CHAPTER : SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN

FLOWERING PLANTS

BY :- NIDHI VERMA

PRE - FERTILISATION EVENTS

• Several hormonal and structural changes result in the development of a flower
• Inflorescences bear the flower buds, and then the flowers.
• Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant.
• In the flowers, the androecium (male reproductive part) and the gynoecium (female reproductive part)
develop.
ANDROECIUM
• The androecium consists of whorls of stamen.
• The stamen consists of the filament (long and slender stalk) and anther (bilobed structure).
• Filament is attached to the thalamus or to the petal.
ANTHER :
• A typical anther is bilobed and each lobe is dithecous (consists of two theca).
• Theca are separated by a longitudinal groove running lengthwise.
• The microsporangia are located at the corners, two in each theca. They further develop to form pollen sacs,
which contain the pollen grains.
STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM
• The microsporangium is surrounded by four wall layers (epidermis, endothecium, middle layers, and tapetum).
• The outer three layers are protective and help in dehiscence of anther to release the pollen grains. The
tapetum provides nourishment to the developing pollen grains. The cell of tapetum have dence nucleoplasm
and binucleate.
• In the young anther, the sporogenous tissue forms the centre of each microsporangium.

MICROSPOROGENESIS
• It is the process of formation of microspore from PMC (Pollen Mothe Cells).
• As development occurs in the anther, the sporogenous tissue undergoes meiosis to form microspore tetrad.
• Each cell of sporogenous tissue has capacity to give rise to a tetrad. Hence, each cell is a potential pollen or
PMC.
• As the anther matures, the microspores get detached from each other and develop into pollen grains.
POLLEN GRAINS/MAOSPORELE GAMETOPHYTE/MICR
• Represent the male gamete and are spherical, having a two layered wall:
a) Exine (outer) − Hard layer made of sporopollenin, which is extremely resistant and can withstand high
temperatures, acidic and alkaline conditions, and enzymes
b) Intine (inner) − Thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin
• Mature pollen grain contains two cells:
a) Vegetative cell − Large with irregular nucleus, contains food reserves
 b) Generative cell − Small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell

• In 60% of the angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at 2-celled stage while in others generative cell undergoes
mitosis to form two male gametes (3celled stage).
• The viability of pollen grains after they are shed depends upon temperature and humidity. It ranges from 30
minutes to few months.
• POLLEN ALLERGY : pollen grains of several species cause severe allergies and respiratory disorders like
Asthama bronchitis.a weed parthenium (carrot grass) causes pollen allergy.its seed came to India as a
contaminant with important wheat from USA.
• Pollen as food supplement : pollens are rich in nutrients and can be taken as food supplements as tablets and
syrups. Their consumption increase the performance of race horse and athletes.

GYNOECIUM
• The gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of a flower.
• It may be monocarpellary (one pistil) or multicarpellary (many pistils). In multicarpellary,the pistils may be
fused in one (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).
PISTIL
parts of pistil
Stigma − Receives the pollen grains
Style − Elongated, slender part below the stigma
Ovary − Bulged basal part containing the placenta, which is located inside the ovarian locule (cavity)
• The placenta contains the megasporangia or ovules.
MEGASPORANGIUM
• The ovule is attached to the placenta by the funicle .
• The junction of the ovule and the funicle is called hilum .
• Each ovule has one or two protective layers, called integuments ,
• integuments cover the rest of the ovule, except for a small opening called micropyle .
• The chalaza lying on the opposite side of the micropyle end the basal part of the ovule.
• Nucellus is present within the integuments and contains reserved food.
• The embryo sac or female gametophyte is located within the nucellus.

MEGASPOROGENESIS
• the process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell (MMC) is called megasporogenesis.
• The MMC is large and contains a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. It undergoes meiosis to
produce four megaspores.
FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
• In most flowering plants, only one megaspore is functional while the other three degenerate.
• The single functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte. This kind of development is called
monosporic development.

