Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Energy, exergy, economic and enviroeconomic (4E) analyses of solar T

distillation system using different absorbing materials
⁎
Mohamed S. Yousefa,b, , Hamdy Hassana,c, H. Sekiguchid
a
Energy Resources Engineering Department, Egypt- Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST), Alexandria, Egypt
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Benha Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
d
Department of Chemical Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan

H I GH L IG H T S

• Freshwater yield in cases 2 and 3 is enhanced by 16% and 25%, respectively.

• Evaporative exergy in cases 2 and 3 is improved by 15% and 27%, respectively.
• The maximum exergy efficiencies for cases 1, 2, and 3 are 3.73%, 4.4%, and 5.23%
• Cases 2 and 3 achieved a reduction of 14.4 and 15.6 tons of CO , respectively.
2

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, the energetic, exergetic, economic and enviroeconomic (4E) analyses of single slope solar still using
Solar still steel mesh fibers (a new porous medium) and hollow cylindrical pin fins as absorbing materials are investigated.
Steel fibers Three cases are considered, case 1: traditional solar still, case 2: with hollow cylindrical pin fins, case 3: with
Pin fins steel wool fibers. The performance of the three cases is experimentally evaluated under the same meteorological
Energy and exergy
situations. The results show that the total daily cumulative yield of distillate water in cases 2 and 3 enhanced by
Economic
Environmental
16% and 25%, respectively in comparison with case 1. Also, the maximum energy efficiencies of cases 1, 2 and 3
are 42%, 45.5%, and 52.5%, respectively. It is observed that the modified stills (cases 2 and 3) exhibit an
increment of the average daily exergy efficiency of 14% and 23%, respectively. Furthermore, economic analysis
findings revealed that the costs per liter per square meter for the cases 1, 2 and 3 are 0.0427$, 0.0416$, and
0.0343$, respectively. Eventually, it was observed that the proposed systems (Cases 2 and 3) achieved an annual
reduction of 14.4 and 15.6 tons of CO2 emissions, respectively.

1. Introduction demand and the provision of the freshwater. Also, in some arid areas,
they suffer from a shortage of freshwater availability. Therefore, to
Freshwater shortage represents one of the core problems facing the cover this severe shortage of freshwater and fulfill the high demand for
world these days, particularly in remote areas and arid zones. Besides freshwater, water desalination is an obligatory solution and the desa-
energy and food, drinking freshwater is one of the fundamental ne- lination system efficiency could be judged by their freshwater produc-
cessities for sustaining all life on earth. However, most of the available tion [3]. In recent years, water desalination has been performed using
water is saline and not appropriate for drinking purposes, domestic use, different techniques such as membrane distillation, multiple effect
industrial and agricultural needs [1]. It is noted that about 97% of distillation, multistage desalination, and reverse osmosis. All these
available water on the surface of the Earth in seas and oceans is methods are energy intensive techniques and mainly depend on fossil
brackish water, while the remaining is freshwater rivers, lakes and fuels. Unfortunately, employing those desalination methods causes
frozen water locked up in polar ice regions and glaciers [2]. In- many problems such as fossil fuels depletion crisis, global warming, and
dustrialization of societies, unsustainable consumption rates, and the other environmental hazards [4]. Therefore, the necessity of using
fast population growth cause unbalance between the increasing sustainable and renewable energy sources for water desalination to

⁎
Corresponding author at: Energy Resources Engineering Department, Egypt- Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST), Alexandria, Egypt.
E-mail addresses: mohamed.youssif@bhit.bu.edu.eg, mohamed.mohamed@ejust.edu.eg (M.S. Yousef).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.01.005
Received 23 August 2018; Received in revised form 13 December 2018; Accepted 3 January 2019
Available online 04 January 2019
1359-4311/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

