Skeletal

System
ASIS, N.A., DMD
 The skeletal system has four components:
bones, cartilage, tendons, and
l i g a m e n t s . The skeleton is usually thought of
as the framework of the body, but the skeletal
system has many other functions as well.

S K E L E TA L S Y S T E M
Functions:
1. Body support
2. Organ protection
3. Body movement
4. Mineral storage
5. Blood cell production
Functions:
1. SUPPORT
Bone: rigid, suited for bearing weight; major supporting tissue of the body

Cartilage: firm yet flexible support (nose, external ear, thoracic cage, trachea)

Ligaments: strong bands of fibrous connective tissue; attach and hold the bones together
Functions:
2. PROTECTION
- bone is hard and protects the organ it surrounds

Ex: skull (encloses and protects the brain)

vertebrae (surrounds the spinal cord)

rib cage (protects the heart, lungs and other organs of the thorax)
Functions:
3. MOVEMENT
➢ skeletal muscles attach to bones by tendons, which are strong bands of connective tissue

➢ contraction of the skeletal muscles moves the bones, producing body movements

➢ Joints: allow movement between bones

➢ Smooth cartilage: covers the ends of bones within some joints, allowing the bones to move
freely

➢ Ligaments: allow some movement between bones but prevent excessive movements.
Functions:
4. STORAGE
➢Calcium and phosphate

➢Adipose tissue is also stored within bone cavities

5. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION

➢bone contain cavities filled with red bone marrow, which produces blood cells and platelets
 Extracellular Matrix
▪ Bone matrix is about 35% organic and 65% inorganic material by weight.
▪ The organic material is primarily collagen and proteoglycans.
▪ The inorganic material is primarily a calcium phosphate crystal called
hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
 Extracellular Matrix
▪ Collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the bone.
▪ The mineral component gives bone compression (weight-bearing)
strength.
 Extracellular Matrix
▪ Skeletal system are largely determined by the composition of their
extracellular matrix.
▪ The matrix always contains collagen, proteoglycan(ground substance),
and other organic molecules(water and minerals).
Bone Cells
▪ Osteoblasts are responsible for the formation of bone and the repair
and remodeling of bone.
▪ Osteoblast produce collagen and proteoglycans.
▪ Osteoblast also secrete high concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate
ions, forming crystals called hydroxyapatite.
▪ The formation of new bone by osteoblast is called ossification.
Bone Cells
▪ Osteocytes are cells that maintain bone matrix and form from osteoblast
after bone matrix has surrounded it.
▪ Osteocytes account for 90% - 95% of bone cells and are very long-lived.
▪ Osteocytes cell bodies are housed within the bone matrix in spaces
called lacunae.
▪ Their cell extensions are housed in narrow, long spaces called
canaliculi.
Bone Cells
▪ Osteoclasts are bone-destroying cells.
▪ They contribute to bone repair and remodeling by removing existing
bone, called reabsorption.
▪ Bone breakdown is important for mobilizing crucial Ca2+.
▪ As bone is broken down, the Ca2+ goes into the blood.
Most of the minerals in the bone is in the form of calcium phosphate crystals
called Hydoxyapatite.
What would a bone be like if all of the minerals
were removed?

What would it be like if all of the collagen were

removed?
Pathology:
 General Features of Bone
➢Long bones: longer than they are wide; most of the bones of the upper and lower limbs

➢Short bones: broad as they are long; bones of the wrist and ankle

➢Flat bones: thin, flattened shape; skull bones, ribs, scapulae(shoulder blades), and
sternum.

➢Irregular bones: vertebrae, facial bone

➢Sesamoid bone: small, rounded structures embedded in the flexor tendons of the
hand, usually in close proximity to the joints
Structure of a Long Bone
▪ The diaphysis is the center portion of the bone which is composed of
compact bone surrounding a hollow center called the medullary cavity.
▪ Some spongy bone tissue lines the medullary cavity.
▪ The ends of a long bone are called epiphyses. They contain mostly
spongy bone, with an outer layer of compact bone.
Structure of Long Bone
➢ Long bone is consist of a central
shaft, called diaphysis (growing
between), and two ends, each
called epiphysis (growing upon).

