CHAPTER 5

SKELETAL SYSTEM

OUTLINED BY ALGERICO F. BAIñO, JR., RN

( SOURCES : MARIEB RN, SEELEY, STEPHENS AND TATE )
PLEASE REFER TO POWERPOINT FOR THE IMAGES

5.1. BONES : AN OVERVIEW

5.1. A. FUNCTIONS OF THE BONE

1. SUPPORT

✓ AKA “STEEL FRAME” OF THE BODY – MAJOR SUPPORTING TISSUE OF THE BODY
✓ IS RIGID AND STRONG, WELL SUITED FOR BEARING WEIGHT
✓ FORMS THE INTERNAL FRAMEWORK THAT SUPPORS THE BODY AND CRADLES ITS SOFT ORGANS
✓ BONES OF THE LEGS: SUPPORTS THE BODY TRUNK WHEN WE STAND
✓ RIB CAGE: REINFORCES THE THORACIC WALL
✓ CARTILAGE - FIRM YET FLEXIBLE SUPPORT – SUCH AS NOSE, EXTERNAL EAR, THORACIC CAGE
AND TRACHEA
✓ LIGAMENTS - STRONG BANDS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE THAT ATTACH TO BONES AND HOLDS
THEM TOGETHER

2. PROTECTION

✓ PROTECTS SOFT BODY ORGANS

✓ SKULL – PROTECTS THE BRAIN
✓ VERTEBRAE – SUPPORTS THE SPINAL CORD
✓ RIB CAGE – PROTECTS THE HEART, LUNGS AND OTHER ORGANS OF THE THORAX

3. ALLOWS MOVEMENT

✓ SKELETAL MUSCLE ARE ATTACHED TO BONES BY TENDONS ( STRONG BANDS OF CONNECTIVE

TISSUE ) WHEREIN IT ACTS AS LEVERS TO MOVE THE BODY AND ITS PARTS
✓ CONTRACTION OF THE SKELETAL MUSCLES MOVES THE BONE THEREBY PRODUCING
MOVEMENT
✓ JOINTS – ARE FORMED WHEN WHERE 2 OR MORE BONES COME IN CONTACT TOGETHER
THEREBY ALLOWING MOVEMENT BETWEEN BONES
✓ SMOOTH CARTILAGE – COVERS THE ENDS OF BONES WITHIN SOME JOINTS, ALLOWING THE
BONES TO FREELY MOVE.
✓ LIGAMENTS – ALLOWS SOME MOVEMENT BEYWEEN BONES BUT PREVENTS EXCESSIVE
MOVEMENTS

4. STORAGE

✓ IS A STORE HOUSE FOR MINERALS, MOST IMPORTANTLY CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS

✓ FAT ( ADIPOSE TISSUE ) IS ALSO STORED IN THE INTERNAL ( MARROW ) CAVITIES OF THE
BONES – AND IF NEEDED, THE FATS ARE RELEASED INTO THE BLOOD AND USED BY OTHER
TISSUES AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
✓ CALCIUM
➢ MOST OF CALCIUM IS DEPOSITED IN THE BONES AS CALCIUM SALTS
➢ BUT SMALL AMOUNTS OF IONIC CALCIUM MUST REMAIN IN THE BLOOD FOR THE
FOLLOWING REASONS :
▪ FOR THE NERVOUS SYSTEM TO TRANSMIT MESSAGES
▪ CONTRACTION OF THE MUSCLES
▪ BLOOD CLOTTING
➢ TOO LESS AND TOO MUCH CALCIUM IS A PROBLEM
➢ HORMONES CONTROLS THE MOVEMENT OF CALCIUM ACCORDING TO THE NEEDS OF
THE BODY

5. BLOOD CELL FORMATION

✓ ALSO KNOWN AS “HEMATOPOIESIS” – OCCURS WITHIN THE MAROW CAVITIES OF CERTAIN

BONES
5.1. B. CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

✓ ADULT SKELETON HAS 206 BONES

✓ THERE AR 2 BASIC TYPES OF BONES (OSSEOUS ) TISSUE
1. COMPACT – DENSE AND LOOKS SMOOTH AND HOMOGENOUS
2. SPONGY BONE – SPIKY, OPEN APPEARANCE LIKE A SPONGE
✓ THERE ARE ALSO 4 TYPES OF BONES BASED ON THEIR SHAPE :
1. LONG BONES
▪ TYPICALLY, LONGER THAN THEY ARE WIDE
▪ HAVE A SHAFT WITH ENLARGED ENDS
▪ MOSTLY COMPACT BONE BUT ALSO CONTAINS SPONGY BONE AT ENDS
▪ EX. ALL THE BONES OF THE LIMBS, EXCEPT THE PATELLA ( KNEE CAP ) AND THE WRIST
AND ANKLE BONES
2. FLAT BONES
▪ THIN, FLATTENED AND CURVED
▪ COMPOSED OF 2 THIN LAYERS OF COMPACT BONE SANDWICHING A LAYER OF SPONGY
BONE BETWEEN THEM
▪ EX. MOST BONES OF THE SKULL, RIBS, STERNUM ( BREASTBONE )
3. SHORT BONES
▪ ARE CUBED SHAPED AND CONTAIN MOSTLY SPONGY BONE WITH AN OUTER LAYER OF
COMPACT BONE
▪ ARE APPROXIMATELY AS BROAD AS THEY ARE LONG
▪ SESAMOID BONES – SPECIAL TYPE OF SHORT BONES WHICH FORM WITHIN TENDONS
EXAMPLE IS PATELLA
▪ EX. BONES OF THE WRISTS AND ANKLES
4. IREGULAR BONES
▪ BONES THAT DO NOT FIT ONE OF THE PRECEDING CATEGORIES
▪ ARE MAINLY SPONGY BONE WITH AN OUTER LAYER OF COMPACT BONE
▪ EX. VERTEBRAE OF THE SPINAL COLUMN AND FACIAL BONES

5.1. C. STRUCTURE OF THE BONE

1. GROSS ANATOMY OF THE LONG BONE

A. DIAPHYSIS

✓ ALSO KNOWN AS THE SHAFT

✓ PRESENT IN THE LONG BONE
✓ MAKES UP MOST OF THE BONE’S LENGTH
✓ COMPOSED OF COMPACT BONE
✓ COVERED AND PROTECTED BY A FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE CALLED
PERIOSTEUM
✓ PERFORATING FIBERS OR SHARPEY’S FIBERS – THESE ARE THE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
FIBERS THAT SECURE THE PERIOSTEUM TO THE UNDERLYING BONE

B. EPIPHYSES

✓ ARE THE ENDS OF LONG BONES

✓ CONSISTS OF A THIN LAYER OF COMPACT BONE ENCLOSING AN AREA FILLED WITH
SPONGY BONE
✓ ARTICULAR CATILAGE - A GLASSY HYALINE CARTILAGE THAT COVERS THE EXTERNAL
SURFACE AND PROVIDES A SMOOTH SURFACE THAT DECREASES FRICTION AT THE JOINT
WHEN COVERED BY A LUBRICATING FLUID

✓ EPIPHYSEAL LINE
▪ A REMNANT OF EPIPHYSEAL PLATE
▪ A THIN LINE OF BONY TISSUE SPANNING THE EPIPHYSIS
✓ EPIPHYSEAL PLATE
▪ A FLAT PLATE OF HYALINE CARTILAGE SEEN IN YOUNG, GROWING BONE
▪ CAUSES THE LENGTHWISE GROWTH OF A LONG BONE
▪ ARE COMPLETELY REPLACED BY BONE BY THE END OF PUBERTY BECAUSE OF
THE HORMONES INHIBITING THE GROWTH OF LONG BONES AND IT LEAVES
THE EPIPHYSEAL LINES MARKING THE PREVIOUS LOCATION
 C. ENDOSTEUM

✓ A DELICATE, THINNER CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERING THE SURFACE OF THE

MEDULLARY CAVITY
✓ CONTAINS OSTEOBLASTS WHICH FUNCTION IN THE FORMATION OF THE BONE AS
WELL AS IN THE REMODELLING OF THE BONE

D. PERIOSTEUM

✓ A FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE THAT COVERS AND PROTECTS THE

