Secondary Chemistry Form 1 KLB Notes

Secondary Chemistry
Form One
Students’ Book
(Fifth Edition)
KENYA LITERATURE BUREAU
P.O. Box 30022 - 00100, Nairobi
Website: www.kenyaliteraturebureau.com
Email: info@kenyaliteraturebureau.com
© Ministry of Education
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transcribed in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 978-9966-44-803-3
First Published 1987

Reprinted 1988, 1989,1990
Second Edition 1994
Reprinted 1995, 1996, 1997 (twice), 1998 (twice, 1999 (twice)
2000 (twice), 2001 (twice)
Third Edition 2003
Reprinted 2003 (twice), 2004 (four times), 2006 (four times), 2007 (thrice)
Fourth Edition 2008
Fifth Edition 2009
KLB 9086 10m 2009
Published and printed by Kenya Literature Bureau

Prologue
This student’s book has been written to assist Secondary Chemistry Form One students. The book meets all
the requirements of the current syllabus. It also conforms to current international trends in the teaching of
the subject.
Chemistry is a practical subject which equips students with concepts and skills that come in handy in
solving the day today problems in life. The subject aims at providing the learner with the necessary
knowledge for individual benefit in daily life and for further education. This book recognises these aspects
and provides adequate practical exercises to sharpen the student’s practical skills. In addition, it also
provides end of topic questions for self evaluation.
In this fifth edition, the book has been reworked and given a new easy to read lay out, the revision exercises
fully address the syllabus requirements and there is a whole new section of sample examination style
questions with answers.
I am grateful to the panel of writers and every body who took part in the writing, editing and production of
this fifth edition of the book.
THE MANAGING DIRECTOR

Kenya Literature Bureau
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Prologue
Acknowledgement
1. Introduction to Chemistry
Matter
Properties of matter
Mixtures
Conductors and non conductors
Drugs and drug abuse
What is Chemistry
Role of Chemistry in society
Apparatus used in Chemistry
Sources of heat
The Bunsen burner
Safety in the laboratory
Revision exercise
2. Simple classification of substances
Mixtures
Separation of solid- solid mixtures
Solid-liquid mixtures
Separation of insoluble solid-liquid mixtures
Separation of soluble solid-liquid mixtures
Liquid – liquid mixtures
Separation of immiscible liquids
Separation of miscible liquids
Separation of coloured substances
Effect of Heat on substances
The Kinetic Theory of matter
Effect of impurities on melting and boiling points
Temporary and permanent changes
Constituents of matter
Chemical symbols
Chemical equations
Revision exercise
3. Acids, Bases and Indicators
Simple acid base indicators
Commercial indicators
Universal indicators and the pH scale
Properties of acids
Reaction of acids with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Reactions of Acids with Bases
Effects of Acids on Substances
Applications of Acids and Bases
Revision Exercise
4. Air and Combustion
Composition of Air
Fractional Distillation of Liquefied Air
Rusting
Oxygen
Burning of Substances in Air
Atmospheric Pollution
Revision Exercise
5. Water and Hydrogen
Reactions of Water with Metals
Reactions of Metals with Steam
Hydrogen
Revision Exercise
Sample Revision Questions and Answers
Acknowledgement
The Managing Director of Kenya Literature Bureau would like to thank the following writers who
participated in the revision of this Fifth Edition of the Secondary Chemistry Form One Student’s Book.
1. Cornelius Masila Muange — Mukaa Sec. School, Nunguni
2. Emma Achieng Ogutu – Moi Girls’ High School Eldoret
3. Raphael Kelly Wambua – Mutomo Mixed Sec. School, Kitui
4. Rose Amatikide Omoru – Bunyore Girls’ Sec. School
5. Silas M. Mango – St. Cecilia Misikhu Girls’ High School, Webuye.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
In Primary Science you studied science as a general course. Science enables us
to understand our environment. At Secondary school level, science is divided
into a number of subjects. The major science subjects are Biology, Chemistry
and Physics.
Topics covered in primary science, which are studied under Chemistry include:
Properties of matter, mixtures and methods of separation, drugs and pollution. In
the secondary Chemistry course, we shall begin by reviewing some of those
aspects of science already learned.
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define Chemistry.
• Identify the topics studied in Primary School Science which are part of Chemistry.
• State the role of Chemistry in society and identify some applications of Chemistry in everyday life.
• Identify and state the use of common apparatus in the laboratory.
• Operate a Bunsen Burner.
• Observe safety in the laboratory.
Review of Chemistry topics learned in the primary

science course
Matter
In our daily lives we encounter different substances. The air we breathe, the
water we drink and soil are all forms of matter. Matter is anything that has mass
and occupies space. Matter exists in three states namely solid, liquid and gas
(vapour).
The three states of matter are interconvertible.
Fig 1.1 Relationship between the three states of matter.
Properties of matter
Experiment 1.1: What are some of the physical properties of solids?

