BPED EN 101

First Semester: Module 1b

Human Movement: Motor Skill

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGES

LEARNING COMPETENCY --------------------------------- 01

Your Targets --------------------------------- 01

BEGIN --------------------------------- 02

TRY THIS --------------------------------- 02

DO THIS --------------------------------- 03

EXPLORE --------------------------------- 04

KEEP THIS IN MIND --------------------------------- 04

APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED ------------------------ 18

REFLECT --------------------------------- 19

ASSESS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED ------------------------ 19

GLOSSARY --------------------------------- 20

ANSWER KEY ------------------------------------------ 21

REFERENCE LIST ------------------------------------------ 21

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LEARNING COMPETENCY

 Explains the different theories of motor control and learning.

SP_HM11-Ij-k-5

 Identifies course of action appropriate for various needs and skill

levels. SP_HM11-Il-n-6

 Modifies course of action based on feedback. SP_HM11-Io-t-7

 Recognizes the value of quality of practice for efficient and

effective performance. SP_HM11-Ia-t-8

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

• Describe the individuality of growth and development as the

foundation for human movement
• Trace development of motor behavior as a scientific discipline, the
intrinsic (physical and personal) and extrinsic (social and
environmental) factors that influence human movement
throughout life
• Apply aspects of transfer of training on sport specific skill and in
measuring and analyzing Human Movement

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 Human Movement: Motor Skill Acquisition

This subject covers topics on the origin, control, and learning of motor skills
appropriate for various needs and skill levels.

In this section, we examine three types of learning, explicit and implicit

learning, and mental rehearsal. The latter should never be used independently, it is
more of an aid to explicit learning. Explicit and implicit types of learning are very
different to one another but in practice often coexist. Someone learning one task
explicitly may well be learning another implicitly, at the same time. Home coaches
and teachers may begin by using implicit forms and introduce explicit forms of
learning later, if they think that the athletes are not demonstrating learning.

The basic and applied knowledge found in the discipline of motor behavior impacts
exercise science professionals in many important ways. Motor behavior is an
umbrella term that describes the study of the interactions between many of the
physiologic and psychological processes of the body. Motor behavior helps provide
exercise science and allied health professionals with an understanding of how the
body develops, controls, and learns movement skills that individuals use not only in
physical activity, exercise, sport, and athletic competition but in everyday activities as
well. Exercise science professionals use the knowledge gain from the study of motor
behavior to improve physical activity and exercise performance and enhance
success in sport and athletic competition. Motor behavior is comprised of three
related areas of study: motor development, motor learning, and motor control.

Direction: A. Identify if the situation is explicit learning or implicit learning. Write E if

explicit and I if Implicit learning. Write your answers in the activity
notebook.

________1. Use problem- solving strategies

________2. Generating or testing hypotheses
________3. Use verbalization
________4. They cannot articulate any rules
________5. Non declarative knowledge
________6. Often learning is incidental

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Direction: B. Read each statement and arrange them chronologically from 1-5.
Write your answers in the activity notebook.

______ Newborns take in everything from the tone of your voice to the care that you
give.
______ Preschoolers can develop focus and problem-solving skills with games that
challenge them.
______ A 5-year-old girl gets placed in time out for hitting her younger sister.
______ A driving student learns to follow the rules of the road.
______ Parents reflect on their past childhood experiences to decide for their own
child.

Task 1
Direction: Read and follow the instruction. Answer the essential question briefly and
concisely in your activity notebook.

 Choose two (2) skills you possessed. One which you can perform well
and one which is new to you.
 Demonstrate or try to execute it with your non-preferred hand or foot.
 Then, answer this question:
ESSENTIAL QUESTION: ―Was there a difference in how well you performed the
two tasks?
‖_______________________________________

Task 2
DIRECTION: Do the following tasks in your activity notebook.

A. Name at least two games you used to play in your childhood.

B. Paste pictures of the different games in your notebook.
C. Relate the following aspects to the different games presented. Follow the
template
Game 1_____________ Game 2______________

i. Learning
ii. Human movement
iii. Motor Skill
iv. Motor Control

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Task 3
Direction: Answer the questions briefly and concisely in your activity notebook.

1. What were your observations from the pictures that you collected on the
games you used to play during childhood? _______________________
2. Do the games reflect human movement? _____ Motor skills?
___________
3. How are you going to maintain these movements or manage playing the
games you used to play before? _________________________________
4. What is the difference when you play it again this time? _______________

MOTOR SKILL ACQUISITION

I. Theories of Motor Control and Learning
A. Types of Learning
1. Explicit learning - refers to what we might call the ‗normal‘ way of learning.
We are given overt, or explicit, instructions and told to concentrate on the task
at hand. A similar form of explicit learning is when individuals consciously use
problem- solving strategies, such as generating or testing hypotheses, to
acquire knowledge. Explicit learning occupies conscious attention and
working memory resources. Individuals utilizing explicit learning strategies
often use verbalization, but this is not necessary for learning to be described
as explicit.
2. Implicit learning - ‗nonintentional automatic acquisition of knowledge about
structural relations between objects or events‘ regarding motor skills, this
involves the individual learning to carry out a skill without understanding how
they perform that skill. They cannot articulate any rules. The learning is
subconscious.
B. Motor Behavior
The basic and applied knowledge found in the discipline of motor behavior
impacts exercise science professionals in many important ways. Motor behavior is
an umbrella term that describes the study of the interactions between many of the
physiologic and psychological processes of the body.
Motor behavior is comprised of three related areas of study: motor
development, motor learning, and motor control.
Motor behavior - An umbrella term that includes the disciplines of motor control,
motor learning, and motor development
Motor development - The study of motor performance throughout the life span from
birth through old age
Motor learning - The study of the acquisition of basic and advanced movement
skills that are used in everyday activities

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Motor control - The study of the understanding of the mechanisms by which the
nervous and muscular systems coordinate body movement

Figure 1 provides
a schematic of the
general organizational
structure of motor behavior.
Exercise science and allied health
professionals working in a variety
of employment settings use the
principles of motor
behavior to enhance performance
in a variety of activities, as well as
promote recovery from injury or
medical interventions. The historic
development of motor behavior is
derived from an interaction of the
parent disciplines of biology, psychology, and education.

C. BRIEF HISTORY OF MOTOR BEHAVIOR

Like many of the other areas of study in exercise science, the history of motor
behavior begins with the writings of ancient scholars who provided the framework for
many of the principles associated with nervous system control over muscle
contraction.

Recent Influences on Motor Development

Beginning in the mid-1960s, a shift in the focus of motor development
occurred from an emphasis on developmental psychology and the understanding of
the influence of maturation to a physical education emphasis on how to improve
children‘s motor behavior. This allowed motor development to become part of the
study of physical activity. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, there were four
influential books published by scholars that served to define motor development.
During the 1980s and 1990s, there was a shift in major areas of research and study
in motor development that resulted in an expansion of knowledge in the following
subjects:
• Variations in performance associated with age and gender
• Variation in performance associated with maturation
• Physical activity as a factor in growth and maturation
• Racial/ethnic and social factors influencing motor performance
• Cognitive factors in children‘s skill acquisition

II. MOTOR LEARNING

Motor learning has been defined as a set process associated with practice or
experience leading to relatively permanent changes in skilled behavior (Schmidt,
1988).

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 A. Types Of Movement
Movement can be broadly divided into two types:
1. Reflex (these movements are usually inherited)
2. Learned (these do not appear to be inherited and therefore need practice).

B. Information Processing
Information processing is customarily organized into three stages:
1. Stimulus recognition—collecting information from the environment,
which is then identified or recognized as a pattern.
2. Response selection—deciding what response to make with the
information including determining the stimulus– response compatibility.
3. Response programming—organizing and initiating an action after a
stimulus has been identified and a response has been selected.
C. Memory

Memory is important for retaining and recalling facts, events, impressions, and
remembering or recognizing previous experiences. A commonly used model to
explain memory is called the multistore memory model. This model has three
stores: short-term sensory store, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Information going from short-term store (also known as working memory) to
longterm memory signifies information going into the long-term memory. This
process is known as encoding. Going from long-term memory to short- term
memory signifies information moving from the permanent memory to the working
memory. This process is called decoding.

III. MOTOR CONTROL

A. THE CLOSED LOOP THEORY
Coordination of movement, whether reflex or learned, can be termed motor
control. The different areas of the CNS that deal with reflex or learned
responses and include spinal cord, brainstem, motor cortex and cerebellum.
The study of this field is about how movements are selected in response to
sensory information obtained from the environment and/or within the body,
based on previous experience.

B. DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY

This process can be divided into three main parts for clearer
explanation.
a. Stimulus identification - Input via interceptors or exteroceptors is identified
as stimuli at CNS level.

This stage can be subdivided into three stages.

1. Stimulus detection - A myriad of different stimuli could be detected via
different sensory receptors at any one time. For example, when walking
downstairs the CNS is receiving information from the visual field; auditory
input of the sound of each step, background noises and possibly
continuing a conversation; and proprioceptive input from joint, muscles
and tendons about the depth and width of the step.

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 2. Stimulus interpretation- How you interpret information will depend on
what sort of stimulation is expected and any prior experience of similar
situations. The accuracy of this interpretation will depend on how
efficiently the individual can retrieve information about previous
experience, stored through various memory mechanisms discussed later
in the chapter.
3. Stimulus selection - How much or what type of stimuli selected to be
passed on to the next stage of the decision-making process will depend
on how much concentration or attention is devoted to this function at the
time. Selection of the most useful stimuli for that task requires the correct
allocation of attention to ensure that the appropriate information is passed
on
b. Response selection - The appropriate movement pattern in response to
the identified stimuli is likely to be chosen based on prior experience. Once
the afferent stimuli have been accepted and recognized, the CNS must then
decide what sort of response to make.
c. Feed forward - It should be noted that some motor tasks are much too fast
for such a cognitive control, which takes approximately 200ms. A boxer's
punch has a reaction time of 90ms (Schmidt, 1991). This is well below the
reaction time necessary for a cognitive response. A feed forward
mechanism is thought to control this type of task. The memory traces in the
motor cortex are thought to instigate preparatory muscle stimulation to
respond at this speed.

IV. DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY

As suggested by its title, this approach attempts to explain motor control from
a more mathematical point of view by observing and predicting patterns of
multisegmented movement. The definition provided by Vereijken et al, (1992) earlier
in the chapter works on the principle
of dynamic systems theory. The
initial stimulus for development of
this theoretical concept came from
the observation of natural
phenomena sum as
hurricanes, in which
complex patterns of air can emerge
from simple initial
conditions, through self-
organization of air
particles, without the need for an
overriding central control system.

V. OPEN-LOOP THEORY
An alternative theory describing the control of motor performance is the open-
loop theory. This theory suggests that individuals do not receive feedback from the

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joints, proprioceptors, and muscles of the body movements. The open-loop theory
suggests that the body movements are completely pre-planned prior to the initiation
of the movement.

HUMAN MOVEMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN AND SKILL,

ABILITY AND PERFORMANCE

I. THE 4 STAGES OF SKILL ACQUISITION

When we learn a skill, whether it is sports, music, painting, chess, or
something completely different, some experts contend that we go through
various stages over time. These stages reflect two things: 1) our increasing
sophistication relative to the skill and 2) our metacognitive awareness of
that sophistication, or our understanding of our understanding. The
Conscious Competence model1 helps to explain the process by which we
move through these stages to acquire a skill and an awareness of our level of
acquisition.
1. Unconscious incompetence is the first stage in the model. In this stage,
we don‘t know much about the skill, and we don‘t know how much we
don‘t know. In other words, we have only a very rudimentary
understanding of what mastery of the skill might entail—and we will
eventually find out that understanding is inadequate. We are likely
unconsciously incompetent in any arena where we have no experience
whatsoever.
2. Conscious incompetence comes next. In this stage, we have learned
enough about the skill to realize how little we know. Our sophistication
has increased somewhat, but so has our awareness of what it would take
to get to a level of real sophistication. This stage can be uncomfortable to
enter because we realize both how little we knew in the previous stage
and how much work it will take to progress to further stages.
3. Conscious competencies the stage where we find ourselves able to
perform the skill increasingly well, but it takes lots of concentration and
hard work to do so. We have a better appreciation for what it would take
to become an expert, and while our performance relative to the skill
continues to improve, we are also aware of the need to work at the skill
as well as the fact that we are doing things differently from the way we
used to do them.
4. Unconscious competence is the stage where our ability to perform the
skill has become almost second nature. We improve still further at our
execution of the skill and must use less conscious effort to do so. Each of
us can probably identify multiple domains in which we are in each of
these stages. Being in the conscious stages can be a bit uncomfortable.
But that also provides an opportunity for us to improve our metacognition
about learning different skills, and to broaden our horizons in general.
Understanding where we are in the stages of skill acquisition can help us

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 become comfortable with the discomfort everyone must feel in order to
improve.

II. MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Motor development is concerned with the study of motor performance
throughout the life span and has several different aspects that distinguish it from
motor learning and motor control. First, the origins of motor development arise
primarily from the discipline of education, with contributions from the disciplines of
educational psychology and physiology. Second, motor development has a much
closer association with the discipline of physiology than either motor learning or
motor control. Because physical maturation and growth play an important role in an
individual‘s motor development, these factors require considerable attention. Finally,
the research methods employed in motor development are different from motor
learning and control. In motor development, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies
of individuals or groups of individuals are more prevalent than in the areas of motor
learning and motor control.

A. Life Span Stages

Human development encompasses all aspects of behavior and can only
artificially be separated into stages. The separation into stages, however, allows for a
partitioning of motor development activities into the following: infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, and older adult.
a. Prenatal - Several prenatal factors affect motor development during infancy
and throughout later years. Many of these factors can lead to birth defects or
developmental abnormalities that can affect normal motor development in the
later stages of development
b. Infancy - Much of the information
about child infancy comes from
describing what movements and
activities infants
engage in during the
early period of
development. Much of
this information describes
the primitive reflexes of
infants, which are associated
with the basic human
needs of nourishment and
security.
c. Early Childhood and Later Childhood - Early childhood is from 2 to 6 years of
age, whereas later childhood is between 6 to 10 years of age. Motor
development in childhood involves the improvement of fundamental movement
skills and the practice of these movements in everyday activities such as
participation in physical activity, exercise, sport, and athletic competition.
Common fundamental movement patterns during childhood involve specific
movements such as walking, running, jumping, and throwing (Figure 10).
d. Adolescence - As a child progresses into and through adolescence, significant
improvements in motor performance occur because of substantial physical and

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 physiologic changes. Many of these changes are the result of body growth and
changes in body structure.
e. Adulthood- Early
adulthood i s the period
when most individuals
reach their peak
physical performances.
Peak motor
performance occurs
around 22 to 25 years
of age for women and
around 29 years of age
for men.
f. Older Adulthood - As
adults continue to age, there is an increase in the number of health-related
problems that occur. This is due in part to a decrease from peak performance
of various physical and physiologic functions.

III. SKILL, ABILITY AND PERFORMANCE

Fundamental
motor skills are
common motor
activities with
specific observable
patterns. Most skills
used in sports and
movement activities
are advanced
versions of
fundamental motor
skills.

1. Fundamental Motor Skills in the Curriculum

Fundamental Motor Skills are referred to throughout the Movement and Physical
Activity dimension of the Health and Physical Education Domain, as part of the
Victorian Essential Learning.

Critical Fundamental Motor Skills

The following fundamental motor skills essential for primary school children to
learn:
• Catch • Kick • Run • Vertical Jump • Overhand Throw • Ball Bounce • Leap •
Dodge • Punt • Forehand Strike • Two-hand Side-arm Strike.

2. Classification of skills
• Fine motor skills are rarely, if ever, found in sport and are skills which require
the use of few limbs and are undertaken in limited space (e.g. writing, typing,
and sewing).

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 • Gross motor skills, they require the use of several limbs, often the whole body,
and tend to take place in a comparatively large amount of space.

3. Accuracy, Consistency and Efficiency

The desired outcome of the motor task must be achieved (accuracy) in a high
proportion of the attempts (consistency or precision) and with the minimal amount
of physical effort (efficiency)

Example: A beginner throwing a dart at a dartboard might well hit the bull's eye. If
they did, most people watching would put this success down to
beginner's luck. There would be a very slim chance of the lucky beginner
reproducing their success consistently until they have learned which
components of the combination of movements produced the first
successful attempt.
4. Ability
Ability is used to describe
either the skills we possess
or how well we can perform a
skill. Someone may have the
ability to perform a task or
another person has great
ability in an activity. Ability is
used in psychology to
describe basic innate actions
that underlie skillful
performance. Skills are
learned while abilities are
innate.

5. Genes
The abilities one possesses are determined by genetic make-up. We inherit
sequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and stretches of these sequences
comprise our genes. For these to be active, however, they must be 'switched on'.
This is carried out by a process known as transcription, which results in the

formation of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression. mRNA expression

can be promoted or repressed by proteins called transcription factors.

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 6. Theories of
Performance- Information Processing
This theory was developed at the same time as computers and owes much to the
theory of computing technology. The
original attempt was as vague, if not more so, than the Gestalt‘s. It is called
the 'Black Box' model (see Figure 16). As can be seen from Figure 16, it
explains very little about how we process information. In fact, it could be
argued that it was a behaviorist theory because it concentrated on what
happened rather than how it occurred. Information processing theory proper
tried to remedy this.
INSTRUCTION, PRACTICE, TRANSFER OF TRAINING AND
FEEDBACK
I. Instruction
It is, however, possible to verbally articulate some skills, Moreover, the notion
that a demonstration is easy to follow is something of an exaggeration. In
teaching the triple jump, for example, learn that the perception of what had been
demonstrated varied from child to child. They saw the same demonstration.
Very often when we use visual instruction or demonstration. We assume that
the learner is paying attention to the key points. This may well not be the case. It
is, therefore, no surprise that the most successful method of instruction is verbal
plus visual. In this, the learner can see the movement and the instructor can
verbally point out what the person should look for. A more scientific way of
putting this is to say that the teacher draws the learner‘s attention to the key
points.

A. Analogy as a form of instruction

The forms of instruction outlined above are involved with explicit
learning. In fact, one would not expect instruction to apply to implicit
learning. The two terms appear to be contradictory. However, Liao and
Masters (2001) recommended the use of analogies as a form of instruction
that would induce implicit learning. Subsequent research has shown this to
be a successful method but the choosing of the right analogy appears to
be very important.
B. Focus of attention
To the ecological psychologist, instruction consist merely of setting the
goal for the task, this could be as simple as saying ‗try to get the ball into
the basket‘, when learning the lay-up in basketball. Focus of attention, as a
form of instruction, is not that dissimilar to goal setting and both are
acceptable to dynamical systems theorist as it is to information processing
theorists. There are two kinds of focus, external and internal.

II. Demonstration
The visual and visual plus verbal instruction, which have been talked about
above, is of course, demonstration. In this subsection, we will concentrate on
some of the key issues concerning the quality of demonstration that need to be
correct. If the demonstration is incorrect, there is every chance of the person
copying the incorrect movement. This means that there will be some skills that

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 the teacher cannot demonstrate, because their own performance level is not
good enough. However, there must be a compromise.

III. Mirror neurons

Di Pellegrino et al. (1992) found that neurons in the premotor cortex, temporal
cortex and parietal cortex of the macaque monkey fired both when the animal
performed simple motor acts and when it is observed another animal (or human)
carrying out the same acts. They termed these mirror neurons. Research with
humans does not allow us to examine single neurons, therefore it has been more
regional in nature.

IV. Practice
Practice is a major, if not the major, part of learning. It is the key factor in Fitts
and Posner‘s intermediate and autonomous stages, Adams‘ motor stage and
Gentile‘s skill refinement stage. Anderson would see it as being when we move
from declarative knowledge, knowing what to do, to procedural knowledge,
developing the ability to perform the task. To the information processing
theorists, when we practice, we build up out LTM and LTMM stores and neural
plasticity takes place in the brain. To the dynamical systems theorists, practice
is learning.

Types of practice
In this sub-section, we will examine the main types of practice that have been
highlighted by researchers and theorist. In doing this, however, we must be
aware that most of the research put into practice has been with tasks that are
not ecologically valid. Nevertheless, much of the information is useful. Where
ecological validity is an issue, we will examine it.
a. Massed and spaced practice - One of the first areas of practice to be
examined was massed versus spaced practice. Technically, massed
practice is defined as practice where the intervals between trials of the
task are less than the time it takes to complete one trial.
b. Whole and part-practice - very little ecologically valid research has been
carried out into the use of whole and part-practice. Nevertheless,
theoretical underpinnings for which is the more likely to produce the better
results exist. It is not, however, a simple case of one type of practice being
better that the other.

- The strictest definition of part-practice would be practicing a part of a

skill in isolation to the rest the task. For example, a triple jumper might
practice the hop phase only. Another explanation of part-practice is
practicing a skill in a non-game situation. Tennis players practice
volleying, with the coach feeding them. This is normally called
partpractice, but it is nearer to whole practice than the triple jumper
working just on the hop phase. A kind of part-practice is
partprogressive practice and it is this that is the most used of all the
types of practice. Part-progressive practice is when the task is broken
down into parts and the individual practices part one, then adds part
two, followed by part three, and so on.

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 c. Blocked, random and serial practice- is when the learner practices one
skill continually with no interference from the performance of other skills.
When undertaking random practice, the athlete will perform two or more
skills having random trials on each skill. Serial practice is a version of
random practice. The learner practices more than one skill and practice is
interspersed
between the
skills b ut in a
serial order;
one skill is
practiced for a
set number of
trials, followed
by practice on
another skill,
followed by
practice on a third skill and back to the beginning. Then the cycle is
repeated.
d. Deliberate practice - refers to practice which includes all three of the
following components. First, it requires time and energy from the learner
and access to coaches/teachers and training facilities. Second it is not
inherently motivating. In fact, it can be downright boring. The motivation
must come directly from the learner. Thirdly, deliberate practice requires
effort.
e. Variability of practice - means practicing the skill using a variety of task
and environmental demands. We might practice running up and down hill.
V. Transfer of training
- refers to the effect that practice on one task has on the learning or
performance of another task. I am sure that most of you will have experienced
this, to some extent, during your lives. Transfer of this kind is termed positive
transfer and is defined as being when the practice of one task has a
facilitating effect on the learning or performance of another.
Bilateral transfer, sometimes called cross-education, is a special form
of transfer. Bilateral transfer refers to transfer from a limb on one side of the
body to another limb on the opposite side of the body, normally the
contralateral limb. Carl Prean, the former England table tennis player, was
right-handed but could play table tennis to country standard with his left hand.
Indeed, he sometimes switched hands in a game when trying to get a wide
shot to his left-hand side. There are many examples of switch-hitters in
baseball, players who can bat left or right-handed.
VI. Feedback
- is used to describe information resulting from an action or response. This
can be visual, proprioceptive, vestibular, or auditory. In most cases a movement
will result in more than one of the senses providing feedback.

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 a. Observation - To provide good feedback, it is vital that the coach can
accurately observe what is happening. Observation is a skill. It can be
learned.
b. Aids for observation - In practice most observation is simply by the coach
watching what is happening. For some coaches and even teachers, there is
the possibility of using biomechanical methods to aid observation.
Biomechanical methods can supply information that cannot be seen by the
naked eye.
c. Timing and precision of feedback- Feedback is a form of instruction during
practice and following the athlete‘s own attempts at performing the skill. As a
result, the timing of feedback is important. One of the main factors is when to
provide feedback following the learners‘ performance. This is called the
feedback-delay, sometimes KR-delay or KP-delay are used. Research has
shown that the length of the feedback-delay is of little importance in learning,
but any interpolated activity interferes with the learner‘s memory of the action.

MEASURING AND ANALYZING HUMAN MOVEMENT

Despite all the difficulties, we still need to try to analyze movement with the
most accurate results. Therefore, movement analysis may be defined as the
subjective and objective measurement of:
1. the activity
2. its components
3. goals obtained

I. METHOD ANALYSIS
There are a variety of methods that can be used to analyze movement
or to measure the components of the movement. Measuring these
components will be considered later in this chapter, although it is difficult to
separate the analysis of movement from the measurement of its components.
The methods of analysis can be split into two broad categories:
a. Observational
b. Mechanical or instrumental
II. Observational Analysis
- is what most therapists, ergonomists and coaches have at their disposal.
After the movement has been performed several times, then you can begin
to see trends occurring. The problem is that the more subjects repeat the
movement, the more tired they will become so the initial movement may
change. A method of limiting this problem could be the use of video
recording. Video recording reproduces the movement, but it becomes
twodimensional, and this will have complications.
- To enable us to optimize the use of visual analysis, it is important to develop
a framework on which to build the analysis. A suggested framework could
be:
• the starting position
• the movement  the
finishing positions.

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  The Starting Position
The starting position can be defined as a position of readiness from which the
movement can take place. It can be used as:
1. a foundation for the activity
2. a point of fixation for one part of the body
3. a training for posture and balance.

There are four functional fundamental starting positions. These are:

1. lying
2. kneeling
3. sitting
4. standing

 The Movement
This is analyzed sequentially in time and order.
1. Segment movement
a. type of movement
b. plane in which the movement takes place
c. axis around which the movement takes place
2. Joint action
a. type (flexion, extension, etc.)
b. approximate range (in degrees)
c. sequence
3. Muscle work
a. function
b. range (inner, middle, or outer)
c. type (concentric, eccentric, or static)
d. sequence

 The Finishing Positions

a. return to the original position
b. beginning of a new phase
c. starting position for a new movement
d. a position of rest

Using something like the above list allows us to get some order into our
movement analysis, and we can optimize our success by repetition, breaking down
the components and being systematic.

III. MECHANICAL ANALYSIS

Use of film for analysis of movement. While experienced observers can
obtain a substantial amount of subjective information about human
movement, they do not have the ability to observe and remember all the
complex multipoint movement patterns that occur in even the simplest
functional activities. The unassisted eye functions at the equivalent of 1130th
of a second exposure time and can only see details of slow motion; the brain
too, despite its amazing ability, has a limit on the amount of information it can

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 absorb and remember. Consequently, when observing complex movement
only a limited amount of the detail is seen (Terauds, 1984).

IV. FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS BENCHMARKS

The most important components contributing to the successful
execution of each of the eleven fundamental motor skills described in this
manual are outlined under the headings below:
 Purpose of the Fundamental Motor Skills Assessment
 was developed primarily to provide information to the teacher that will assist
in the process of teaching and learning. Teachers can use the Fundamental
Motor Skills Assessment to evaluate the performance of their students‘ skills
that have been identified as critical for all children to learn. Within each skill,
the teacher will be able to identify the specific component(s) about which the
teaching should be organized.
 The Fundamental Motor Skills Assessment has more widely accepted usage
and these are outlined as follows:

1. Determine Instructional Needs and Class Status - The Fundamental Motor

Skills Assessment will aid in determining the status, progress or achievement of
students in their motor skill development. This can serve either to assess an
individual‘s level of performance or to determine whether objectives in a teaching
program have been achieved.
2. Group Placement - The results of the Fundamental Motor Skills Assessment will
aid in the placement of individuals in groups according to their motor abilities.
Students who need to practice and develop the same component of a skill could
be placed in the same group.
3. Screening - One purpose of the Fundamental Motor Skills Assessment is to
differentiate between individuals whose skills are developing normally and those
whose skills are lacking in development. This is an excellent means of identifying
individuals who may have special needs in the development of their motor skills.
Based upon these needs, extra emphasis may be placed on skills within the
regular physical education class or additional time may be allocated for the
purpose of overcoming any deficiencies.

 Age and Sequence of Acquisition of Fundamental Motor Skill Components

- Table 5 indicates the sequence in which components of the fundamental
motor skills appear to be mastered by children. The table also indicates
approximate ages at which fundamental motor skills should be learned.
Skill

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 mastery will vary
according to
individual
differences, and
the quality and
quantity of
instruction.
 Administration and
Scoring
Procedures
Student Preparation
- students need to be made aware that the assessment is a method of
determining individual levels and those comparisons will not be made
between the results of individual students. Students must understand the
importance of doing their best so that the teacher can evaluate their
learning and where they need assistance.
Suggested Administration Procedures
Listed below are three alternatives for organizing the assessment activity. The
critical element is that the activity allows the student the opportunity to
demonstrate the skill being assessed.

1. Free Activity (Play) - Organize a class activity that will encourage

participation in the skill being assessed. Arrange equipment and materials
so students can participate in the skill(s) by choice. As students play,
observe their performance on the components of the skill being assessed.
Teachers should use their judgment to determine if students‘ performance
meets the criteria when distance or repetitions are specified.
2. Directed Instruction - Choose a specific activity or game that will require
students to demonstrate the skill being assessed. Arrange materials and
equipment as needed and organize the class for the activity. Observe the
student‘s skill as they perform the activity.
3. Structured Assessment - Engage all students in some type of activity. In
another area of the physical education space, set up the appropriate
organization and equipment as required. It is often useful to have the class
organized into several stations and have the assessing activity at one of
the stations. As the students rotate past the station, assess each one on
the skill on which they are being observed.

Task 4
Use your activity notebook for this task.
Experiment: Short-term Motor Memory: Are Locations Better Remembered than
Distances
Introduction It is generally thought that, in short-term motor memory (STMM)
situations, locations are retained better than distances. Therefore, in
this experiment we compare STMM for distance with that for location.

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Method (Apparatus) - Pencil, paper (A3), ruler and blindfold. If you have access to
commercially bought curtain rail type apparatus that is easier to use.
Procedure
1. Draw a line from the top of the A3 paper to the bottom (it is best to
have a wide line ~5 cm), then turn the paper on its side.
2. Blindfold the participant (family member). Place the index finger of the
participant‘s preferred hand somewhere along the line.
3. In condition one, guide the participant‘s finger along the line to a point
of your choosing (mark this point in pencil).
4. Place the participant‘s finger on the line but at a different starting point.
Tell them to move along the line to the location at which you finished.
Measure the distance from where the participant stops and the actual
location.
5. Repeat this 10 times.
6. In condition two, move the participant‘s finger along the line to a
chosen point and measure the actual distance moved. Then place their
finger at a different starting point and ask them to move the same
distance.
7. Measure this and calculate the difference between it and the actual
distance moved originally.
8. Repeat 10 times.
9. Ignore plus and minus signs and calculate the mean error for each
condition for your participant. Place this on a Master sheet and
calculate the group means for location and distance errors.

Task 5
Choose a sport and make a list of skills that might involve positive transfer
and a group that might involve negative transfer. Do this in your notebook.

In your activity notebook, reflect on the following questions based on the

experiment.
1. Were locations remembered better than distances?
2. Did any participant use strategies such as counting during the guided
movement?
3. Did any participant use mental rehearsal?
4. How do these results fit in with past research and theory?
5. How relevant do you think this experiment is to memorizing sports skills?

A. Identify what is being described in the sentence. Choose your answer from the
pool of words inside the box.
Unconscious incompetence Conscious incompetence

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 Conscious competencies Unconscious competence
'Black Box' model Fine motor skills
Gross motor skills Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
_____1. In this stage, we do not know much about the skill, and we do not know how
much we do not know.
_____2. In this stage, we have learned enough about the skill to realize how little we
know. Our sophistication has increased somewhat, but so has our awareness of
what it would take to get to a level of real sophistication. _____3. The stage where
we find ourselves able to perform the skill increasingly well, but it takes
lots of concentration and hard work to do so.
_____4. Is the stage where our ability to perform the skill has become almost second
nature.
_____5. Are rarely, if ever, found in sport and are skills which require the use of few
limbs and are undertaken in limited space (e.g. writing, typing, and sewing).
_____6. They require the use of several limbs, often the whole body, and tend to
take place in a comparatively large amount of space.
_____7. The abilities one possesses are determined by genetic make-up. We inherit
sequences of _____ and stretches of these sequences comprise our
genes
_____8. This theory was developed at the same time as computers and owes much
to the theory of computing technology

B. Enumerate the stages of Life Span, (In order from 1-5) and give example
activities that is present in each stage.

Glossary

The following terms used in this module are defined as follows:

Ability is used to describe either the skills we possess or how well we can perform a
skill.
Body stabilization - The process of holding the body in a desired position.
Chronometric method - Using reaction time to measure an individual‘s response to
a stimulus.
Cognitive psychology - Branch of psychology studying the mental processes
involved in perception, learning, memory, and reasoning.
Feedback- is used to describe information resulting from an action or response. This
can be visual, proprioceptive, vestibular, or auditory.
Fundamental motor skills are common motor activities with specific observable
patterns.
Mirror neurons - Di Pellegrino et al. (1992) found that neurons in the premotor
cortex, temporal cortex and parietal cortex of the macaque monkey fired both when
the animal performed simple motor acts and when it is observed another animal (or
human) carrying out the same acts.

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Transfer of training- refers to the effect that practice on one task has on the
learning or performance of another task.

References
Department of Education Instructional Materials council Secretariat (DepEd-IMCS),
Human Movement- Sports Track Reader First Edition 2016, pp.74-102,103-
133,134151, 152-163

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