MODULE 1

Functions, Limits and Continuity

Functions

FUNCTION - it is a rule which establishes a correspondence between two quantities

(dependent and independent variables)

• When two quantities x and y are related so that for some range of values of x, the
value of y is determined by that of x, then we say that y is a function of x.

Notation: 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) Read as “y is a function of x” or “ y

is equal to f of x”
Dependent Independent
variable variable

Examples:
- The circumference of a circle is a function of the circle’s radius
- The height reached by a projectile is a function of time
- Keys in the calculator like sine, cosine and tangent are functions of the size of
an angle
- The amount of tax is a function of the size of one’s income
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

Classification according to value:

(1) ONE/SINGLE-VALUED FUNCTION (2) MANY-VALUED FUNCTION

- For every value of x given, there - For every value of x, there corresponds
corresponds one and only one value two or more values of y
of y Ex. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 3
Ex. y = x+2, if x = 1 then y = 3 If x = 1, then y = ±2

Classification according to how the function is expressed:

(1) EXPLICIT FUNCTION (2) IMPLICIT FUNCTION

- A function is expressed in an equation - A function is expressed in terms of

of the dependent variable in terms of both the dependent and
the independent variable independent variables
- The dependent variable is solved - Notation: y = f(x,y) or F(x,y) = 0
readily in terms of the independent Ex. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 0
variable y = x sin xy
- Notation: y = f(x)
Ex. y = 3 sin x ; y2 = x2 + 1
An equation will be a function if, for any 𝑥 in the domain of the equation (the domain is
all the 𝑥′𝑠 that can be plugged into the equation), the equation will yield exactly one
value of 𝑦 when we evaluate the equation at a specific 𝑥.
VERTICAL LINE TEST
The vertical line test is a method that is used to determine whether a given
relation is a function or not. The approach is rather simple. Draw a vertical line
cutting through the graph of the relation, and then observe the points of
intersection.

If a vertical line intersects the graph in all places at exactly one point, then the
relation is a function.

DOMAIN AND RANGE

One of the more important ideas about functions is that of
the domain and range of a function. In simplest terms the domain of a function is
the set of all values that can be plugged into a function and have the function exist
and have a real number for a value. So, for the domain we need to avoid division
by zero, square roots of negative numbers, logarithms of zero and logarithms of
negative numbers, etc. The range of a function is simply the set of all possible values
that a function can take.

The set of all admissible values of x are called the DOMAIN of the function, and the
set of all resulting values of y is called the RANGE of the function.

Limits

The unit we will be examining in this module is that of Limits. This is the first of three major
topics we will be covering in this course. While we will be spending the least amount of
time on limits in comparison to the other two topics, limits are very important in the study
of Calculus. We will be seeing limits in a variety of places once we move out of this unit.
In particular we will see that limits are part of the formal definition of the other two major
topics.

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

The limit of a function, f is a tool for investigating the behavior of f(x) as x gets closer
to a particular number “a”.
Let us investigate the behavior of a function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 for
values of 𝑥 near 2. The following table gives values of 𝑓(𝑥) for values of x close to 2,
but not equal to 2.

𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)

1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000

1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000

1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000

1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000

1.95 3.852500 1.05 4.152500

1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100

1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025

1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001

From the table and the graph of 𝑓 (a parabola) as shown in the figure, we see that
when 𝑥 is close to 2 (on either side of 2), 𝑓(𝑥) is close to 4. In fact, it appears that we
can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) as close as we like to 4 by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to
2. We express this by saying “the limit of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 as 𝑥
approaches 2 is equal to 4.” The notation for this is

lim (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2

In general, we use the following notation:

Read as “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 is L” and means that the functional values
𝒙→𝒂
of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by
choosing x sufficiently close to a (but not
equal to a)

Roughly speaking, this says that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) tend to get closer and closer to
the number L as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to the number 𝑎 (from either side of 𝑎) but
𝑥 ≠ 𝑎. (A more precise definition will be given in the next sections.

How do we use this definition to help us estimate limits? We do exactly what we did
in the previous illustration. We take 𝑥’s on both sides of 𝑥 = 𝑎 that move in closer
and closer to 𝑎 and we plug these into our function. We then look to see if we can
determine what number the function values are moving in towards and use this as
our estimate.
RIGHT – HAND AND LEFT – HAND LIMITS
RHL : 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 LHL : 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑴
𝒙→𝒂+ 𝒙→𝒂−
- each x involved is greater than a - x remaining less than a
- the independent variable x approaches - curve is to the left of a
a from the right
- curve is to the right of a

By comparing the definition of limit with the definitions of one-sided limits, we see
that the following is true.