avoid those important problems is an urgent technical issue. In light of of adding thermocol sections wrapped by jute cloth on the freshwater
the current circumstances, utilization of solar energy as a self-sustained yield of solar distillation system. Their findings indicated that the yield
source for water distillation seems to be a promising way due to its of freshwater was enhanced by 68% in comparison with conventional
favorable characteristics such as non-carbon emissions, en- still without modifications. In another work, Al-Nimr and Dahdolan
vironmentally-friendly, and availability, compared with the aforemen- [25] theoretically scrutinized a new solar desalination system using a
tioned distillation methods [5]. porous evaporator in combination with a condenser. They stated that
Solar still is a device used in the solar distillation process to produce the freshwater yield and efficiency of the still were enhanced with a
potable water. The basic phenomenon of this device is that brackish drop in the condenser temperature and wind velocity. Matrawy et al.
water lying inside a closed enclosure is evaporated by means of the [26] scrutinized the performance of a corrugated basin type solar still.
trapped heat from the sun. Then, this water vapor is condensed on the They used black cloth, immersed in water, as a wicking material. It was
inside surface of the still cover and afterward, this freshwater is accu- reported that the modified solar still exhibited about a 34% rise in the
mulated [6]. The single type solar still is presently one of the most freshwater productivity in comparison with the conventional still.
commonly recognized designs for solar distillers. However, its low Augmentation of the surface area of the basin water using extended
freshwater productivity is the main drawback which makes its real fins is another technique that extensively examined by many re-
implementation limited [7]. Furthermore, the non-continuous opera- searchers. As the exposure area of the basin liner increases, the heat
tion of solar distillation systems due to the intermittent nature of solar transfer rates between the saline water and the basin liner enhances and
intensity is also one of the major defects, leading to a low yield of hence the evaporation rate also augments. The freshwater augmenta-
freshwater as compared to other desalination systems [4]. Therefore, tion of single type solar still by incorporating fins, wick and sponge in
more researches are needed to improve solar still productivity to in- the basin was examined by Velmurugan et al. [27]. They reported that
crease its production cost and then increases the investment in desali- the total freshwater yield enhanced by 45%, 30%, and 15%, respec-
nation by using solar still. tively, related to traditional solar still. Ali et al. [28] examined the
Many studies have been conducted to enhance the performance of performance improvement of solar still employing pin fins fixed on the
solar stills. Muftah et al. [8] and Rufuss et al. [9] conducted review absorber plate. The findings indicate that the modified system exhibited
studies to provide insights into the various methods and techniques an average of 12% increment in the total freshwater yield in compar-
employed to improve the yield of freshwater from the solar stills. They ison with the traditional solar still. Srivastava and Agrawal [29] em-
outlined that operational, and meteorological parameters such as wind ployed prolonged porous fins consisting of blackened cotton cloth
velocity, location, environment temperature, solar intensity, the thick- partially submerged inside the basin water of solar still to augment the
ness of covering surface, and water depth greatly affect the solar still evaporation rate. The experimental findings showed that the proposed
performance [7]. One of the common methods is the incorporation of system exhibited an enhancement in the overall freshwater productivity
solar collectors with solar stills. Employing solar collectors augments in February and May months by 48% and 15%, respectively. Alaian
the average basin water temperature and thus, enhances the freshwater et al. [30] accomplished an experimental study to examine the addition
yield [10–12]. A theoretical investigation of the thermal efficiency of of extended pin-finned wick to the basin on the performance of single
the addition of evacuated solar collector with solar still is performed by slope solar still. The freshwater yield of the flat absorber solar still is
Singh et al. [13]. It was reported that the maximum freshwater pro- compared to similar solar still with pin fins that fixed vertically on the
ductivity and thermal efficiency are 3.8 kg/m2 and 33%, respectively. basin liner under the identical meteorological situations. The experi-
The complete dissipation of latent heat of condensation through the top mental readings revealed that the proposed system exhibited an en-
cover surface to the ambient represents one of the major deficiencies of hancement of 23% in freshwater yield compared to traditional solar
the solar still systems [14]. Karimi Estahbanati et al. [15] scrutinized still. The thermal investigation of a solar distillation system with fins
the influence of the number of stages on the efficiency of a multi-effect affixed on the basin liner is experimentally and theoretically analyzed
active solar distillation system. Their findings revealed that a rising by El-Sebai et al. [31]. They tested various materials for fins such as
number of stages has a positive impact on the freshwater yield of the aluminum, brass, glass, copper, mica, and stainless steel on the fresh-
proposed still. Another technique for augmenting the freshwater yield water yield of the solar still. The results indicated that the annual
of solar distillation systems are the mirror reflectors which have been freshwater productivities for traditional solar still and modified solar
used by many researchers to augment the solar intensity captured by still are approximately 1470 kg/m2 and 1900 kg/m2, respectively.
the absorber plate. Omara et al. [16] tested the effectiveness of using Rabhi et al. [32] examined the influence of integration of external
solar reflectors on the freshwater yield of stepped-type solar still. The condenser on the output freshwater productivity of pin-finned solar
results revealed that the freshwater yield was augmented by 125%, still. The authors tested three different cases namely, traditional solar
compared to the still without modifications. The influence of using still without modifications, solar still with pin fins, solar still with
condenser in the form of the heat sink on the freshwater production of condenser and pin fins. The results showed that using solar still with
solar still was experimentally investigated by Hassan and Abo-Elfadl pin-finned basin liner and solar still with pin-finned basin liner and
[17]. Their findings illustrated that the proposed system improved the condenser enhanced the total freshwater productivity by 14.53% and
total yield of freshwater by 31%, related to the traditional still. 32.18%, respectively, in comparison with traditional solar still.
Using absorbing materials such as a black dye, rubber, fur fabric, In recent times, exergy evaluation approaches based on the second
and jute cloth in the basin represents one of the most effective methods law of thermodynamics has gained significantly much attention among
to augment the freshwater yield of solar stills. Utilizing wicking mate- researchers for evaluating energy systems performance. In comparison
rials and porous mediums as absorbing materials in solar stills and other with energy analysis which is contingent on the first law of the ther-
solar energy systems has received much attention in the literature. modynamics, exergy analysis seems to be a prevailing perspective
Using porous mediums in solar stills has several advantages over the technique for the design, performance assessment, and optimization of
conventional solar still [18]; (i) Wicking materials have the capillary energy systems. The energy analysis is only treated with the energy
action that produces large effective surfaces for convective and radia- conservation principle, the quantitative aspect of the energy transfer,
tive energy transfers and consequently increases the evaporation pro- and provides no knowledge on the degradation of the system perfor-
cess. (ii) Due to its wick property, water can be transmitted through the mance [33]. Conversely, exergy analysis provides an insight on the
evaporation surface more easily that results in more water can be ex- potential use of energy or the quality of energy and it is proved to be an
posed to solar intensity. Various designs of solar stills with different effective thermodynamic tool to recognize the forms, real magnitudes,
wicking materials are extensively investigated by large numbers of re- and locations of the losses and irreversibilities in the system processes.
searchers [19–23]. Srivastava and Agrawal [24] examined the influence This approach can be employed for designing, evaluating, and

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M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

Hollow cylindrical pin fins

Fig. 1. A photographic of the experimental setup of the solar still with hollow pin fins.