EPIPHYSIS AND ALSO CONTAINS THE BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES
✓ CONTAINS OSTEOBLASTS WHICH FUNCTION IN THE FORMATION OF THE BONE AS
WELL AS IN THE REMODELLING OF THE BONE SAME WITH ENDOSTEUM

E. MEDULLARY CAVITY

✓ CAVITIES OF THE DIAPHYSIS AND FILLED WITH EITHER YELLOW OR RED MARROW
✓ MARROW IS THE SOFT TISSUE IN THE MEDULLARY CAVITIES OF THE BONE
✓ IS A STORAGE AREA FOR RED MARROW
▪ PRODUCES BLOOD CELLS
▪ IS THE ONLY SIE OF BLOOD FORMATION IN ADULTS
▪ CHILDREN’S BONES HAVE PROPORTIONALY MORE RED MARROW THAN DO
ADULT BONES
▪ PRESENT IN THE CHILDREN’S BONES UNTIL THE AGE 6 OR 7 AND IS REPLACED
BY YELLOW MARROW WHICH STORES ADIPOSE ( FAT ) TISSUE
▪ IN ADULT BONES, THE RED MARROW IS CONFINED TO CAVITIES IN SPONGY
BONE OF AXIAL SKELETON, THE HIP BONES, AND THE EPIPHYSES OF LONG
BONE SUCH AS THE HUMERUS AND FEMUR

F. BONE MARKINGS

✓ ARE SURFACES OF THE BONES THAT ARE NOT SMOOTH AND SCARRED WITH BUMPS,
HOLES AND RIDGES
✓ WHERE MUSCLES, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS ATTACH AND ALSO WHERE BLOOD AND
NERVES PASS
✓ HAS TWO CATEGORIES
▪ PROJECTIONS OR PROCESSES – GROW OUT FROM THE BONE SURFACE
▪ DEPRESSION OR CAVITIES - INDENTATIONS IN THE BONE

2. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY

A. SPONGY BONE / CANCELLOUS BONE

✓ LOCATED MAINLY IN THE EPIPHYSIS OF LONG BONES

✓ IT FORMS THR INTERIOR OF ALL OTHER BONES
✓ TRABECULAE - DELICATE INTERCONNECTING RODS OR PLATES OR SMALL NEEDLE LIKE
PIECES OF BONE.
o IT ADDS STRENGTH TO THE BONE WITHOUT THE ADDED WEIGHT
o SPACES BETWEEN THE TRABECULAE ARE FILLED WITH MARROW
o CONSISTS OF SEVERAL LAMELLAE WITH OSTEOCYTES IN BETWEEN
o NO BLOOD VESSELS PRESENT AND NO CENTRAL CANALS

B. COMPACT BONE

✓ OSTEOCYTES - MATURE BONE CELLS FOUND WITHIN THE BONE MATRIX IN TINY
CAVITIES CALLED LACUNAE
✓ LACUNAE – ARE SPACES WHEREIN OSTEOCYTES ARE PRESENT
✓ LAMELLAE – CONCENTRIC CIRCLES FORMED BY LACUNAE
✓ HAVERSIAN CANALS – CENTRAL CALLS THAT RUNS LENGTHWISE THROUGH THE BONY
MATRIX, CARRYING BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES TO ALL AREAS OF THE BONE
✓ OSTEON / HAVERSIAN SYSTEM- EACH COMPLEX CONSISTING OF CENTRAL CANAL AND
MATRIX RINGS. OSTEON IS ALSO REFERRED TO AS THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
UNIT OF THE COMPACT BONE. HAS SURROUNDING LAMELLAE AND OSTEOCYTES
✓ CANALICULI – ARE TINY CANALS WHEREIN CELL PROCESSES EXTEND FROM THE
OSTEOCYTES ACROSS THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX OF THE LAMELLAE. THEY RADIATE
OUTWARD FROM THE CENTRAL CANALS TO ALL LACUNAE AND FORM A
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM THAT CONNECTS ALL BONE CELLS TO THE NUTRIENT
SUPPLY AND ASTE REMOVAL SERVICES THROUGH THE HARD BONE MATRIX. AND
BECAUSE OF THIS CANALS, BONE CELLS ARE WELL NOURISHED AND BONE INJURIES
HEAL QUICKLY
 ✓ VOLKMANN’S CANAL - ARE PERFORATING CANALS, WHICH RUN IN THE COMPACT
BONE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE SHAFT (DIAPHYSIS) AND CENTRAL CANALS

5.1. D. BONE FORMATION, GROWTH AND REMODELLING

A. BONE FORMATION AND GROWTH (OSSIFICATION)

✓ SKELETON IS FORMED FROM CARTILAGE AND BONE, BOTH OF WHICH ARE CONSIDERED THE
STRONGEST AND ABUNDANT SUPPORTIVE TISSUES OF THE BODY
✓ HYALINE CARTILAGE IS THE MAIN SKELETON IN EMBRYOS BUT IS REPLACED BY BONE IN YOUNG
CHILDREN. AND MOST BONES DEVELOP USING HYALINE CARTILAGE AS THEIR MODELS
✓ CARTILAGE REMAINS ONLY IN ISOLATED ARES SUCH AS THE NOSE, PART OF THE RIBS AND THE
JOINTS.
✓ OSSIFICATION
o IS THE FORMATION OF BONE BY OSTEOBLASTS
o INVOLVES THE SYNTHESIS OF AN ORGANIC MATRIX CONTAINING COLLAGEN AND
PROTEOGLYCANS AND THE ADDITION F HYDROXYAPATITE CYRTALS TO THE MATRIX
o AFTER AN OSTEOBLASTS BECOMES COMPLETELY SURROUNDED BY THE BONE MATRIX,
IT BECOMES A MATURE BONE CELL OR OSTEOCYTE
o BONES DEVELOP IN THE FETUS BY 2 PROCESSES, EACH INVOLVING THE FORMATIO OF
BONE MATRIX ON PRE-EXISTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION

✓ BONE FORMATION THAT OCCURS WITHIN CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

✓ OCCURS PRIMARILY IN THE BONES OF THE SKULL
a. OSTEOBLASTS LINE UP ON THE SURFACE OF THE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
FIBERS AND BEGIN DEPOSITING BONE MATRIX TO FORM THE TRABECULAE
AND THE TRABECULAE RADIATES OUT FROM THE OSSIFICATION CENTERS
b. THE TRABCULAE ARE CONSTANTLY REMODELED AFTER THEIR INITIAL
FORMATION , AND THEY MAY ENLARGE OR BE REPLACED BY COMPACT
BONE

2. ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
✓ IT INVOLVES THE BONES AT THE BASE OF THE SKULL AND MOST OF THE
REMAINING SKELETAL SYSTEM FROM CARTILAGE MODELS
✓ CARTILAGE MODEL
a. A CARTILAGE MODEL - WITH THE GENERAL SHAPE OF A MATURE BONE IS
PRODUCED BY CHONDROCYTES. A PERICHONDRIUM SUROUNDS MOST OF
THE CARTILAGE MODEL
b. A BONE COLLAR IS PRODUCED AND THE PERICHONDRIUM OF THE
DIAPHYSES BECOMES THE PERIOSTEUM. THE CHONDROCYTES
HYPERTROPHY AND CARTILAGE IS CALCIFIED
c. A PRIMARY OSSIFICATION CENTER FORMS AS BLOOD VESSELS AND
OSTEOBLASTS INVADE THE CALCIFIED CARTILAGE. THE OSTEOBLASTS LAY
DOWN BONE MATRIX, FORMING TRABCEULAE
d. A SECONDARY OSSIFICATION CENTER FORM IN THE EPIPHYSES OF LONG
BONES

✓ HOW DO BONES WIDEN AS THEY LENGTHEN TO MAINTAIN PROPER PROPORTION ?