➢A thin layer of articular cartilage

covers the ends of the epiphyses
where the bone articulates (join)
with other bones.
➢ Epiphyseal plate (growth
plate):
- present in the long bone that is
still growing; composed of cartilage,
between each epiphysis and diaphysis
- it is where the bone grows in
length
➢When bone growth stops, the cartilage of each epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone and becomes an
epiphyseal line.

➢Bone contain large cavities, such as medullary cavity in the diaphysis and small cavities in the
epiphysis.
Spongy and Compact Bone
▪ Mature bone is called lamellar bone. It is organized into thin, concentric
sheets or layers, called lamellae.
▪ Bone can be classified according to the amount of bone matrix relative to
the amount of space within the bone.
▪ Spongy bone has less bone matrix and more space than compact
bone, which has more bone matrix and less space.
Spongy and Compact Bone
▪ Spongy bone consists of interconnecting rods or plates of bone called
trabeculae.
▪ Between the trabeculae are spaces, which in life are filled with bone
marrow and blood vessels.
▪ The surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a single layer of cells
consisting of osteoblasts with a few osteoclasts.
Compact Bone
▪ Compact bone, or cortical bone, is the solid, outer layer surrounding
each bone.
▪ The functional unit of compact bone is an osteon. It is composed of
concentric rings of matrix surrounding a central canal.
▪ Central canals are lined with endosteum and contain blood vessels,
nerves, and loose connective tissue.
Compact Bone
▪ Lamellae are concentric rings of bone matrix which surround the central
canal.
▪ Osteocytes are located in spaces called lacunae between the lamellar
rings.
▪ Small tunnels called canaliculi radiate between lacunae across the
lamellae.
▪ Canaliculi connect osteocytes to one another, transport nutrients and
remove waste.
Bone Marrow
• Cavities in spongy bone and the medullary cavity in the diaphysis are
filled with soft tissue called marrow.
• Red marrow is the location of blood forming cells.
• Yellow marrow is mostly fat.
Bone Marrow
• In the fetus, the spaces within bones are filled with red marrow. Just
before birth the red bone marrow starts to gets converted to yellow
marrow.
• This continues well into adulthood.
• In adult, most red bone marrow is in the flat bones. The long bones of
the femur and humerus contain yellow marrow.
➢Cavities are filled with soft tissue
called marrow.
➢Yellow marrow consist mostly of
adipose tissue.
➢Red marrow consist of blood-forming
cells and is the only site of blood
formation in adults.
➢Periosteum – dense
connective tissue that
forms the outer surface
of the bone

➢Endosteum – thin
connective tissue
membrane that lines the
medullary cavity
 Bone Histology
➢The periosteum and endosteum contains OSTEOBLAST.

➢When osteoblast become surrounded by matrix, they are referred to as OSTEOCYTES.

➢Bone is formed in thin sheets of extracellular matrix called, LAMELLAE, with osteocytes located between the
lamellae within the spaces called, LACUNAE.

➢Cell processes extend from the osteocytes across the extracellular matrix of the lamellae within tiny canals
called, CANALICULI.
Two Major Types of Bone (based on their histological structure) :

1. Compact Bone – mostly

solid cells and matrix

2. Spongy Bone
(cancellous bone) –
consist of a lacy network of
bone with many small, marrow
filled spaces
 Compact Bone:
➢Most of the lamellae of compact bone are
organized into sets of concentric rings, with each
set surrounding a CENTRAL CANAL, or
HAVERSIAN CANAL.

➢Each canal, with the lamellae and osteocytes

surrounding it, is called OSTEON, or
HAVERSIAN SYSTEM.
Osteocytes, located in lacunae, are connected to one another by cell processes in canaliculi.

The canaliculi give the osteon the appearance of having tiny cracks within the lamellae.
 Spongy Bone:
➢Located mainly in the epiphyses of long
bones.

➢Consist of delicate interconnecting rods or

plates of bone called TRABECULAE.

➢Usually, no blood vessels penetrate the

trabeculae; it has no central canals.

➢Nutrients exit vessels in the marrow and pass

by diffusion through the canaliculi to the
osteocytes of the trabeculae.
 Bone Ossification
Ossification – (os, bone + facio, to make) – is the formation of bone by OSTEOBLAST –
OSTEOCYTES.

