, and cultural dynamism. These factors combined to create a state that was
well-equipped to become the most powerful kingdom in ancient India, setting the stage for
the later empires that would continue to shape the subcontinent’s history.

6. Discuss the notion of ‘empire’. Did the Mauryas build an empire? 20

Ans: The notion of an ‘empire’ refers to a major political unit where a single sovereign
authority, often centralized, exercises control over territories of great extent or a number of
territories or peoples1. This control can be established through formal annexations or various
forms of informal domination, including military, economic, and cultural means 1. Empires can
be characterized by their unequal relationships between a core state and peripheral states,
with the core exerting dominance over the periphery2.
Now, regarding the Mauryan Empire, it was indeed an empire in the true sense of
the term. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, the Mauryan Empire was the first
to encompass most of the Indian subcontinent3. It was an efficient and highly organized
autocracy with a standing army and civil service3. The empire’s administration and its
operation were so exemplary that they became the model for the Arthashastra (“The
Science of Material Gain”), a work of political economy akin to Niccolò Machiavelli’s The
Prince3.
The Mauryan Empire’s geographic extent was vast, stretching over parts of modern
Iran and almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except for the southern peninsular tip 4.
During Ashoka’s reign (c. 268–232 BCE), the empire briefly controlled the major urban
hubs and arteries of the Indian subcontinent5. Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism and his
subsequent renunciation of military conquest in favor of spreading Buddhism and his policy
of Dharma (righteousness) marked a significant shift in the empire’s approach to
governance3.
The Mauryan Empire’s influence was not limited to its military might and territorial
extent; it also left a lasting cultural and religious legacy. Ashoka’s edicts, inscribed on stone
pillars erected throughout his realm, are among the oldest deciphered original texts of India
and provide valuable insights into the empire’s governance and philosophy 3.
In conclusion, the Mauryan Empire, with its centralized government, extensive territory,
sophisticated bureaucracy, and cultural impact, fits the definition of an empire. It was a
political construct where one state, with Pataliputra as its capital, dominated over a series of
states, establishing a pan-Indian empire that significantly influenced the course of South
Asian history.

7. What was the position of women in ancient India? 20

Ans: The position of women in ancient India varied across different periods and regions,
reflecting a complex tapestry of social norms and cultural practices. Here’s an overview:
a) Harappan/Indus Valley Civilization (2500–1700 BCE):
o Women in the Harappan civilization appear to have enjoyed a significant
status, as suggested by numerous female figurines, including the iconic
“Dancing Girl,” which indicate a goddess-like reverence for women1.
o Artifacts and hairstyles from this period suggest that women played a
prominent role in society1.
b) Rigvedic Period (1500–1000 BCE):
o The Rigvedic society was relatively egalitarian, with women enjoying respect
and reverence1.
o Women had access to education and could participate in religious rituals, and
some hymns in the Rigveda are attributed to women sages1.
c) Later Vedic Period:
o As society transitioned from semi-nomadic to settled agriculture, the status of
women began to decline.
o The emergence of the varna system and the increasing importance of male
progeny for religious rituals led to a more patriarchal society.
 d) Epic Age (Mahabharata and Ramayana):
o Women’s roles became more defined and restricted to household duties,
although epic narratives also depict strong female figures like Draupadi and
Sita.
e) Mauryan Period (322–185 BCE):
o Women’s status varied widely; royal women had access to education and
power, while common women’s roles were more domesticated.
o The Arthashastra mentions women in administrative roles and as bodyguards.
f) Post-Mauryan Period:
o The rise of Buddhism and Jainism offered some women the opportunity to join
religious orders and pursue spiritual goals.
g) Gupta Period (320–550 CE):
o Considered a golden age for arts and sciences, but the position of women
continued to be subordinate.
o Child marriage became more common, and the practice of sati (self-
immolation of widows) was occasionally observed.
h) Medieval Period:
o The position of women further deteriorated due to various socio-political
factors.
o Practices like purdah (seclusion of women) and jauhar (mass self-immolation)
emerged.

In summary, the status of women in ancient India was not static and underwent
significant changes over time. While early periods show signs of gender equality and respect
for women, later periods reflect a shift towards a more patriarchal structure with restricted
roles for women. This evolution was influenced by various factors, including economic
changes, religious transformations, and shifts in social organization.

8. Discuss any two of the following : 10+10

(a) Alexander’s invasion of India

Ans: Alexander the Great’s invasion of India in 326 BCE was a significant event in
both Greek and Indian history. After conquering the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander
turned his attention to India, a land of fabled wealth 1. His campaign began with the
crossing of the Indus River and the subsequent battle with King Porus at the
Hydaspes River, where despite Porus’ valiant resistance, Alexander emerged
victorious2.
The victory, however, came at a high cost, and the battle was one of the most
difficult for the Macedonian army. Alexander’s troops, weary from years of
campaigning and daunted by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies, mutinied at
the Beas River, refusing to march further east1. This marked the easternmost extent
of Alexander’s conquests.
Alexander’s invasion had several impacts on India. It opened up routes
between India and Europe, enhancing trade and cultural exchanges. The Greek
presence in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent influenced local art, architecture,
and coinage, leading to the development of the Greco-Buddhist culture2.
In summary, Alexander’s invasion was a brief but impactful encounter between
the Greek and Indian worlds, leaving a lasting legacy on the cultural and political
landscape of ancient India.

(b) Decline of the Mauryas

Ans: The decline of the Mauryan Empire after the death of Emperor Ashoka in 232
BCE is attributed to several factors:
a) Economic Decline: The vast empire required significant resources to
maintain. The large bureaucracy and standing army led to heavy expenses, straining
the treasury1.
b) Succession Issues: Ashoka’s successors were not as capable or
charismatic. Disputes over succession weakened the central authority and led to
political instability2.
c) Administrative Challenges: The administrative machinery became
overextended and corrupt, leading to inefficiency and mismanagement 1.
d) Regional Uprisings: The empire’s vastness made it difficult to control, and
regional powers began asserting their independence1.
e) Foreign Invasions: The northwest frontiers faced incursions from foreign
tribes, further weakening the empire’s integrity1.
f) Final Blow: The assassination of the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, by his
general Pushyamitra Shunga, who then founded the Shunga dynasty, marked the
end of the Mauryan rule in 185 BCE3.
These factors collectively contributed to the gradual weakening and eventual
disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, which had once been the largest empire in the
Indian subcontinent.

(c) Mauryan administration

Ans: The Mauryan administration was a highly organized and centralized system,
which was a significant innovation in ancient Indian governance. The Emperor, as the
supreme authority, was at the top of the administrative hierarchy, assisted by a
Council of Ministers known as the Mantriparishad1. The empire was divided into
provinces, districts, and further into villages, each with its own administrative units for
efficient governance1.
Key officials included the Tirthas, the highest category of officials, and
the Adhyakshyas, who were responsible for various economic and military
functions2. The Mahamattas were higher-ranking officials, while the Amatyas were
akin to modern-day secretaries with administrative and judicial roles2.
The Arthashastra, attributed to Chanakya (Kautilya), provides detailed insights into
the administrative system, emphasizing the importance of a strong military, a
prosperous treasury, and efficient management of resources 1. The text outlines the
roles of various officials, including the Yuktas (revenue officers), Rajjukas (land
surveyors), and Sthanikas (tax collectors), among others2.
In summary, the Mauryan administration was a sophisticated system that facilitated
the management of one of the largest empires in ancient India, setting a precedent
for future administrations in the region.

(d) Technological achievements in ancient India

Ans: Ancient India’s technological achievements were groundbreaking and laid the
foundation for many modern sciences and technologies. Here are some highlights:
a) Mathematics:
o The concept of zero and the decimal system were revolutionary
inventions by Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata1.
o These innovations facilitated mathematical operations such as addition
and subtraction and allowed for the representation of large numbers using only
ten symbols1.
b) Astronomy:
o Indian astronomers made precise celestial observations and
calculations, contributing significantly to the field1.
c) Medicine:
o The “Sushruta Samhita” is one of the earliest known texts on surgery
and demonstrated advanced surgical knowledge for its time1.
d) Metallurgy:
o India was renowned for its metallurgical expertise, particularly in the
production of high-quality steel known as Wootz2.
o The Iron Pillar of Delhi, which has never rusted, is a testament to the
advanced metallurgy of ancient India2.
e) Lost Wax Technique:
o This metal casting technique, invented over 5,000 years ago, allowed
for the creation of intricate sculptures and is still used today2.

These technological achievements not only exhibit the ingenuity of ancient

Indian civilizations but also their enduring impact on the development of global
science and technology.
 BHIC-101
B. A. (HONOURS) HISTORY (BAHIH)
Term-End Examination June, 2022
BHIC-101 : HISTORY OF INDIA-I

Time : 3 Hours Maximum Marks : 100

Note : Attempt any five questions in 400 words each. Attempt at least two questions from
each Section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-I

1. Discuss the archaeological sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history. 20

Ans: Archaeological sources are invaluable for reconstructing ancient Indian history, providing
tangible evidence of past cultures and civilizations. Here’s an overview of the key archaeological
sources:
a) Monuments:
o Monuments like temples, stupas, and palaces offer insights into the architectural
styles, religious beliefs, and the power of rulers1.
o Structures such as the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the rock-cut caves of Ajanta
and Ellora reveal artistic and religious developments.
b) Paintings:
o Paintings, particularly those found in caves, depict the culture, attire, and religious
beliefs of ancient Indians1.
o The Ajanta cave paintings are a prime example, showcasing the life of the Buddha
and Jataka tales.
c) Paleontology:
o The study of fossilized remains helps understand the environment and biodiversity of
ancient India1.
o Fossils from the Siwalik Hills and other sites provide clues about the flora and fauna.
d) Inscriptions:
o Inscriptions on stone or metal are crucial for understanding political history,
administration, and social life1.
o Ashoka’s edicts are a significant source, offering insights into his reign and policies.
e) Epigraphy:
o The study of ancient inscriptions, or epigraphy, helps decipher scripts and languages
used in ancient times1.
o The Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts were decoded using inscriptions like the Rosetta
Stone of India, the Ratnagiri inscription.
f) Paleography:
o Paleography, the study of ancient handwriting, is essential for dating texts and
understanding linguistic development1.
o Manuscripts found in Nalanda and Takshashila have been studied to understand the
evolution of scripts.
g) Coins:
o Coins provide information on trade, economy, and the extent of kingdoms 1.
o The Punch-marked coins of the Mahajanapadas and the gold coins of the Gupta
Empire are examples of valuable numismatic evidence.
h) Miscellaneous Artifacts:
 o Everyday items like pottery, tools, and jewelry offer a glimpse into the daily life, trade,
and technology1.
o Harappan seals, terracotta figurines, and bead jewelry are some artifacts that help
reconstruct the lifestyle of ancient Indians.
These archaeological sources, combined with literary records and foreign accounts, form a
comprehensive picture of India’s rich and diverse past. They allow historians to piece together the
chronology, cultural practices, and societal structures of ancient civilizations, providing a window
into the lives of our ancestors.