Examine the shape of the solid provided. Place the solid on a weighing balance
and record its mass. Half fill a glass tumbler and mark the water level. Place the
solid in the tumbler, record your observation.
Answer the following questions

1. Describe the shape of the solid.
2. Is it possible to change the shape easily? Explain.
3. How does the mass of the solid you have used compare with the masses of
those used by the other groups?
4. Explain the difference in the water levels before and after immersing the
solid.
NOTE
Mass is the amount of matter in a substance and is measured in Kilograms. Mass remains constant
everywhere. Weight is a product of mass and gravitational force. Weight is measured in newtons and varies
from place to place.
Discussion
Solids have definite shapes that are not easily changed. Solids also have a
definite mass and volume. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in a
substance. Volume is the space occupied by a substance. Different sizes of the
same substance contain different amounts of matter and therefore have different
masses. When the solid is put in water, the water level rises. The rise in water
level represents the volume of the solid.
Experiment 1:2 What are some of the physical properties of liquids?

Weigh a 250ml beaker. Record the mass. Place 250ml of water in the beaker.
Weigh and record the mass. Transfer the water into a 250ml measuring cylinder,
250ml conical flask, 250ml volumetric flask and then into a trough successively,
each time, note the shape of the water in the container.

1. Determine the mass of water in the beaker.
2. Describe the shape of the water in each container.
3. State the volume of water in the trough.
4. Why was it possible to transfer the water from one container to another?
Discussion
When 250ml of water is added to the beaker and weighed, there is an increase in
mass. The increase in mass represents the mass of water. This indicates that
liquids have mass. When the 250ml of water is transferred into containers of
different shapes, the volume remains the same while the water takes the shape of
the container. It is possible to transfer liquids from one container to another by
pouring because they flow. When the water is poured into containers of different
shapes it flows and takes the shape of the new containers. Thus liquids have a
definite mass and volume but take the shape of the containers in which they are
placed due to their ability to flow.
Experiment 1.3: What are some of the physical properties of gases?

Weigh a deflated ball and record its mass. Inflate the ball using a hand pump.
Observe and record what happens as the ball is being inflated. Detach the pump
and weigh the inflated ball. Draw air into the pump. Block the nozzle of the
pump with the thumb. Gently push the plunger in as far as it can go without
letting any air to escape. While still blocking the nozzle, release the plunger.
Record your observation.
Answer the following the questions.

1. Comment on the shape and size of the ball before and after it is inflated.
2. Determine the mass of air in the ball.
3. What is observed.
(i) when the plunger is pushed in,
(ii) when the plunger is released? Explain.
Discussion
As the ball is inflated, its size increases and it becomes spherical. The increase in
size is due to the air occupying the space within the ball.
When air is pumped into the ball, the mass of the ball increases. This is due to
the mass of the air being pumped into the ball. This shows that gases have mass.
When air is drawn in the pump and the nozzle blocked, the pump contains a
fixed amount of air. When the plunger is pushed in, the volume of the fixed
amount of air decreases. When the plunger is released, the air in the pump
pushes out the plunger to occupy a large space. The experiment shows that a
fixed volume of air can be compressed to occupy a smaller space. If allowed it
can also spread to occupy a large space.
The above discussion shows that gases have a definite mass but do not have
definite volume or shape.
Mixtures
Matter is found either as pure substances or mixtures. A pure substance is one
that consists of only one type of matter.
A mixture consists of two or more substances mixed together and in which the
individual components forming the mixture retain their physical and chemical
properties.
A mixture can be separated by physical means such as winnowing, sieving,
filtering, evaporating, decanting and use of magnets.
The choice of method to separate a given mixture depends on the nature and
properties of the individual components forming the mixture.
Conductors and non conductors

In the primary science course, electricity was studied as one of the different
forms of energy. Changes which take place in matter involve energy. Electricity
is one form of energy which is important in the study of Chemistry. Substances
which allow electrical energy to flow through them are conductors. Substances
which do not allow electricity to flow through them are non conductors.
Drugs and drug abuse