Occurs during:

•Bone Development – in embryo, fetus & infant (begins at 8weeks)

•Bone Elongation – in children until early adulthood (generally completed by early 20s)

•Bone Widening – continues throughout life

•Bone Remodeling and Repair – in adults

➢Before week 8, the embryonic skeleton is composed of fibrous connective tissue membranes and
hyaline cartilage.

➢Bone tissue replaces most of these tissues by two different methods:

2 Types of Bone Ossification:

1. Intramembranous Ossification – bone develops from the fibrous membranes; forms
flat bones of the skull (except the base of the skull) and clavicle

2. Endochondral Ossification – bone replaces a hyaline cartilage model; forms all bones
inferior to the base of the skull, except the clavicles
Intramembranous Ossification
➢Begins with a fibrous connective tissue membrane containing embryonic mesenchymal cells.

➢6 Major Steps:

1. An ossification center forms in mesenchyme

2. A soft matrix is deposited (called osteoid)

3. Matrix is mineralized/calcified

4. Spongy bone forms

5. The periosteum forms from mesenchyme

6. Compact bone forms

Step 1: An Ossification Center Forms
➢Some mesenchymal cells differentiated into OSTEOBLASTS within the membrane.

➢Where the cells aggregate is called an OSSIFICATION CENTER.

Step 2: Bone matrix forms
➢Osteoblast secrete osteoid.

- a soft matrix composed mainly of collagen

Step 3: Mineralization of Matrix
➢Calcium and Phosphate Minerals are deposited in osteoid

➢Matrix hardens

➢Some osteoblast become osteocytes because they are trapped in the hard matrix
Step 4: Spongy Bone Forms
➢Surface Osteoblasts retain ability to lay down more osteoid

➢Osteoid is laid down around blood vessels – in a pattern called TRABECULAE

Step 5: Periosteum Forms
➢On the external surface, mesenchyme condenses to form periosteum.
Step 6: Compact Bone Forms
➢Osteoblasts located beneath the periosteum secrete osteoid which forms the compact bone.

➢Red marrows appears lining the spongy bone.

 Endochondral Ossification
➢Occurs in all bones inferior to the base of the skull, except the clavicles.

➢Bone is formed from hyaline cartilage model which develops from embryonic mesenchymal
cells.
 Endochondral Ossification
➢The Hyaline Cartilage will grow, be destroyed and then
Step 1: Osteoblast Differentiate
➢Each hyaline cartilage model is surrounded by perichondrium containing mesenchymal
stem cells.

➢These stem cells will differentiate into osteoblasts.

Step 2: Bony Collar Forms
➢Osteoblast in the diaphysis of the cartilage model lay down bone tissue

➢Perichondrium is now Periosteum in this region

➢Bone tissue referred to as the “Bony Collar”

 Step 3: Cartilage Hypertrophy and Calcification
Forming the Primary Ossification Center

•As bony collar develops,

chondrocytes in the shaft undergo
mitosis (hypertrophy) – model grows
Step 4: Cavity Formation & Model Elongation
➢ Calcified Matrix and Bony Collar has cut off diffusion
of nutrients to center of cartilage model

➢Chondrocytes die and matrix deteriorates forming a

cavity

➢Hypertrophy and Calcification persists elsewhere – at

the ends of the cavity, causing model to elongate
 Step 5: Periosteal Bud Invades the Cavity
➢The Periosteal Bud – name given to embryonic elements that
penetrate the bony collar; contains blood vessels that brings in
osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclast

➢Osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into osteoblasts and lay down

matrix at spongy bone

➢Blood brings minerals to harden matrix

➢Osteoclast break down old, dying cartilage cells and matrix

Step 6: Secondary Ossification Form
➢Ossification occurs in the epiphyses around birth
Results of Endochondral Ossification

•Hyaline cartilage only remains in

the epiphyseal plates and
articular cartilage (until early
20’s)

•While hyaline cartilage is

present in the epiphyseal plate,
growth in length is still possible

Epiphyseal Plate

Articular Cartilage
Bone Growth and
Remodeling:
BONE GROWTH IN LENGTH – INTERSTITIAL GROWTH
BONE GROWTH IN DIAMETER – APPOSITIONAL GROWTH
 Bone Growth and Remodeling
Appositional Growth
• bone growth in diameter