2. Discuss the main characteristics of the Mesolithic culture with special

reference to Microliths. 20

Ans: The Mesolithic culture, also known as the Middle Stone Age, represents a crucial
transitional phase between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. It emerged around 10,000
BCE and lasted until the advent of agriculture and settled life. Here are the main characteristics of
Mesolithic cultures, with a special focus on microliths:
a) Microliths:
o Microliths are small, finely crafted stone tools that define the Mesolithic period.
These tools were meticulously shaped and used for various purposes.
o Microliths were made by retouching or flaking small flakes from larger stone cores,
resulting in sharp edges.
o They served as arrowheads, sickles, scrapers, and spear tips. Their precision
reflected advancements in lithic technology.
b) Hunting and Gathering:
o The Mesolithic economy continued to rely on hunting, fishing, and gathering.
o People adapted to changing environments as the tundra and large animal herds of the
Paleolithic disappeared.
o Forested habitats became dominant, and hunting remained essential.
c) Settlement Patterns:
o Mesolithic communities preferred caves, rock shelters, and riversides for
settlements.
o Hunting and fishing settlements along rivers and lakes were common, where fish
and mollusks were abundant.
d) Art and Aesthetics:
o Art flourished during the Mesolithic period.
o The earliest reliably datable rock paintings belong to this stage and are found in
abundance, particularly in Central India.
o These paintings depict animals, humans, and geometric patterns, providing insights
into the aesthetic expression of Mesolithic people.
e) Burials and Rituals:
o Evidence for intentional disposal of the dead appears during the Mesolithic.
o Several sites have yielded human skeletal remains from regular burials, shedding light
on burial practices and social organization.
f) Technological Innovations:
o Microliths were a significant technological advancement.
o Other innovations included composite tools, bone implements, and pottery.
g) Chronology and Geographical Spread:
o The Mesolithic period varied across regions and continents.
o In Europe, it is divided into Early, Middle, and Late Mesolithic stages based on
typological criteria of lithic artifacts.
In summary, the Mesolithic culture was characterized by microliths, artistic expression,
hunting-gathering economies, and adaptations to changing environments. Microliths, with their
precision and versatility, exemplify the technological achievements of this transitional period.
3. What were the main characteristics of the Late Harappan culture? 20

Ans: The Late Harappan Culture, also known as the Decline Phase of the Indus Valley
Civilization, spanned from around 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE. This period marked a significant
transformation from the urban sophistication of the Mature Harappan phase to a more rural and
fragmented society. Here are the main characteristics:
a) De-urbanization:
o The well-planned cities of the Mature Harappan period saw a gradual decline.
o Urban features like grid patterns and drainage systems deteriorated or were
abandoned1.
b) Economic Transformation:
o The extensive trade networks of the Mature Harappan period contracted.
o There was a shift from a trade-based economy to a more localized rural economy1.
c) Technological Changes:
o There was a decline in the quality of craftsmanship and technology.
o Pottery became less sophisticated, and the use of seals became rare 1.
d) Cultural Shifts:
o The uniformity of cultural elements such as weights, measures, and script declined.
o There was a disappearance of the typical Harappan script, and no large-scale art or
architectural works were produced1.
e) Settlement Patterns:
o People moved from cities to smaller villages and rural settings.
o New settlements emerged in regions like Gujarat, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh,
indicating a shift in population1.
f) Agricultural Practices:
o Agriculture continued to be a significant part of life, but with a focus on subsistence
rather than surplus for trade1.
g) Craft Specialization:
o Although there was a general decline, some craft specialization continued, such as
bead-making and terracotta manufacture1.
h) Social Structure:
o The social structure became less complex, moving away from the urban class system
of the Mature Harappan period2.
i) Burial Practices:
o There was a continuation of burial practices, but with less uniformity and fewer grave
goods, reflecting a change in religious beliefs or social structures2.
j) Environmental Changes:
o Climate change and ecological shifts, such as the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra
river system, may have contributed to the decline of urban centers1.
In summary, the Late Harappan Culture was marked by a significant decline in urbanization,
craftsmanship, and trade, with a shift towards rural life and agricultural subsistence. The period saw
the dissolution of the uniform cultural and economic systems that had characterized the Mature
Harappan phase, leading to a fragmented society with varied regional cultures.

4. Discuss any two of the following: 10+10=20

(a) Later Vedic Phase

Ans: The Later Vedic Phase is a crucial period in ancient Indian history, following the
Early Vedic Age. Here are the key characteristics of this phase:
i) Geographical Expansion:
o During the Later Vedic period (around 1000 BCE to 500 BCE), the Aryans moved
eastward from the Punjab region.
o The Satapatha Brahmana refers to their expansion into the eastern Gangetic
plains.
ii) Emergence of Large Kingdoms:
o The Later Vedic period witnessed the growth of large kingdoms.
o The Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished initially.
o Notable rulers included Parikshit, Janamejaya, and Pravahana Jaivali.
iii) Political Changes:
o Larger kingdoms formed by amalgamating various jana (tribes)
into Janapadas or Rashtras.
o The concept of hereditary kingship emerged, and royal power increased.
o Kings performed rituals like Rajasuya, Asvamedha, and Vajapeya to enhance their
prestige and control.
iv) Social Structure:
o The varna system became more pronounced.
o The three divisions of India were referred to as Aryavarta (Northern
India), Madhyadesa (Central India), and Dakshinapatha (Southern India).
v) Cultural and Religious Developments:
o Rock paintings and artistic expressions continued.
o Brahmanas and Upanishads were composed during this period, reflecting
philosophical and spiritual thought.
In summary, the Later Vedic Phase saw territorial expansion, the rise of large
kingdoms, and changes in political and social structures. It laid the groundwork for
subsequent developments in ancient India.

(b) Reasons for the rise of Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century BCE

Ans: The rise of Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century BCE was a response to the
prevailing socio-religious conditions in India. Here are the main reasons:
i) Reaction Against Ritualism: The Vedic rituals had become complex and expensive,
alienating the common people. Buddhism and Jainism offered simpler, more accessible
practices1.
ii) Corruption in Religion: The priestly class exploited the masses by enforcing costly
rituals and sacrifices, leading to widespread disillusionment. The new faiths promoted ethical
conduct over ritualistic worship1.
iii) Rigid Caste System: The rigid social hierarchy created discontent among the lower
castes. Buddhism and Jainism rejected the caste system, advocating equality and attracting
a broad following1.
iv) Language Barrier: Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, was incomprehensible to
most. Buddha and Mahavira preached in Prakrit, making their teachings more relatable and
understandable1.
v) Political Patronage: Rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru supported these new
religions, which helped in their spread and establishment1.
vi) Agricultural Economy: The agrarian community opposed animal sacrifices, which
were integral to Vedic rituals. Both Buddhism and Jainism emphasized non-violence,
including towards animals, aligning with the interests of farmers1.
These factors collectively contributed to the emergence and popularity of Buddhism and
Jainism, marking a significant shift in the religious landscape of ancient India.

(c) Asceticism in the 6th century BCE

Ans: Asceticism in the 6th century BCE was a significant movement within the Indian
subcontinent, characterized by individuals seeking spiritual liberation through extreme self-
discipline and abstention from sensual pleasures. This period, marked by religious and
philosophical ferment, saw the rise of the Sramana tradition, which included groups like the
Buddhists and Jains1.
The Sramanas were wandering ascetics who renounced worldly life, including
possessions, family ties, and social status, to pursue a path of renunciation. They engaged
 in practices such as fasting, meditation, and celibacy, aiming to overcome desires and
attachments that were seen as obstacles to spiritual enlightenment 1.
This movement was partly a reaction against the ritualistic and hierarchical nature of
Vedic Brahmanism, which had become inaccessible and irrelevant to many. The Sramanas
sought direct, personal spiritual experiences rather than mediated rituals performed by the
priestly class1.
Asceticism provided an alternative path to spiritual growth, emphasizing ethical living, self-
control, and the pursuit of truth. It laid the foundation for the teachings of prominent figures
like Gautama Buddha and Mahavira, who would profoundly influence Indian spirituality and
philosophy.

