DAMS

A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to

create a reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes.
A dam and a reservoir are complements of each other. Dams are generally
constructed in the mountainous reach of the river where the valley is narrow and
the foundation is good. Generally, a hydropower station is also constructed at or near
the dam site to develop hydropower.

Functions of dams

A dam can be constructed for any or all of the following purposes

1. Water supply needs

2. Flood control requirements
3. Electric power generation
4. Recreation
Terminologies of Dams:
Crest: The top of the dam structure. These may in some cases be used for providing
a roadway or walkway over the dam.
Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the
crest.
Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of structure
for the passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right
end of dam are fixed to.
Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at
transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water.
These are generally provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage
holes. These may also be used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the
performance of dam.
Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir.
Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the
top of the structure.
Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be
withdrawn.
Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to
bypass the dam construction site. The hydraulic structures are built while the river
flows through the diversion tunnel.

CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS

Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification i.e.
types of dams are mentioned below:

i. Based on the functions of dams:

1. Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when
there is a large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for
later use in dry summers. Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved
habitat for fish and wildlife. They may store water for hydroelectric power
generation, irrigation or for a flood control project. Storage dams are the most
common type of dams and in general the dam means a storage dam unless qualified
otherwise.
2. Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting
water of the river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient
pressure for pushing water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such
shorter dams are used for irrigation, and for diversion from a stream to a distant
storage reservoir. It is usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir on its
upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of storage weir which also diverts water and
has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion dams are used
synonymously.
3. Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention
dam retards the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some
flood water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water
retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate according
to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of the detention dam. Thus the
area downstream of the dam is protected against flood.
4. Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel,
and drift wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris
dam is relatively clear.
5. Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to
exclude water so that the construction can be done in dry. A coffer dam is thus a
temporary dam constructed for facilitating construction. These structures are
usually constructed on the upstream of the main dam to divert water into a diversion
tunnel (or channel) during the construction of the dam. When the flow in the river
during construction of hydraulic structures is not much, the site is usually enclosed
by the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of
the dam is also required.

ii. Based on structure and design:

1. Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete
or stone masonry. They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By
using concrete, the weight of the dam is actually able to resist the horizontal
thrust of water pushing against it. This is why it is called a gravity dam.
Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the ground, stopping water from
toppling it over. Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide valleys
or narrow gorge ways. Since gravity dams must rely on their own weight to
hold back water, it is necessary that they are built on a solid foundation of
 bedrock. Examples of Gravity dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), Nagarjuna Sagar
(India) and Itaipu Dam (It lies Between Brazil and Paraguay and is the largest
in the world).
2. Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting
successive layers of earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core
and placing more permeable substances on the upstream and downstream
sides. A facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample
spillway, usually of concrete, protects against catastrophic washout should
the water overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the forces exerted upon it
mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the weight of this structure
also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is
entirely different from that of a gravity dam. The earth dams are usually
built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments). The foundation
requirements are less stringent than those of gravity dams, and hence they
can be built at the sites where the foundations are less strong. They can be
built on all types of foundations. However, the height of the dam will depend
upon the strength of the foundation material. Examples of earthfill dam:
Rongunsky dam (Russia) and New Cornelia Dam (USA).
3. Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large
size. An impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side
to reduce the seepage through the dam. The membrane is usually made of
cement concrete or asphaltic concrete. In early rockfill dams, steel and
timber membrane were also used, but now they are obsolete. A dry rubble
cushion is placed between the rockfill and the membrane for the distribution
of water load and for providing a support to the membrane. Sometimes, the
rockfill dams have an impervious earth core in the middle to check the seepage
instead of an impervious upstream membrane. The earth core is placed against
a dumped rockfill. It is necessary to provide adequate filters between the
earth core and the rockfill on the upstream and downstream sides of the core
so that the soil particles are not carried by water and piping does not occur.
The side slopes of rockfill are usually kept equal to the angle of repose of
rock, which is usually taken as 1.4:1 (or 1.3:1). Rockfill dams require foundation
stronger than those for earth dams. Examples of rockfill dam: Mica Dam
(Canada) and Chicoasen Dam (Mexico).
4. Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the
upstream side. They transfer the water pressure and other forces mainly to
the abutments by arch action. An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow
canyons with strong flanks which are capable of resisting the thrust produced
by the arch action. The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like
a gravity dam but the section is comparatively thinner. The arch dam may have
a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane. Generally, the
arch dams of double curvature are more economical and are used in practice.
Examples of Arch dam: Hoover Dam (USA) and Idukki Dam (India).
5. Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types : (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple-
arch type, and (iii) Massive-head type. A deck type buttress dam consists of
a sloping deck supported by buttresses. Buttresses are triangular concrete
walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the foundation.
Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are typically spaced across
the dam site every 6 to 30 metres, depending upon the size and design of the
dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses
do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley. The deck is usually a
reinforced concrete slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually
equally spaced. In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced
by horizontal arches supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small
span and made of concrete. In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no
deck slab. Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of the buttresses are
flared to form massive heads which span the distance between the
buttresses. The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams. But
they are not necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost
of form work, reinforcement and more skilled labor. The foundation
requirements of a buttress are usually less stringent than those in a gravity
dam. Examples of Buttress type: Bartlett dam (USA) and The Daniel-Johnson
Dam (Canada).
The design principles
1. The filling material to be used for earth dams should be sufficiently less
permeable.
2. The earth dams should be constructed by utilizing available materials in local
area to serve the intended purpose with low cost. In order to reduce the leads
for carrying excavated earth, the borrow pits should be as close to the dam site
as possible.
3. Sufficient outlets and spillways should be provided to avoid the possibility
overtopping during design floods.
4. For frost action, wave action and earthquake motions, sufficient freeboard
must be provided.
5. If the stability of foundations and embankments is not impaired by piping,
sloughing etc., there should be little harm in seepage through a flood control dam.
But a conservation dam should be as water-tight as possible.
6. To avoid sloughing of face of earth dam, the phreatic line i.e. seepage line
should be within the downstream face of the dam.
7. The downstream face must be protected properly against rain, waves, up to
tail water and the upstream face against wave action. To reduce erosion due to
flow of rain water horizontal berms may be provided at suitable intervals in the
downstream face. Ripraps may be provided on the entire upstream slope and on
the downstream slope near the toe so as to prevent erosion.
8. By providing suitable horizontal filler drain or chimney drain or toe drain, the
portion of the dam and downstream of the impervious core should be properly
drained.
9. There must be no possibility of free flow of water from upstream to
downstream face.
10. The upstream and downstream slopes should be designed so as to be stable
under worst conditions of loading. Such critical conditions occur for the upstream
slope during sudden downstream of the reservoir and for the downstream slope
during steady seepage under full reservoir.
11. The upstream slope and downstream slope must be flat enough to provide
sufficient base width at the foundation level, such that the maximum shear
stress developed remains well below the corresponding maximum shear strength
of the soil so as to provide suitable factor of safety.
12. Due to development of excessive pore pressure and consequent reduction in
shear strength of soil, the stability of the embankment and foundations is very
critical during construction or even after the construction during the period of
consolidation. So under this critical condition the embankment slopes must remain
safe.
Construction principles of a dam
Building a dam is a complex, multi-step process that requires huge amounts of
manpower, raw materials, and investment. Here are the basic steps to building a
dam.
1. Engineers must de-water the river where the dam is meant to be built. This is
done by diverting the river through a tunnel that runs around the intended
 construction zone. Tunnels like this may be lined with concrete and are usually
dug out using a combination of drilling and explosives.
2. Dam construction must be started when river levels are low. A small dam called
a cofferdam is built upstream of the construction zone to help funnel water
into the diversion tunnel. A cofferdam may be built downstream as well, but
the overall goal is to keep the construction zone dry so that the main dam can
be built. Pumps may be used to remove water that penetrates the cofferdam.
3. Loose rock is removed from the riverbed, and a plinth must be constructed. A
plinth is a concrete foundation for the dam that embeds it in the walls and
floor of the riverbed/valley. This prevents water from leaking at the edges
of the dam.
4. Now, it’s time to build the dam to its desired height. A concave-curved
downstream surface for a dam helps it absorb the constant pressure of water
that it must endure. Reinforced steel is used for the surfaces of the dam
itself, and an enclosure is built. The enclosure is filled with concrete to make
it extremely strong and resilient against water flow.