INFINITE LIMITS
THEOREMS ON LIMITS
THEOREM 1: The limit of the sum of two (or more) functions is equal to the sum of
their limits
lim [𝑢(𝑥) ± 𝑣(𝑥)] = lim 𝑢(𝑥) ± lim 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

THEOREM 2: The limit of the product of two (or more) functions is equal to the product
of their limits
lim [𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)] = [lim 𝑢(𝑥)] [lim 𝑣(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

THEOREM 3: The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their
limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero
𝑢(𝑥) [lim 𝑢(𝑥)]
lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑖𝑓 [lim 𝑣(𝑥)] ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑣(𝑥) [lim 𝑣(𝑥)] 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

sin∝
THEOREM 4: If 𝛼 is measured in radians, lim [ ]= 1
∝→0 ∝

THEOREM 5: The limit of a constant is the constant itself

lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 where k is any constant
𝑥→𝑎

THEOREM 6: The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
lim [𝑘𝑢(𝑥)] = 𝑘 lim 𝑢(𝑥) where k is any constant
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY

Functions with the Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at a and will be
studied in Unit 3. However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.

Continuity

We noticed in Unit 2 that the limit of a function as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 can often be found
simply by calculating the value of the function at 𝑎. Functions with this property are called
continuous at 𝒂. We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds
closely with the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language. (A continuous
process is one that takes place gradually, without interruption or abrupt change.)

“CONTINUOUS” is an adjective that describes a function meeting very specific

standards. It is easiest to determine whether or not a function is continuous by looking at
its graph.

Notice that the definition implicitly requires that these

three conditions are satisfied:
(a) 𝒇(𝒂) exists – the function is defined, means that
there is no hole there

(b) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists – limit exists at x=a, which means

𝒙→𝒂
that the function has intended height

(c) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂) -- the limit is equal to the

𝒙→𝒂
function value (the function’s value matches
its intended value)

If any one or more of the conditions is not satisfied, the

function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x=a or to
have a discontinuity at x=a

1. LIMIT – where the function intends to go

2. CONTINUITY – guarantees that the function
actually made it there

TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY

(1) MISSING-POINT DISCONTINUITY – occurs when a function contains a hole

𝟎
• Occurs if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎, indeterminate
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟏𝒙+𝟐𝟖
Illustrative Example: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙+𝟒
 Since x=-4 represents a place where f(x) is undefined, and the 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙→−𝟒
𝟑 , you know that there is a hole in the function at P(-4,3), a POINT
DISCONTINUITY.

(2) FINITE JUMPS / JUMP DISCONTINUITY

- It may happen that, at x=a, the function has both a
left-hand and a right-hand limit, but the two are not
equal. At such a point, the function has a finite jump.
- Typically caused by a piecewise-defined function
whose pieces do not meet.
−𝒙 + 𝟑 , 𝒙 < 𝟎
Example. 𝒇(𝒙) = {
𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎

(3) INFINITE / ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITY – occurs when the equation increases

numerically without bound as x approaches a.
- Occurs when 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞
𝒙→𝒂
𝟗𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙−𝟐
Example. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑𝒙𝟐+𝟏𝟑𝒙+𝟒
𝒙→−𝟒

THEOREM 7. If u(x) and v(x) are both continuous at x=a, it follows that u(x)●v(x) and u(x)
𝑢(𝑥)
+ v(x) are continuous at x=a, and that if v(a) ≠ 0, 𝑣(𝑥)
is continuous at x = a.

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

THEOREM 8. A polynomial is continuous for all values of x
THEOREM 9. A rational algebraic function is continuous except for those
values of x for which the denominator vanishes.

THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM – a.k.a. Existence Theorem

- The function f(x) is said to be continuous over the closed interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 if f(x) is
continuous at every interior point 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 and f(x) has right-hand continuity at x=a
and left-hand continuity at x=b.
- If a function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b], then for every real number
d between f(a) and f(b), there exists a c between a and b such that f(c) = d.
SQUEEZE THEOREM – sometimes called Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching
Theorem, is illustrated by the figure below.

• If 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ 𝒈(𝒙) ≤ 𝒉(𝒙) when x is near a (except possibly

at a) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝑳 then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
- It says that if g(x) is squeezed between f(x) and h(x)
near a, and if f and h have the same limit L at a, then
g is forced to have the same limit L at a.