In Chemistry, the word chemical is used to refer to the many substances that
comprise matter. Chemists have been able to isolate some chemicals which are
useful to the human body. Such chemicals are known as drugs. A drug is any
substance, natural or manufactured which when used alters the way the body
functions.
Many sporting careers have been ruined by drug abuse.
Drugs used to treat diseases in human beings and other animals are known as
medicines. Medicines are administered by qualified medical officers in specific
amounts called doses. The written instructions by a qualified medical officer,
giving details on the type of drugs and how the drugs should be used is called a
prescription.
The use of a drug for a purpose other than what it is meant for, or use of
overdose or underdose of prescribed drugs constitutes drug abuse. Drug abuse
has harmful effects on the state of health of the user. The harmful effects include
stress, depression, hallucination, addiction and dependency or may be fatal. The
commonly abused drugs are tobacco, alcohol, bhang and khat (miraa). Harmful
effects of smoking tobacco include lung cancer and heart failure. Alcohol abuse
leads to liver problems (liver cirrhosis). Misuse of bhang leads to mental
disorders. Prolonged use of khat leads to addiction, dependency and vascular
disorders.
What is Chemistry?
States of matter and its properties, mixtures and their methods of separation and
drugs are studied under Chemistry. Chemistry is the study of the structure,
properties and composition of matter and the changes that matter undergoes.
The study of Chemistry involves carrying out experiments, making observations,
analysis, interpretation and making conclusions.
Role of chemistry in society

People normally use water, soap, body lotions, perfumes, hair oils and plastic
combs among other things. Their meals may include sugar, porridge, milk, tea,
bread, vegetables and fruits.
Have you ever stopped to think about these things? How are they obtained? Who
makes them? Have you ever wondered how life would be without the items
mentioned above?
Many products avaiable thanks to Chemistry.
Some substances like water, milk and herbal medicines occur naturally. Others
like soap, salt, panadol, chloroquine, body oils and cooking oils are prepared
from naturally occurring materials. In Chemistry, substances are referred to as
chemicals. The people who work with chemicals are Chemists.
Chemistry offers various career opportunities in various fields such as
medicine, pharmacy, food technology, education and engineering. Chemistry has
helped to improve standards of living in areas such as:
1. Manufacture of drugs to fight diseases.
2. Food production to fight hunger.
3. Manufacture of cheaper alternative fabrics such as nylon, polyester and
tetron.
4. Manufacture of plastics for roofing, packaging and domestic use.
5. Manufacture of detergents.
6. Production of fuels for transport and domestic use. This includes alternative
fuels to reduce global pollution as well as to supplement the fossil fuels.
NOTE
Fuel is any substance which burns to produce heat energy which is then used for different purposes.
Apparatus used in Chemistry

The study of Chemistry involves practical activities in form of experiments. The
experiments are performed using chemicals and pieces of apparatus. Generally,
these experiments are carried out in a laboratory.
A laboratory is a building or special room where chemicals and apparatus are
kept and in which practical subjects such as Chemistry are studied. Some of the
apparatus in the laboratory are used as sources of heat while others are used for
the measurement of volume, temperature, mass and time.
Most laboratory apparatus which are used as containers and reaction vessels
are made of transparent glass or plastic. This is to allow one to see through while
observing the reactions taking place or to determine the level of the liquids held
there in. Glass and plastic also do not react with most of the reagents used in the
laboratory.
Apparatus for measuring volume

All apparatus used for measuring volumes of liquids are usually of transparent
glass or plastic. The apparatus used for measuring volumes of liquids include a
graduated beaker and flask, a measuring cylinder, volumetric flask, syringe,
pipette and burette.
Each piece of apparatus is designed for a specific use and may come in
various sizes. Figure 1.2 shows some of these apparatus.
Fig 1.2a
Graduated beakers, flasks and measuring cylinders are used to measure

approximate volumes of liquids.
Fig 1.2b
When fairly accurate volumes are required, volumetric flasks, syringes, pipettes
and burettes are used.
Apparatus for measuring temperature

Temperature is measured using thermometers. There are different types of
thermometers such as maximum and minimum, clinical and general purpose
thermometers. Figure 1.2 shows the general purpose thermometer used in
Chemistry laboratories.
Fig 1.3 General purpose thermometer

Apparatus for measuring mass
Mass is measured using weighing balances. There are different types of
weighing balances such as beam balances, electronic balances and top pan
balances. Figure 1.4 shows electronic and beam balances.
An analytical balance with an accuracy of 10-3 g
Fig 1.4 Common laboratory weighing machines
Apparatus for measuring time