Factors Affecting Selection of Dam

I. Topography
Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam.
1. A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky
walls, would suggest a concrete overflow dam.
2. A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate spillways.
3. A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam
II. Geological and Foundation Conditions
Geological and Foundation conditions should be thoroughly surveyed because the
foundations have to carry the weight of the dam. Various kind of foundations
generally encountered are
1. Solid rock foundations such as granite have strong bearing power and almost
every kind of dam can be built on such foundations.
2. Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen and rock fill dams.
3. Silt and fine sand foundations suggest construction of earth dams or very low
gravity dams.
4. Clay foundations are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam.
Constructions of gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such
foundations. Earthen dams after special treatments can be built.
III. Availability of Materials
Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting the type of dam.
In order to achieve economy in dam construction, the materials required must be
available locally or at short distances from the construction site.
IV. Spillway Size and Location
spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of the spillway will
depend on the magnitude of the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore
much more important on rivers and streams with large flood potential.
V. Earthquake Zone
If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake
forces. The type of structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without
danger are earthen dams and concrete gravity dams.
VI. Height of Dam
Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so. For
greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.

Selection of Dam Site

The selection of Dam site for constructing a dam should be governed by the
following factors.
1. Suitable foundation must be available.
2. For economy, the length of the dam should be as small as possible, and for a
given height, it should store the maximum volume of water.
3. The general bed level at dam site should preferably be higher than that of
the river basin. This will reduce the height of the dam.
4. A suitable site for the spillway should be available in the near vicinity.
5. Materials required for the construction of dam should be easily available,
either locally or in the near vicinity.
6. The value of land and property submerged by the proposed dam should be as
low as possible.
7. The dam site should be easily accessible, so that it can be economically
connected to important towns and cities.
8. Site for establishing labor colonies and a healthy environment should be
available near the site.

Dam maintenance
With regular use and exposure to a variety of weather conditions, dams can need
a bit of repair and maintenance to ensure they remain in working order for the
longer term.
Monitoring and assessing dams now will help ensure they continue to provide a
valuable resource into the future and do not present any danger to third parties.
The following provides some examples of dam works that can be undertaken on
an existing dam.
• Remove vegetation from the spillway, dam wall or within the dam storage area.
Note: Before removing stumps, especially on the embankment itself, please
seek professional advice.
• To place any protective topsoil, gravel, rock or other natural material to
prevent erosion or other damage to –
o a dam embankment; or
o a spillway, as long as the designed flood capacity is not reduced (i.e. the
same volume of water can still be passed through the spillway channel);
• Minor repairs to spillway as long as the designed flood capacity is not reduced
(i.e. the same volume of water can still be passed through the spillway channel).