1. IT OCCURS SIMULTANEOUSLY, OSTEOBLASTS IN THE PERIOSTEUM ADD BONE

MATRIX OUTSIDE OF THE DIAPHYSIS AND OSTEOCLASTS REMOVE BONE FROM THE
INNER SURFACE, THUS ENLARGING THE MEDULLARY CAVITY, THEREBY, THE
CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE LONG BONE EXPANDS AND THE BONE WIDENS. THIS
PROCESS WHEREBY THERE IS INCREASE IN DIAMETER IS CALLED APPOSITIONAL
GROWTH
2. GROWTH HORMONE AND SEX HORMONES ARE IMPORTANT IN APOSITIONAL
GROWTH AND ENDS IN ADOLESCENCE WHEN THE EPIPHYSEAL PLATES ARE
CONCERTED TO BONE
B. BONE REMODELING

✓ INVOLVES THE REMOVAL OF EXISTING BONE BY THE OSTEOCLASTS AND THE DEPOSITION OF
NEW BONE BY OSTEOBLASTS
✓ REMODELING IS REPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES IN BONE SHAPE, THE ADJUSTMENT OF BONE TO
STRESS, BONE REPAIR AND CALCIUM ION REGULATION IN THE BODY FLUIDS
✓ BONE IS THE MAJOR STORAGE SITE FOR CALCIUM IN THE BODY, THUS, CALCIUM LEVELS MUST
BE MAINTAINED WITHIN NARROW LIMITS FOR MANY FUNCTIONS TO OCCUR NORMALLY
✓ CALCIUM IS REMOVED FROM THE BONE WHEN BLOOD CALCIUM DECREASES AND IS
DEPOSITED WHEN DIETARY CALCIUM IS ADEQUATE. THE REMOVAL AND DEPOSITION OF
CALCIUM IS UNDER HORMONAL CONTROL
✓ IF TOO MUCH BONE IS DEPOSITED, BONE BECOMES THICK OR HAVE ABNORMAL SPURS OR
LUMPS THAT CAN INTERFERE WITH NORMAL FUNCTION. ON THE OTHER HAND, IF THERE IS
TOO LIITLE BONE FORMATION OR TOO MUCH BONE REMOVAL, WEAKENS THE BONES AND
MAKES THEM SUSCEPTIBLE TO FRACTURE.
✓ BONES BECOME THICKER AND FORM LARGE PROJECTIONS TO INCREASE THEIR STRENGTH IN
AREAS WHERE BULKY MUSCLES ARE ATTACHED
✓ BONES OF BEDRIDDEN OR PHYSICALLY INACTIVE PEOPLE TEND TO LOSE MASS AND TO ATROPHY
BECAUSE THEY ARE NO LONGER SUBJECTED TO STRESS
✓ BONES ARE REMODELED CONTINUALLY IN RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN TWO FACTORS:

1. CALCIUM ION LEVEL IN THE BLOOD

▪ IF LEVEL GOES DROPS BELOW HOMEOSTATIC LEVEL, PARATHYROID (PTH) GLANDS ARE
STIMULATED
▪ PTH ACTIVATES OSTEOCLASTS, TO BREAKDOWN BONE MATRIX AND RELEASE CALCIUM
IONS INTO THE BLOOD
▪ IF THERE IS HYPERCALCEMIA (TOO MUCH CALCIUM), CALCIUM IS DEPOSITED IN THE
BONE MATRIX AS HARD CALCIUM SALTS BY OSTEOBLASTS
2. PULL OF GRAVITY OF THE MUSCLES AND SKELETON
▪ THE STRESSES OF MUSCLE PULL AND GRAVITY ACTING ON THE SKELETON, DETERMINE
WHETHER BONE MATRIX IS TO BE BROKEN DOWNCOR FORMED SO THAT THE SKELETON
CAN REMAIN AS STRONG AND VITAL AS POSSIBLE

✓ PTH DETERMINES WHEN BONE IS TO BE BROKEN DOWN OR FORMED IN RESPONSE TO THE

NEED FOR MORE OR FEWER CALCIUM IONS IN THE BLOOD

C. BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

✓ BONE IS THE MAJOR STORAGE SITE FOR CALCIUM AND THE MOVEMENT OF CALCIUM INTO AND
OUT OF THE BONE HELPS TO DETERMINE BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS WHICH IS CRITICAL FOR
NORMAL MUSCLE AND NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION.
✓ CALCIUM MOVES INTO BONE AS OSTEOBLASTS BUILD NEW BONE AND OUT OF THE BONE AS
OSTEOCLASTS BREAK DOWN BONE.
✓ WHEN OSTEOBLAST AND OSTEOCLAST ACTIVITY IS BALANCED, THE MOVEMENT OF CALCIUM
INTO AND OUT OF THE BODY IS EQUAL.
✓ SO, HOW DOES CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS PERFORM WHEN BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS ARE LOW ?

1. OSTEOCLASTS BREAK DOWN BONE AND RELEASE CA INTO THE BLOOD. OSTEOBLAST
REMOVES CALCIUM FROM THE BLOOD TO MAKE BONE

2. PTH REGULATES BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS BY INDIRECTLY STIMULATING OSTEOCLAST

ACTIVITY, RESULTING IN INCREASED CALCIUM RELEASE INTO THE BLOOD. CALCITONIN IS
SECRETED BY THE THYROID GLAND. IT INHIBITS OR DECREASES OSTEOCLAST ACTIVITY AND
THUS DECREASING BLOOD CALCIUM LEVELS. THEREFORE, IF THERE IS INCREASED BLOOD
CALCIUM LEVELS, CALCITONIN IS SECRETED

3. IN THE KIDNEYS, PTH INCREASES CA REABSORPTION IN THE URINE

4. IN THE KIDNEYS, PTH ALSO PROMOTES THE FORMATION OF ACTIVE VITAMIN D, WHICH
INCREASES CA ABSORPTION FROM THE SMALL INTESTINE. DECREASING BLOOD CALCIUM
LEVELS STIMULATE PTH SECRETION
5.1. E. BONE FRACTURES

✓ ARE DEFINED AS BREAK IN THE BONE

✓ IS TREATED BY REDUCTION – A MEDICAL PROCEDURE THAT INVOLVES REALIGNING OF THE BROKEN
BONE ENDS, FOLLOWED BY IMMOBILZATION. THERE ARE 2 TYPES :
1. CLOSED REDUCTION - THE BONE ENDS ARE COAXED BACK INTO THEIR NORMAL POSITION BY THE
PHYSICIANS HANDS
2. OPEN REDUCTION - SURGERY IS PERFORMED AND THE BONE ENDS ARE SECURED TOGETHER WITH
PINS OR WIRES. IT IS IMMOBILIZED BY A CAST OR A TRACTION TO ALLOW HEALING
✓ WOUND HEALING IS AS FAST AS 6 TO 8 WEEKS FOR SIMPLE FRACTURE BUT IS LONGER FOR LARGE
BONES AND OLDER PEOPLE BECAUSE OF POOR CIRCULATION

A. TYPES OF FRACTURES (REFER TO SLIDES)

TYPES OF FRACTURE DESCRIPTION IMAGES

COMMINUTED BONE BREAKS INTO THREE OR
MORE FRAGMENTS. COMMON
IN OLDER PEOPLE WHEREIN
THEIR BONES ARE BRITTLE

COMPRESSION THE BONE IS CRUSHED.

COMMON IN POROUS BONES.
OLDER PEOPLE WITH
OSTEOPOROSIS

DEPRESSED BROKEN BONE IS PRESSED

INWARD WHICH IS TYPICAL OF
SKULL FRACTURE

IMPACTED BROKEN BONE ENDS ARE

FORCED INTO EACH OTHER.
ACCIDENTAL FALL LANDING IN
ARMS

SPIRAL CHARACTERIZED BY RAGGED

BREAK DUE TO EXCESSIVE
TWISTING FORCES ARE APPLIED
TO A BONE. COMMON IN
SPORTS INJURY

GREENSTICK INCOMPLETE BONE BREAK

WHICH ARE COMMON IN
CHILDREN
 B. FOUR MAJOR EVENTS OF BONE FRACTURE REPAIR

BONE REPAIR DESCRIPTION

CLOT FORMATION HEMATOMA FORMS DUE TO RUPTURED BLOOD VESSELS WHEN
BONE BREAKS

FIBROCARTILAGE CALLUS FORMATION BLOOD VESSELS AND CELLS INVADE THE CLOT AND PRODUCE A
FIBROUS NETWORK AND CARTILAGE BETWEEN THE BROKEN BONES
CALLED A CALLUS

CALLUS OSSIFICATION OSTEOBLASTS ENTER THE CALLUS AND BEGIN FORMING CANCELLOUS
BONE (SPONGY BONE ). CANCELLOUS BONE FORMATION IN THE
CALLUS IS USUALLY COMPLETE 4-6 WEEKS AFTER THE INJURY.
IMMOBILIZATION OF THE BONE IS CRITICAL UP TO THIS TIME
BECAUSE MOVEMENT CAN REFRACTURE THE DELICATE NEW MATRIX.