The apparatus for measuring time are watches and clocks. For accuracy during
experiments in the laboratory, stop watches and stop clocks are used. Some of
the common types are shown in figure 1.5.
Fig 1.5 Apparatus for measuring time
Other commonly used apparatus are represented diagrammatically in figure 1.6.
Plastic, glass and ceramic are the most commonly used materials for Chemistry apparatus
Fig 1.6
Sources of Heat
The pieces of apparatus used as sources of heat include the Bunsen burner, spirit
lamp, candle, gas stove (portable burner), kerosene stove and electric heater. The
Bunsen burner is the most suitable source of heat in laboratories.
The Bunsen Burner

A Bunsen burner consists of three major parts. These are the chimney, the collar
and the base as shown in figure 1.7 (a). The chimney is a hollow metallic
cylinder with an air hole near its lower end. The collar is a metal ring which may
have an air hole whose diameter is the same size as that of the hole in the
chimney. The diameter of the collar is slightly bigger than that of the chimney so
that the chimney can just fit into it. The base is made of thick metallic material
into which a small hollow metal with a jet is fitted. The Bunsen burner is
normally connected to an external source of laboratory gas by rubber tubing. See
figure 1.7 (b).
Fig 1.7: Parts of a Bunsen burner.
Functions of the different parts of a Bunsen burner

The gas inlet is connected to an external source of laboratory gas by a rubber
tubing. The jet allows the laboratory gas into the chimney. The collar is used to
regulate the amount of air entering the chimney. The air hole in the chimney
allows air to enter and mix with the laboratory gas from the jet. This mixture of
gases (laboratory gas and air), when ignited burn at the top of the chimney to
produce a flame.
Experiment 1.4: What are the types of flames produced by a Bunsen

burner?
Connect the burner to a gas tap and close the air hole. Turn on the gas fully and
light the burner. Note the shape and colour of the different parts of the flame.
Slowly turn the collar until the air hole is half-way open and observe what
happens to the flame. Continue turning the collar gradually until the hole is fully
open. Observe the colours of the different parts of the resulting flame.
Draw and label the parts of the flame when the air hole is:
(a) closed.
(b) fully open.

1. What is a flame?
2. Suggest a reason why the two types of flames differ.
Discussion
A flame is a mass of burning gases. When in use, a Bunsen burner produces two
types of flames depending on the amount of air allowed into the chimney as
shown in figure 1.8.
Fig 1.8 The flames of a Bunsen burner.
NOTE
The colour of a flame is related to its temperature. A white flame is the hottest followed by blue, red and
yellow is the least hot.
When the air hole is closed, no air enters the chimney. The flame produced is
bright yellow, large and wavy. It gives out much light and is described as a
luminous flame. A luminous flame has four zones.
The blue zone occurs at the bottom of the flame. Air near the flame rises
rapidly and mixes with the burning gas. This makes burning almost complete.
The almost colourless zone of the flame consists mainly of unburnt gases. The
luminous bright yellow zone consists mainly of unburnt tiny particles of hot
glowing solid carbon which give out light. The unburnt carbon particles form the
black soot which makes apparatus dirty during heating. Air supply in the bright
yellow zone is limited and there is incomplete combustion of the gas. In the thin
outer pale blue zone, the gas burns completely because it mixes with plenty of
air. However, this region is normally difficult to see.
Bunsen burner flames
NOTE
Candle and spirit burner flames are not efficient for heating because they are not hot enough.
When the air hole is slowly opened, more air enters the chimney. The bright
yellow colour of the luminous flame gradually changes. When the air hole is
fully opened, more air enters the chimney and mixes with the laboratory gas.
The mixture of gases burn more quickly and completely. The flame obtained is
pale blue in colour and is described as non-luminous flame because it does not
give out much light.
The non-luminous flame has three zones. The almost colourless zone consists
of unburnt gases. The green blue zone contains partially burnt gases due to
insufficient supply of air. In the outer pale blue zone, the gases burn completely
because there is plenty of air. The non-luminous flame gives out only a little
light because it contains fewer hot carbon particles.
Experiment 1.5: What are the heating effects of the luminous and
non-luminous flames?
Light a Bunsen burner and adjust the collar to produce a luminous flame. Pour
30cm3 of water into 100ml glass beaker. Heat the water in the beaker and note
the time it takes to boil.
Fig 1.9 Using a Bunsen burner.
Repeat the experiment using 30cm3 of water in an identical beaker and heat it
with a non-luminous flame of the same Bunsen burner. In each case, observe the
part of the beaker that was in contact with the flame.