- occurs within the periosteum

- bone matrix deposited within layers parallel to the surface
- layers termed as external circumferential lamellae (as they increase in number,
structure increases in diameter)
- osteoclast resorb bone matrix along medullary cavity
- transforms infant bone into a larger adult version
 Bone Growth and Remodeling
• Continual process of bone deposition and resorption
- termed bone remodeling
- continues throughout adulthood
- occurs at periosteal and endosteal surfaces of the bone
- occurs at different rates
(e,g., distal part of femur replace every 4-6months)
(e.g., diaphysis of femur not completely replaced over a lifetime
- 20% of skeleton replaced yearly
- Dependent on the coordinated activities of osteoblast, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
Bone Growth and Remodeling
• Mechanical stress
- occurs in weight bearing movement and exercise

- required for normal bone remodeling

- detected by osteocytes and communicated to osteoblasts (increase synthesis of osteoid)

- cause increase in bone strength

- results from skeletal contraction and gravitational forces

Bone Calcium Homeostasis
Skeletal System
GROSS ANATOMY
 AXIAL
SKELETON
 Axial Skeleton
• The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral
column, and rib cage (thoracic cage).

• The axial skeleton forms the upright axis of the body.

•It protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital organs housed within the thorax
Axial Skeleton: SKULL
• The 22 bones of the skull are divided into those of the braincase and those of the face.

• The braincase (encloses the cranial cavity), consists of 8 bones that immediately
surround and protect the brain

• 14 facial bones form the structure of the face

• 13 of the facial bone are rather solidly connected to form the bulk of the face.

• The mandible, forms freely movable joint with the rest of the skull

• There are also 3 auditory ossicles in each middle ear (total of 6)

Axial Skeleton:
SKULL
Lateral View: SKULL
• The parietal bone and temporal bone
form a large portion of the head.

• These two bones join each other on the

side of the head by squamous suture.

❑Suture – is a joint uniting the bones of

the skull
• Anteriorly, the parietal bone is joined to the frontal (forehead) bone by the coronal suture.

• Posteriorly, the parietal bone it is joined to the occipital (back of the head) bone by the lambdoid suture.
 Lateral View: SKULL

• A prominent feature of the temporal bone is a large opening, the external auditory/acoustic canal – a canal
that enables sound waves to reach the eardrum

• The mastoid process of the temporal bone can be seen and felt as a prominent lump just posterior to the
ear.
Lateral View: SKULL
• Part of the sphenoid bone
can be seen anteriorly to
the temporal bone.

• Sphenoid bone is actually

a single bone that extends
completely across the skull.

• It resembles a butterfly,
with its body in the center
of the skull.
 Lateral View: SKULL
• Anterior to the sphenoid
bone is the zygomatic bone
(cheekbone).

• The zygomatic arch, which

consists of joined process of
the temporal and zygomatic
bones, forms a bridge across
the side of the face and
provides a major attachment
site for muscle moving the
mandible.
Lateral View: SKULL
• The maxilla forms the
upper jaw, and the mandible
forms the lower jaw.

• The maxilla articulates by

sutures to the temporal
bone. The maxilla contains
the superior set of the teeth,
and the mandible contains
the inferior teeth.
 Frontal View: SKULL
• The most prominent openings into the skull are the orbits (eye sockets) and the nasal cavity.

• Orbits – cone shaped fossae; eyes rotate within them

• Each orbit has several openings: the largest of these are the superior and inferior orbital fissures –
they provide openings through which nerves and blood vessels communicate with the orbit or pass to
the face.
Why does your
nose run when
you cry?
Frontal View:
• The nasal cavity is divided
into right and left halves by
a nasal septum.

•The bony part of the nasal

septum is consist primarily
by: vomer (inferiorly);
perpendicular plate of
ethmoid bone (superiorly).
Frontal View
• The anterior part of the nasal
septum is formed by cartilage.

• The external part of the nose is

formed mostly by cartilage.

• The bridge of the nose is

formed by the nasal bones.
• Each of the lateral walls of the
nasal cavity has 3 bony shelves,
called the nasal conchae.