optimization of solar distillation systems to minimize the origins of ir- hollow cylindrical pin fins, case 3: solar still with steel wool fibers
reversibility, exergy destructions and inefficiency in the prevailing (SWF). The insertion of hollow pin fins as absorbing material inside the
components and processes of the solar still [34]. The exergetic perfor- solar still maximizes the projected surface area of the basin, and thus
mance of various solar distillation systems is rarely investigated in the achieves higher evaporation rate of water. Also, using steel wool fibers
literature [35–40]. In brief, Torchia- Nunez et al. [38] studied the ex- as a new porous medium has several advantages over other previously
ergetic assessment of single type solar still. Their results revealed that studied materials in literature. (i) SWF have relatively high thermal
the exergy efficiencies of saline water, absorber plate, and solar still are conductivity [45] which means a faster increase in water temperature.
6%, 12.9%, and 5%, respectively. Kianifar et al. [41] assessed the ex- (ii) They have a wicking property that produces large effective surfaces
ergetic performance of a pyramid-type solar still. The systems were for convective and radiative energy transfers and consequently in-
evaluated in both passive and active modes by incorporating small fan creasing the evaporation surface. (iii) Due to their wick property, water
(active mode) into the interior of the still to augment the evaporation can be transmitted through the evaporation surface more easily that can
rate. The findings indicated that the solar still in active mode showed be resulted in more water exposed to solar intensity, and (iv) steel wool
superior exergetic performance compared to the still in passive mode. fibers are easily accessible and cheap material. Performance in-
Study of energetic, exergetic, economic and enviroeconomic (4E) vestigations of the three cases are experimentally evaluated and com-
analyses for performance analyzing and comparing different energy pared to each other under the same meteorological situations of New
systems have gained much attention among researchers. In brief, Deniz Borg El-Arab City, Egypt (Longitude/Latitude: E 029°42′/N 30°55′)[46].
and Çınar [42] designed and investigated a novel humidification-de- Additionally, a cost analysis is established in this study to investigate
humidification (HDH) solar desalination system. Energy, exergy, eco- the effectiveness of all the tested solar stills configurations economic-
nomic and enviroeconomic aspects of the proposed system are experi- ally. Finally, the environmental aspects of the modified systems are also
mentally performed. The findings indicated that the maximum daily considered in this study which represents some valuable contribution in
energy and exergy efficiencies are 31.54% and 1.87%, respectively. comparison with previously published studies.
Also, the production cost of the freshwater and enviroeconomic para-
meter are estimated by 0.0981 USD/L and 2.4041 USD/year, respec-
tively. The 4E analysis of the flat plate and V-grooved solar air collector, 2. Experimental setup and procedures
made of aluminum and copper under different air flow rates is con-
ducted by Abuska and Sevik [43]. The results revealed that although 2.1. Solar still design and construction
the v-groove design has a higher cost compared to flat plate design, it
has superior overall performance. In another study, Tripathi et al. [44] An experimental setup is established to examine the effect of in-
studied the Overall energy, exergy, and carbon credit analysis of N corporating hollow cylindrical pin fins and steel wool fibers as ab-
partially covered Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) concentrating collector sorbing materials on the performance of the solar stills. A photograph of
connected in series. the experimental setup is displayed in Fig. 1. Two similar single acting
The aforementioned literature review showed the importance of solar stills of identical specifications and dimensions are fabricated and
using extended fins and porous mediums inside the basin of the solar constructed at the same location for performance investigation and
still to enhance the evaporation and convection energy from water to comparison, as indicated in Fig. 1. The absorber plate of each solar still
glazing and thus increase the evaporation rate. In spite that a large has an effective area of 1 m2, whereas the elevations of the front and
number of studies have been performed on the performance of the solar back walls are 12 cm and 70 cm, respectively. The basin liner is fabri-
still systems with different extended fins configurations and porous cated from galvanized iron with a thickness of 4 mm and is blackened to
mediums, all these attempts are predominantly based on the separate maximize the solar intensity capturing. Armaflex insulation sheet of
investigation of energy performance, whereas the complete evaluation thickness 3 cm was used as a thermal insulator for both stills to prevent
of the performance of these systems by considering the energy and the dissipating heat from the basin liner to the atmosphere. The entire
exergy aspects, has not been reported yet in literature. Up to now, as for solar still (top cover and lateral walls) are fabricated from the trans-
as the authors know, only one study conducted by Rashidi et al. [18] parent glass with a thickness of 5 mm. The rubber gasket is employed
who examined the exergetic performance of solar still with the reticular for the sealing between the solar still edges and the glass cover to
porous medium. Therefore, in this study, an attempt is undertaken to prevent any vapor leakage and to makes it airtight. The two solar stills
investigate the energetic and exergetic performance of single slope solar are positioned to the East-West axis, fixed in the south direction, and
still using steel wool fibers and hollow cylindrical pin fins as absorbing the slope of the condensing glass (front glass) is adjusted to be equal the
materials. In view of this, three cases are considered namely, case 1: latitude of the place to accumulate the maximum amount of solar in-
conventional solar still (without modifications), case 2: solar still with tensity. Two small channels are welded along both inner sides of the
solar still walls with 5° downward inclination. Due to its tendency, the

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M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

Saline water tank

Thermocouple
Sun
Flow Control Valve
Glass cover

Distilled
water

30°

Humid air region Saline water 70 cm

Back glass
12 cm

Graduated
breaker Hollow Insulation
cylindrical Pin material
Absorber plate
fins
100 cm
Pyranometer

Data Logger

Laptop

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the single slope solar still with hollow pin fins in the basin.

condensate water could be easily accumulated and glided downward solar still is also carried out. The idea behind using this material is the
through these channels to be collected in 6 L bottle and then measured wicking property that produces large effective surfaces for convective
by using a calibrated flask. and radiative energy transfers and consequently increasing the eva-
In this setup, two separate sets of experiments are conducted. In the poration surface. Also, water can be transmitted through the evapora-
first set of the experiment, an attempt to enhance the rate of heat tion surface more easily that can be resulted in more water exposed to
transfer between brackish water and the basin liner by placing hollow the solar intensity and finally, steel wool fibers are very cheap and
cylindrical pin fins heat sink inside the basin of the solar still is con- easily accessible in local markets. In view of this, the performance
ducted. The extended fins are utilized to augment the contacting sur- comparison between traditional solar still and proposed solar still by
face area between saline water the basin liner and consequently, they placing layers from SWF at the basin which represents cases 1 and 3,
enhance the water evaporation rates. In this regard, two cases are respectively is conducted as shown in Fig. 3. In the modified still (case
considered namely, case 1: conventional solar still without any ab- 3), 1 kg of steel wool fibers is completely spread out in the basin and
sorbing materials, case 2: solar still with hollow cylindrical pin fins fully immersed into the brackish water and as result of the capillary
inside the basin, as shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 exhibits the schematic dia- action of steel fibers water moves up through its fine threads, resulting
gram of the solar still with the pin-finned heat sink inside the basin in in the large surface for evaporation. The performance comparison of the
which all parts of the system are highlighted. A heat sink consists of 225 two cases 1 and 3 is conducted by using also the same two solar stills
(15 × 15) hollow cylindrical pin fins with dimensions of (19 mm out- systems. The two sets of experiments are conducted on two consecutive
side diameter, 1 mm thickness, and 26 mm long). The pitch between days from 5 September 2017 to 6 September 2017. One set of experi-
each two consecutive pin fins is taken as 5 cm. All these fins are ver- ments to investigate the effect of using steel fibers in the basin on the
tically fastened onto the front surface of the basin liner and are ar- performance of the solar still is performed on 5 September 2017 using
ranged in inline distribution, as shown in Fig. 2. These fins constitute the two solar stills (conventional solar still and the modified still with
approximately 4% of the overall volume of the heat sink. The fins are steel fibers) as indicated in Fig. 1, whereas the effect of using pin fins in
made of copper material due to its higher thermal conductivity. The the basin on the performance of the solar still is carried out on a suc-
two similar solar stills are evaluated to examine the performance of the cessive day on (6 September 2017) using also the same two solar stills
solar still, with and without pin fins, which represent cases 1 and 2, (conventional still and the modified still with pin fins), as indicated in
respectively. Fig. 3. So, each case is compared with the conventional still (still
In the second set of experiments, the effect of using steel wool fibers without any modifications). The experiments are conducted on two
as a new porous medium inside the basin on the performance of the successive days to ensure that the solar radiation values are very close.