1. Which water sample took a shorter time to boil?
2. What was observed at the bottom of each beaker?
3. Explain the observations you have made.
Discussion
Water heated by a non-luminous flame took a shorter time to boil than the same
amount of water heated by a luminous flame. This shows that the non-luminous
flame is hotter than the luminous flame. The bottom of the beaker heated using
the luminous flame is covered with soot while the beaker heated using a non-
luminous flame remains clean.
The non-luminous flame is normally preferred for heating substances.
Luminous flames such as the candle flame and flame of lantern lamps are
normally used for lighting.
Experiment 1.6: Which is the hottest part of a non-luminous flame?

Light a Bunsen burner and adjust the collar to obtain a non-luminous flame. Slip
a piece of white manilla paper into the flame in region (i) as shown in figure
1.10 (a).
Fig 1.10: The heating power of different parts of the bunsen flame.
Quickly remove the paper before it catches fire. Slip a fresh piece of white
manilla paper into region (ii) of the flame as shown in figure 1.0 (b). Quickly
remove it before it catches fire.
Now repeat the experiments using wooden splints instead of white manilla
paper. Let each splint stay in the flame until some of its parts get charred. Record
your observations.
Draw diagrams to show how the pieces of paper and the splints were affected
when placed in:
(a) region (i).
(b) region (ii) of the flame.
Answer the following question

Explain the observations made.
Discussion
When a piece of paper is quickly slipped in and out of region (i) of the non-
luminous flame, the paper is partly burnt in the regions that are in contact with
the pale blue zone. The middle part of the paper remains unburnt (no charring).
When a piece of paper is slipped in and out of region (ii) of the non-luminous
flame, it burns uniformly. The results of the experiments are shown in figures
1.11 (a) and (b).
Fig 1.11 (a) and (b): Effect of different parts of the Bunsen flame on paper.
When wooden splints are used instead of paper, similar results are obtained as
shown in figures 1.12 (a) and (b). These experiments show that the outer most
zone in a non-luminous flame is hotter than the inner zones. An object being
heated should therefore never be placed very close to the base of the flame
where we have the cooler regions of the flame. Instead, the object should be
placed at the outermost region of the flame. This is the hottest region of the
flame.
Fig 1.12 (a) and (b): Effects of different parts of the non-luminous flame on wooden splints.
Safety in the laboratory

When carrying out experiments, it should never be assumed to be completely
harmless. Even the experiments that appear simple should be regarded as a
potential source of danger. All chemicals and apparatus should be handled with
care. For example, if a piece of glass apparatus is handled carelessly, it may
break and injure the user.
Since learning chemistry emphasises on practical work, it is necessary that
certain rules are followed to ensure safety in the Chemistry laboratory. The two
common causes of accidents in the laboratory are ignorance and carelessness.
Accidents are minimised when safety rules are followed.
All chemicals with environmental and health impacts must be stored in well
labelled containers with appropriate safety warning symbols clearly visible.
A well labelled chemical container.
Laboratory safety rules