• The inferior nasal conchae is a

separate bone, and the middle
and superior nasal conchae are
projections from the ethmoid
bone.
• Paranasal Sinuses – large cavities located in nasal cavity

• Sinuses decreases the weight of the skull and act as resonating chambers during voice production.
•The sinuses, which are named for the bones in which they are located, include
the frontal, maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses.
• The sinuses within each ethmoid bone form a maze of interconnected
ethmoidal air cells collectively called the ethmoidal labyrinth, or the ethmoidal
sinuses.
• The skull has additional sinuses, called
the mastoid air cells, which are located
inside the mastoid process of the
temporal bone.
 Interior of the Cranial Cavity

• Cranial Cavity – is the hollow part of the skull

occupied by the brain

• 3 Cranial Fossae seen when viewed interiorly:

1. Anterior Cranial Fossa

2. Middle Cranial Fossa

3. Posterior Cranial Fossa

 Interior of the Cranial Cavity
• Several foramina can be seen in the floor of the middle cranial fossa.

• Example of foramina:

➢ Foramen Rotundum & Foramen Ovale : transmit important nerves to the face

➢ Major artery to the meninges (membrane around the brain) of the brain passes through the Foramen
Spinosum

➢The internal carotid artery passes through the carotid canal, and the internal jugular vein passes through
the Jugular Foramen.

➢ The large Foramen Magnum, through which the spinal cord joins the brain, is located in the posterior
fossa.
 Interior of the
Cranial Cavity
• The central region of the sphenoid bone is
modified into a structure, resembling a saddle, the
sella turcica, which contains the pituitary gland.
 Base of Skull Viewed from Below
• The foramen magnum is located in the occipital bone near the center of the skull base.

• Occipital condyles – the smooth points of articulation between the skull and the vertebral
column, are located beside the foramen magnum.
 Base of Skull Viewed from Below
• Two long, pointed styloid processes project from the inf surface of the temporal bone.

• The muscles involved in moving the tongue, the hyoid bone, and the pharynx (throat) originate from the
styloid process.

• The mandibular fossa, where the mandible articulates with the temporal bone, is anterior to the mastoid
process.
 Base of Skull Viewed from Below
• The hard palate – forms the floor of
the nasal cavity and the roof of the
mouth

• Ant 2/3 of the hard palate is formed

by the maxillae; the post 1/3 by the
palatine bones.

•The hard and soft palates separate

the nasal cavity and nasopharynx
from the mouth, enabling us to chew
and breathe at the same time.
Axial Skeleton:
HYOID BONE
Hyoid Bone
• Hyoid Bone – is an unpaired, U-
shaped bone
• It is not a part of the skull and has
no direct bony attachment to the
skull.
• It provides an attachment for some
tongue muscles, and it is an
attachment point for important neck
muscles that elevate the larynx
(voicebox) during speech or
swallowing.
Axial Skeleton:
Vertebral
Column
 Vertebral Column
• Vertebral Column, or Backbone – is the central axis of the skeleton,
extending from the base of the skull to slightly past the end of the
pelvis
• It is usually consists of 26 individual bone, grouped into five regions:
✓ 7 cervical
✓ 12 thoracic
✓ 5 lumbar
✓1 sacral
✓ 1 coccygeal
❑ Cervical (7bones)

•Atlas, Axis, C3-C7

❑ Thoracic (12 bones)

•T1-T12

❑ Lumbar (5bones)

• L1-L5

❑ Sacral (1 bone)

•S

❑ Coccygeal (1 bone)

•Co
 Vertebral Column
1. The cervical region curves anteriorly.

2. The thoracic region curves posteriorly.

3. The lumbar region curves anteriorly.

4. Sacral and Coccygeal curves posteriorly.

Functions of the Vertebral Column:
1. Supports the weight of the head and trunk.

2. Protects the spinal cord.

3. Allows the spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord.

4. Provides a site for muscle attachments.

5. Permits movement of the head and trunk.

 Pathology:
▪ KYPHOSIS – it is an abnormal posterior curvature of the spine, mostly in the upper thoracic
region, resulting in a hunchback condition
 Pathology:
▪ LORDOSIS– it is an abnormal anterior curvature of the spine, resulting in a swayback
condition.
 Pathology:
▪ SCOLIOSIS – it is an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.
 General Plan of the Vertebrae
• Each vertebra consists of a body, an arch, and various processes.