BONE REMODELLING CANCELLOUS (SPONGY ) BONE IS SLOWLY REMODELED TO FORM A

COMPACT AND CANCELLOUS BONE AND THE REPAIR IS COMPLETE.
THE BONY CALLUS IS REMODELED IN RESPONSE TO THE
MECHANICAL STRESSES PLACED ON IT FORMING A STRONG
PERMANENT PATCH AT THE FRACTURE SITE. TOTAL HEALING MAY
REQUIRE SEVERAL MONTHS AND IF HEALING OCCURS PROPERLY,
THE HEALED REGION CAN BE EVEN STRONGER THAN THE ADJACENT
BONE.
5.2. AXIAL SEKELETON - FORMS THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS OF THE BODY AND IS DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS :
1. SKULL, 2. VERTEBRAL COLUMN,3. THORACIC CAGE

5.2.A. SKULL: FORMED BY 2 SETS OF BONES (CRANIUM AND FACIAL BONES ) – TOTAL 22 BONES
CRANIUM HAS 22 BONES TOTAL AND FACIAL HAS 14 BONES

CRANIUM / BRAINCASE
CRANIUM NUMBER OF DESCRIPTION
UNPAIRED BONES
1 FOREHEAD, BONY PROJECTIONS OF THE EYEBROWS AND SUPERIOR PART
FRONTAL OF EACH EYE’S ORBIT
MOST POSTERIOR BONE.IT JOINS THE PARIETAL BONES AT THE
LAMBDOID SUTURE.

OCCIPITAL 1 FORAMEN MAGNUM LARGE OPENING IN THE BASE OF THE OCCIPITAL

BONE AND SURROUNDS THE LOWER PART OF THE BRAIN AND ALLOWS
THE SPINAL CORD TO CONNECT WITH THE BRAIN.

ROCKERLIKE OCCIPITAL CONDYLES ARE LOCATED LATERAL TO THE

FORAMEN MAGNUM WHICH REST ON THE FIRST VERTEBRA OF THE
SPINAL COLUMN
“BUTTERFLY SHAPED “ – SPANS THE WIDTH OF THE SKULL AND FORMS
PART OF THE FLOOR OF THE CRANIAL CAVITY

SELLA TURCICA OR “TURKS SADDLE “ – A SMALL DEPRESSION LOCATED

SPHENOID MIDLINE THE SPHENOID FORMING A SNUG ENCLOSURE FOR THE
PITUITARY GLAND

1 FORAMEN OVALE - LARGE OVAL OPENING AT THE POSTERIOR END OF

THE SELLA TURCICA THAT ALLOWS TRIGEMINAL NERVE (NERVE 5 )TO
PASS TO THE CHEWING MUSCLES OF THE LOWER JAW ( MANDIBLE )

OPTIC CANAL – OPENINGS SENN EXTERIORLY FORMING PART OF THE EYE

ORBITS, ALLOWS OPTIC NERVES TO PASS TO THE EYE

SUPERIOR ORBITAL FISSURE – “SLITLIKE” – CRANIAL NERVES ( 3,4,6 )

CONTROLLING EYE MOVEMENTS PASSES HERE

SPHENOIDAL SINUSES - AIR CAVITIES LOCATED AT THE CENTRAL PART OF

ETHMOID THE SPHENOID BONE

IRREGULAR IN SHAPE, LIES ANTERIOR TO THE SPHENOID AND FORMS

THE ROOF OF THE NASAL CAVITY

CRISTA GALLI – COCK’S COMB IN APPERANCE THAT PROJECTS FROM THE

1 SUPERIOR SURFACE AND IT IS ATTACHED TO THE OUTERMOST
COVERING OF THE BRAIN

CRIBIFORM PLATES – SMALL HOLES ON EACH SIDE OF THE CRISTA GALLI

ALLOWING NERVE FIBERS CARRYING IMPULSES FROM THE OLFACTORY (
SMELL ) RECEPTORS OF THE NOSE TO REACH THE BRAIN

SUPERIOR AND MIDDLE NASAL CONCHAE - EXTENSIONS OF THE

ETHMOID BONE THAT FORMS PART OF THE LATERAL WALLS OF THE
NASAL CAVITY

PAIRED
IT FORM MOST OF THE SUPERIOR AND LATERAL WALLS OF THE
CRANIUM
2
PARIETAL SAGITTAL SUTURE – FORMED AT THE MIDLINE WHERE 2 PARIETAL
BONES MEET

CORONAL SUTURE - IS FORMED WHERE THE PAIRED PARIETAL BONES

MEET THE FRONTAL BONE
 2 LIE INFERIOR TO THE PATIETAL BONES AND JOIN THEM AT THE
SQUAMOUS SUTURE
A CANAL THAT LEADS TO THE EARDRUM
IMPORTANT EXTERNAL ACOUSTIC AND THE MIDDLE EAR. THE ROUTE BY
BONE MEATUS WHICH SOUND ENTERS THE EAR
MARKINGS SHARP NEEDLELIKE PROJECTIONS
OF INFERIOR TO THE ABOVE. SERVES AS AN
TEMPORAL STYLOID PROCESS ATTACHMENT POINT FOR MANY NECK
MUSCLES
ZYGOMATIC PROCESS THIN BRIDGE OF BONE – THAT JOINS THE
CHEEKBONE ANTERIORLY
FULL OF AIR CAVITIES ( MASTOID SINUSES
)

ROUGH PROJECTION OF THE POSTERIOR

AND INFERIOR TO THE ACOUSTIC MEATUS
MASTOID PROCESS
ALSO PROVIDES ATTACHMENT FOR SOME
OF THE MECK MUSCLES
IMPORTANT
TEMPORAL BONE PRONE TO INFECTION CALLED
MARKINGS MASTOIDITIS SINCE THE MASTOID
OF SINUSES ARE SO CLOSE TO MIDDLE EAR
TEMPORAL AND ALSO TO THE BRAIN
ALLOWS PASSAGE OF THE JUGULAR VEIN
WHICH IS LOCATED AT THE JUNCTION OF
THE OCCIPITAL AND TEMPORAL BONES

JUGULAR VEIN IS THE LARGEST VEIN OF

THE HEAD T WHICH DRAINS BLOOD FROM
THE HEAD

INTERNAL ACOUSTIC MEATUS - ANTERIOR

JUGULAR FORAMEN TO THE CRANIAL CAVITY WHICH
TRANSMITS CRANIAL NERVES 7 AND 8 –
FACIAL AND VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR
NERVES

CAROTID CANAL - ANTERIOR TO THE

JUGULAR FORMEN, IN WHICH THE
INTERNAK CAROTID ARTERY RUNS,
SUPPLYING BLOOD TO MOST OF THE
BRAIN
FACIAL BONES
✓ TOTAL OF 14 BONES ( UNPAIRED AND PAIRED )
✓ 13 OF THE FACIAL BONES ARE RATHER SOLIDLY CONNECTED TO FORM THE BULK OF THE FACE. HOWEVER, THE
MANDIBLE, FORMS A FREELY MOVABLE ARTICULATION WITH REST OF THE SKU;;

FACIAL BONES
FACIAL BONES PAIRED OR NUMBER OF DESCRIPTION
UNPAIRED BONES

AKA AS THE “LOWER JAW “– LARGEST AND STRONGEST BONE ON

MANDIBLE 1 THE FACE
THE ONLY FREELY MOVABLE JOINTS IN THE SKULL

CHIN – HORIZONTAL PART OF THE MANDIBLE

RAMI – 2 UPRIGHT BARS OF BONE THAT EXTENDS FROM THE BODY

TO CONNECT THE MANDIBLE WITH THE TEMPORAL BONE

ALL MENTAL FORAMEN - LOCATED IN THE MANDIBULAR BODY. IT

UNPAIRED ALLOWS BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES TO PASS

ALVEOLI ( SOCKETS ) - WHERE THE LOWER TEETH ARE ATTACHED

VOMER 1 SINGLE BONE IN THE MEDIAN LINE

AKA “PLOW” WHICH REFERS TO THE BONE SHAPE

FORMS THE INFERIOR PART OF THE BONY NASAL SEPTUM,

SEPARATING THE TWO NOSTRILS

MAXILLAE 2 FUSES TO FORM THE UPPER JAW

“KEYSTONE” BONES OF THE FACE

IT ALSO CARRIES THE UPPER TEETH IN THE ALVEOLAR PROCESS

PALATINE PROCESSES - IT FORMS THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE HARD