• The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form 2 nuclei, which move towards the
opposite ends, forming a 2nucleate embryo sac. Two more mitotic divisions ensue, leading to the formation of
4nucleate and 8nucleate embryo sacs.
• After the 8 nucleate stage, the cell walls are laid down and the typical female gametophyte (embryo sac) gets
organised.
• Six of the 8 nuclei get surrounded by the cell wall and the remaining two, called polar nuclei , are situated
below the egg apparatus in the large central cell .
• Three of the six cells are placed at the micropylar end and constitute the egg apparatus (2 synergids + 1 egg
cell ).
• The synergids have special thickenings at the micropylar end. These are together called the filiform apparatus
. It helps in leading the pollen tubes into the synergids.
• Three cells are at the chalazal end, and are called antipodal cells .
• A typical angiosperm female gametophyte is 7-celled and 8-nucleated at maturity.

POLLINATION
• Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
• Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be divided as follows:
a) Autogamy − It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. Autogamy
requires the anther and the stigma to lie close. It also requires
synchrony in the pollen release and stigma receptivity.
Plants like Viola , Oxalis , etc., produce two kinds of flowers—
✓ chasmogamous flowers (with exposed anther and stigma).e.g Hibiscus
 ✓ cleistogamous flowers(which do not open at all and only autogamy occurs). These flowers are
invariably autogamous as these is no chance of cross pollination.these flowers produce assured
seed set even in the absence of pollinators.it does not result in genetic variation. e,g pea
b) Geitonogamy − It is the transfer of pollens from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower in the same
plant. Genetically, it is similar to autogamy, but it requires pollinating agents. E.g. cucumber
c) Xenogamy − It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a different plant. Pollination causes
genetically different types of pollens to be brought to a plant.It ensures genetic recombination.

AGENTS OF POLLINATION
• Plants use air, water (abiotic agents) and animals or insects (biotic agents) for pollination.

• Pollination by wind(Anemophily)
✓ It is the most common form of abiotic pollination.
✓ Plants possess well exposed stamens and large, feathery stigma.
✓ Pollens should be light and nonsticky to be carried easily by winds.
✓ Windpollinated flowers often have single ovule in the ovary and numerous flowers
packed in an inflorescence.
e.g. corn cob – the tassels of corn cob is stigma and style
It is common in grass.
● Pollination by water(Hydrophily)
✓ It is rare in flowering plants, except for some aquatic plants like Vallisneria and Hydrilla
✓ In most waterpollinated plants, the pollen grains are long and ribbon like, and are
protected from wetting by mucilaginous covering
✓ In a majority of water plants like water hyacinth and water lily, flowers emerge above the water level and
are pollinated by insects.
● Pollination by)insects (Ent omophily)
✓ Majority of flowering plants use butterflies, bees, wasps etc., for pollination.
✓ Most of the insect pollinated flowers are large, colourful, fragrant, and contain nectar to attract the
animal pollinators. These are called floral rewards.
✓ Floral reward can be in the form of providing safe places to lay eggs (example: the tallest flower,
Amorphophallus )
✓ A symbiotic relationship exists between the plant, Yucca and its pollinator moth. The moth is dependent
on the plant since the moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary of the plant, and in return, the
plant is pollinated by the moth.
✓ The pollen grains are sticky and get stuck to the body of the pollinator.

OUT BREEDING DEVICES

• Continued self pollination leads to inbreeding depression. Plants have developed methods to prevent self
pollination and encourage cross pollination and these methods are called out breeding devices.
Autogamy is prevented by following ways:
✓ Pollen release and stigma receptivity is not coordinated
✓ Different positioning of the anther and the stigma
✓ Production of unisexual flowers
✓ Self incompatibility
Ways to prevent both autogamy and geitonogamy:
✓ Presence of male and female flowers on different plants, such that each plant is either male or female
(dioecy).
✓ This mechanism is present in several species of papaya.