• The weight-bearing portion of each vertebra is the body.

• The vertebral bodies are separated by intervertebral disks, which are formed by fibrocartilage.

• The vertebral arch surrounds a large opening called the vertebral foramen.
 General Plan of the Vertebrae
• The vertebral foramina of all the vertebrae form the vertebral canal (spinal canal)– where the spinal
cord is located.
 General Plan of the Vertebrae
• Each vertebral arch consists of 2 pedicles, which extend from the body to the transverse process of
each vertebra, and 2 laminae, which extends from the transverse processes to the spinous process.

• A transverse process extends laterally from each side of the arch, between the pedicle and lamina, and
a single spinous processes projects dorsally from where the two laminae meet.
 General Plan of the Vertebrae

• Spinal nerves exit the spinal cord through the

intervertebral foramina, which are formed by notches in
the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae.

• Each vertebrae has a superior and inferior articular

process where the vertebrae articulate with each other.

• Each articular process has a smooth “little face” called

an articular facet.
 Regional Differences in Vertebrae
1. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE (7)
• The cervical vertebrae have very small bodies except for the atlas (C-1), which has no
body.

• Cervical vertebrae are prone to dislocations and fractures

• Each of the transverse processes has a transverse foramen through which the vertebral
arteries pass toward the brain
Atlas (first cervical vertebrae C-1)
• It holds up the head

• Movement between the atlas and the occipital bone is responsible for a “YES” motion of the
head

• It also allows slight tilting of the head from side to side.

Axis (second cervical vertebrae C-2)
• It is called axis because a considerable amount of rotation occurs at this vertebrae, as in
shaking the head “no”.

• This rotation occurs around a process called the dens, which protrudes superiorly from the
atlas
 Regional Differences in
Vertebrae
2. Thoracic Vertebrae (12)
• Possesses long, thin spinous process
that are directed inferiorly.

• The thoracic vertebrae also have extra

articular facets on their lateral surfaces
that articulate with the ribs
 Regional Differences
in Vertebrae
3. Lumbar Vertebrae (5)
• Have large, thick bodies and heavy, rectangular
transverse and spinous processes.

• The superior articular facets lumbar vertebrae faced

medially, whereas the inferior articular facets faced
laterally.
 Regional Differences in Vertebrae
3. Sacral Vertebrae (1)
• The 5 sacral vertebrae fused together into a single
bone called the sacrum.

• The spinous process of the first four sacral

vertebrae form the median sacral crest.

• The spinous processes of the fifth sacral vertebra

does not form, leaving a sacral hiatus at the inferior
end of the sacrum, which is often the “caudal” site of
injections given just before childbirth
 Regional Differences in Vertebrae
3. Sacral Vertebrae (1)
• The anterior edge of the body of the 1st sacral vertebrae bulges to form the sacral promontory – a
landmark that can be felt during a vaginal examination.

• It is used as a reference point to determine if the pelvic openings are large enough to allow for
normal vaginal delivery of a baby.
 Regional Differences in Vertebrae
5. Coccyx (1)

• “Tailbone”, usually consists of four more-or-

less fused vertebrae.

• They consist of extremely reduced vertebral

bodies, without foramina or processes,
usually fused into a single bone.
Axial Skeleton:
Thoracic Cage
 Thoracic Cage/Rib Cage
• It protects the vital organs within the thorax and prevents the collapse of the thorax during
perspiration.

• It consist of the thoracic vertebrae, and the ribs and their associated cartilages, and
sternum.
Thoracic Cage
1. Thoracic Vertebrae

2. Ribs and Costal

Cartilages

3. Sternum
Ribs and Costal Cartilages
• The 12 pairs of ribs can be divided into true ribs and false ribs.

• The true ribs, ribs 1-7, attach directly to the sternum by means of costal cartilages

• The false ribs, ribs 8-12, do not attach directly to the sternum

• Ribs 8-10 attach to the sternum by a common cartilage; ribs 11 and 12 do not attach at
all to the sternum and are called floating ribs.
 Sternum
• “Breastbone”, is divided into three parts:

1. Manubrium

2. Body

3. Xiphoid Process
 Sternum
• Jugular notch – a depression at the superior
end of the sternum; located between the ends
of the clavicles where they articulate with the
sternum.