33
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

Steel wool fibers

Fig. 3. A photographic of the experimental setup of the solar still with steel wool fibers.

Table 1 and productivity consider the sources of errors, random and systematic.
The uncertainties and accuracy values of the measuring instruments. The uncertainty δ of value f such as still efficiency computed from the
Instrument Accuracy Measuring range Uncertainty experimental results is computed based on the following equation [47].
2 2
Thermocouple ± 0.1 °C 0–1260 °C ± 0. 48 °C
δ= ⎛ ∂f ⎞ δx2 + ⎛ ∂f ⎞ δy2
⎜ ⎟
Pyranometer ± 10 W/m2 0–1500 W/m2 ± 2.53 W/m2
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠ (1)
Measuring Beaker ± 0.01 mL 0–6000 mL ± 7.2 × 10−5 mL
where δ1 and δ2 are the uncertainty of measured values x and y, re-
spectively and this equation can be applied to more than two measured
The depth of saline water for both solar stills remains constant at 1.5 cm values. Based on this equation, the uncertainty of the efficiency is found
during all the tests. This is based on the previous studies, where it is to be 1.9%. The uncertainties of the measured values are illustrated in
found that decreasing the saline water depth increases the solar still table 1.
productivity [2], so it is important to decrease the saline water depth
but at the same time, it must have a sufficient quantity of water depth in 3. Theoretical background analysis
the basin to cover the steel fibers or pin fins. So, it is found that 1.5 cm
is approximately the minimum and at the same time enough to cover 3.1. Energy analysis
the used materials in the basin. Moreover, this depth was studied be-
fore, so using this depth will give a comparative indication with others. Energy analysis has been established for analyzing and interpreting
the thermal behaviors of the proposed systems in view of the first law of
2.2. Measurements thermodynamics. This analysis comprises the computation of the
thermal efficiency of the solar still for all considered cases. The hourly
A pyranometer was mounted alongside the experimental set-up to energy efficiency of the conventional and modified solar stills is de-
measure the hourly incident solar insolation. Calibrated thermocouples scribed as the ratio of output energy of hourly distilled freshwater to the
of Type K are employed to measure the temperatures of various sections input energy of the solar radiation. The hourly energy efficiency of the
of each solar still, viz. inner and outer glass covers, back cover, basin solar still is estimated by applying the next formula [17,48].
liner, saline water, humid air, and ambient temperature. One thermo-
Pd × λ fg
couple is attached at the center of the basin liner to measure its tem- ηth =
perature. Another one was employed to measure the temperature of the (Ap × Id ) × Δt (2)
salty water. The inner and outer glass temperatures are also logged by where Pd is the hourly freshwater productivity in m3, λ fg is the latent
means of two other thermocouples. The humid air temperature is also heat of evaporation of water J/kg, Ap is the projected area of the solar
recorded using another sensor. Also, another thermocouple is attached still in m2, Id is the hourly intensity of the solar intensity in W/m2, and
on the back side of the solar still. During each test, the distillate fresh Δt is the time in seconds.
water is measured periodically each one hour using a calibrated flask It should be noted here that latent heat of evaporation of water λ fg
with a capacity of six liters. All attached thermocouples are linked to a can be calculated using the following formula:
data logger and all measured data are recorded on an hourly basis. The
measurements are logged every hour starting from 7:00 AM until 7:00 λ fg = 3.1615 (106 − 761.6*Ti ), Ti > 70 (3)
PM. All experiments are conducted outdoors at the Egypt-Japan
106 − 947.79 × Ti + 0.13132 × Ti2 ⎞
University of Science and Technology (E-JUST) in New Borg El-Arab λ fg = 2.4935 ⎛⎜ ⎟, Ti < 70
City, Alexandria, Egypt (Longitude/Latitude: E 029°42′/N 30°55′). ⎝ − 0.0047974 × Ti3 ⎠ (4)

Tw + Tg
2.3. Uncertainty and error analysis where, Ti =
2
In this study, the uncertainties arising from instruments during the
experimental measurements are studied. Some of these values are taken 3.2. Exergy analysis
from the instruments data sheet and other values are obtained by the
instrument supplier. The uncertainties and errors of the experimental Exergy analysis functions as a measure of the capability of energy to
results are computed based on the methods presented by Taylor [47]. do work and can be formulated from the second law of thermo-
The uncertainties of directly measured variables such as temperature dynamics. Exergy is defined as the maximum amount of work that can

34
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

be attained from a given system as it reaches to thermodynamic equi- AC

CPL =
librium in a specified environment. The exergy balance equation can be Pn (16)
described in general form as follows [49]:
where Pn represents the average annual distilled water production.
∑ Eẋ ,in − ∑ Eẋ ,out = ∑ Eẋ ,dest (5) It is worth mentioning that the average annual distilled water pro-
duction of the considered solar stills systems is calculated as the
The exergy input to the solar still is the solar irradiance exergy and average value distilled water production of the tested day multiplied by
is given by [49]: the number of clear days during the year [4,18,48,52,53]. The annual
4 distilled water production of the proposed systems is tabulated in
4 ⎛ Tamb + 273 ⎞ 1 T + 273 ⎞ ⎤
Eẋ , in = Eẋ , sun = Ab It ⎡
⎢1 − 3
⎜ + ⎛ amb
⎟ ⎜
⎥
⎟ Table 1.
⎣ ⎝ Ts ⎠ 3⎝ Ts ⎠⎦ (6)
2
where Ab is the effective area of the solar still basin (m ), It is the ac- 3.4. Enviroeconomic analysis
cumulated solar irradiance incident on the solar still (W/m2), Ts is the
sun temperature, 6000 K, and Eẋ , sun is the exergy input to solar still from In this section, the environmental aspects of the traditional and
the solar insolation. modified solar stills are assessed through an enviro-economic analysis.
Exergy output of the product (distillate water) for a defined solar This analysis is based on the amount of carbon dioxide CO2 mitigated
still can be written as [40]: from solar still and credit earned consideration. Using a sustainable and
renewable energy-based system such as solar still, lessen the amount of
ṁ ew λ fg ⎡ T + 273 ⎞ ⎤
Eẋ , out = Eẋ , evap = 1 − ⎛ amb
⎜ ⎟
hazardous CO2 released into the environment. Presently, there is no
3600 ⎢ ⎣ ⎝ Tw + 273 ⎠ ⎥
⎦ (7) chance to sell the mitigated amount of CO2 from the solar still.
Nevertheless, this analysis defines the amount of CO2 that can be al-
where Eẋ , evap is the output evaporative exergy and λ fg is the latent heat
leviated from a solar still and the credit value of the carbon in case of it
of vaporization.
is sold. Unfortunately, the manufacturing process of the solar still is
The exergy efficiency can be computed as the ratio between the
mainly based on raw materials such as iron, steel, insulation, and glass
desired output exergy and the input exergy and can be expressed as
which are fabricated by using the electricity produced by fossil fuels
[38].
resources. Throughout this production process, a huge quantity of
Eẋ , out Eẋ , evap contaminants is emitted to the ambient which leads to environmental
ηex = =
̇
Ex , in Eẋ , in (8) hazards [54].