1. NEVER run while in the laboratory because you may trip, fall and injure
yourself or other users of the laboratory.
2. NEVER taste or eat anything in the laboratory to avoid poisoning.
3. Always consult your teacher before trying any experiment to avoid
accidents.
4. Label all the chemicals you are using to avoid confusion.
5. Always use a clean spatula for scooping a substance from a container to
prevent contamination.
6. Always hold test-tubes or boiling tubes using a test-tube holder when
heating to avoid being burned.
7. When heating a substance in a test tube or boiling tube, NEVER let the open
end face you or anybody else because the liquid may spurt out and cause
injury.
8. NEVER look directly into flasks and test-tubes where reactions are taking
place, because the chemicals may spurt into your eyes and cause injury.
9. NEVER smell gases directly, instead waft the gas towards your nose with
your hand.
10. Experiments in which poisonous gases are produced must be carried out in a
fume cupboard or outdoors.
11. Always keep flammable substances away from flames because they easily
catch fire.
12. Report any accidents to the teacher or the laboratory technician immediately
for necessary action.
13. In case of a serious accident such as fire, calmly walk out, DONT
SCRAMBLE for the exit. Doing so would hinder easy escape.
14. Always extinguish flames that are not in use to avoid accidents and
minimise fuel wastage.
15. If a chemical gets on your skin or in your mouth rinse it immediately with a
lot of clean water.
16. Chemicals already used must always be disposed off safely to avoid
contamination.
17. Always work on a clean bench. Clean all the pieces of apparatus used and
store them at the end of each experiment.
18. Other safety regulations such as use of gloves , safety goggles, gas masks
and laboratory coats should be adhered to as required.
Summary
1. Chemistry is the study of the structure, properties and composition of
matter and the changes that matter undergoes.
2. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
3. A drug is any substance, natural or manufactured which when used
alters the way the body functions.
4 Drug abuse is the use of a drug for a purpose other than that for which it
is meant.
5. A laboratory is a special room or building where experiments are carried
out.
6 Glass and plastic are prefered for most laboratory apparatus because
they are unreactive.
7. Chemistry laboratory apparatus can be grouped according to use e.g.
apparatus for measuring volume, mass, time and temperature.
8. A bunsen burner is the most appropriate source of heat for routine
laboratory experiments.
9. Most accidents in the laboratory are due to ignorance and carelessness.
Laboratory safety rules must be observed at all times.
Revision exercise
1. (a) Name three frequently abused drugs.
(b) State two long-term effects of drug abuse.
2. Name four career opportunities open to a Chemist.
3. Explain why most laboratory apparatus are made of glass.
4. The following diagram represents a non-luminous flame of the Bunsen
burner.
(a) Name the parts of the flame labelled A, B and C.

(b) Which of the parts in (a) above is the hottest?
(c) A non-luminous flame is preferred for heating. Explain.
(d) (i) Name the other type of flame produced by a Bunsen burner.
(ii) Under what conditions does the Bunsen burner produce the flame
you have named in d (i)?
5. (a) After use, a non-luminous flame should be put off or adjusted to a
luminous flame. Explain.
(b) Putting off flames after use is one of the safety rules in the laboratory.
State five other rules.
6. State what students should do in case of a major accident such as fire
outbreak in the Chemistry laboratory.
CHAPTER TWO
SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES
In our daily lives, substances such as sugar, salt, clean water and soap are used.
These are final products obtained through processes such as separation from
mixtures and purification. Indeed most other products undergo similar processes
before they can be used.
In order to achieve this, substances have to be grouped together according to
shared characteristics and properties. The process of grouping together
substances with similar properties is called classification. Knowledge about
properties can be applied to obtain pure substances from mixtures.
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define mixture, element, atom, molecule, compound, melting point, boiling point and sublimation.
• Write chemical symbols of common elements and identify the constituents of compounds.
• Determine purity of a substance and use seperation techniques to obtain pure substances.
• Differentiate (i) permanent and non permanent changes (ii) physical and cchemical changes.
• Explain the arrangement of particles of matter in the three physical states in term of the kinetic theory of
matter.
Mixtures
As discussed earlier matter can be classified into solids, liquids and gases. In
nature, matter exists often as mixtures in various combinations. Fig. 2.1 is a flow
chart representing the various categories of mixtures.
Separation of solid-solid mixtures

In primary school science, methods of separating solid-solid mixtures such as
picking and winnowing were studied. The choice of each method depended on
the size of the particles in the mixture. Size is a physical property. The method
chosen to separate a given mixture depends on the physical properties of the
components of the mixture. In this section, other methods of separating solid-
solid mixtures will be studied.
Experiment 2.1: How can a mixture of iron filings and sulphur be

separated?
Place the mixture provided on a piece of white paper and spread it out. Examine
the mixture carefully and note its appearance. Hold a magnet above the mixture
and observe what happens.
Fig 2.1: Table summarising types of mixtures.

1. Describe the colour of the mixture.
2. What is observed when a magnet is held above the mixture?
3. What is the colour of the solid;
(a) attracted by the magnet?
(b) left on the paper?
4. Which substance is:
(a) sulphur?
(b) iron? Explain
Discussion
The mixture provided is grey-yellow in colour. When a magnet is held above the
mixture, the grey particles are attracted leaving a yellow powder on the paper.
The grey substance attracted by the magnet is iron and the yellow substance left
on the paper is sulphur.
A mixture of iron and sulphur can be separated by use of a magnet because
iron is magnetic whereas sulphur is not. This method is applied in industries
such as iron recycling, glass recycling and flour mills to remove iron particles.
NOTE
Recycling involves collecting and reprocessing used items into new products. Recycling saves on energy,
money and keeps environment clean.
Experiment 2.2: How can a mixture of sodium chloride and iodine

be separated?
Examine the mixture provided and record your observation. Place a spatula full
of the mixture in a 100ml glass beaker. Place the beaker on a tripod stand. Cover
the beaker with a watch glass containing cold water. Heat the beaker gently until
there is no further change. Carefully remove the watch glass from the beaker.
Pour out the water from the watch glass and observe the lower surface. Examine
the solid left in the beaker and record your observation.
Fig 2.2: Separation of a mixture of iodine and sodium chloride.