• Sternal angle – a slight elevation that can be

felt at the junction of the manubrium and the
body of the sternum.

• Xiphoid process – inferior part of the sternum

 Sternum
• “Breastbone”, is divided into three parts:

1. Manubrium

2. Body

3. Xiphoid Process
Appendicular
Skeleton:

Pectoral Girdle,
Upper Limb,
Pelvic Girdle,
Lower Limb
Pectoral Girdle
• “Shoulder Girdle” – consist of 4 bones:
2 scapulae and 2 clavicles which attach
the upper limb to the body
Pectoral Girdle
1. Scapula – “shoulder blade” , a flat, triangular bone with three large fossae where muscle
extending to the arm are attached

▪ Glenoid Fossa – fourth fossa where the head of the humerus connects to the scapula

▪ A ridge called spine, runs across the posterior surface of the scapula

▪ A projection called acromion process, extends from the scapular spine to form the point of
the shoulder
 Pectoral Girdle
2. Clavicle – “Collarbone”, articulates
with the scapula at the acromion
process and proximal end is
attached to the sternum; it is the
first bone to begin ossification in the
fetus

▪ Coracoid process of the scapula –

curves below the clavicle and provides
for the attachments of arm and chest
muscles
Upper Limb
1. Arm
2. Forearm
3. Wrist
4. Hand
Upper Limb: Arm
• Arm – it is the region between the shoulder and the elbow; it contains the humerus

• The proximal end of the humerus has a smooth, rounded head, which attaches the
humerus to the scapula at the glenoid cavity.

• Around the edge of the humeral head is the anatomical neck.

• Lateral to the head are two tubercles, a greater and lesser tubercles
Upper Limb: Arm
• Deltoid tuberosity – it is where the deltoid muscle attaches

• Epicondyles – seen on the distal end of the humerus, just lateral to the condyles; it provides
attachments for forearm muscles
Upper Limb: Forearm
• The forearm has two bones: the ULNA (medial side) and the RADIUS (lateral side)

• The proximal end of the ulna forms a trochlear notch that fits tightly over the end of the
humerus

• Olecranon – located proximal to the trochlear notch; extension of the ulna

• Coronoid process – located distal to the trochlear notch; helps complete the “grip” of the
ulna

• Radial tuberosity – distal to the radial head; attaches to the biceps brachii
 Stop Letting Those People Touch The Cadaver’s Hand

Wrist 1. STOP – Scaphoid

2. LETTING – Lunate
Wrist – it is a relatively short region
between the forearm and the hand 3. THOSE – Triquetrum

4. PEOPLE – Pisiform

It is composed of 8 CARPAL bones 5. TOUCH – Trapezium

bones namely:
6. THE – Trapezoid

7. CADAVER’S – Capitate

8. HAND – Hamate

❖ Proximal row to Distal row; Lateral to Medial

 1. STOP – Scaphoid
2. LETTING – Lunate
3. THOSE – Triquetrum
4. PEOPLE – Pisiform
5. TOUCH – Trapezium
6. THE – Trapezoid
7. CADAVER’S – Capitate
8. HAND – Hamate

❖ Proximal row to Distal row; Lateral to Medial

Upper Limb: Hand
• Five Metacarpals: attached to the carpal bones and form the bony framework of the hand.

• The metacarpals are aligned with the five digits: the thumb and fingers

• Each finger consists of three small bones called phalanges

• The phalanges of each finger are called proximal, middle, distal phalanges
Upper Limb: Pelvic Girdle
• Pelvic Girdle – it is the place where the lower limbs attach to the body

• The right and left coxal bone (hipbone), join each other anteriorly and the sacrum
posteriorly to form a ring of bone called the PELVIC GIRDLE.
 Upper Limb: Pelvic Girdle
Each coxal bone is formed by the three
bones fused to one another to form a
single bone:

1. Illium – most superior

2. Ischium – inferior and posterior

3. Pubis – inferior and anterior

Upper Limb: Pelvic Girdle
• An iliac crest can be seen along the superior margin of each ilium, and an anterior superior
iliac spine is located at the anterior end of the iliac crest.

