Subject: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Module: CHAPTER 3 – CELL STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Prepared by: PENSONA, L. M. B.
Professor: Date:
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE
TOPIC OUTLINE:
- Selectively permeable
o Cell Structure • Allow some substances, but not others, to pass
o Functions of the Cell into or out of the cells.
o Cell Membrane - Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium ions
o Movement through the Cell Membrane (K+) are found at higher concentrations intracellularly.
o Organelles - Na+, Ca2+, and CI- are found in greater concentration
o Whole-Cell Activity extracellularly.
o Cellular Aspects of Aging Diffusion

CELL STRUCTURE - Solution is generally composed of two major parts, solutes

- Cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. and the solvent.
- The human body is made up of many populations of - Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or
specialized cells. gas, which is called the solvent.
- Specialized structures called organelles perform specific - Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an
functions. area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower
• Nucleus containing cell’s genetic material. concentration of the same solute in solution.
• Cytoplasm living material that surround the cell. Concentration gradient
• Cell membrane or plasma membrane enclosed - The difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent
the cytoplasm. between two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
Two classes of Cell Membrane Channels
Four Important Functions
- Leak channels allow ions to pass through
1. Cell metabolism and energy use
- Gated channels limit the movement of ions across the
• Chemical reactions occur within cells are
membrane by opening and closing.
collectively called cell metabolism.
Osmosis
2. Synthesis of molecules
• Cells synthesize various types of molecules, - Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. selectively permeable membrane.
3. Communications - Osmotic pressure the force required to prevent the
• Cell produces and receive chemical and movement of water across a selectively permeable
electrical signals that allow them to membrane.
communicate with one another. - Hydrostatic pressure moves the water out of the tube back
4. Reproduction and inheritance into the distilled water surrounding the tube
• Each cell contains a copy of the genetic - Hypotonic has a lower concentration
information of the individual. - Hypertonic has a higher concentration
CELL MEMBRANE - Lysis if the cell swells and ruptured
- “Plasma membrane” - Crenation cell shrinkage
- Outermost component of the cell Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms
- Encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between
material inside the cell and material outside it. - Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane
- Acts as a selective barrier that determines what moves into are involved in carrier-mediated transport mechanism
and out of the cell, and plays a role in communication • Move large water-soluble molecules or
between cells electrically charged ions across the cell
- Two major types of molecules: phospholipids, and proteins membrane
• The membrane contains such as cholesterol Facilitated Diffusion
and carbohydrates. - Process that moves substances across the cell membrane
Extracellular from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
- substance outside the cell concentration of that substance.
Intracellular Active Transport
- substance inside the cell - Moves substances across cell membrane from regions of
Fluid-mosaic model lower concentration to those of higher concentration
- Arrangement of molecules in the cell membrane against a concentration gradient.
Receptor molecules
- Part of an intercellular communication system that enables Cystic Fibrosis – genetic disorder that affects the
cell recognition and coordination of the activities of cells
active transport of CI- into cells.

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Subject: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Module: CHAPTER 3 – CELL STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Prepared by: PENSONA, L. M. B.
Professor: Date:
Secondary Active Transport Secretory Vesicles
- One substance, such as Na+, across the cell membrane,
establishing a concentration gradient. - Vesicle a small, membrane-bound sac that transports or
- Cotransport diffusing substance move in the same direction stores materials within cells.
as the transported substance - Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi apparatus and
- Countertransport diffusing substance moves in a direction move to the cell membrane.
opposite to that of the transported substance. - Secretory vesicles containing hormones remain in the
Endocytosis and Exocytosis cytoplasm of endocrine cells until signals stimulate their
release.
- Large water-soluble molecules that cannot be transported Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
by carrier molecules
- Small pieces of matter, and even whole cells can be - Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the
transported across cell membranes in membrane-bound Golgi Apparatus
sacs called vesicles - Peroxisomes small, membrane-bound vesicles containing
- Endocytosis the uptake of material through the cell enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and
membrane by the formation of a vesicle hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
• Phagocytosis “cell eating” solid particles are Mitochondria
ingested
• Pinocytosis “cell drinking” smaller vesicles are - Small organelles with inner and outer membranes
formed and contains liquid separated by a space.
- Exocytosis secretion of digestive enzymes - Outer membranes have a smooth contour, but inner
• Allows the release of materials from cells. membranes have numerous folds called Cristae
- Mitochondrial matrix material within inner membrane
ORGANELLES
- Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) contains enzymes
Nucleus
Cytoskeleton
- Large organelle usually located at the center of the cell
- Nuclear envelope two layered membrane that bound the - Acts as the internal framework of the cell
nucleus - Consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold
- Nuclear pores where materials can pass into or out of the organelles in place, and enable the cell to change shape.
nucleus - Microtubules
- Chromatin loosely coiled and collectively • Hollow structures formed from protein subunits
- Nucleoli consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins (found • Helping to support the cytoplasm of cells,
within nucleus) assisting in cell division, and forming essential
Ribosomes components of certain organelles such as cilia
and flagella
- Organelles where proteins are produced. - Microfilaments
- Attached to other organelles, such as endoplasmic • Small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
reticulum. structurally support the cytoplasm, determining
- Not attached to any other organelle are called free cell shape
ribosomes - Intermediate filaments
Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum • Fibrils from protein subunits that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger in
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) series of membranes forming diameter than microfilaments
sacs and tubules that - extends from the outer nuclear • Provide mechanical support to the cell
membrane into the cytoplasm • Keratin a protein associated with skin cells
- Rough ER synthesize large amounts of protein for export Centrioles
from the cell (w/ skelribosomes attached)
- Smooth ER site for lipid synthesis, detoxification of - Centrosome specialized area of cytoplasm close to the
chemicals, and stores calcium ions (w/o ribosomes) nucleus where microtubule formation occurs.
Golgi Apparatus Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli

- “Golgi Complex” - Cilia project from the surface of cells

- Closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs • Capable of moving
- Collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and • Cylindrical structures that extend from the cell
lipids manufactured by the ER. - Flagella structure similar to that cilia but are much longer,
and they usually occur only one per cell

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Subject: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Module: CHAPTER 3 – CELL STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Prepared by: PENSONA, L. M. B.
Professor: Date:
- Microvilli specialized extensions of the cell membrane that assisted by the spindle fibers, move toward the
are supported by microfilaments but do not actively move centrioles at each end of the cell. The cytoplasm
as cilia and flagella do. begins to divide.
WHOLE-CELL ACTIVITY - Telophase
Gene Expression • The chromosomes disperse, the nuclear
envelopes and the nucleoli form, and the
- DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis cytoplasm continues to divide to form two cells.
- Gene a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical Differentiation
set of instructions for making a specific protein
- Gene expression involves transcription (making a copy of - Differentiation, process by which cells develop with
gene) and translation (converting that copied information specialized structures and functions
into a protein). - During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are
Transcription active, but others are inactive.
- First step in gene expression and it takes place in the - The active and inactive sections of DNA differ with each cell
nucleus of the cell type.
- DNA determines the structure of mRNA through Apoptosis
transcription
- During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment - “Programmed cell death”
separate, and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA - A normal process by which cell numbers within various
nucleotides that form the mRNA. tissue are adjusted and controlled.
Translation - Apoptosis regulates the number of cells within various
- The synthesis of proteins based on the information in tissues of the body
mRNA. Translation occurs at ribosomes CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING
- The mRNA molecules produced by transcription pass 1. Cellular clock
through the nuclear pores to the ribosomes • One hypothesis of aging suggests the existence
- The process of translation requires two other types of RNA: of a cellular clock that, after a certain passage of
tRNA and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) time or a certain number of cell divisions, results
Cell Cycle in the death of a given cell line.
2. Death genes
- During growth and development, cell division allows for a • Another hypothesis suggests that there are
dramatic increase in cell number after fertilization of an “death genes”, which turn on late in life, or
oocyte. sometimes prematurely, causing cells to
- Two major phases: interphase and cell division deteriorate die.
- Interphase 3. DNA damage
• The DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s • Other hypotheses suggest that, through time,
nucleus) is replicated DNA is damaged, resulting in cell degeneration
- Cell division and death
• The formation of daughter cells from a single 4. Free radicals
parent cell • One of the major sources of DNA damage is
• The new cell necessary for growth and tissue apparently free radicals, which are atoms or
repair are formed through mitosis molecules with an unpaired electron
• The sex cells necessary for reproduction are 5. Mitochondrial damage
formed through meiosis • May result in loss of proteins critical to
Mitosis mitochondrial function. Because of the
- During mitosis, a parent cell divides to form two daughter mitochondria are the primary source of ATP,
cells with the same amount and type of DNA as the parent loss of mitochondrial function could lead to the
cell. loss of energy critical to cell function and
- Mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, ultimately, to cell death.
anaphase, and telophase
- Prophase
• The chromatin condenses into chromosomes
- Metaphase
• The chromosomes align in the center of the cell
in association with the spindle fiber
- Anaphase
• The chromatids separate to form two sets of
identical chromosomes. The chromosomes,