(d) Alexander’s invasion of India

Ans: Alexander the Great’s invasion of India in 327 BCE was a significant event that
marked the eastward expansion of his empire after conquering the Achaemenid Persian
Empire. His campaign into the northwestern Indian subcontinent lasted until 325 BCE, during
which he annexed present-day Punjab and Sindh in modern-day Pakistan1.
Alexander’s army faced stiff resistance from local kings, most notably King Porus at
the Battle of the Hydaspes River. Despite winning the battle, it was a costly victory for
Alexander, and his troops were weary from years of campaigning 1. The prospect of facing
larger Indian armies and the Nanda Empire in the Indo-Gangetic Plain led to a mutiny among
his soldiers at the Hyphasis River, who refused to march further east1.
Ultimately, Alexander’s invasion opened up new channels of communication between
India and Europe, enhancing trade and cultural exchanges. However, his departure from
India marked the end of his eastward conquests, and his empire did not maintain a lasting
presence in the region2. The invasion also had political ramifications, as it facilitated the rise
of the Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta by weakening the small states in northwest
India.

SECTION-II

5. Discuss in detail the administration under the Mauryas. 20

Ans: The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE) established one of the most sophisticated
administrative systems of ancient India. Here’s an in-depth look at the Mauryan administration:
a) Central Government:
o The Emperor was the supreme authority, with all executive, legislative, and judicial
powers vested in him1.
o He was assisted by the Mantriparishad, a Council of Ministers, and the council was
headed by the Mantriparishad-adhyakshya, akin to a Prime Minister today1.
b) Provincial Administration:
o The empire was divided into provinces for efficient governance, each headed by
a Pradeshika (provincial governor) or Rajjukas (district magistrates)1.
o Provinces were further divided into districts and then into rural and urban centers 1.
c) Local Administration:
o The village was the smallest unit, with a significant degree of autonomy.
o The village head was known as the Gramika1.
d) Judicial Administration:
o The Vyavaharika Mahamatta were judiciary officers responsible for maintaining law
and order1.
o Public relations officers, known as Pulisanj, were also part of the administration1.
e) Military Administration:
o The military was under the command of the Senapati, the commander-in-chief, who
was second only to the Emperor1.
o The forces were divided into infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces, navy, and
transport & provisions1.
f) Bureaucracy:
o The Tirthas were the highest category of officials, followed by Adhyakshyas who
managed economic and military functions1.
o Mahamattas and Amatyas were high-ranking officials with administrative and judicial
roles1.
g) Revenue and Finance:
o Yuktas were subordinate officers responsible for the empire’s revenue.
o Sitaadhyaksha supervised agriculture, while Navadhyaksha and Lohadhyaksha managed
ships and iron respectively1.
h) Record Keeping:
o Akshapatala was the Accountant General, and Lipikaras were scribes who
maintained records1.
i) Public Welfare:
o The administration controlled registration of births and deaths, foreigners, industries,
trade, manufacture and sale of goods, and sales tax collection 1.
j) Infrastructure:
o The Durgapala and Antapala were governors of forts and frontiers, ensuring the
security of the empire1.
This elaborate and organized system allowed the Mauryan Empire to maintain control over a
vast territory and diverse populations, setting a precedent for future empires in the Indian
subcontinent.

6. What were the attitudes of ancient Indians towards environment, science and
technology? 20

Ans: Ancient Indian attitudes towards the environment, science, and technology were deeply
rooted in their philosophical and religious beliefs, which emphasized a harmonious relationship with
nature and a keen pursuit of knowledge.
Environment:
• Ancient Indians viewed the environment as an integral part of their existence, with a
profound respect for all living and non-living entities1.
• The concept of Ahimsa (non-violence) extended to environmental conservation, advocating
minimal harm to nature1.
• Deification of natural elements like rivers, trees, and animals was common, reflecting a
spiritual connection with the environment1.
Science:
• Curiosity and observation led to significant advancements in various scientific fields.
• In astronomy, ancient Indians made accurate celestial calculations and contributed to the
understanding of planetary movements2.
• Mathematics saw the invention of the zero and the decimal system, which revolutionized
numerical computation2.
Technology:
• Technological achievements were numerous and advanced for their time.
• Metallurgy was highly developed, as evidenced by the rust-resistant Iron Pillar of Delhi and
the creation of high-quality steel known as Wootz2.
• Hydraulic engineering skills were evident in the construction of sophisticated water
management systems, including dams and canals1.
• The lost wax technique in metallurgy allowed for the creation of intricate sculptures and
artifacts2.
These attitudes and achievements demonstrate that ancient Indians had a holistic view of their
surroundings, integrating environmental consciousness with scientific inquiry and technological
innovation. They pursued knowledge and progress while maintaining a balance with the natural
world, a philosophy that continues to be relevant today.

7. Discuss the position of women in ancient India. 20

Ans: The position of women in ancient India was multifaceted and evolved over various periods,
from the Harappan civilization through the Vedic age to the later historical periods.
Harappan/Indus Valley Civilization (2500–1700 BCE):
• Women in the Harappan civilization appear to have enjoyed a significant status, as
suggested by numerous female figurines, including the iconic “Dancing Girl,” which indicate a
goddess-like reverence for women1.
• Artifacts and hairstyles from this period suggest that women played a prominent role in
society1.
Rigvedic Period (1500–1000 BCE):
• The Rigvedic society was relatively egalitarian, with women enjoying respect and
reverence1.
• Women had access to education and could participate in religious rituals, and some hymns
in the Rigveda are attributed to women sages1.
Later Vedic Period:
• As society transitioned from semi-nomadic to settled agriculture, the status of women began
to decline.
• The emergence of the varna system and the increasing importance of male progeny for
religious rituals led to a more patriarchal society.
Epic Age (Mahabharata and Ramayana):
• Women’s roles became more defined and restricted to household duties, although epic
narratives also depict strong female figures like Draupadi and Sita.
Mauryan Period (322–185 BCE):
• Women’s status varied widely; royal women had access to education and power, while
common women’s roles were more domesticated.
• The Arthashastra mentions women in administrative roles and as bodyguards.
Post-Mauryan Period:
• The rise of Buddhism and Jainism offered some women the opportunity to join religious
orders and pursue spiritual goals.
Gupta Period (320–550 CE):
• Considered a golden age for arts and sciences, but the position of women continued to be
subordinate.
• Child marriage became more common, and the practice of sati (self-immolation of widows)
was occasionally observed.
Medieval Period:
• The position of women further deteriorated due to various socio-political factors.
• Practices like purdah (seclusion of women) and jauhar (mass self-immolation) emerged.
In summary, the status of women in ancient India was not static and underwent significant changes
over time. While early periods show signs of gender equality and respect for women, later periods
reflect a shift towards a more patriarchal structure with restricted roles for women. This evolution
was influenced by various factors, including economic changes, religious transformations, and
shifts in social organization

8. Discuss any two of the following: 10+10=20

(a) Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

Ans: The Janapadas and Mahajanapadas were ancient Indian kingdoms that played a
crucial role in the country’s political and cultural development during the Vedic period.
Janapadas:
• The term “Janapada” is derived from “Jana” meaning “people” or “subject” and “Pada”
meaning “foot” or "hold"1.
• They were small tribal kingdoms and republics that emerged around 1500 BCE to the
6th century BCE1.
• These kingdoms were often monarchies, though some followed a republican form of
government2.
• The development of iron technology in Northern India contributed to the power of
these Janapadas1.
Mahajanapadas:
• “Mahajanapada” combines “Maha” meaning “great” and "Janapada"1.
• They arose around 600 BCE during a period of significant socio-economic and
political change, known as the second urbanization3.
• The Mahajanapadas marked a shift from semi-nomadic lifestyles to more settled and
urbanized cultures1.
• There were 16 Mahajanapadas, including prominent ones like Magadha, Kosala, and
Vatsa3.
• These larger entities retained monarchial structures, but some also had powerful
oligarchies or republics2.
The transition from Janapadas to Mahajanapadas was a key moment in ancient Indian
history, reflecting the growth of territorial states and the development of urban centers after
the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.

(b) Mauryan Economy

Ans: The Mauryan economy, spanning from 321 BCE to 185 BCE, was a robust system that
laid the foundation for a unified economic structure across much of India. Agriculture was the
backbone of the economy, with cultivators forming the majority of the population. Agricultural
taxes were the primary source of revenue for the state1.
Trade also played an increasingly significant role. The Mauryan rulers established a
centralized administration, liberating farmers from the tax and harvest collection obligations
of provincial rulers. This system, based on the principles of the Arthashastra, provided a
strict but fair taxation system1.
Chandragupta Maurya introduced a unified currency for all of India, facilitating trade
and commerce. A network of provincial governors and administrators, as well as a civil
service, ensured that merchants, farmers, and traders were treated fairly and safely 1.
The Mauryan period also saw the persistence of the gana sangha system of
community land ownership in some regions. State-owned lands, known as sita fields, were
either cultivated directly by hired laborers or leased out to independent farmers under the
supervision of the Sith Adhyaksha1.
Overall, the Mauryan economy was characterized by a combination of agricultural
dominance, growing trade importance, and administrative innovations that contributed to its
success and influence.

(c) Empire building under the Mauryas

Ans: The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, was the first to
encompass most of the Indian subcontinent. The empire-building under the Mauryas
involved a combination of military conquest, diplomacy, and administrative innovation.
Military Expansion:
• Chandragupta, with the guidance of his advisor Chanakya, overthrew the Nanda
Dynasty and expanded his empire through military conquests1.
• His grandson, Ashoka, further extended the empire’s boundaries through the
conquest of Kalinga, although the violence of this campaign led him to adopt Buddhism and
non-violence thereafter2.
Diplomacy:
• The Mauryas engaged in diplomatic relations with their neighbors, including the
Seleucid Empire, which resulted in mutually beneficial agreements and peace treaties 2.
Administration:
• The Mauryas established a centralized administration with a complex bureaucracy to
manage the vast empire1.
• They implemented standardized systems of weights and measures, currency, and law
and order to facilitate trade and governance1.
Cultural Integration:
• The promotion of Buddhism by Ashoka and the use of the Prakrit language helped in
culturally unifying the diverse regions under the Mauryan rule2.
The Mauryan Empire’s building was a significant period of political unification and
administrative organization that laid the groundwork for future Indian empires.