PALATE OF THE MOUTH
ALL
PAIRED PARANASAL SINUNES – LIGHTENS THE SKULL BONES AND AMPLIFY
THE SOUNDS WE MAKE AS WE SPEAK

ZYGOMATIC 2
“CHEEKBONES”
PALATINE 2 LIES POSTERIOR TO THE PALATINE PROCESSES OF THE MAXILLAE
FORM THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE HARD PALATE
CELFT PALATE – RESULTS WHEN PALATINE PROCESSES FAILED TO
FUSE MEDIALLY

NASAL 2 SMALL RECTANGULAR BONES FORMING THE BRIDGE OF THE NOSE

LACRIMAL 2 FINGERNAIL – SIZED BONES FORMINGPART OF THE MEDIAL WALL

OF EACH ORBIT
HAS A GROOVE THAT SERVES AS A PASSAGEWAY OF TEARS
INFERIOR 2 ARE THIN CURVED BONES - PROJECTING MEDIALLY FROM THE
NASAL LATERAL WALLS OF THE NASAL CAVITY
 5.2.B. VERTEBRAL COLUMN ( SPINE )

✓ SUPPORTS THE SKULL, TRANSMITS THE WEIGHT OF THE BODY TO THE LOWER LIMBS. SUPPORTS AND
PROTECTS ALSO THE DELICATE SPINAL CORD
✓ IS FORMED FROM 26 IRREGULAR BONES CONNECTED AND REINFORCED BY LIGAMENTS, THUS, IT IS
FLEXIBLE AND HAS A CURVED STRUCTURE
✓ BEFORE BIRTH :
o SPINE CONSISTS OF 33 SEPARATE BONES CALLED VERTEBRAE
o 9 OF THE BONES EVENTUALLY FUSE TO FORM 2 COMPOSITE BONES, WHICH IS THE SACRUM
AND THE COCCYX, BOTH IF WHICH ARE IN THE INFERIOR PORTION OF THE VERTEBRAL
COLUMN
✓ SO, THE 24 BONES ARE AS FOLLOWS :
o CERVICAL – 7 TOTAL VERTEBRAE - C1 TO C7 - CONCAVE ( CURVED ANTERIORLY )
o THORACIC – 12 TOTAL VERTEBRAE - T1 TO T12 - CONVEX ( CURVED POSTERIORLY )
o LUMBAR – 5 TOTAL VERTEBRAE - L1 TO L5 - CONCAVE ( CURVED ANTERIORLY )
✓ INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS
o PADS OF FLEXIBLE FIBROCARTILAGE
o CUSHIONS THE VERTEBRAE AND ABSORBS SHOCK WHILE ALLOWING THE SPINE FLEXIBILITY
o ARE SPONGY AND COMPRESSIBLE IN A YOUNG PERSON BECAUSE OF HIGH WATER CONTENT
( 90% )
o ARE HARDER AND LESS COMPRESSIBLE AS THE PERSON AGES
✓ SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DISC AND THE S SHAPED CURVATURE
o IT PREVENTS SHOCK WHEN WE WALK OR RUN
o ALSO MAKE THE BODY TRUNK FLEXIBLE.
✓ PRIMARY CURVATURES – SPINAL CURVATURES IN THE THORACIC AND SACRAL REGIONS AND ARE
PRESENT WHEN WE ARE BORN. THUS, THE 2 PRIMARY CURVATURES PRODUCES THE C – SHAPED
SPINE OF THE NEWBORN BABY.
✓ SECONDARY CURVATURES – THE CURVATURES OF THE CERVICAL AND LUMBAR REGIONS AND ARE
TERMED AS SUCH BECAUSE THEY DEVELOP SOME TIME AFTER BIRTH. IN ADULTS, THIS CURVATURE
ALLOWS US TO CENTER OUR BODY WEIGHT ON OUR LOWER LIMBS WITH MINIMUM EFFORT
✓ CERVICAL CURVATURE – APPEARS WHEN A BABY BEGINS TO RAISE ITS HEAD
✓ LUMBAR CURVATURE – DEVELOPS WHEN THE BABY BEGINS TO WALK

VERTEBRAL COLUMN ( PLEASE REFER TO PPT SLIDES ) TOTAL VERTEBRAL COLUMN - 26

VERTEBRAE COMMON FEATURES COMMON FUNCTIONS REGIONAL DIFFERENCES

( 5 MAJOR FUNCTIONS
)

BODY / CENTRUM - WEIGHT SUPPORTS THE IDENTIFIED AS C1 TO C7

BEARING PORTION OF EACH WEIGHT OF THE HEAD
VERTEBRAE AND TRUNK C1 / ATLAS – HAS NO BODY,BUT ITS
SUPERIOR SURFACES OF ITS TRANSVERSE
INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS- PROCESSES CONTAIN LARGE DEPRESSION
DENSE FIBROUS CONNECTIVE PROTECTS THE SPINAL THAT RECEIVE THE OCCIPITAL CONDYLES
TISSUE THAT SEPARATES THE CORD OF THE SKULL. THIS JOINT ALLOWS YOU
VERTEBRAL BODIES TO NOD “YES”
C2 / AXIS – ACTS AS A PIVOT FOR THE
CERVICAL VERTEBRAL ARCH – ARCH ALLOWS SPINAL ROTATION OF THE ATLAS ( AND SKULL )
VERTEBRAE FROMED FROM THE JOINING NERVES TO EXIT THE ABOVE. THE JOINT BETWEEN THE C1 AND
(7) OF ALL POSTERIOR SPINAL CORD C2 ALLOWS YOUR HEAD TO ROTATE
EXTENSIONS , THE 2 SIDE TO SIDE TO INCADE “NO”
CONCAVE ( LAMINAE AND 2 PEDICLES PROVIDES A SITE FOR
CURVED FROM THE VERTEBRAL BODY MUSCLE ATTACHMENT C3 TO C7 – ARE CONSIDERED THE
ANTERIORLY ) TYPICAL VERTEBRAE. THET ARE
VERTEBRAL FORAMEN – SMALLEST AND LIGHTEST. SPINOUS
CANAL THROUGH WHICH PERMITS THE PROCESS ARE SHORT WITHT 2
THE SPINAL CORD PASSES MOVEMENT OF THE BRANCHES
HEAD AND THE TRUNK
INTERVERTEBRAL
FORAMINA – WHERE THE
SPINAL NERVES EXIT THE
SPINAL CORD. THESE ARE
FORMED BY NOTCHES IN THE
PEDICLES OF ADJACENT
VERTEBRAE
 VERTEBRAL CANAL- IDENTIFIED AS T1 TO T 12 –
PROTECTS THE SPINAL CORD ARE TYPICAL
FROM INJURY
LARGER THAN THE CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
THORACIC TRANSVERESE PROCESS- THE ONLY VERTEBRAE TO ARTICULATE
VERTEBRAE EXTENDS LATERALLY FROM WITH THE RIBS
(12 ) EACH SIDE OF THE ARCH
BETWEEN THE LAMINA AND HEART SHAPED BODY AND 2 COSTAL
PEDICLE.TOGETHER WITH FACETS ON EACH SIDE WHICH RECEIVES
SPINOUS PROCESS, THEY THE HEAD OF THE RIBS
CONVEX ( PROVIDE ATTACHMENT
CURVED SITES FOR MUSCLES THAT TRANSVERSE PROCESS OF EACH
POSTERIORLY ) MOVE THE VERTEBRAL VERTEBRAE ARTICULATE WITH THE
COLUMN KNOBLIKE TUBERCLES OF THE RIBS