1. Describe the appearance of the mixture.
2. What is observed inside the beaker as heating continues?
3. What is the colour of the:
(a) solid left in the beaker?
(b) solid formed on the surface of the watch glass?
4. Explain how the solid on the surface of the watch glass is formed.
CAUTION
Iodine vapour is harmful. Experiment should be conducted out–doors or in a well ventilated room.
NOTE
Sodium Chloride is soluble while iodine is slightly soluble in water. Therefore dissolving and evaporation
would result into a sample of sodium chloride that has traces of iodine.
Discussion
The mixture contains white and shiny-black crystals. As the beaker is heated, a
purple vapour is observed. On cooling, the purple vapour forms shiny black
crystals on the surface of the watch glass. White crystals remain in the beaker.
The shiny black crystals are iodine crystals whereas the white crystals are
sodium chloride.
When solid iodine is heated, it changes directly into vapour (the purple vapour
seen). The vapour cools to form solid iodine on the cold watch glass. The
process where a substance changes from solid to vapour directly or vapour to
solid without forming the liquid is known as sublimation. The solid formed
when the vapour cools is known as a sublimate. It is possible to separate a
mixture of iodine and sodium chloride because iodine sublimes while sodium
chloride does not.
Other substances that sublime are anhydrous iron (III) chloride, aluminium
chloride, benzoic acid and carbon (IV) oxide (dry ice).
“Dry ice” Pedal cart.
Application
Dry ice is used in cold boxes by ice cream vendors. Dry ice is preferred over
ordinary ice because it sublimes leaving no wetness. It is also a better coolant
compared to ordinary ice.
Solid-liquid mixtures
There are two categories of solid-liquid mixtures. In one category, the solid
dissolves in the liquid and is said to be soluble. In the other category the solid
does not dissolve (insoluble) resulting to an insoluble solid-liquid mixture.
Experiment 2. 3: What happens when solids are mixed with liquids?

Pour about 10cm3 of water into a test-tube. Add to it half a spatulaful of sodium
chloride and shake well. Repeat the experiment with sugar, sand, sulphur, oxalic
acid crystals, potassium nitrate, iodine and naphthalene respectively. Repeat the
experiment using 10cm3 of propanone (acetone) as the liquid in place of water.
Record your results in a table 2.1. indicating whether soluble or insoluble.
CAUTION
Propanone should not be handled in the presence of any flames because it is flammable (catches fire easily).
Table 2.1: Solubility of different substances in water and propanone
Solubility in
Substance
Water Propanone
Sugar
Sodium chloride

1. From the experiment,
(a) Which substance dissolved in;
(i) water?
(ii) propanone?
(b) Which substances did not dissolve in;
(i) water?
(ii) propanone?
2. Which substances dissolved in both water and propanone?
Discussion
When each substance is mixed with water and propanone separately, it is found
that sodium chloride, sugar, potassium nitrate, and oxalic acid crystals dissolve
in water. Naphthalene, sugar and oxalic acid dissolve in propanone. Oxalic acid
and sugar dissolve in both water and propanone. Naphthalene, sand and sulphur
did not dissolve in water. Sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, sand and sulphur
did not dissolve in propanone. Sand and sulphur did not dissolve in both water
and propanone. Substances that dissolve in a liquid are said to be soluble, while
substances that do not dissolve are insoluble. When a substance dissolves in a
liquid, the substance is called a solute and the liquid is called a solvent. The
resulting mixture is called a solution. When the solution is stirred, it forms a
homogeneous mixture.
NOTE
Homogenous mixture is a mixture in which the solute and solvent particles are evenly distributed.
Separation of insoluble solid-liquid mixtures
Experiment 2.4 (a): How can sand be separated from water-sand

mixture?
Transfer 10cm3 of the mixture provided into 100ml beaker. Allow the mixture to
settle and carefully pour the liquid into another beaker. See figure 2.3. Preserve
the contents of beaker 2 for experiment 2.4 (b).
Fig 2.3: Decantation