(d) Ashoka’s Dhamma

Ans: Ashoka’s Dhamma was a unique approach to governance and social harmony
introduced by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka after his conversion to Buddhism, particularly
following the Kalinga War’s devastation. It was not a religious doctrine but a secular
philosophy that emphasized ethical and moral living based on principles like non-violence,
tolerance, truthfulness, and compassion1.
The Dhamma aimed to foster unity among diverse people within Ashoka’s vast
empire, which spanned various cultures, languages, and religions. It encouraged respect for
elders, kindness to the weak, and generosity towards all. Ashoka propagated his Dhamma
through edicts inscribed on pillars and rocks across the Indian subcontinent, making it
accessible to the common people2.
This policy also reflected a shift from conquest by warfare to conquest by “Dhamma”
(moral and spiritual conquest), as Ashoka believed in winning hearts rather than
territories. He appointed officials known as Dhamma Mahamattas to oversee the
implementation of Dhamma practices and to address the welfare of the people, including
animals3.
Ashoka’s Dhamma was revolutionary for its time, as it transcended the narrow
confines of religion and offered a universal set of values aimed at the well-being of all, thus
laying the foundation for a just and humane society.
 BHIC-101

B. A. (HONOURS) HISTORY (BAHIH)

Term-End Examination December, 2022
BHIC-101 : HISTORY OF INDIA-I

Time : 3 Hours Maximum Marks : 100

Note : Attempt any five questions in 400 words each. Attempt at least two
questions from each Section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-I

1. Discuss the important of literary sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian
history. 20

Ans: Literary sources are invaluable for reconstructing ancient Indian history, providing
insights into the socio-political, economic, and cultural aspects of the past. These sources
include religious texts, epics, inscriptions, chronicles, and manuscripts, each contributing
uniquely to our understanding of history.
Types of Literary Sources
a) Religious Texts:
o Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas: These texts offer a wealth of information
about the early Vedic society, religious practices, and philosophical
thoughts1.
o Buddhist and Jain Literature: Texts like the Tripitaka and Agamas provide
insights into the spread of Buddhism and Jainism, their teachings, and the
socio-political conditions of the time1.
b) Epics:
o Mahabharata and Ramayana: These epic narratives, while primarily
mythological, contain historical elements that reflect the social and political
milieu of ancient India1.
o They offer glimpses into the values, customs, and conflicts of the time,
serving as cultural and historical documents1.
c) Historical Chronicles and Biographies:
o Works like Kalhana’s Rajatarangini and Banabhatta’s Harshacharita
provide detailed accounts of historical events, rulers, and dynasties 1.
o These texts are crucial for understanding the political history and
administrative systems of ancient India1.
d) Inscriptions:
o Inscriptions on pillars, rocks, and temples, such as the Ashokan Edicts,
offer direct evidence of historical events, administrative orders, and religious
proclamations1.
o They are invaluable for understanding the policies of rulers, territorial
boundaries, and socio-economic conditions1.
e) Travelogues:
o Accounts by foreign travelers like Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, and Hiuen Tsang
provide an outsider’s perspective on Indian society, economy, and culture 1.
o These travelogues are essential for cross-referencing and corroborating
indigenous sources1.
Importance of Literary Sources
a) Cultural Insights:
 o Literary sources reflect the cultural and intellectual life of ancient India,
including art, literature, philosophy, and religion1.
o They help us understand the evolution of cultural practices and societal
norms over time1.
b) Political and Administrative History:
o These sources provide detailed accounts of political events, dynastic
histories, and administrative systems1.
o They help reconstruct the chronology of rulers and the nature of governance
in ancient India1.
c) Economic Conditions:
o Texts like the Arthashastra offer insights into the economic policies, trade
practices, and agricultural systems of the time1.
o They help us understand the economic foundations of ancient Indian
society1.
d) Social Structure:
o Literary sources shed light on the social hierarchy, caste system, and the
roles and status of different social groups1.
o They provide information on the daily lives, occupations, and customs of
people1.
In conclusion, literary sources are indispensable for reconstructing ancient Indian
history. They offer a comprehensive view of the past, encompassing political, economic,
social, and cultural dimensions. By critically analyzing these texts, historians can piece
together a detailed and nuanced understanding of ancient India.

2. Discuss the extent and settlement patterns in Harappan Civilization.

Ans: The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, flourished
between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE and is one of the earliest urban cultures in the world.
Its extent and settlement patterns provide significant insights into its advanced urban
planning and socio-economic organization.
Extent of the Harappan Civilization
a) Geographical Spread:
o The Harappan Civilization covered a vast area of approximately 1.3 million
square kilometers1.
o It extended from Manda in Jammu and Kashmir in the north to Daimabad
in Maharashtra in the south1.
o In the east, it reached Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh, and in the west, it
extended to Sutkagen Dor in Balochistan1.
b) Major Sites:
o Prominent urban centers included Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira,
Lothal, Kalibangan, and Rakhigarhi1.
o These sites were strategically located along rivers, such as the Indus,
Ghaggar-Hakra, and their tributaries, facilitating trade and agriculture1.
Settlement Patterns
a) Urban Planning:
o Harappan cities were known for their advanced urban planning, featuring a
grid pattern layout1.
o Streets were laid out in a precise grid, with main streets running north-south
and east-west, intersecting at right angles1.
o Cities were divided into distinct areas, including a citadel (fortified area) and
a lower town1.
b) Architecture:
o Buildings were constructed using standardized baked bricks, indicating a
high level of uniformity and planning1.
o Residential buildings often had multiple rooms, courtyards, and private
wells1.
 o Public buildings, such as granaries, warehouses, and assembly halls, were
common in major urban centers1.
c) Water Management:
o The Harappans developed sophisticated water management systems,
including drainage systems, wells, and reservoirs1.
o The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is a notable example of their expertise in
water management1.
d) Agricultural Settlements:
o In addition to urban centers, there were numerous smaller agricultural
settlements1.
o These settlements were typically located near rivers and fertile plains,
supporting intensive agriculture1.
o Crops such as wheat, barley, peas, and cotton were cultivated, and irrigation
systems were used to enhance agricultural productivity1.
e) Trade and Commerce:
o The Harappan Civilization had a well-developed trade network, both internal
and external1.
o Trade routes connected urban centers with rural hinterlands and distant
regions, including Mesopotamia and Central Asia1.
o Artifacts such as seals, pottery, and beads found at various sites indicate
extensive trade and cultural exchange1.
Conclusion
The extent and settlement patterns of the Harappan Civilization reflect its advanced
urban planning, architectural prowess, and socio-economic organization. The civilization’s
ability to manage water resources, develop trade networks, and sustain large urban
centers highlights its sophistication and resilience. These characteristics have left a lasting
legacy, providing valuable insights into one of the world’s earliest urban cultures 1.

3. Discuss the characteristics of economy and society of early Vedic/Rigvedic

era. 20

Ans: The early Vedic or Rigvedic era, spanning roughly from 1500 BCE to 1000 BCE, is
a significant period in ancient Indian history. This era is primarily known through the
Rigveda, one of the oldest sacred texts, which provides valuable insights into the economy
and society of the time.
Economy
a) Pastoralism and Agriculture:
o The early Vedic economy was predominantly pastoral, with cattle being the
mainstay of livelihood1.
o Cattle were considered a measure of wealth and were central to the
economy, used for milk, meat, and as draught animals1.
o Agriculture was also practiced, with crops such as wheat, barley, and rice
being cultivated1. However, it was not as developed as in later periods.
b) Trade and Exchange:
o Trade was primarily conducted through barter, with cattle often serving as a
unit of exchange1.
o There is evidence of nascent forms of currency, such as nishka, a type of
gold ornament used in transactions1.
o Trade was limited to local exchanges, with bullock carts and boats being the
primary means of transport1.
c) Crafts and Occupations:
o Various crafts were practiced, including pottery, weaving, and metalwork 1.
o Artisans and craftsmen were respected members of society, contributing to
the economic activities of the community1.
Society
a) Social Structure:
o The early Vedic society was patriarchal and organized into tribes and clans 1.
 o The basic social unit was the family (kula), headed by the eldest male,
known as the grihapati1.
o Society was relatively egalitarian, with less rigid social stratification compared
to later periods1.
b) Varna System:
o The concept of varna (social classes) began to take shape during this period,
though it was not as rigid as in later times1.
o The four varnas mentioned in the Rigveda are Brahmins (priests),
Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (laborers)1.
o This classification was initially based on occupation and not birth 1.
c) Role of Women:
o Women enjoyed a relatively high status in early Vedic society 1.
o They participated in religious rituals, received education, and had the
freedom to choose their partners through swayamvara (self-choice
marriage)1.
o However, their status began to decline towards the end of the Vedic period 1.
d) Religion and Rituals:
o The early Vedic religion was polytheistic, with a pantheon of gods
representing natural forces1.
o Important deities included Indra (god of rain and thunder), Agni (fire god),
and Varuna (god of water)1.
o Rituals and sacrifices (yajnas) were central to religious practices, conducted
by priests (Brahmins) to appease the gods1.
e) Education and Literature:
o Education was primarily oral, with knowledge being passed down through
generations by word of mouth1.
o The Gurukula system, where students lived with their teachers (gurus) to
receive education, was prevalent1.
o The Rigveda itself is a testament to the rich literary and intellectual tradition
of the time1.
In summary, the early Vedic era was characterized by a pastoral and agrarian
economy, a relatively egalitarian society with emerging social stratification, and a rich
religious and intellectual life. These characteristics laid the foundation for the subsequent
developments in Indian civilization1.