SPINOUS PROCESS – A SPINOUS PROCESS IS LONG AND LOOKS

SINGLE PROJECTION WHERE SHARPLY DOWNWARD LOOKING LIKE A
IT PROJECTS DORSALLY GIRAFFE’S HEAD FROM THE SIDE
LUMBAR FROM WHERE THE TWO
VERTEBRAE LAMINAE MEET, CAN BE IDENTIFIED AS L1 TO L5
(5) SEEN AND FELT AS A SERIES
OF LUMPS DOWN THE WITH MASSIVE BLOCKLIKE BODIES
CONCAVE ( MIDLINE OF THE NECK. SHAPED LIKE A KIDNEY BEAN
CURVED TOGETHER WITH
ANTERIORLY ) TRANSVERSE PROCESS, THEY SPINOUS PROCESS ARE SHORT HATCHED
PROVIDE ATTACHMENT SHAPED LOOKING LIKE A MOOSE HEAD
SITES FOR MUSCLES THAT FROM THE LATERAL ASPECT
MOVE THE VERTEBRAL
COLUMN STURDIEST OF THE VERTEBRAE BECAUSE
MOST OF THE STRESS OCCURS IN THIS
SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR VERTEBRAE
SACRUM ARTICULAR PROCESSES – FORMED BY THE FUSION OF 5
(1 ) THESE ARE PAIRED VERTEBRAE
COCCYX PROJECTIONS LATERAL TO FORMED BY THE FUSION OF THREE OR
(1 ) THE VERTEBRAL FORAMEN, FIVE TINY IRREGULAR SHAPED
ALLOWING A VERTEBRA TO VERTEBRAE.
FORM JOINTS WITH
ADJACENT VERTEBRAE IT IS THE HUMAN “TAILBONE” A
REMNANT OF THE TAIL THAT OTHER
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS HAVE

5.2.C. THORACIC CAGE / BONY THORAX / RIB CAGE

✓ FORMS A PROTECTIVE CAGE OF SLENDER BONES AND CARTILAGES AROUND THE ORGANS OF THE
THORACIC CAVITY ( HEART, LUNGS AND MAJOR BLOOD VESSELS )
✓ PREVENTS THE COLLAPSE OF THE THORAX DURING RESPIRATION
✓ COMPOSED OF STERNUM, RIBS, AND THORACIC VERTEBRAE

BONY THORAX DESCRIPTION COMPOSITION

TYPICAL FLAT BONE RESULTS FROM BONY LANDMARKS
THE FUSION OF 3 BONES THAT ARE
ATTACHED DIRECTLY TO THE FIRST
JUGULAR NOTCH – CONCAVE UPPER
SEVEN PAIRS OF RIBS VIA COSTAL
BORDER OF THE MANUBRIUM AT THE
CARTILAGES – MANUBRIUM, BODY
LEVEL OF THE THORACIC VERTEBRAE.
AND XIPHOID PROCESS (SEE IMAGE
IT IS ALSO A DEPRESSION AT THE
STERNUM / BREASTBONE BELOW ) SUPERIOR END OF THE STERNUM
RESEMBLES A “SWORD “ AND IS LOCATED BETWEEN THE ENDS
MANUBRIUM – “HANDLE OF THE OF THE CLAVICLES WHERE THEY
SOWRD” ARTICULATE WITH THE STERNUM

BODY – “BLADE OF THE SWORD” STERNAL ANGLE – A TRANSVERSE

RIDGE OR SLIGHT ELEVATION IS
XIPHOID PROCESS – “ TIP OF THE FORMED AT THE LEVEL OF THE
SWORD “ – AN IMPORTANT SECOND RIBS THE SITE WHERE THE
LANDMARK DURING CPR ( MANUBRIUM AN BODY MEET .
CARDIOPULMONARY GOOD FOR LISTENING TO HEART
RESUSCITATION ) VALVES BECAUSE IT ALLOWS THE
 LOCATION OF THE APEX OF THE
HEART BETWEEN THE FIFTH AND
SIXTH RIBS. ALSO AN IMPORTANT
LANDMARK BECAUSE IT ALLOWS
IDENTIFICATION OF THE SECOND RIBS

XIPHESTERNAL JOINT – FUSION OF

STERNAL BODY AND XIPHOID
PROCESS AT THE LEVEL OF THE NINTH
VERTEBRAE

RIBS THERE ARE 12 PAIRS OF RIBS THAT TRUE RIBS – 1ST SEVEN AND IS
ARTICULATE WITH THE VERTEBRAL ATTACHED TO THE STERNUM BY
COLUMN POSTERIORLY AND COSTAL CARTILAGES
TOWARD THE ANTERIOR BODY
SURFACE (SEE IMAGE BELOW FALSE RIBS – NEXT 5 PAIRS - EITHER
ATTACHED INDIRECTLY TO THE
STERNUM OR NOT ATTACHED TO
THE STERNUM AT ALL.

FLOATING RIBS – LAST 2 PAIRS OF

FALSE RIBS THAT ARE NOT
ATTACHED TO THE STERNUM

INTERCOSTAL SPACES - ARE SPACES

WITHIN THE RIBS WHICH ARE FILLED
WITH INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES THAT
AIDS IN BREATHING
5.3 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

✓ COMPOSED OF 126 BONES OF THE LIMBS ( APPENDAGES ), PECTORAL GIRDLES AND PELVIC GIRDLES WHICH
ATTACH THE LIMBS TO THE AXIAL SKELETON

5.3.A. BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE ( 4 BONES TOTAL )

✓ IS VERY LIGHT AND IS VERY EASILY DISLOCATED

✓ ALLOWS THE UPPER LIMB EXCEPTIONALLY FREE MOVEMENT DUE TO THE FOLLOWING FACTORS
1. EACH HOULDER GIDLE ATTACHES TO THE AXIAL SKELETON AT THE STERNOCLAVICULAR JOINT
2. THE SCAPULA IS LOOSELY ATTACHED AND ALLOWS TO SLIDE BACK AND FORTH AGAINST THE THORAX AS
THE MUSCLES ACT
3. THE GLENOID CAVITY IS SHALLOW AND THE SHOULDER JOINTS IS POORLY REINFORCED BY LIGAMENTS

BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE PARTS DETAILED DESCRIPTION

HAS 2 BONES
PECTORAL GIRDLE / SHOULDER GIRDLE
CLAVICLES / ✓ PAIRED
COLLARBONES ✓ ARE SLENDER, DOUBLY CURVED BONES
(2) ✓ EACH CLAVICLE ATTACHES TO THE
MANUBRIUM OF THE STERNUM
MEDIALLY AND THE TO SCAPULA
LATERALLY TO FORM THE SHOULDER
JOINT
✓ ACTS AS A BRACE TO HOLD THE ARM
AWAY FROM TOP OF THE THORAX WHICH
HELPS PREVENTS JOINT DISLOCATION

✓ ARE PAIRED
✓ NOT DIRECTLY ATTACHED TO THE AXIAL
SKELETON BUT THEY ARE LOOSELY HELD
IN PLACE BY TRUNK MUSCLES
✓ HAS A FLATTENED BODY WITH 3 BORDERS
( SUPERIOR, MEDIAL/VERTEBRAL AND
SCAPULAE / LATERAL / AXILLARY ) AND 3 ANGLES (
SHOULDER SUPERIOR, INFERIOR AND LATERAL )
BLADES / “ ✓ GLENOID CAVITY - A SHALLOW SOCKET
WINGS”( 2 ) THAT RECEIVES THE HEAD OF THE ARM
BONE LOCATED IN THE LATERAL ANGLE
✓ SCAPULA HAS 2 IMPORTANT PROCESSES
1. ACROMION – ENLARGED
LATERAL END OF THE SPINE OF
THE SCAPULA
2. CORACOID – “ BEAKLIKE “ -
POINTS LATERALLY OVER THE TOP
OF THE SHOULDER AND
ANCHORS SOME OF THE
MUSCLES OF THE ARM
✓ ACROMIOCLAVICULAR JOINT – THE JOINT
WHERE THE ACROMNION CONNECTS TO
THE CLAVICLE LATERALLY
✓ SUPRASCAPULAR NOTCH – SERVES AS A
NERVE PASSAGEWAY LOCATED MEDIAL
TO THE CORACOID PROCESS
 5.3.B. BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS – ARM, FOREARM, WRISTS AND HAND – 30 BONES