3.4.1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions

3.3. Economic analysis
The average carbon dioxide equivalent intensity for electricity
generation from coal is approximately 0.98 kg of CO2 per kWh at the
The main target of any solar still system it to cut down the cost of
source. If the transmission and distribution losses for Egyptian condi-
production per liter (CPL) of distillate water. The studied cases (cases 1
tion are taken 40% and domestic appliances losses are around 20%,
to 3) are economically examined and the economic analysis procedures
then figure 0.98 should be taken as 1.58. Therefore, the average carbon
can be shortened as follows [50]:
dioxide equivalent intensity for power produced from fossil-fuel based
The first annual cost (FAC) of a solar still is given by [51]:
power plants is roughly 1.58 kg CO2 per kWh [55]. Thus,
FAC = CRF × P (9)
Ein × 1.58
Annual CO2 emission by the solar still unit(kg/y) =
where P and CRF represent the capital cost of the solar still and the LT (17)
capital recovery factor, respectively.
where Ein is the embodied energy of the distillation unit and LT is the
The Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) is computed as [17,51]:
lifetime of the still.
i (1 + i)n Embodied energy Ein is defined as the energy consumed during the
CRF =
(1 + i)n − 1 (10) production process of solar still components and it is computed by
multiplying the energy density of each section of solar still with their
where i denotes the annual rate of interest and n denotes the lifetime
corresponding mass [55], hence,
years of the solar still which is assumed to be ten years [17].
The annual salvage value (ASV) of the solar still is given by [51]: CO2 emission during the lifetime of the solar still(kg) = Ein × 1.58
ASV = SSF × S (11) (18)
where SSF and S represent the sinking fund factor (SFF) for a system
and the salvage value of the solar still, respectively. 3.4.2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) mitigation
S is given by [51]: The annual CO2 mitigation of the solar still (kg of CO2) equals
(12) Eout × 1.58 where Eout represents the annual energy yield gained from
S = 0.2 × P
the solar still. It is worth mentioning that the annual energy and exergy
SSF is given by [51]: outputs of the considered solar stills systems are estimated as the daily
i average value of the energy yield of the tested day multiplied by 365
SSF = (the number of days during the year). Whereas, the daily average value
(1 + i)n − 1 (13)
of the energy and exergy yield is computed by multiplying the daily
The maintenance cost (AMC) per year is supposed 15% of the first freshwater productivity Mew of the still by the latent heat of evaporation
annual cost [51]: λ fg and it is determined as [55]:
AMC = 0.15 × FAC (14)
Mew × λ fg
Eout =
The whole annual cost of the solar still is given by [51]: 3600 (19)
AC = FAC + AMC − ASV (15)
CO2 mitigation during the lifetime of the solar still(kg)
Finally, the cost per liter (CPL) of the freshwater yield is determined
= Eout × LT × 1.58 (20)
by [51]:

35
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

It is worth mentioning that the total daily energy output of the solar 70 1000
still is calculated by the summation the hourly energy output Case 1 6 Sept. 2017
throughout the tested day. The hourly energy output is computed by Conventional
60 800
Tamb
multiplying the hourly freshwater productivity by latent heat of va-

Solar radiation (W/m )

Tg

2
porization at this hour, as indicated in Eq. (19). Similarly, the total

Temperature( C)
Tha
600

o
daily exergy output of the solar still is calculated by the summation the 50 G
hourly exergy output throughout the tested day, as indicated in Eq. (7). Tw
Tp
For calculating the average annual energy and exergy output, the daily 400
energy and exergy outputs are multiplied by the number of the days 40
throughout the year.
200
The net CO2 mitigation (NCEM) of tons of CO2 over the lifetime of
30
the solar still is given as [55],
0
((Eout × LT ) − Ein ) × 1.58
NCEM = 20
1000 (21)
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Time (hr)

3.4.3. Carbon credit gained Fig. 4. Temperatures evolution of the conventional solar still (Case 1).
Currently, the price of CO2 mitigation is estimated at approximately
14.5 $ per ton. Thus, the carbon credit gained by the tested systems is temperatures of the inner glass cover, humid air, brackish water, and
given by [55] absorber plate are 49 °C, 52.8 °C, 62.4 °C and 64 °C, respectively. Ad-
CCG = NCEM × Cost of CO2 traded per ton (22) ditionally, the peak values of measured ambient temperature and solar
intensity are 34.8 °C and 939 W/m2, respectively. It can be observed
that the absorber temperature (Tp) is higher than the water temperature
4. Results and discussions (Tw) due to the higher solar absorptivity of aluminum absorber plate
(α = 0.9) compared to the low solar absorptivity of water (α = 0.05).
All the experimental works were performed during two successive Furthermore, the thermal conductivity of the aluminum absorber plate
days (from 5 September to 6 September 2017) to ascertain that the solar (k = 204 W/m2. °C) is significantly higher than that of water
intensity values are close to each other. In fact, this set of experiments (k = 0.6 W/m2. °C). Fig. 5 shows the same previous parameters of Fig. 4
has two main objectives. The first one is to investigate the influence of but for case 2 (solar still with pin fins). As seen also from Fig. 5, as the
using hollow pin fins affixed on the basin liner on the freshwater yield day progresses, all temperatures increase gradually until they reach
of the solar still. The insertion of high conductive fins inside the basin peak values at about noontime and afterward they steadily decline until
maximizes the exposure area of the basin water and thus augments the the end of the day. Additionally, it is noticed that the maximum tem-
evaporation rate. In this regard, the performance of solar still in- peratures of inner covering glass, humid air, brackish water, and ab-
corporated with pin fins as absorbing the material in the basin (case 2) sorber plate are 51.2 °C, 54.9 °C, 64.5 °C, and 66.1 °C, respectively. The
is examined and compared to the traditional solar still without any previous findings indicated that the maximum humid air and water
modifications (case 1). The second objective is examining the effec- temperatures for solar still with pin fins heat sink are higher than those
tiveness of SWF as a new porous medium inside the basin. This is be- of the conventional still by 4% and 3%, respectively. The same previous
cause of the low evaporation rate of the water in the conventional still, results in Figs. 4 and 5 but for solar still with steel wool fibers inserted
thus using SWF inside the basin increases the evaporation rates because in the basin (case 3) are shown in Fig. 6. For about the same trend of
of its high thermal conductivity and capillary action. In this case, the Figs. 4 and 5 and 6 indicates that the still temperatures rise steadily for
performance is studied and compared for both solar still with SWF (case the first half of the day and then they decline to the end of the day. Also,
3) and traditional solar still (case 1). it is noted that case 3 has the same trend stated previously of the re-
lation between the brackish water, humid air and glass temperature of
4.1. Solar still temperatures case 1 and case 2. For case 3, it is observed that the maximum tem-
peratures of the inner glass cover, humid air, saline water, ambient air
Studying the evolution of the temperatures of each part of the solar are 53.4 °C, 57 °C, 66.7 °C, and 34 °C, respectively and the peak value of
still with time gives a good indication of the still working and perfor-
mance and helps to interpret the still productivity results. The eva-
poration of the brackish water enhances with an increment in both the 70 1000
Case 2 6 Sept. 2017
value of the water temperature and the temperature difference between
With pin fins
humid air and water. While the condensation of the evaporated water
60 Tamb 800
enhances with an increment in the difference between humid air and Tg
Solar radiation (W/m )
2