• The coxal bones join each other anteriorly at the pubic symphysis and joins the sacrum
posteriorly at the sacroiliac joints.
Upper Limb: Pelvic Girdle
• Acetabulum – “vinegar’s cup” , is the socket of the hip joint

• Obturator foramen – is the large hole in each coxal bone that is closed off by muscles and
other structures
 Pelvis
• Pelvic Inlet – formed by the pelvic brim and the sacral promontory

• Pelvic Outlet – is bounded by the ischial spines, the pubic symphysis and the coccyx
Lower Limb:
1. Thigh
2. Leg
3. Ankle
4. Foot
1.Thigh
Thigh – region between the hip and the knee; it contains a single bone called the femur

• The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal bone.

• At the distal of the femur, the condyles articulates with the tibia.
1.Thigh
• Epicondyles – located medial and lateral to the condyles; these are points of ligament
attachments

•Pattela (kneecap) – is located within the major tendon of the anterior thigh muscles and
enables the tendon to bend over the knee
2. Leg
Leg – the region between the knee and the ankle; it contains two bones, called tibia
(shinbone) and the fibula

• Tibial Tuberosity – located just distal to the condyles of the tibia on its anterior surface; it is
where the muscles of the anterior thigh attach
 3. Ankle
• The ankle consist of seven TARSAL bones:
1. Talus
2. Calcaneus
3. Cuboid
4. Navicular
5. Medial Cuneiform
6. Intermediate Cuneiform
7. Lateral Cuneiform
DISTAL ROWS – (MILC)
M – Medial cuneiform
I – Intermediate cuneiform
L – Lateral cuneiform
C – Cuboid
PROXIMAL three bones – No Thanks Cow!
N – Navicular
T – Talus
C - Calcaneus
 4. Foot
• The metatarsal bones are longer than the
metacarpal bones, whereas the phalanges
of the foot are shorter than those of the
hand.
JOINTS: Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Synovial
Joints
• Joint “articulation” – is a place where two bones come together; usually considered
movable
 BASED ON THE DEGREE OF MOTION:
Synarthrosis
(non-movable joint)

Amphiarthrosis
(slightly movable joint)

Diarthrosis
(freely movable joint)
Structural Classification of Joints:

CARTILAGINOUS
FIBROUS JOINT JOINT
SYNOVIAL JOINT
 1. Fibrous Joints
▪ Consist of two bones that are united by fibrous connective tissue
▪ Exhibit little or no movement

Subdivisions:
a. Sutures – fibrous joints between the bones of the skull
b. Fontanelles – wide sutures in a new born
c. Syndesmoses – fibrous joints in which the bones are separated by some distance and held
together by ligaments
d. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into sockets and held in place by ligaments
2. Cartilaginous Joints
▪ unite two bones by means of cartilage

▪ only slight movement can occur

Ex:

a. cartilage in the epiphyseal plates of growing long bones;

b. cartilages between the ribs and the sternum;

c. fibrocartilage that forms the joints in the intervertebral disks

1. Synchondrosis – consists of two bones joined by hyaline cartilage where little or no
movement occurs; most synchondroses are temporary.

2. Symphysis – consists of fibrocartilage uniting two bones

3. Synovial Joints
▪ freely movable joints that contain fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of the articulating
bones

▪ the articular surfaces of bones within synovial joints are covered with a thin layer of articular
cartilage

▪ the joint cavity is filled with fluid

▪ the cavity is enclosed by a joint capsule

Types of Movement:
 Types of Movement:

1. Flexion 9. Rotation

2. Extension 10. Pronation

3. Hyperextension 11. Supination

4. Plantar flexion 12. Circumduction

5. Dorsiflexion 13. Opposition

6. Abduction 14. Reposition

7. Adduction 15. Inversion

8. Lateral flexion 16. Eversion

 Types of Movement:
1. Flexion is a bending movement that 2. Extension is a straightening movement
decreases the angle of the joint to bring the that increases the angle of the joint to
articulating bones closer together. extend the articulating bones.
 Types of Movement:
Hyperextension is usually defined as extension of a joint Plantar flexion is the movement of the foot toward the
beyond 180 degrees plantar surface, as when standing on the toes.
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement:
Types of Movement: