Chapter 3: CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR  Some substances require a vesicular

FUNCTIONS transport across the membrane.

 The vesicle must fuse with the cell
ORGANELLES – specialized structures in cell
membrane for transport.
that perform specific functions. Example:
nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes.
CYTOPLASM – jelly-like substance that hold
organelles.
CELL MEMBRANE – also known as “Plasma
Membrane”. A structure that encloses the PHOSPHOLIPIDS STRUCTURE
cytoplasm. - It has polar head region that is hydrophilic
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL (water-loving) and a nonpolar tail region
that is hydrophobic (water-fearing).
 Smallest unit of life. - The polar region is exposed to water
 Cell metabolism and energy use. around the membrane.
 Synthesis of molecules (various proteins - The nonpolar region is facing the interior
and chemicals that are vital for the of the membrane.
development and functioning of the cell).
 Reproduction and inheritance. MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL
MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT – does
 The cell membrane has selective not require the cell to expend energy.
- The outermost component of a cell. permeability, which allows only certain
- Forms a boundary between material substances to pass in and out of the cell. TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT
inside the cell and the outside.  Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can 1. DIFFUSION
- Materials inside the cell are called pass directly through the cell membrane. - Generally, involves movement of
intercellular and those outside are  The route of transport through the substances in a solution down a
extracellular. membrane depends on the size, shapes, concentration gradient.
- Acts as a selective barrier. and charge of the substance. - Concentration gradient is the
- The fluid-mosaic model (stitched parts)  Some substances require carrier difference in the concentration of
is the model used to describe the cell molecules to transport them across the solvent or solution.
membrane structure. cell membrane, such as glucose.
- It has phospholipids bilayer.
 - “Movement from high - Balance. - Example: Sodium-Potassium
concentration to low 3. Hypertonic Pump. The sodium-potassium
concentration” - More concentration of solute pump moves Na+ outside of cells
outside the cell. and K+ into cells. The result is a
- The cell shrinks. higher concentration of Na+
2. OSMOSIS outside cells and a higher
- The diffusion of water (solvent) concentration of K+ inside cells.
across a selectively permeable - Secondary Active Transport –
membrane from a region of higher uses the energy provided by a
water concentration to one of concentration gradient. No
lower concentration. additional energy is required.
- It exerts pressure (osmotic Used to store high-energy
pressure) which is the force hydrogen ions in mitochondria of
required to prevent movement of plant and animal cell for the
water across cell membrane. production of ATP.
- Solvent (water) tend to move to ENDOCYTOSIS - A process that brings materials
CARRIER DIFFUSION TRANSPORT
areas with higher solute MECHANISMS into cell using vesicles.
concentration.
1. Facilitated Diffusion KINDS OF ENDOCYTOSIS
A CELL MAY BE PLACE IN SOLUTION:
- Does not require ATP for energy.
1. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
1. Hypotonic - The use of protein channel to
- Occurs when a specific substance
- More concentration of solute travel across the selective cell
binds to the receptor molecule
(water) inside the cell. membrane.
and is transported into the cell.
- Water moves by osmosis into the - direct traveling to the cell 2. Phagocytosis
cell, causing it to swell. membrane. - Often used for endocytosis when
- If the cell swells enough, it can 2. Active Transport
solid particles are ingested.
rupture, a process called lysis. - Requires ATP. 3. Pinocytosis
2. Isotonic - Move substances across the cell - Has smaller vesicles formed, and
- A cell has the same solute membrane from regions of lower they contain liquid particles.
concentrations inside and outside concentrations to those of higher
the cell. concentrations against a EXOCYTOSIS – the use of membrane-bound
- The cell with neither shrink nor concentration gradient. sacs (secretory vesicles) that accumulate
swell. materials for the release from the cell.
 become tightly coiled and visible in 1. Rough ER – involved in protein synthesis
microscope. and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
2. Smooth ER – no attached ribosomes. A
NUCLEOLI/NUCLEOLUS – found within the
site for lipid synthesis, cellular
nucleus, they are diffuse bodies with no
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions
surrounding membrane. One to several nucleoli
in skeletal muscle cells.
in nucleus. The subunits of ribosomes and a
type of cytoplasmic organelle are formed
within nucleolus.
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE – where the nucleus of
bounded. It consists of outer and inner
membrane with a narrow space between them.
CELL NUCLEUS – a large organelle usually
NUCLEAR PORES – found in nuclear
located near the center of the cell.
membrane, materials can pass into or out of the
 The nuclei of human cells contain 23 nucleus. The ribosomal components exit the
pairs of chromosomes (46 nucleus through these pores.
chromosomes) which consists of DNA
RIBOSOMES
and proteins.
 The sperm and egg contain 23 GOLGI APPARATUS – also called golgi
 components that are produced in the
chromosomes total. complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
nucleolus.
 One pair of curved, membrane-bound sacs. It collects,
 The organelles where protein is being
chromosomes are modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and
produced.
the sex lipids manufactured by the ER. Forms some of
 Bound ribosomes are ribosomes that secretory vesicles.
chromosomes. are attached to other organelles, such as
Two XX for female. the endoplasmic reticulum. LYSOSOMES – membrane-bound vesicles
XY for males.  Free ribosomes are ribosomes that are formed from the golgi apparatus. They contain a
 Chromosomes are not attached to any other organelles. variety of enzymes that function as intracellular
loosely coiled and digestive systems.
collectively called ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – a series of
chromatin. membrane forming sad and tubules that extends - Formed by endocytosis may fuse
 When a cell form the outer nuclear membrane into the with lysosomes in order to
prepares to divide, cytoplasm. breakdown materials in the
the chromosomes endocytotic vesicles.
TYPES OF ER
 - Examples id white blood cells enzymes and mtDNA (mitochondrial - Functions: helping to support the
phagocytizing bacteria. DNA).
- Cells with a large energy requirement
have more mitochondria than cells that
require less energy.

cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell

divising, and forming essential
components of certain organelles,
such as cilia and flagella.
2. Microfilaments
PEROXISOMES – small, membrane-bound
- Small fibrils formed from protein
vesicles containing enzymes that break down
subunits that structurally support
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
the cytoplasm, determining the
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
cell.
hydrogen. CYTOSKELETON – gives internal framework to - Involved with cell movements.
 Hydrogen peroxide – a by-product of the cell. Consists of protein structures that - Enables the cell to shorten or
fatty acid and amino acid breakdown. support the cell, hold organelles in place, and contract.
Can be toxic to a cell. enables the cell to change shape. 3.
MITOCHONDRIA

- small organelles responsible for PROTEIN STRUCTURES

producing considerable amounts of ATP 1. Microtubules Intermediate Filaments
by aerobic metabolism. They have inner - Hollow structures formed from - Smaller in diameter than
and outer membranes separated by a protein subunits. microtubules but larger in
space. diameter than microfilaments.
- The outer membranes have a smooth - Provides mechanical support to
contour. The inner membranes have the cell.
numerous folds called cristae. - A specific type of intermediate
- The material within the inner membrane filaments is keratin, a protein
is the mitochondrial matrix and contains associated with skin cells.
 - Project from the surface of the certain - Each nucleotides consists of a 5-carbon
cells. sugar, a phosphate group and a
- Responsible for the movement of nitrogenous base.
materials over the top of the cells. - Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a
- They are cylindrical structures that extend specific bonding pattern to another on the
from the cell and composed of opposite strand.
microtubules. - Gene – a sequence of nucleotides that
provides a chemical set of instructions for
FLAGELLA
making a specific protein.
- Have a structure similar to that of cilia but Gene expression – the process which
are much longer, and they usually occur synthesizes a protein by using the information in
CENTRIOLES only one per cell. a gene.
- a specialized area of cytoplasm close to - Sperm cells each have one flagellum,
the nucleus where microtubule formation which propels the sperm cell. 
occurs. MICROVILLI
- Contains two centrioles, normally
oriented perpendicular to each other. - Specialized extensions of the cell
- Each centriole is a small, cylindrical membrane that are supported by
organelles composed of microtubule. microfilament.
- The centriole is involved in the process of - Not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
mitosis. - They increase the surface area of those
cells.
- They are abundant on the surface of cells
that line the intestine, kidney, and other
areas in which absorption is an important
function.
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

- Contains the information that direct

protein synthesis. Transcription
CILIA - DNA molecules consists of nucleotides - copying DNA into messenger RNA.
joined together to from two nucleotide - takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
strands.
- During transcription, the double strands of  Translation CELL DIVISION
a DNA segment separate (RNA - occurs in the cell cytoplasm after
- Occurs to increase the number of cells or
Polymerase) and DNA nucleotides of the mRNA has exited the nucleus
replace damaged or dying ones.
gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form through the nuclear pores.
the mRNA. - Involves a cell cycle.
- The mRNA attaches to a
- DNA contains one of the following organic ribosome.
bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or - Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on
guanine. the mRNA are read by TWO MAJOR PHASES
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) 1. Interphase – non-dividing phase.
adenine, cytosine, or guanine. on transfer RNA (tRNA). 2. Mitosis – cell dividing phase.
- Categories of Nitrogenous Bases: - Transfer RNA transports specific
Purines – Adenine, Guanine. amino acids from the cytoplasm to INTERPHASE
Pyrimidines – Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine. the ribosome-mRNA. A type of - A cell spends most of its life cycle in this
- DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA molecule that helps decode phase.
RNA nucleotides. DNA’s thymine pairs a messenger RNA (mRNA)
- Performing its normal functions.
sequence into a protein.
- During this phase, the DNA is replicated.
- The two stands of DNA separates from
each other, and each strand serves as a
template for the production of a new
strand of DNA.
- Replication of DNA gives two identical
chromatids joined at a centromere; both
form one chromosome.
with RNA’s adenine. DNA’s adenine THE CELL CYCLE
pairs with RNA’s uracil. DNA’s cytosine
pairs with RNA’s guanine. DNA’s 1st – Helicase separates/unwind the DNA –
guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine. topoisomerase prevents the DNA from getting
too tightly wound as the DNA opened up.
 condenses to form visible
chromosomes.
 Microtubules, termed spindle
fibers, form to assist in breaking
the centromere.
 The nuclear
membrane
4th – Ligase seals the fragments from lagging dissolves.
strand – the gap is called Okazaki Fragment. 2. Metaphase
 the
2nd – Primase makes RNA Primers on both chromosomes
strands (5’ to 3’ direction) – RNA primers are align near the
binding site. center of the cell.
 The movement of the
chromosomes is regulated by the
attached spindle fibers.

MITOSIS

- Involves formation of 2 daughter cells 3. Anaphase

from a single parent cell.  the chromatids separate and each
DIVISION OF MITOSIS chromatid is called a
chromosome.
1. Prophase  Each of the two sets of 46
3rd – from the RNA primers, DNA polymerase  the chromosomes is moved by the
building new strands creating leading strand chromatin spindle fibers toward the centriole
and lagging strand.
at one of the poles of the cell.
  At the end of anaphase, each set - During differentiation of a cell, some
of chromosomes has reached an portions of DNA are active, but others are
opposite pole of the cell, and the inactive.
cytoplasm begins to divide.
APOPTOSIS
4. Telophase
 the chromosomes in each of the - termed programmed cell death, is a
daughter cells become organized normal process by which cell numbers
to form two separate nuclei, one in within various tissues are adjusted and
each newly formed daughter cell. controlled.
 The chromosomes begin to - In the developing fetus, apoptosis
unravel and resemble the genetic removes extra tissue, such as cells
material during interphase. between the developing fingers and toes.
 Following telophase, cytoplasm - In some adult tissues, apoptosis
division is completed, and two eliminates excess cells to maintain a
separate daughter cells are constant number of cells within the tissue.
produced.
5. Cytokinesis CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING
• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
• Formation of free radicals
• Mitochondrial damage
TUMORS – abnormal proliferation (rapid
increase in number) of cells. Due to problems
occurring in the cell cycle or in other words when
cells divide and grow excessively in the
DIFFERENTIATION
body. Some tumors are benign and some are
- The process by which cell develop with malignant (cancer).
specialized structures and functions.