glass temperatures [2,17]. Fig. 4 presents the temperatures variations of Tha

Temperature ( C)

G
o

inner glass cover (Tig), humid air (Tha), saline water (Tw) and absorber 50 600
Tw
plate (Tp) relating to time for solar still without modifications (case1: Tp
conventional case). The measured ambient temperature (Tamb) and
solar radiation (G) are also superimposed on this figure. As seen, when 40 400
the time progresses, all temperatures showed an upward trend until
they have peak values around 1:00 PM then, they gradually decline
30 200
until sunset. Moreover, the glass temperature is slightly bigger than the
brackish water temperature during the early hours in the morning. This
can be explained by the heat capacity difference between covering glass 20 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
and water and the time is taken by the glass to be heated up before Time (hr)
heating the water. Then, the water temperature shows a faster increase
in its temperature compared to the glass temperature caused by the Fig. 5. Temperatures evolution of the solar still with hollow pin fins in the
heat dissipation from the glass to the surroundings. The maximum basin (Case 2).

36
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

70 1000 0.7
Case 3 5 Sept. 2017
With steel fibers
0.6

Hourly productivity (Kg/m hr)

60 Tamb 800

Solar radiation (W/m )

2
Tg

2
Tha 0.5
Temperature ( C)

50 G 600
o

Tw
Tp 0.4

40 400
0.3

30 200 0.2 (Case 1)

(Case 2)
(Case 3)
0.1
20 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Time (hr) 0.0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Fig. 6. Temperatures evolution of the solar still with steel fibers in the basin Time (hr)
(Case 3).
Fig. 8. The rate of hourly freshwater productivity throughout the day for the
three cases.
measured solar intensity is 932 W/m2. The aforementioned results re-
vealed that the maximum humid air and water temperatures for solar
still with steel wool fibers are higher than those of conventional still by onwards, after noontime, one interesting observation is that the humid
8% and 6.9%, respectively, and are higher than those of solar still with air and brackish water temperatures in case 3 become the lowest. This
pin fins by 3.8% and 3.4%, respectively. trend is due to the evaporation of the saline water with advancing the
Fig. 7 presents the variations of humid air and water temperatures time, resulting in a reduction in water level in the basin. This drop in
with respect to time for the three previous cases 1, 2 and 3. The figure water level due to the evaporation hinders the water to reach the outer
exhibits that the brackish water temperature is larger than the humid surface of the steel fibers. Such a trend makes the upper layers of the
air temperature throughout the day which indicates the evaporation of steel wool fibers not saturated well with the brackish water as initial as
the brackish water, as stated previously. The findings also indicate that, the lower layers and accordingly minimizes its wicking property and
from the morning to the timing of 14:00 pm, the temperatures of humid hence decreases water temperature.
air and brackish water in case 3 are greater than corresponding values
in cases 1 and 2, whereas the temperatures of humid air and brackish 4.2. Solar still productivity
water in case 2 are greater than corresponding values in case 1. From
14:00 pm onwards, this figure displays opposite trends where the The main goal of the solar still is the production of the fresh water.
humid air and brackish water temperatures in case 3 become the Figs. 8 and 9 display the variations of the freshwater yield for the three
lowest, while those in the case 2 become the highest and those in the still’s cases (case 1 conventional, case 2 with hollow pin fins, case 3
case 1 are intermediate. Such findings can be clarified as follows; with SWF) with respect to time. Fig. 8 presents the comparison of the
during daytime hours, an increase in humid air and saline water tem- hourly values of freshwater productivities and Fig. 9 illustrates the total
peratures are observed in cases 2 and 3 than those in case 1. This is due accumulated water productivity. As seen in Fig. 8, for all considered
to the maximized exposure area of basin water and enhanced heat cases, the hourly freshwater productivity values show the same trend as
transfer rate between the basin and water and thus evaporation rate the water temperature (see Fig. 7) where they increase gradually from
increases and consequently freshwater productivity enhances as will be the starting of the day at 7:00 AM until they reached peak values at time
discussed later. Furthermore, Fig. 7 shows that the humid air and from 13:00 PM to 14:00 PM and afterward they decline until the sunset.
brackish water temperatures in case 3 are greater than corresponding Fig. 8 illustrates that during the daytime hours and before about 3 PM,
values in case 2 due to the higher ratio of surface area to volume of steel the hourly water productivity in solar still with steel wool fibers (case
wool fibers in comparison with hollow pin fins. From 14:00 PM
4.5
70
4.0
Accumulated productivity (Kg/m )
2

3.5 (Case 1)
60 (Case 2)
3.0 (Case 3)
Temperature ( C)
o

50 2.5

2.0

40 Tha (Case 1)
1.5
Tw (Case 1)
Tha (Case 2) 1.0
Tw (Case 2)
30 Tha (Case 3) 0.5
Tw (Case 3)
0.0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Time (hr)
Time (hr)
Fig. 9. Accumulated freshwater productivity along the day for the three cases 1,
Fig. 7. Temperatures variations of humid air and water for cases 1, 2 and 3. 2 and 3.