4. Throw light on emergence of Buddhism and Jainism during 6th century

BCE. 20

Ans: The 6th century BCE was a period of significant religious and philosophical
upheaval in India, marked by the emergence of two major religious movements:
Buddhism and Jainism. These religions arose as responses to the socio-economic and
religious conditions of the time, offering alternative spiritual paths to the dominant Vedic
traditions.
Socio-Economic Context
a) Religious Unrest:
o The Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic and dominated by the
Brahmanical priesthood1.
o Complex rituals and sacrifices were expensive and inaccessible to the
common people, leading to widespread dissatisfaction1.
o The rigid caste system and the dominance of the Brahmins created social
tensions, particularly among the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas1.
b) Economic Changes:
o The period saw the rise of urban centers and increased trade, leading to
economic prosperity for the Vaishya class1.
o Despite their economic power, the Vaishyas were socially marginalized,
prompting them to seek new religious ideologies that offered greater social
recognition1.
 Emergence of Buddhism
a) Founding:
o Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha, founded Buddhism
around the 6th century BCE1.
o Born into a Kshatriya family, Siddhartha renounced his princely life to seek
enlightenment and understand the nature of suffering 1.
b) Core Teachings:
o Buddhism emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as
the means to attain Nirvana, or liberation from the cycle of rebirth 1.
o It rejected the authority of the Vedas and the caste system, promoting
equality and ethical living1.
c) Spread and Influence:
o Buddhism gained rapid popularity due to its accessible teachings and the use
of Prakrit languages, which were understood by the common people1.
o The support of rulers like Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE further facilitated its
spread across India and beyond1.
Emergence of Jainism
a) Founding:
o Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, is considered the founder of
Jainism in its present form1.
o Like the Buddha, Mahavira was born into a Kshatriya family and renounced
his worldly life to attain spiritual enlightenment1.
b) Core Teachings:
o Jainism emphasizes Ahimsa (non-violence), Aparigraha (non-
possessiveness), and Anekantavada (non-absolutism)1.
o It advocates strict asceticism and self-discipline as the path to liberation1.
c) Spread and Influence:
o Jainism also rejected the Vedic rituals and caste hierarchy, appealing to the
merchant and artisan classes1.
o The use of Prakrit languages in Jain teachings made them accessible to a
broader audience1.
Conclusion
The emergence of Buddhism and Jainism during the 6th century BCE was a
response to the socio-economic and religious challenges of the time. Both religions offered
more egalitarian and accessible spiritual paths, challenging the dominance of the
Brahmanical order and providing new avenues for social and spiritual fulfillment. Their
teachings and practices have had a profound and lasting impact on Indian culture and
society1.

SECTION-II

5. Describe the salient features of Mauryan administration. 20

Ans: The Mauryan administration, established by Chandragupta Maurya and further

developed by his successors Bindusara and Ashoka, is renowned for its efficiency,
centralization, and innovative governance. This system laid the foundation for a unified and
well-organized state in ancient India.
Centralized Administration
a) Monarchical System:
o The Mauryan Empire was a centralized monarchy with the king at the apex of
the administrative hierarchy1.
o The king was the supreme authority, responsible for making laws,
administering justice, and overseeing the welfare of the state 1.
b) Council of Ministers:
o The king was assisted by a council of ministers known as the
Mantriparishad1.
 o Key officials included the Mahamantri (Chief Minister), Senapati
(Commander-in-Chief), and Purohita (Chief Priest)1.
o These ministers played crucial roles in advising the king and implementing
policies1.
Provincial Administration
a) Division of Empire:
o The empire was divided into several provinces, each governed by a Kumara
(royal prince) or a trusted official1.
o Major provinces included Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri, and Tosali1.
o Each province had its own administrative machinery, mirroring the central
administration1.
b) District and Local Administration:
o Provinces were further divided into districts (Janapadas) and villages 1.
o Sthanikas were in charge of districts, while Gopas managed groups of
villages1.
o Villages were the basic administrative units, governed by Gramani (village
headman) and a council of elders1.
Bureaucratic Structure
a) Extensive Bureaucracy:
o The Mauryan administration had a well-organized bureaucracy with various
departments for revenue, trade, agriculture, and justice1.
o Officials were appointed based on merit and were responsible for specific
administrative functions1.
b) Espionage System:
o A sophisticated espionage system was in place to gather intelligence and
monitor officials1.
o Spies, known as Gudhapurushas, operated in disguise to ensure the
smooth functioning of the administration1.
Economic Administration
a) Revenue System:
o The Mauryan Empire had a well-structured revenue system, with taxes
collected from agriculture, trade, and crafts1.
o Land revenue was a significant source of income, and the state maintained
records of landholdings and production1.
b) Trade and Commerce:
o The state actively promoted trade and commerce, both inland and maritime 1.
o Ports, roads, and market towns were developed to facilitate trade 1.
Judicial and Military Administration
a) Judicial System:
o The Mauryan judicial system was well-organized, with separate courts for
civil and criminal cases1.
o The king was the highest judicial authority, but local courts handled day-to-
day disputes1.
b) Military Organization:
o The Mauryan military was a formidable force, with a standing army
comprising infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots1.
o The Senapati was responsible for military administration and defense 1.
Welfare and Public Works
a) Public Welfare:
o Ashoka, in particular, emphasized public welfare, promoting Dhamma (moral
law) and building hospitals, rest houses, and wells1.
o Edicts inscribed on pillars and rocks across the empire communicated his
policies and moral teachings1.
b) Infrastructure Development:
o The Mauryans invested in infrastructure, constructing roads, irrigation
systems, and urban centers1.
 o The Grand Trunk Road, connecting the eastern and western parts of the
empire, is a notable example1.
In summary, the Mauryan administration was characterized by its centralized
governance, efficient bureaucracy, and commitment to public welfare. These features
contributed to the stability and prosperity of the Mauryan Empire, making it one of the most
significant periods in Indian history1.

6. Write an essay on medicine in ancient India. 20

Ans: Medicine in ancient India, particularly through the system known as Ayurveda,
represents one of the oldest and most comprehensive approaches to health and wellness.
This traditional medical system, which dates back to the Vedic period (around 1500 BCE),
has significantly influenced both ancient and modern medical practices.
Origins and Development
a) Vedic Roots:
o The earliest concepts of Indian medicine are found in the Vedas, especially
the Atharvaveda, which contains hymns and incantations for healing1.
o Ayurveda, meaning “the science of life,” is believed to have been
systematized by sages who compiled their knowledge into texts like the
Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita1.
b) Key Texts:
o The Charaka Samhita, attributed to the physician Charaka, focuses on
internal medicine and describes various diseases, their diagnosis, and
treatments1.
o The Sushruta Samhita, attributed to the surgeon Sushruta, is renowned for
its detailed descriptions of surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty and
cataract surgery1.
Principles of Ayurveda
a) Tridosha Theory:
o Ayurveda is based on the concept of Tridoshas: Vata (air and space), Pitta
(fire and water), and Kapha (water and earth)1.
o Health is seen as a balance between these doshas, and disease is the result
of their imbalance1.
b) Holistic Approach:
o Ayurveda emphasizes a holistic approach to health, considering physical,
mental, and spiritual well-being1.
o Treatments include a combination of diet, herbal remedies, yoga, and
meditation1.
Medical Practices
a) Surgery:
o Sushruta is often referred to as the “father of surgery” for his contributions to
surgical techniques1.
o The Sushruta Samhita describes over 300 surgical procedures and 120
surgical instruments1.
b) Pharmacology:
o Ancient Indian medicine made extensive use of herbs and minerals. Texts
like the Charaka Samhita list numerous medicinal plants and their uses1.
o Treatments were tailored to individual patients, considering their unique
constitution and the nature of their ailments1.
Influence and Legacy
a) Spread and Adaptation:
o The principles of Ayurveda spread beyond India, influencing medical
practices in other parts of Asia and the Middle East1.
o The integration of Ayurvedic principles into modern wellness practices
continues to grow globally1.
b) Modern Relevance:
 o Ayurveda remains a vital part of India’s healthcare system, with many people
relying on its treatments alongside modern medicine1.
o Research into Ayurvedic practices and their integration with contemporary
medical science is ongoing, highlighting its enduring relevance 1.
In conclusion, medicine in ancient India, particularly through Ayurveda, represents a
sophisticated and holistic approach to health that has stood the test of time. Its emphasis
on balance, individualized treatment, and the integration of physical and spiritual well-being
continues to influence both traditional and modern medical practices1.

7. Examine the position of women in early India. 20

Ans: The position of women in early India, particularly during the Vedic and post-Vedic
periods, was complex and evolved significantly over time. This period, spanning from
around 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, saw women enjoying varying degrees of freedom and
respect, influenced by socio-economic, religious, and cultural factors.
Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 1000 BCE)
a) Social Status:
o During the early Vedic period, women held a relatively high status in society 1.
o They participated in religious rituals and were educated in the Vedas.
Women like Gargi and Maitreyi were renowned scholars and philosophers1.
o The Rigveda mentions several women seers (rishikas) who composed
hymns, indicating their intellectual and spiritual contributions1.
b) Marriage and Family:
o Women had the right to choose their husbands through the practice of
swayamvara (self-choice marriage)1.
o Monogamy was the norm, but polygamy and polyandry were also practiced in
certain contexts1.
o The family structure was patriarchal, but women had significant roles in
household management and decision-making1.
c) Economic Role:
o Women were involved in various economic activities, including agriculture,
weaving, and trade1.
o They could own property and were entitled to a share of family wealth 1.
Post-Vedic Period (1000 BCE - 500 BCE)
a) Decline in Status:
o The post-Vedic period saw a gradual decline in the status of women 1.
o The composition of texts like the Manusmriti codified social norms that
increasingly restricted women’s roles and freedoms1.
o Women’s participation in religious and public life diminished, and their
primary role became confined to the domestic sphere1.
b) Marriage and Family:
o Child marriage became more prevalent, and the practice of sati (self-
immolation of widows) began to emerge, though it was not widespread 1.
o The concept of pativrata (devoted wife) became idealized, emphasizing
women’s subservience to their husbands1.
c) Education and Religion:
o Despite the overall decline, some women continued to receive education and
were involved in religious activities1.
o The rise of bhakti movements provided new avenues for women’s spiritual
expression and participation1.
Cultural and Religious Impact
a) Religious Texts:
o Hindu scriptures like the Upanishads and Puranas continued to mention
women scholars and saints, reflecting their ongoing, albeit limited, intellectual
contributions1.
o The depiction of goddesses in Hindu mythology, such as Durga and
Lakshmi, symbolized the reverence for feminine power and divinity1.
 b) Regional Variations:
o The status of women varied significantly across different regions and
communities1.
o In some areas, women retained more autonomy and continued to participate
in economic and religious activities1.
Conclusion
The position of women in early India was marked by periods of relative freedom and
respect, followed by increasing restrictions and decline in status. While the early Vedic
period celebrated women’s intellectual and spiritual contributions, the post-Vedic period
saw a shift towards more patriarchal norms. Despite these changes, women continued to
play vital roles in society, and their contributions to culture, religion, and economy
remained significant1.

8. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each : 10+10

(a) Palaeolithic culture in India

Ans: The Palaeolithic culture in India, spanning from approximately 2 million years
ago to around 10,000 BCE, marks the earliest phase of human history in the
subcontinent. This period is divided into three phases: Lower, Middle, and Upper
Palaeolithic1.
Lower Palaeolithic
• The earliest evidence comes from sites like Attirampakkam and the Soan
Valley, where tools such as hand axes and cleavers were found1.
• These tools were primarily made from quartzite and were used for hunting
and gathering1.
Middle Palaeolithic
• This phase saw the development of more refined tools, including flakes and
blades, made using the Levallois technique1.
• Sites like Bhimbetka and Nevasa provide significant evidence of Middle
Palaeolithic habitation1.
Upper Palaeolithic
• The Upper Palaeolithic period is characterized by the use of microliths—
small, finely crafted stone tools1.
• Artifacts from this period have been found in regions like Bagor and Patne1.
Subsistence and Lifestyle
• Palaeolithic communities were primarily hunter-gatherers, relying on wild
animals and plants for sustenance1.
• They lived in caves and open-air sites, as evidenced by the rock shelters at
Bhimbetka, which also feature prehistoric art1.
In summary, the Palaeolithic culture in India reflects the early human adaptation to
diverse environments, marked by significant advancements in tool-making and
subsistence strategies1.

(b) Mauryan art and architecture

Ans: Mauryan art and architecture, flourishing between 322 and 185 BCE,
represent a significant phase in ancient Indian history, marked by the transition from
wood to stone construction1. This period saw the creation of monumental structures
and intricate sculptures, reflecting both indigenous traditions and foreign influences.
Key Features
i. Pillars:
o The Ashokan pillars are among the most notable examples, characterized
by their polished sandstone and intricate carvings1.
o The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, now India’s national emblem,
exemplifies the artistic excellence of this period1.
ii. Stupas:
o Stupas, such as the Great Stupa at Sanchi, were constructed as Buddhist
reliquaries1.
o These structures featured hemispherical domes and were often adorned with
elaborate gateways (toranas) and railings1.
iii. Rock-Cut Architecture:
o The Barabar Caves, commissioned by Ashoka, are the earliest examples of
rock-cut architecture in India1.
o These caves served as retreats for Buddhist monks and are noted for their
polished interiors and precise carvings1.
iv. Palaces and Urban Planning:
o The Mauryan capital at Pataliputra featured grand palaces and urban
planning influenced by Persian and Greek styles1.
o Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, described the palaces as magnificent
structures, showcasing the empire’s wealth and architectural prowess1.
In summary, Mauryan art and architecture reflect a blend of indigenous creativity
and external influences, resulting in a rich legacy of monumental structures and
artistic achievements1.

(c) Ashoka’s Dhamma

Ans: Ashoka’s Dhamma was a set of moral and ethical guidelines promoted by
Emperor Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. It was not a new religion
but a code of conduct aimed at promoting social harmony and ethical behavior 1.
Key Principles
i) Nonviolence (Ahimsa):
o Ashoka emphasized nonviolence towards all living beings, reflecting his deep
commitment to Buddhist principles1.
o He discouraged animal sacrifices and hunting, promoting compassion and
kindness1.
ii) Religious Tolerance:
o Ashoka advocated for respect and tolerance towards all religious sects and
beliefs1.
o His edicts encouraged people to respect others’ faiths and avoid conflicts
based on religious differences1.
iii) Social Welfare:
o Ashoka’s Dhamma included measures for the welfare of his subjects, such
as building hospitals, rest houses, and wells1.
o He promoted the humane treatment of servants and prisoners, reflecting his
concern for social justice1.
iv) Moral and Ethical Conduct:
o The Dhamma emphasized virtues like truthfulness, gratitude, and respect for
parents and elders1.
o Ashoka encouraged his officials to practice and propagate these values
throughout the empire1.
Implementation
• Ashoka inscribed his edicts on pillars and rocks across the empire to
communicate his Dhamma to the people1.
• He appointed Dhamma Mahamatras (officers of Dhamma) to oversee the
implementation of these principles and ensure their adherence 1.
In summary, Ashoka’s Dhamma was a comprehensive ethical framework aimed at
fostering a just, compassionate, and harmonious society1.

(d) Arrian’s Indike

Ans: Arrian’s Indike is a significant historical text written by the Greek historian
Arrian in the 2nd century CE. The work primarily focuses on the expedition of
Alexander the Great, particularly the journey of his admiral, Nearchus, from India to
the Persian Gulf1.
Content and Themes
i) Geographical and Cultural Descriptions:
o Arrian provides detailed descriptions of the geography of India, including its
rivers, such as the Indus and the Ganges1.
o He also discusses the social structure, occupations, and customs of the
Indian people, offering insights into their way of life1.
ii) Historical Accounts:
o The text recounts the voyage of Nearchus, highlighting the challenges faced
during the journey and the interactions with various local populations1.
o Arrian draws on earlier works, such as those by Megasthenes, to supplement
his narrative1.
iii) Military and Naval Aspects:
o Indike details the military strategies and naval operations undertaken by
Alexander’s forces1.
o It emphasizes the logistical and navigational achievements of the expedition 1.
Significance
• Arrian’s Indike is valued for its comprehensive portrayal of ancient India from
a Greek perspective1.
• It serves as a crucial source for understanding the historical and cultural
exchanges between India and the Hellenistic world1.
In summary, Arrian’s Indike offers a rich account of Alexander the Great’s
expedition and provides valuable insights into the geography, culture, and history of
ancient India1.
 BHIC-101
B. A. (HONS.) HISTORY (BAHIH)
Term-End Examination June, 2023
BHIC-101 : HISTORY OF INDIA—I

Time : 3 Hours Maximum Marks : 100

Note : Answer any five questions in about 400 words each. Attempt at least two
questions from each Section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-I

1. Discuss the importance of archaeological sources for the reconstruction of early

Indian history. 20

Ans: Archaeological sources are crucial for reconstructing early Indian history, providing tangible
evidence that complements literary sources and fills gaps in our understanding of ancient
civilizations. These sources include artifacts, monuments, inscriptions, coins, and other material
remains that offer insights into the socio-economic, cultural, and political aspects of early Indian
societies.
Key Contributions of Archaeological Sources
a) Material Evidence:
o Archaeological findings provide concrete evidence of past human activities,
offering a direct link to ancient cultures1.
o Artifacts such as pottery, tools, and ornaments reveal information about the daily
lives, technological advancements, and artistic expressions of early communities 1.
b) Chronological Framework:
o Techniques like carbon-14 dating and dendrochronology help establish the
chronological framework of historical events and periods1.
o These methods allow historians to date artifacts and sites accurately, constructing
a timeline of ancient Indian history1.
c) Urban Planning and Architecture:
o Excavations of ancient cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Dholavira provide
insights into urban planning, architecture, and the socio-economic organization of the
Indus Valley Civilization1.
o The layout of streets, drainage systems, and public buildings reflects the advanced
engineering and administrative capabilities of these early societies1.
d) Inscriptions and Epigraphy:
o Inscriptions on pillars, rocks, and coins, such as the Ashokan edicts, offer
valuable information about political events, administrative orders, and religious
proclamations1.
o Epigraphy helps decipher ancient scripts and languages, providing insights into the
linguistic and literary traditions of early India1.
e) Economic and Trade Networks:
o Archaeological evidence of trade goods, such as beads, seals, and pottery,
indicates the existence of extensive trade networks1.
o These findings reveal the economic interactions between different regions and the
exchange of goods and cultural influences1.
f) Religious and Cultural Practices:
o Temples, stupas, and other religious structures provide insights into the spiritual
and religious life of ancient Indians1.
o Artifacts related to religious rituals, such as idols and altars, help understand the
evolution of religious practices and beliefs1.
Case Studies
a) Harappan Civilization:
o The discovery of the Indus Valley sites has revolutionized our understanding of
early urbanization in India1.
o The sophisticated urban planning and standardized weights and measures indicate
a highly organized society1.
b) Mauryan Empire:
o The Ashokan edicts, inscribed on pillars and rocks across the subcontinent,
provide insights into the administrative policies and moral principles of Emperor Ashoka 1.
o These inscriptions also reflect the spread of Buddhism and Ashoka’s efforts to
promote Dhamma (moral law)1.

Conclusion
Archaeological sources are indispensable for reconstructing early Indian history. They
provide a wealth of information that complements literary sources, offering a more
comprehensive and nuanced understanding of ancient Indian civilizations. By studying these
material remains, historians can piece together the socio-economic, cultural, and political fabric
of early India, shedding light on its rich and diverse heritage 1.