POLLEN−PISTIL INTERACTIONS
• Pollination does not always ensure the transfer of compatible pollens. Hence, the pistil has the ability to
recognise the right type of pollen to promote post pollination events.
• If the pollen is of the wrong type, the pistil prevents pollen germination. This interaction is mediated by
chemical components of the pollen and the pistil.
• If the pollen is right type it promotes the fertilization. Pollen−pistil interaction is a dynamic process involving
pollen recognition, followed by promotion or inhibition of the pollen.
• The pollen tube reaches the ovary and enters the ovule through the micropyle. Then, through the filiform
apparatus, it reaches synergids. In this way, the pollen tube grows.

ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDISATION
• It is a method to improve crop yield.In this method, it is essential to ensure that the right kinds of pollen grains
are used, and the stigma is protected from unwanted pollen grains. It is achieved by:
Emasculation − The anther is removed from the bud if the female parent bears bisexual flowers.
Bagging − The emasculated flower is covered by a bag so as not to allow contamination of the stigma by
unwanted pollen grains.
Rebagging- When the stigma of the bagged flower becomes receptive,the collected pollen grains are dusted onto
the stigma, and then the flower is rebagged.
NOTE If the female parent is unisexual, emasculation is not necessary. In this case, the female bud is directly
bagged, and when the stigma turns receptive, suitable pollen grains are dusted onto it so as to allow germination.

DOUBLE FERTILISATION
• When the pollen grains fall on the stigma, the pollen tube enters one of the synergids and
releases two male gametes
Syngamy- One of the male gametes moves towards the egg cell and fuses with it to form the zygote .this process
is called Syngamy.
triple fusion - The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei and forms triploid primary endosperm
nucleus (PEN) . This is termed as triple fusion .
❖ Since two kinds of fusion—syngamy and triple fusion—take place, the process is known as double
fertilisation, and is characteristic of flowering plants.
• After triple fusion, the central cell becomes the primary endosperm cell (PEC). The primary endosperm
nucleus gives rise to the endosperm.
• the zygote develops into the embryo.

POST FERTILISATION EVENTS

It includes development of endosperm and embryo, and maturation of ovules into seeds and ovaries into fruits.

FORMATION OF ENDOSPERM
• The endosperm develops before the embryo because the cells of the endosperm provide nutrition to the
developing embryo.
• The primary endosperm nucleus repeatedly divides to give rise to free nuclei. This stage of development
is called free nuclear endosperm.
• Cell wall formation occurs next, resulting in a cellular endosperm.
• The endosperm may be either fully consumed by the growing embryo (as in pea and beans) or retained in
the mature seed (as in coconut and castor).

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO
• The embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated.
• The zygote gives rise first to the pro embryo, and then to the globular, heart shaped, mature embryo.
dicot embryo- consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons. The portion of the embryonal axis above the
level of cotyledons is called epicotyl. It contains the plumule (shoot tip). The portion below the axis is called
hypocotyl. It contains the radicle (root tip). The root tip is covered by the root cap.

monocot embryo - there is only one cotyledon. In grass, it is known as the scutellum, and is situated at one side of
the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and the root cap enclosed in the
coleorrhiza. The epicotyl lies above the level of the scutellum, and has the shoot apex and leaf primordia enclosed
in hollow structures called coleoptiles.

DEVELOPMENT OF SEEDS
• It is the last stage of sexual reproduction in angiosperms. Seeds are the fertilised ovules that are
developed inside a fruit.
• A seed consists of:
✓ Seed coat
✓ Cotyledons
✓ Embryonal axis
● types of seed
✓ albuminous (endosperm present; as in wheat and maize)
✓ nonalbuminous (endosperm absent; since it is consumed by the growing embryo; as in pea and beans).
✓ Some seeds such as black pepper and wheat have remnants of nucellus known as perisperm .
● The integuments of ovules harden to form the seed coat, and the micropyle facilitates the entry of oxygen and
water into the seed. As it loses moisture, the seed may enter dormancy, or if favourable conditions exist, it
germinates.
DEVELOPMENT OF FRUITS
• The ovary of a flower develops into a fruit.
• The walls of the ovary transform into the walls of the fruit (pericarp).
• Fruits may be fleshy, as in mango and orange, or can be dry, as in groundnut and mustard.
• In some plants, floral parts other than the ovary take part in fruit formation, as in apple and strawberry.
In these, the thalamus contributes to fruit formation. Such fruits are called false fruits .
 • Fruits that develop from the ovary are called true fruits .
• Some fruits develop without fertilisation, and are known as parthenocarpic fruits (example: banana).

APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

● Some plants produce seeds without fertilisation. This process of seed formation is known as apomixis. Apomixis
is a form of asexual reproduction mimicking sexual reproduction. In some species, apomixis occurs as the diploid
egg cell is formed without meiosis, and develops into embryo without fertilisation.
● In some varieties of citrus and mango, the nucellus cells divide and protrude into the embryo sac to develop into
embryos. In such cases, each ovule may contain several embryos and this condition is called polyembryony.
● Apomixis is important for producing hybrid varieties of fruits and vegetables, and also for increasing crop yield
multifold.

NCERT QUESTIONS

1. Name the parts of an angiosperm flower in which the development of male and female gametophyte take
place.
Solution: In an angiosperm, the male gametes are developed within the anther. On the contrary, the female
gametes are developed inside the ovules.
2. Differentiate between microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis. Which type of cell division occurs during
these events? Name the structures formed at the end of these two events.
Solution:

Microsporogenesis Megasporogenesis
It is the process in which a diploid microspore mother It is the process of formation of haploid megaspores
cell undergoes meiosis to form haploid microspores. from the diploid mother cell.

Occurs inside pollen sacs. Occurs inside ovules.

Pollens are produced by microsporogenesis. Embryo sacs are produced by megasporogenesis.

The arrangement of microspores is tetrahedral. The arrangement of megaspores is linear.

All four microspores formed are functional Only one out of the four megaspores formed is
functional.

Meiotic cell division occurs during megasporogenesis and microsporogenesis. It is also known as reductional
division that leads to the production of haploid gametes.
The structures formed at the end of these events are:
Microsporogenesis – Pollen grain
Megasporogenesis – Embryo sac

3.Arrange the following terms in correct developmental sequence: Pollen grain, sporogenous tissue, microspore
tetrad, pollen mother cell, male gametes
Solution: The following is the correct developmental sequence:
Sporogenous tissue → pollen mother cell → microspore tetrad → pollen grain → male gamete. When the
microsporangium is developing, every cell of the sporogenous tissue serves as a pollen mother cell, giving rise to a
microspore tetrad possessing four haploid microspores through the meiosis process (microsporogenesis). When
the anthers mature, these microspores dissociate and develop into pollen grains. The pollen grains mature and
give rise to male gametes.

4. What is meant by monosporic development of female gametophyte?

Solution: Monosporic development is the development of a female gametophyte from one functional megaspore.
In angiosperms, a single diploid mother megaspore undergoes meiotic division to form four megaspores (haploid).
Only one out of the four megaspores is functional, which forms a female gametophyte, while the rest of the three
degenerate.

5. With a neat diagram, explain the 7-celled, 8-nucleate nature of female gametophyte.
The female gametophyte is formed by the mitotic division of the mother megaspore. The megaspore divides
mitotically thrice to form 8 nucleate embryo sacs. The process of formation of the 7-celled, 8-nucleate nature of
female gametophyte is mentioned below:

• Two nuclei are formed after the cell undergoes the first mitotic division.
• These two nuclei move towards the micropylar end and the chalazal end, respectively.
• They divide and redivide to form an 8-nucleate stage.
• Consequently, there are four nuclei each on either end.
• At the micropylar end, three out of the four nuclei differentiate into an egg cell and synergids.
• At the chalazal end, three out of the four nuclei differentiate as antipodal cells.
• The remaining cells, each from either end move towards the centre and is known as polar nuclei.