37
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

3) is greater than those of cases 1 and 2 due to the higher water tem- 55
perature as stated previously which augments the evaporation rate and 50
thus increasing the hourly productivity, as explained previously. Ex, evap (Case 1)
45 Ex, evap (Case 2)
However, Fig. 8 also illustrates that after about 3 PM, the freshwater
Ex, evap (Case 3)

Evaporative exergy (W)

productivity in case 3 is adversely affected compared to cases 1 and 2. 40
The reason for this reduction in productivity, as discussed in Fig. 7, is 35
due to the decrease of the water temperature compared to case 1 and 2
30
as stated in Fig. 7. One important note is that using pin fins in case 2
enhances the hourly productivity all the day compared to case 1 due to 25
an increase of the still temperatures all the time compared to the con- 20
ventional cases as stated previously and thus evaporation rate also in-
creases yielding increment of the freshwater yield. In Fig. 9, the results 15
revealed that the total accumulative freshwater yields, for cases 1, 2 10
and 3, are approximately 3.26, 3.78, and 4.08 kg/m2, respectively.
5
Accordingly, an enhancement in the total daily cumulative yield of
distillate water is observed in cases 2 and 3 by approximately 16% and 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
25%, respectively compared to the conventional still (case 1). During Time (hr)
the all day, from 07:00 AM to 7:00 PM, the total accumulated fresh-
water daytime yield for case 3 is greater than the corresponding values Fig. 11. Hourly variations of the evaporative exergy for the three cases 1, 2 and
in case 1 and case 2 which means that the steel wool fibers is more 3.
effective for enhancing the freshwater productivity than the hollow pin
fins. thus the evaporative exergy enhances. The maximum evaporative ex-
ergy for cases 1, 2, and 3 are found to be about 36.5 W, 43 W, and
51.5 W respectively. The figure shows that, during the first half of the
4.3. Energy and exergy efficiencies day, the evaporative exergy values of solar still with steel fibers (case 3)
and solar still with pin fins (case 2) are greater than the corresponding
Fig. 10 displays the hourly variation of instantaneous energy effi- value of traditional solar still (case 1). This result can be explained by
ciency for the three tested cases. As seen, the figure shows the same the enhanced exposure area of evaporation and increased absorbed
trend as the solar radiation profile. As time passes, all energy effi- radiation due to using pin fins or steel fibers. This, in turn, increases the
ciencies increase gradually until they reach a maximum value at water temperatures in cases 2 and 3 as discussed before in Fig. 8.
midday and afterward they steadily decline until the end of the day. However, the figure shows that the evaporative exergy in case 3 is
The results exhibited that the maximum energy efficiencies of cases 1, 2 greater than the corresponding value in case 2 as a consequence of the
and 3 are approximately 42%, 45.5%, and 52.5%, respectively. Fur- larger surface area to volume ratio in case of using steel fibers and thus
thermore, it was observed that inserting hollow pin fins and steel wool more evaporation rates is achieved. One important observation is that
fibers in the modified solar stills enhanced the average daily energy during the end times of the day, case 3 exhibited the lowest evaporative
efficiency by 13% and 22%, respectively, in comparison with the con- exergy values. This trend is due to the evaporation of the saline water
ventional still. This can be explained by the enhanced freshwater pro- with advancing the time. This evaporation of the brackish water makes
ductivity in cases 2 and 3 as discussed before in Figs. 8 and 9. the upper layers of the steel wool fibers not saturated well with the
Fig. 11 presents the variations of evaporative exergy rates with re- brackish water as initial as the lower layers and accordingly minimizes
spect to time for the three previous cases 1, 2 and 3. As seen, as time its wicking property, resulting in a decrease of the evaporation rate
progresses, all values showed an upward trend until they have peak with time. It was concluded that inserting hollow pin fins and steel wool
values around 1:00 PM then, they gradually decline until sunset. Also, it fibers in the modified solar stills enhanced the average evaporative
is noted that the evaporative exergy values for all considered cases have exergy by 15% and 27%, respectively, in comparison with the con-
the same trend as the trend of brackish water temperature (see Fig. 8). ventional still.
The evaporative exergy is strictly depended on the water temperature. Hourly variations of exergetic efficiency for the three considered
As the water temperature rises, the evaporation rate also augments and cases are plotted in Fig. 12. As seen, as the day progresses, all exergy
efficiency values increase gradually until they attain a peak value at
60 midday (1:00 PM) and afterward they steadily decline until the sunset.
The maximum exergy efficiencies for cases 1, 2, and 3 are found to be
50 about 3.73%, 4.4%, and 5.23%, respectively. It was observed that the
average exergy efficiency values of solar still with steel fibers (case 3)
and solar still with pin fins (case 2) are greater than the corresponding
Energy efficiency (%)

40
value of traditional solar still (case 1). Such a finding can be attributed
to the enhanced evaporative exergy rates of cases 2 and 3 related to
30 case 1, as discussed previously in Fig. 11. Accordingly, the modified
stills (cases 2 and 3) exhibited an increment of 14% and 23%, respec-
(Case 1) tively, in terms of average daily exergy efficiency. For all the tested
20
(Case 2) cases, the average exergy efficiency for solar still with steel wool fibers
(Case 3) (case 3) was the highest. This is mainly a result of the higher operating
10 water temperature that results in higher evaporative exergy. By com-
paring the values of exergy efficiency in this figure with those of energy
efficiency in Fig. 10, it can be seen that the energy efficiency values are
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 significantly bigger than the corresponding values of exergy efficiency
Time (hr) although they have the same trend. The reason for this result is that
exergy analysis signifies the degradation of energy quality and
Fig. 10. Hourly variation of energy efficiency for the three cases 1, 2 and 3.