2. Discuss the salient features of Harappan economy. 20

Ans: The Harappan economy, part of the Indus Valley Civilization, was one of the most
advanced and sophisticated economies of the ancient world. Here are some of its salient
features:
Agriculture
Agriculture was the backbone of the Harappan economy. The fertile plains of the Indus River
provided ideal conditions for farming. The Harappans cultivated a variety of crops, including
wheat, barley, peas, sesame, and cotton. They also practiced crop rotation and used advanced
irrigation techniques, such as canals and reservoirs, to manage water resources efficiently 1.
Trade and Commerce
Trade was a significant aspect of the Harappan economy. The Harappans engaged in both
internal and external trade. They traded goods like beads, pottery, metals, and textiles with
neighboring regions, including Mesopotamia, Oman, and the Persian Gulf 1. The presence of
standardized weights and measures indicates a well-regulated trade system. Harappan seals,
often found in Mesopotamia, suggest that they had established trade links with distant lands 1.
Craftsmanship
The Harappans were skilled craftsmen. They produced high-quality goods, including pottery,
jewelry, and tools. The use of materials like copper, bronze, and stone was prevalent. The
craftsmanship was not only for local consumption but also for trade. The intricate designs on
pottery and seals reflect their artistic skills and the importance of craftsmanship in their
economy1.
Urban Planning and Infrastructure
The Harappan cities were well-planned with advanced infrastructure, which supported economic
activities. The cities had granaries for storing surplus produce, which indicates a well-organized
system of food storage and distribution. The presence of docks and warehouses in cities like
Lothal suggests that they had facilities for maritime trade1.
Standardization
One of the remarkable features of the Harappan economy was the standardization of weights
and measures. This standardization facilitated trade and commerce, ensuring fair transactions.
The uniformity in brick sizes used in construction across different Harappan sites also points to a
standardized system1.
Economic Organization
The Harappan economy was likely organized under a centralized authority that regulated trade,
agriculture, and craftsmanship. The uniformity in urban planning and the distribution of resources
suggest a high level of administrative control and coordination 1.
Conclusion
The Harappan economy was a complex and well-organized system that relied on agriculture,
trade, craftsmanship, and advanced urban planning. The standardization of weights and
measures and the presence of a centralized authority further highlight the sophistication of this
ancient economy.

3. What are the sources of knowing about Alexander ? Assess the impact of his
invasion of North-Western India. 20

Ans: Sources of Knowing About Alexander the Great

The primary sources of information about Alexander the Great come from various ancient Greek
and Roman historians. The five main surviving accounts are by Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus
Siculus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, and Justin1. These historians, although writing centuries after
Alexander’s death, relied on earlier works by those who had direct or near-direct experiences
with Alexander.
a) Arrian: His work, “Anabasis Alexandri,” is considered one of the most reliable sources.
Arrian based his accounts on the writings of Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s generals, and
Aristobulus, a junior officer1.
b) Plutarch: Known for his “Parallel Lives,” Plutarch provides a biographical account of
Alexander, focusing on his character and personal traits1.
c) Diodorus Siculus: His “Bibliotheca historica” offers a comprehensive history, including
Alexander’s campaigns1.
d) Quintus Curtius Rufus: His “Historiae Alexandri Magni” is a detailed narrative of
Alexander’s life and conquests1.
e) Justin: His “Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus” condenses the larger
work of Trogus, providing insights into Alexander’s reign 1.
Additionally, there are other sources like the Metz Epitome, an anonymous late Latin
work, and incidental accounts by authors such as Strabo and Athenaeus 1. Contemporary
sources, though mostly lost, included writings by Callisthenes, Alexander’s campaign historian,
and generals like Ptolemy and Nearchus1.

Impact of Alexander’s Invasion of North-Western India

Alexander’s invasion of North-Western India had profound and lasting impacts on the region:
a) Political Impact: Alexander’s campaign led to the fall of several small states in the north-
west, which facilitated the rise of the Mauryan Empire. The power vacuum left by Alexander’s
departure allowed Chandragupta Maurya to consolidate power and establish a vast empire 2.
b) Cultural Exchange: The invasion initiated significant cultural exchanges between the
Greeks and Indians. This period saw the introduction of Greek art, architecture, and coinage into
Indian society. The fusion of Greek and Indian styles gave rise to the Greco-Buddhist art,
particularly in the Gandhara region3.
c) Economic Impact: Alexander’s invasion opened up new trade routes between India and
the West. This increased the flow of goods, ideas, and technologies between the two regions,
enriching both cultures3.
d) Military Influence: The encounter with Alexander’s military tactics influenced Indian
warfare. The use of war elephants, which impressed the Greeks, became more prominent in
subsequent Indian military strategies2.
e) Historical Documentation: The invasion brought India into the broader historical
narrative of the ancient world. Greek historians documented their encounters with Indian society,
providing valuable insights into the region’s culture, politics, and economy during that period 2.
Alexander’s invasion, though brief, left an indelible mark on the Indian subcontinent,
shaping its historical trajectory in significant ways.

4 Discuss the growth and development of mathematics and astronomy

in ancient India. 20

Ans: Ancient India made significant contributions to the field of mathematics, which laid the
foundation for many modern mathematical concepts. The development of mathematics in India
can be traced back to the Vedic period, where early texts like the Sulbasutras provided
geometric principles for constructing altars. These texts demonstrated an understanding of basic
geometric shapes and the Pythagorean theorem.
One of the most notable contributions of Indian mathematics is the development of the
decimal place-value system and the concept of zero. The earliest recorded use of zero dates
back to the 5th century CE, and it was a revolutionary concept that transformed mathematical
calculations. Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara made
significant advancements in algebra, arithmetic, and trigonometry. Aryabhata’s work,
“Aryabhatiya,” introduced the concept of sine and cosine, which are fundamental to trigonometry.
Brahmagupta’s “Brahmasphutasiddhanta” provided rules for arithmetic operations
involving zero and negative numbers, and Bhaskara’s “Lilavati” and “Bijaganita” further
advanced algebraic techniques. The use of these mathematical principles spread to the Islamic
world and later to Europe, influencing the development of modern mathematics.

Astronomy in ancient India was closely linked to mathematics and was driven by the need
to understand celestial phenomena for religious and agricultural purposes. The earliest
references to astronomy can be found in the Rigveda, where the movement of celestial bodies
was observed and recorded.
Aryabhata is one of the most prominent figures in Indian astronomy. In his work
“Aryabhatiya,” he proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system, where the Earth rotates on
its axis and revolves around the Sun. This was a significant departure from the geocentric
models prevalent at the time. Aryabhata also accurately calculated the length of the solar year
and the positions of planets.
Varahamihira, another notable astronomer, wrote the “Panchasiddhantika,” which
compiled and compared five earlier astronomical treatises. His work provided detailed
descriptions of planetary motions and eclipses. Bhaskara II, in his work “Siddhanta Shiromani,”
made further advancements in understanding planetary motions and developed methods for
calculating eclipses.
The Gupta period, often referred to as the “Golden Age” of India, saw significant
advancements in both mathematics and astronomy. The establishment of observatories and the
patronage of scholars by rulers like Chandragupta II facilitated the growth of these sciences.
Conclusion
The growth and development of mathematics and astronomy in ancient India were
marked by significant innovations and contributions that have had a lasting impact on the world.
The introduction of the decimal system, the concept of zero, and advancements in algebra and
trigonometry revolutionized mathematics. Similarly, the accurate observations and models
proposed by Indian astronomers laid the groundwork for future astronomical studies. These
achievements highlight the rich scientific heritage of ancient India and its influence on global
knowledge.
 SECTION-II

4. Describe the megalithic culture of South India. 20

Ans: Megalithic Culture of South India

The Megalithic culture of South India, spanning from approximately 1200 BCE to 300 BCE,
represents a significant phase in the region’s prehistoric period. This culture is characterized by
the construction of large stone structures, known as megaliths, which were primarily used as
burial sites. These megaliths include various forms such as dolmens, cairns, cists, and menhirs,
each serving different ceremonial and practical purposes.
Types of Megaliths
a) Dolmens: These are typically composed of large flat stones supported by upright stones,
forming a chamber. They were used as tombs and are often found in clusters, indicating
communal burial practices.
b) Cairns: These are piles of stones, often conical in shape, used to mark burial sites. They
vary in complexity from simple stone heaps to elaborate constructions.
c) Cists: These are small stone-built coffins or burial chambers, often found in association
with other megalithic structures.
d) Menhirs: These are large, upright stones, sometimes arranged in circles or rows, possibly
serving as markers for significant locations or events.
Regional Variations
The megalithic culture in South India shows significant regional variations, influenced by local
geology and available materials. For instance, in the laterite-rich regions of Kerala and southern
coastal Karnataka, unique forms like the mushroom-shaped kudakkal and the domical topikal
are found. These variations reflect the adaptation of megalithic construction techniques to the
local environment.
Economic and Social Aspects
The Megalithic people of South India practiced a mixed economy based on agriculture and
pastoralism. They cultivated crops and reared cattle, which formed the backbone of their
subsistence. The presence of iron tools and weapons in megalithic burials indicates the use of
advanced metallurgy, which played a crucial role in their agricultural and hunting activities.
Cultural Significance
Megalithic burials often contain grave goods such as pottery, iron implements, and ornaments,
suggesting a belief in an afterlife and the importance of equipping the deceased for their journey.
The use of Black and Red Ware pottery is a distinctive feature of this culture, indicating a high
level of craftsmanship and trade.
Transition to Sedentism
The Megalithic culture marks a transitional phase from nomadic to settled lifestyles. While
evidence of hunting and gathering persists, the establishment of permanent settlements and the
construction of elaborate burial sites indicate a move towards a more sedentary way of life. This
transition laid the foundation for the subsequent development of complex societies in South
India.
Conclusion
The Megalithic culture of South India is a testament to the region’s rich prehistoric heritage. The
diversity of megalithic structures, the advanced use of iron, and the shift towards settled
communities highlight the complexity and sophistication of this ancient culture. These megaliths
not only served as burial sites but also as markers of social and cultural identity, reflecting the
beliefs and practices of the people who built them.