Therefore, on maturation, the female gametophyte looks like a 7-celled structure.

6. Mention two strategies evolved to prevent self-pollination in flowers.
Solution: There are two strategies involved in preventing self-pollination in flowers:
Dichogamy – It refers to the production of male and female reproductive organs at different times in order to
prevent self-fertilization.
Self-incompatibility – It is a genetically controlled mechanism in which pollen grains of a flower are unable to grow
completely on the stigma of the same flower.

7. What is self-incompatibility? Why does self-pollination not lead to seed formation in self-incompatible
species?
Solution: Self-incompatibility refers to a genetically controlled mechanism that prevents self-pollination and
promotes cross-pollination in flowers. Self-pollination cannot lead to the formation of seeds in a self-incompatible
species. This happens because the pollens are unable to fertilize the ovules that would develop into an embryo and
hence form seeds.

8. What is bagging technique? How is it helpful in a plant breeding programme?

Solution: The bagging technique helps prevent fertilization of the stigma by any undesired pollen by covering the
emasculated flower (flower whose anther is removed) with a polybag or butter paper. The bagging technique is
beneficial in the plant breeding programme. In this, only desired pollens are made to fertilize the stigma in order to
produce plants with desired characteristics.
9.What is triple fusion? Where and how does it take place? Name the nuclei involved in triple fusion.
Solution: Triple fusion occurs when a male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei within the embryo sac of flowering
plants. The following events take place in triple fusion:
The pollen grains get dusted on the stigma and germinate, giving rise to a pollen tube that enters the ovule.The
pollen tube passes into one of the synergids and releases two male gametes.One out of the two gametes fuses
with the egg nucleus and forms a zygote.The other gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei located in the central
cell and forms a triploid endosperm nucleus.
The nuclei involved in triple fusion are: A male gamete nucleus and Two polar nuclei
10. Why do you think a zygote is dormant for some time in a fertilized ovule?
Solution: The zygote remains inactive until the endosperm is formed as a result of triple fusion. The endosperm
provides nutrition to the developing embryo and is formed from the primary endosperm cell that results from
triple fusion.

11. Why is apple called a false fruit? Which part of the flower forms the fruit?
Solution: A false fruit is derived from some secondary parts and not from the ovary. Apple is derived from the
thalamus and is hence called a false fruit.

12. What is meant by emasculation? When and why does a plant breeder employ this technique?
Solution: Emasculation refers to the removal of stamens from bisexual flowers before the maturation of the
anther in order to avoid self-pollination in the flowers. This technique is employed when the breeder wants plants
of desired characteristics. The flowers are bagged even before the anther matures. When the anther matures, the
pollen grains are shed on the covered stigma and are allowed to pollinate with the flowers of the desired
characteristics.

13. If one can induce parthenocarpy through the application of growth substances, which fruits would you select
to induce parthenocarpy and why?
Solution: Parthenocarpy refers to the development of fruits without fertilization. Fruits devoid of seeds, such as
watermelon and muskmelon, are in great demand. Therefore, these varieties will be developed by parthenocarpy.

14. Explain the role of tapetum in the formation of pollen grain walls.
Solution: Tapetum is the internal layer of microsporangium and plays an important role in the formation of pollen
grain walls. It provides nutrition to the maturing pollen grains. Various amino acids, enzymes, and hormones are
produced by tapetum cells that are essential for the maturation of pollen grains. Tapetum also forms the exine
layer of pollen grains.

15. What is apomixis and what is its importance?

Solution: Apomixis is the process of seed formation without the occurrence of fertilization (the process of meiosis
and syngamy, to be precise). It plays a vital role in the production of hybrid seeds. Apomixis inhibits the loss of
desired characters in a hybrid. Also, the process of production of hybrid seeds through cultivation is expensive.
Therefore, apomixis is used for the production of hybrid seeds.