38
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

6 illustrates that the CPL values for all considered solar stills; conven-
tional (case 1), conventional with pin fins a heat sink (Case 2), con-
(Case 1) ventional with SWF (case 3), are 0.0427, 0.0416, and 0.0343 $/l, re-
5
(Case 2) spectively. By comparing results of the economic analysis of the tested
(Case 3) systems in this study with similar systems in literature, it was reported
Exergy efficiency (%)

4 that the CPL for the simple still [56], still with extended fins [57] and
still with wick materials [18] was assessed as 0.083, 0.097 and 0.065 $/
l, respectively. These results demonstrated that the CPL values for all
3
solar stills in the present study are lower than those reported in the
literature, as depicted in table 2.
2 The results of the enviro-economic analysis are shown in tables 3
and 4. Table 3 displays the calculations of the embodied energy of
various components and materials used for fabrication of the tested
1
solar stills in this study. Whereas, table 4 presents the variations of CO2
emission, mitigation and carbon credit gained for 10 years lifetime of
0 the tested solar stills. It can be seen from table 3 that the total embodied
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
energy for cases 1, 2, and 3 are 235 kWh, 318 kWh, and 250 kWh, re-
Time (hr)
spectively. The total embodied energy for cases 2 and 3 are higher than
Fig. 12. Hourly variations of exergy efficiency for the three cases 1, 2 and 3. that of conventional case 1 due to the integration of pin fins heat sink
and steel wool fibers as an additional component. However, the total
embodied the energy of case 3 is lower than that of case 2 due to the
Table 2
Results of the cost analysis of the studied solar stills. low mass and energy density of steel fibers compared to copper pin fins.
Furthermore, it can be concluded from table 4 that the proposed sys-
Type Conventional solar Solar still with Solar still with
tems (cases 2 and 3) achieved a reduction of 14.4 and 15.6 tons of CO2
still (Case 1) pin fins (Case 2) steel fibers (Case
3) emissions, respectively, whereas, the carbon credits gained are 208.9 $
and 226.6 $, respectively.
n (yr) 10 10 10
i (interest rate %) 0.2 0.2 0.2 5. Conclusions
CRF 0.24 0.24 0.24
P (capital cost $) 190 220 192
S 38 44 38.4 In this study, an experimental assessment of single slope solar still
FAC 45.6 52.8 46 by using hollow pin fins and steel wool fibers as absorbing materials is
SSF 0.04 0.04 0.04 energetically, exergetically, economically and environmentally as-
ASV 1.52 1.76 1.54
sessed. Three cases are considered namely, case 1: conventional solar
AMC 6.84 7.93 6.9
AC 50.9 58.1 51.4 still, case 2: solar still with hollow cylindrical pin fins, case 3: solar still
Pn (L/m2 year) 1190.63 1394.9 1496.5 with SWF. The performance of the three cases using two identical solar
CPL ($/L/m2) 0.0427 0.0416 0.0343 stills is experimentally evaluated and compared to each other under the
same meteorological conditions. The main conclusions were summar-
ized:
considering the irreversibilities in the system processes rather than the
concept of conservation of energy. In other words, the high exergy
content of solar radiation from the sun (high temperature 6000 K) is
• The total daily cumulative yield of distillate water in cases 2 and 3
was enhanced by approximately 16% and 25%, respectively, in
significantly degraded to the fairly low temperature of evaporated comparison with the traditional still (case 1).
saline water (low energy quality).
• Inserting hollow pin fins and SWF in the modified solar stills (cases 2
and 3) enhanced the average daily energy efficiency by 13% and
4.4. Economic and environmental analyses 22%, respectively.
• The average evaporative exergy of solar stills in cases 2 and 3 were
Table 2 shows the outcomes of the economic analysis for the all augmented by 15% and 27%, respectively, with respect to case 1.
tested cases of the solar stills. As presented in this table, the solar still • The maximum exergy efficiencies for cases 1, 2, and 3 were found to
with SWF (case 3) represents the most economical still. The reason for be about 3.73%, 4.4%, and 5.23%, respectively.
this result is that the cost of SWF is cheaper than the copper material • The modified stills (cases 2 and 3) exhibited an increment of 14%
used in pin fins heat sink, and also it has the highest freshwater pro- and 23%, respectively for the average daily exergy efficiency.
ductivity among all configurations, as depicted in table 2. Table 2 • It was observed that for all tested cases, the exergy efficiency values

Table 3
The embodied energy of various components of the tested solar stills.
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Component Basin Frame Cover Insulation Basin coating Pin Fins Steel fibers Total embodied energy (Ein)

MJ kWh

Materials Iron Iron Glass Armaflex Black paint Copper Steel _ _

Weight (kg) 8 20 6 0.5 0.5 3 1 _ _
Specific embodied energy (MJ/kg) 25 25 15 20 90 100 56 _ _
Embodied energy for the conventional solar still (Case 1) 200 500 90 10 45 _ _ 845 235
Embodied energy for the solar still with pin fins (Case 2) 200 500 90 10 45 300 _ 1145 318
Embodied energy for the solar still with steel fibers (Case 3) 200 500 90 10 45 _ 56 901 250

39
M.S. Yousef et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 150 (2019) 30–41

Table 4
CO2 emission, mitigation and carbon credit gained for 10 years lifetime of the tested solar stills.
Cases Conventional solar still (Case 1) Solar still with pin fins (Case 2) Solar still with steel fibers (Case 3)

Annual Yield (kg) 1190.63 1394.9 1496.5

Embodied energy Ein (kWh) 235 318 250
Annual energy output from solar still Eout (kWh) 807 945 1010
CO2 emission over the lifetime (kg) 371.3 502 395
Net CO2 mitigation over life time (ton) 12.38 14.4 15.63
Carbon credit gained ($) 179.5 208.9 226.6

are much lower than the energy efficiency. M.R. Rahimpour, Experimental investigation of a multi-effect active solar still: the

• The costs per liter of freshwater per square meter for the cases 1, 2 [16]
effect of the number of stages, Appl. Energy 137 (2015) 46–55.
Z.M. Omara, A.E. Kabeel, M.M. Younes, Enhancing the stepped solar still perfor-
and 3 are 0.0427$, 0.0416$, and 0.0343$, respectively. mance using internal and external reflectors, Energy Convers. Manage. 78 (2014)
• The proposed systems (cases 2 and 3) achieved a reduction of 14.4 [17]
876–881.
H. Hassan, S. Abo-Elfadl, Effect of the condenser type and the medium of the saline
and 15.6 tons of CO emissions, respectively.
2

• Among all tested configurations, case 3 achieved the highest accu- water on the performance of the solar still in hot climate conditions, Desalination
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mulated daily freshwater productivity with the lowest cost and [18] S. Rashidi, N. Rahbar, M.S. Valipour, J.A. Esfahani, Enhancement of solar still by
highest efficiency and total CO2 amount mitigation. reticular porous media: experimental investigation with exergy and economic
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