BONES OF DESCRIPTION OF ITS PARTS IMAGES

THE ARM
FORMED BY SINGLE TYPICAL LONG BONE HUMERUS

✓ ROUNDED PROXIMAL END THAT

FITS INTO THE SHALLOW GLENOID
CAVITY
✓ ANATOMICAL NECK- A SLIGHT
CONSTRICTION IMMEDIATELY
INFERIOR TO THE HEAD
✓ BONY PROJECTIONS SEPARATED
BY INTERTUBERCULAR SULCUS
WHICH ARE SITES OF MUSCLE
ATTACHEMENT - GREATER
TUBERCLE AND LESSER TUBERCLE
✓ SURGICAL NECK - MOST
FREQUENTLY FRACTURED PART OF
THE HUMERUS DISTAL TO THE
TUBERCLES
✓ DELTOID TUBEROSITY –
ROUGHENED AREA MIDPOINT OF
THE SHAFT AND SERVES AS THE
ATTACHMENT OF LARGE, FLESHY
DELTOID MUSCLE.
✓ RADIAL GROOVE – MARKS THE
COURSE OF THE RADIAL NERVE,
AN IMPORTANT NERVE OF THE
ARM UPPER LIMB
✓ MEDIAL TROCHLEA - LOOKS LIKE
A “SPOOL” LOCATED AT THE
DISTAL END OF THE HUMERUS. IT
ARTICULATE WITH BONES OF THE
FOREARM
✓ CAPITULUM – “BALL LIKE” - IT
ARTICULATE WITH BONES OF THE
FOREARM
✓ DEPRESSIONS THAT ALLOWS THE
CORRESPONDING PROCESSES OF
THE ULANA TO MOVE FREELY
WHEN THE ELBOW IS BENT AND
EXTENDED AND FLANKED BY
MEDIAL EPICONDYLE AND
LATERAL EPICONDYLE
1. CORANOID FOSSA – A
DEPRESSION ABOVE THE
TROCHLEA ANTERIORLY
2. OLECRANON FOSSA -
POSTERIOR DEPRESSION

✓ CONSISTS OF 2 BONES :
RADIUS AND ULNA

1. RADIUS

✓ RADIUS - LATERAL TO THE

BONE IN AN ANATOMICAL
POSITION
✓ RADIOULNAR JOINTS –
FOREARM WHERE THE RADIUS AND
ULNA ARTICULATE BOTH
PROXIMALLY AND DISTALLY
✓ INTEROSSEOUS MEMBRANE
- FLEXIBLE MEMBRANE THAT
CONNECTS THE 2 BONES
✓ STYLOID PROCESS - LOCATED
AT THE DISTAL END OF BOTH
THE RADIUS AND ULNA
✓ RADIAL TUBEROSITY –
WHERE THE TENDON OF THE
BICEPS MUSCLE ATTACHES
 2. ULNA

✓ IS THE MEDIAL BONE OF THE

FOREARM IN AN
ANATOMICAL POSITION
✓ ANTERIOR CORONOID
PROCESSES AND THE
POSTERIOR OLECRANON
PROCESSES
➢ LOCATED AT THE
PROXIMAL END
FOREARM ➢ SEPARATED BY
TROCHLEAR NOTCH
➢ THESE 2 PROCESSES
GRIP THE TROCHLEA
OF THE HUMERUS IN
A CURVED “TONGUE
IN GROOVE” LIKE
JOINT

HAND CONSISTS OF:

1. CARPAL BONES
✓ EIGHT IN TOTAL
✓ ARRANGED IN TWO
IRREGULAR ROWS OF FOUR
BONES EACH, FORM THE
PART OF THR HAND CALLED
THE CARPUS OR WRIST
✓ ARE BOUNDED TOGETHER BY
LIGAMENTS THAT RESTRICT
MOVEMENTS BETWEEN
THEM

2. METACARPAL BONES

✓ PALM OF THE HANDS

✓ ARE NUMBERED 1 TO 5
FROM THUMB SIDE OF THE
HAND TOWARD THE LITTLE
FINGER.
✓ KNUCKLES – ARE HEADS OF
HE METACARPALS WHEN THE
FIST IS CLENCHED

3. PHALANGES

✓ BONES OF THE FINGERS

✓ 14 PHALANGES IN EACH
HAND , 3 IN EACH FINGER (
PROXIMAL, MIDDLE AND
DISTAL ) EXCEPT IN THE
THUMB, WHICH HAS ONLY 2 (
PROXIMAL AND DISTAL )
5.3.C. BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE – FORMED BY HIP BONES ( 2 COXAL BONES ) AND THE SACRUM

✓ PELVIC GIRDLE = 2 COXAL BONES + SACRUM

✓ PELVIS = 2 COXAL BONES +SACRUM + COCCYX
✓ PELVIC GIRDLES ARE LARGE, HEAVY AND ARE ATTACHED SECURELY TO THE AXIAL SKELETON VIA THE SACRAL
ATTACHEMENT TO THR L5 LUMBAR VERTEBRA. ALSO KNOWN AN “RING OF BONE” FORMED BY LEFT AND
RIGHT COXAE ANTERIORLY ( HIP BONES ) AND THE SACRUM POSTERIORLY
✓ SOCKETS - RECEIVES THE THIGH BONES AND ARE DEEP , HEAVILY REINFORCED BY LIGAMENTS THAT ATTACH THE
LIMBS FIRMLY TO THE GIRDLE
✓ BEARING WEIGHT - MOST IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF THE GIRDLE BECAUSE THE TOTAL WEIGHT OF THE UPPER
BODY RESTS ON THE PELVIS
✓ PELVIS PROTECTS THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS, URINARY BLADDER AND PART OF THE LARGE INTESINE THAT
LIES WITHIN

BONES OF PARTS DESCRIPTION

THE PELVIC
GIRDLE
ILEUM ✓ MOST SUPERIOR
✓ CONNECTS POSTERIORLY WITH THE SACRUM AT THE
SACROILIAC JOINT
✓ SACROILIAC JOINT – LARGE FLARING BONE THAT
FORMS MOST OF THE HIP BONE
HIP BONES / ✓ ALAE - WINGLIKE PORTIONS OF THE ILIA ( THE
COXAL BONE PORTION WHERE YOU PUT YOU HANDS ON THE HIPS
( FORMED BY )
FUSION OF 3 ✓ ILIAC CREST - UPPER EDGE OF ALAE AND THE SITE
BONES ) OF INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTIONS
✓ ANTERIOR SUPERIOR ILIAC SPINE - ENDS OF ILIAC
CREST
✓ POSTERIOR ILIAC SPINE - ENDS OF ILIAC CREST
THE ILIUM, ✓ GREATER SCIATIC NOTCH – BLOOD VESSELS AND
ISCHIUM AND LARGE SCIATIC NERVE PASS FROM THE. PELVIS
THE PUBIS POSTERIORLY INTO THE THIGH. INJECTIONS SHOULD
FUSE AT THE AWAY FROM THIS AREA TO AVOID POSSIBLE NERVE
DEEP SOCKET DAMAGE
CALLED THE ISCHIUM ✓ INFERIOR AND POSTERIOR
ACETABULUM ✓ “SIT DOWN BONE” – INFERIOR PART OF THE COXAL
( VINEGAR CUP BONE
) WHICH ✓ ISCHIAL TUBEROSITY - ROUGHENED AREA THAT
RECEIVES THE RECEIVES BODY WEIGHT WHEN YOUR SITTING
HEAD OF THE ✓ ISCHIAL SPINE – SUPERIOR TO THE ISCHIAL
THIGH BONE TUBEROSITY. IMPORTANT LANDMARK IN PREGNANT
WOMEN SINCE IT NARROWS THE OUTLET OF THE
PELVIS THROUGH WHICH THE BABY MUST PASS
DURING BIRTH
PUBIS ✓ MOST ANTERIOR AND INFERIOR PART OF THE COXAL
BONE
✓ OBTURATOR FORAMEN - AN OPENING THAT THAT
ALLOWS BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES TO PASS INTO
THE INTERIOR OF THE THIGH
✓ PUBIC SYMPHYSIS – A CARTILAGINOUS JOINT
5.3.D. BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS ( 62 BONES IN TOTAL )