5. Discuss the changes in economy and society during the later Vedic period. 20

Ans: Changes in Economy and Society During the Later Vedic Period
The Later Vedic period (c. 1000-600 BCE) marked significant transformations in the
economic and social structures of ancient India. This era, characterized by the composition of
the later Vedic texts such as the Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, saw the Aryans
expanding their settlements from the Punjab region to the fertile plains of the Ganges and
Yamuna rivers.
Economic Changes
a) Agriculture: The economy during the Later Vedic period was predominantly agrarian.
The use of iron tools, such as plows and sickles, significantly improved agricultural productivity.
The fertile lands of the Ganges valley supported the cultivation of a variety of crops, including
rice, wheat, barley, and pulses1. The surplus production led to the growth of trade and
commerce.
b) Animal Husbandry: Cattle continued to be an essential part of the economy. They were
not only a source of dairy products but also played a crucial role in agricultural activities. The
ownership of cattle was a measure of wealth and social status1.
c) Trade and Commerce: With the increase in agricultural surplus, trade expanded both
within and beyond the region. The Later Vedic period saw the emergence of trade routes
connecting different parts of India. Barter was the primary mode of exchange, but there is
evidence of the use of nishka (a type of gold ornament) as a medium of exchange 1.
d) Craftsmanship: Various crafts, including pottery, weaving, and metalwork, flourished
during this period. The production of goods for both local consumption and trade indicates a
diversification of the economy1.
Social Changes
a) Varna System: The Later Vedic period witnessed the crystallization of the varna system,
which divided society into four main classes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas
(traders and agriculturists), and Shudras (servants). This system became more rigid over time,
with each varna having specific duties and responsibilities1.
b) Family and Kinship: The patriarchal family structure became more pronounced. The
concept of joint families, where multiple generations lived together, was prevalent. The role of
women in society declined, and they were increasingly confined to domestic duties 1.
c) Political Organization: The political landscape saw the rise of larger kingdoms and the
decline of tribal assemblies. The king’s power increased, supported by a more complex
administrative system. Rituals like the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha sacrifices were performed to
legitimize the king’s authority and demonstrate his supremacy1.
d) Religion and Rituals: The religious practices of the Later Vedic period became more
elaborate and ritualistic. The Brahmins, as the priestly class, gained prominence due to their role
in conducting these rituals. The importance of sacrifices (yajnas) increased, and new deities like
Vishnu and Rudra (later Shiva) gained prominence1.
Conclusion
The Later Vedic period was a time of significant economic and social transformation. The
advancements in agriculture and trade led to economic prosperity, while the establishment of the
varna system and the rise of larger political entities marked profound changes in the social
structure. These developments laid the foundation for the complex societies and states that
emerged in subsequent periods of Indian history.

6. What do you know about the origin and spread of Buddhism in India ? 20

Ans: Origin and Spread of Buddhism in India

Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, originated in the 6th
century BCE in the region of Magadha (modern-day Bihar, India). Siddhartha, born into a royal
family, renounced his princely life in search of enlightenment. After years of ascetic practices
and meditation, he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya. His teachings,
known as the Dharma, emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which provide
a guide to overcoming suffering and achieving Nirvana.
Early Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism initially spread through the efforts of the Buddha and his disciples. The Buddha
traveled extensively across the Ganges plain, teaching and establishing monastic communities
(Sanghas). His teachings attracted followers from various social strata, including merchants,
kings, and commoners. The oral transmission of his teachings and the establishment of
monasteries played a crucial role in the early spread of Buddhism.
Role of Emperor Ashoka
The most significant boost to the spread of Buddhism came during the reign of Emperor
Ashoka (268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire. After the bloody Kalinga War, Ashoka embraced
Buddhism and became its ardent patron. He sent missionaries to various parts of India and
beyond, including Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. Ashoka’s support led to the
construction of stupas, viharas, and the engraving of edicts on pillars and rocks, which
propagated Buddhist principles.
Development of Buddhist Sects
Over time, Buddhism evolved into different sects. The early split occurred between the
Theravada (Teaching of the Elders) and Mahayana (Great Vehicle) traditions. Theravada
Buddhism, which adheres closely to the original teachings of the Buddha, spread to Sri Lanka
and Southeast Asia. Mahayana Buddhism, which introduced new scriptures and emphasized the
role of Bodhisattvas, spread to Central and East Asia.
Monastic and Lay Communities
Buddhism’s spread was facilitated by the establishment of monastic communities that
served as centers of learning and spiritual practice. These monasteries were supported by lay
followers who provided material support in exchange for spiritual guidance. The interaction
between monastic and lay communities helped integrate Buddhism into the social fabric of
various regions.
Decline and Revival
Buddhism began to decline in India around the 7th century CE due to various factors,
including the resurgence of Hinduism and invasions by foreign powers. By the 12th century,
Buddhism had largely disappeared from the Indian subcontinent, surviving only in isolated
regions like the Himalayas. However, the 19th and 20th centuries saw a revival of Buddhism in
India, driven by movements such as the Maha Bodhi Society and the Dalit Buddhist movement
led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
Conclusion
The origin and spread of Buddhism in India were marked by the Buddha’s teachings, the
patronage of Emperor Ashoka, and the establishment of monastic communities. Despite its
decline in the medieval period, Buddhism’s influence persisted, and modern revival movements
have rekindled its presence in India. The legacy of Buddhism continues to shape the cultural and
spiritual landscape of the region.

7. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each :10+10

(a) Sangam literature as a historical source

Ans: Sangam literature, composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE, is a crucial source for
understanding the early history of South India. This body of work, written in Tamil, includes
poetry and prose that provide insights into the socio-political, economic, and cultural life of the
period.
The literature is divided into two main categories: Akam (love poetry) and Puram (heroic
poetry). Akam poems explore themes of love and personal relationships, while Puram poems
focus on war, valor, and public life. These texts offer a detailed portrayal of the Tamil society,
including its customs, traditions, and social norms1.
Sangam literature also sheds light on the political landscape of the time. It mentions
various dynasties, such as the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas, and their interactions. The texts
describe the administration, military exploits, and diplomatic relations of these kingdoms 1.
Economically, the literature provides information on trade, agriculture, and crafts. It
highlights the extensive trade networks that connected South India with other regions, including
the Roman Empire1.
Overall, Sangam literature is invaluable for reconstructing the history of ancient Tamil
Nadu, offering a rich tapestry of the region’s life and times.

(b) Ajivikas
Ans: The Ajivikas were an ancient Indian ascetic sect that emerged around the same time as
Buddhism and Jainism, founded by Makkhali Gosala in the 5th century BCE 1. They are known
for their doctrine of Niyati (fate), which posits that everything in the universe is predetermined
and that human effort cannot alter one’s destiny 1. This belief in absolute determinism set them
apart from other contemporary religious movements that emphasized karma and personal effort.
Ajivikas practiced severe asceticism and lived a life of renunciation. They believed that
the soul’s journey through the cycle of birth and rebirth was governed by cosmic forces beyond
individual control1. Despite their significant presence during the Mauryan period, particularly
under Emperor Bindusara’s patronage, the sect gradually declined 2.
The Ajivikas also had a unique metaphysical view, proposing that everything is composed
of minute atoms, and the qualities of objects arise from the aggregation of these atoms 1. This
atomic theory influenced later Indian philosophical schools.
Although the original texts of the Ajivikas are lost, their teachings are known through
references in Buddhist and Jain scriptures2. The sect’s emphasis on fate and determinism
provides a fascinating contrast to the more widely known doctrines of karma and free will in
Indian philosophy.

(c) Bhimbetka rock-art complex

Ans: The Bhimbetka rock-art complex, located in the Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, India,
is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that showcases some of the earliest traces of human life in
India. Discovered in 1957 by archaeologist V.S. Wakankar, the site consists of over 750 rock
shelters spread across seven hills1. These shelters contain prehistoric cave paintings that date
back to the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, with some of the earliest paintings estimated to be
around 10,000 years old1.
The rock art at Bhimbetka depicts a variety of themes, including hunting scenes, dancing,
and animal figures, reflecting the daily life and spiritual beliefs of the prehistoric inhabitants 1. The
paintings also show the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural
communities, providing valuable insights into the cultural evolution of early humans 1.
The site is not only significant for its artistic heritage but also for its archaeological
importance. It offers evidence of continuous human occupation from the Stone Age to the
historical period1. The Bhimbetka rock shelters are a testament to the long interaction between
humans and their environment, making it a crucial site for understanding the prehistoric era in
India.

(d) Ashoka

Ans: Ashoka, also known as Ashoka the Great, was the third emperor of the Mauryan dynasty,
ruling from approximately 268 to 232 BCE1. He is renowned for his significant contributions
to the spread of Buddhism and his efforts to govern according to the principles of
Dharma (moral law).
Initially, Ashoka’s reign was marked by military conquests, the most notable being the
brutal Kalinga War. The immense suffering caused by this war deeply affected Ashoka, leading
to his conversion to Buddhism1. Embracing Buddhist principles, he renounced violence and
adopted a policy of non-aggression and moral governance, often referred to as "conquest by
Dharma"1.
Ashoka’s commitment to Buddhism was reflected in his extensive efforts to propagate the
religion. He erected numerous stupas and pillars inscribed with edicts promoting Buddhist
teachings and ethical conduct1. These inscriptions, found across the Indian subcontinent,
emphasized values such as compassion, tolerance, and non-violence1.
Ashoka also sent missionaries to various parts of Asia, including Sri Lanka and Central
Asia, significantly contributing to the spread of Buddhism beyond India 1. His reign is
remembered as a period of relative peace and prosperity, and he is celebrated as an ideal ruler
who prioritized the welfare of his subjects.