✓ CARRY OUT TOTAL BODY WEIGHT WHEN WE ARE ERECT

✓ MUCH THICKER AND STRONGER THAN THE UPPER LIMBS
✓ COMPOSED OF THE THIGH ( FEMUR ), LEG ( TIBIA AND FIBULA ) AND FOOT

BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS PARTS DESCRIPTION

GREATER AND ✓ PROXIMAL END AND HAS A

THIGH BONE / FEMUR (2 BONES – LEFT AND RIGHT ) LESSER TROCHANTER “BALL-LIKE”HEAD
✓ IS THE ONLY BONE IN THE THIGH
✓ HEAVIEST, STRONGEST AND LONGEST BONE ANTERIOR ✓ SEPARATES THE GREATER
IN THE BODY INTERTROCHANTRIC AND LESSER TROCHANTER
✓ SLANTS MEDIALLY LINE
POSTERIOR ✓ SEPARATES THE GREATER
INTERTROCHANTERIC AND LESSER TROCHANTER
CREST
GLUTEAL ✓ LOCATED AT THE PROXIMAL
TUBEROSITY END OF THE SHAFT
✓ SITE FOR MUSCLE
ATTACHEMENT
HEAD OF FEMUR ✓ ARTICULATES WITH THE
DEEP SOCKET OF THE
ACETABULUM OF THE HIP
BONE
SURGICAL NECK ✓ COMMON FRACURE SITE IN
OLD AGE
LATERAL AND ✓ DISTAL ON THE FEMUR
MEDIAL CONDYLE WHICH ARTICULATES WITH
THE TIBIA BELOW
✓ SEPARATED BY
INTERCONDYLAR FOSSA
PATELLAR SURFACE ✓ SMOOTH SURFACE ON THE
DISTAL FEMUR
✓ FORMS A JOINT WITH THE
PATELLA OR KNEECAP
LEG – 2 BONES IN EACH LEG, 4 BONES TOTAL ✓ LARGER AND MORE MEDIAL
LEFT AND RIGHT LEGS ✓ MEDIAL AND LATERAL
CONDYLE AT PROXIMAL END
TIBIA AND FIBULA WHICH ARE SEPARATED BY
INTERCONDYLAR EMINENCE
✓ LATERAL CONDYLE
ARTICULATES WITH THE
TIBIA / “SHINBONE” DISTAL END OF THE FEMUR
FORMING THE KNEE JOINT
2 BONES TOTAL LEFT ✓ KNEE CAP / PATELLAR
AND RIGHT LIGAMENT ENCLOSES THE
PATELLA WHICH IS A
SESAMOID BONE
✓ TIBIAL TUBEROSITY -
ROUGHENED AREA ON THE
ANTERIOR TIBIAL SURFACE
WHEREIN THE PATELLA IS
ATTACHED
✓ MEDIAL MALLEOLUS –
DISTAL PART. FORMING THE
INNER BULGE OF THE ANKLE
✓ ANTERIOR BORDER -
UNPROTECTED BY MUSCLES,
EASILY FELT BENEATH THE
SKIN
 FIBULA ✓ LIES LATERALLY ALONGSIDE
WITH TIBIA
2 BONES TOTAL LEFT ✓ IS THIN AND STICKLIKE
LEG ( CONTINUATION ) AND RIGHT ✓ FORMS JOINTS BOTH
PROXIMALLY AND DISTALLY
✓ LATERAL MALLEOLUS -
FORMS THE OUTER PART OF
THE ANKLE

✓ POSTERIOR HALF OF THE

FOOT TARSALS FOOT
✓ COMPOSE OF 7 TARSAL
✓ SUPPORTS OUR BODY WEIGHT AND SERVES ( 14 TOTAL LEFT AND BONES
AS A LEVER THAT ALLOWS US TO PROPEL RIGHT ) ✓ HAS LARGEST TARSALS :
OUR BODIES FORWARD WHEN WE WALK OR THE CALCANEUS / HEEL
RUN BONE AND THE TALUS
✓ ARE ARRANGED TO FORM 3 STRONG ARCHES METATARSALS ✓ TOTAL OF 5 METATARSAL
: 2 LONGITUDINAL ( MEDIAL AND LATERAL ) BONES WHICH FORMS THE
AND ONE TRANSVERSE ( 10 TOTAL LEFT AND SOLE
✓ LIGAMENTS : BIND THE FOOT BONES RIGHT FOOT )
TOGETHER PHALANGES ✓ 14 PHALANGES – FORMS
✓ TENDONS OF THE FOOT MUSCLES – HOLDS THE TOES – EACH TOE HAS 3
THE BONES FIRMLY IN ARCHED POSITION ( 28 TOTAL LEFT AND PHALANGES EXCEP THE
BUT ALSO GIVE SPRINGNESS RIGHT FOOT ) GREAT TOE WHICH HAS 2
5.4 JOINTS

✓ JOINTS ARE ALSO CALLED ARTICULATIONS – ARE THE SITES WHERE 2 OR MORE BONES MEET
✓ FUNCTIONS : HOLD THE BONES TOGETHER SECURELY AND ALLOW RIGID SKELETON TO MOVE

✓ FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

1. SYNARTHROSIS ( IMMOVABLE JOINTS ) EX. AXIAL SKELETON ( ATTACHEMENT AND PROTECTION OF
INTERNAL ORGANS )
2. AMPHIARTHROSES ( SLIGHTLY MOVABLE ) – EX. AXIAL SKELETON( ATTACHEMENT AND PROTECTION OF
INTERNAL ORGANS )
3. DIARTHROSIS ( FREELY MOVABLE ) – EX. LIMBS

✓ STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS – FIBROUS, CARTILAGINOUS AN SYNOVIAL

JOINTS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

(5.4.A. ) ✓ BONES THAT ARE UNITED BY FIBROUS ✓ SUTURES OF THE SKULL –
TISSUE IRREGULAR EDGES OF THE BONES
FIBROUS JOINTS INTERLOCK AND ARE BOUND
TIGHTLY TOGETHER BY CONNECTIVE
TISSUE FIBERS ALLOWING NO
MOVEMENT
✓ GOMPHOSES - “PEG IN SOCKETS”
ARE FOUND WHERE THE TEETH MET
THE FACIAL BONES
✓ SYNDESMOSES – MUCH MORE
LONGER THAN SUTURES LIKE THE
JOINT CONNECTING THE DISTAL
ENDS OF THE TIBIA AND FIBULA
 (5.4.B. ) ✓ BONE / END PARTS UNITED BY CARTILAGE ✓ SYNCHONDROSES - ARE
CARTILAGINOUS IMMOVABLE ( SYNARTHROTIC
JOINTS ) LINKED BY HYALINE
CARTILAGE. EX. EPIPHYSEAL PLATES
OF GROWING LONG BONES AND
THE JOINTS BETWEEN THE RIBS 1-7
AND THE STERNUM
✓ SYMPHESES ( AMPHIARTHROTIC )
SLIGHTLY MOVABLE. EX.
INTERVERTEBRAL DISC OF THE
SPINAL COLUMN AND THE PUBIC
SYMPHYSIS OF THE PELVIS

(5.4.C. ) ✓ ARTICULATING ENDS ARE SEPARATED BY A ✓ MULTIAXIAL JOINT - SHOULDER

JOINT CAVITY CONTAINING SYNOVIAL JOINT
FLUID ✓ UNIAXIAL JOINT – ELBOW JOINT
✓ HAS 4 DISTINGUISHING FEATURES ✓ BIAXIAL JOINT –
SYNOVIAL 1. ARTICULAR CARTILAGE – HYALINE METACARPOPHALANGEAL JOINT
JOINTS CATILAGE THAT COVERS THE ENDS
OF BONES FORMING THE JOINT
2. ARTICULAR CAPSULE - A LAYER
OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
LINED WITH A SMOOTH SYNOVIAL
MEMBRANE
3. JOINT CAVITY - ENCLOSED BY THE
ARTICULAR CAPSULE. CONTAINS
THE LUBRICATING SYNOVIAL
FLUID SECRETED BY THE SYNOVIAL
MEMBRANE
4. REINFORCING LIGAMENTS –
BURSAE ANDTENDON SHEATH
✓ BURSAE – FLATTENED
FIBROUS SACS LINED
WITH SYNOVIAL
MEMBRANE CONTAINING
A THIN FILM OF SYNOVIAL
FLUID
✓ TENDON SHEATH -
ELONGATED BURSA THAT
WRAPS COMPLETELY
AROUND A TENDON
SUBJECTED TO FRICTION
5.4.D. TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
SUMMARY