1. How clear is the water collected in the second beaker?
2. Why is the method not good in separating such a mixture?
Discussion
Sand is insoluble in water. When a mixture of sand and water is allowed to
stand, the sand settles at the bottom. The water can then be poured off carefully.
This method of separation is called decantation. It is used in separating
insoluble solids from liquids. However, it is not efficient because some solids
still pass into the liquid in the process of decanting. That is why the water
collected in the second beaker is not clear. It still contains small suspended
particles.
Experiment 2.4 (b): Which other method can be used to separate

sand from water?
Fold a filter paper into a cone shape as shown in figure 2.4 (a). Place the filter
paper in the funnel. Pour the mixture from experiment 2.4 (a) carefully on the
filter paper and collect the liquid in a conical flask as shown in figure 2.4 (b).
Fig 2.4 (a): How to fold a filter paper

1. What do you observe at the end of the experiment?
2. State an advantage of this method over decantation.
Fig 2.4 (b): Filtration
Discussion
Fine sand particles are trapped and collect on the filter paper. The solid particles
that are left on the filter paper are called a residue.
Water collected in the conical flask is clear because the filter paper does not
allow solid particles to pass through. The liquid collected in the conical flask is
called a filtrate. This method of separation is known as filtration.
A Domestic water filter.
Filtration is used on a large scale in water purification plants. Dirty water is

allowed to pass through a filter bed made of layers of gravel and sand.
Suspended particles are trapped by the gravel and sand while the water passes
through. Domestic water filters use the same principle.
Separation of soluble solid-liquid mixtures
Experiment 2.5: How can sodium chloride be obtained from a

mixture of sodium chloride and water?
Put 10cm3 of sodium chloride solution provided into an evaporating basin. Heat
the evaporating basin until crystals start forming.
Transfer the evaporating basin on to a water bath as shown in figure 2.5 and
continue heating to dry the crystals. Once dry, allow the crystals to cool.
Fig 2.5 Evaporation using a water bath.
NOTE
A sand bath may be used in place of a water bath but it takes long to be heated up. However it retains heat
much longer than the water bath.

1. Why was the evaporating basin containing the mixture heated?
2. Why was the evaporating basin transferred to the water bath?
Discussion
Sodium chloride (common salt) is soluble in water therefore cannot be separated
by decantation or filtration. The evaporating basin is heated to drive away water
into the atmosphere. This process is known as evaporation. When crystals start
forming the evaporating basin is transferred to a water bath so that the salt does
not spit out of the basin as heating continues. This process is used to obtain salt
from sea water.
Experiment 2.6: How can a mixture of sand and sodium chloride be
separated?
Put a mixture of sand and sodium chloride in a beaker. Add water to it and warm
while stirring. Allow the mixture to cool.
Filter the mixture using a filter paper and collect the filtrate on an evaporating
basin. Evaporate the water until crystals start forming. Allow the solution to cool
for more crystals to form.
NOTE
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a solution. Evaporation is used to separate a solute
from a solvent.

1. What was the residue left on the filter paper?
2. Name the substances contained in the filtrate.
3. Explain how sodium chloride would be recovered from the filtrate?
4. Which methods were used to separate the mixture?
Discussion
Sand is insoluble in water and is separated by filtration. It is collected as the
residue on the filter paper. Sodium chloride is soluble in water and is contained
in the filtrate. Therefore, to recover the sodium chloride, evaporation is carried
out. The hot concentrated filtrate is then cooled to allow more crystals of sodium
chloride to form.
Both filtration and evaporation methods were used in this experiment to
separate the mixture.
Experiment 2.7: How can copper (II) sulphate crystals be obtained

from copper (II) sulphate solution?
Put 10cm3 of concentrated copper (II) sulphate solution into an evaporating
basin. Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 2.6.
Fig 2.6: Obtaining crystals from copper (II) sulphate solution.
NOTE
For large crystals of copper (II) sulphate to form, the evaporation process must be slow.
Using a water bath. Heat the solution to evaporate excess water. As heating
continues, dip a glass rod into the solution regularly and allow it to cool in the
air. When crystals start forming on the glass rod, remove the evaporating basin
from the water bath and allow it to cool. Record the observations.

1. Why is the glass rod dipped in the solution while heating continues?
2. What observations are made when the solution cools?
Discussion
The glass rod is dipped into the solution to find out whether the solution can
form crystals on cooling. When crystals form on the glass rod, this is an
indication that the solution is ready to form crystals. At this point the solution is
said to be saturated. A saturated solution is one in which no more solute can
dissolve at a given temperature. The process of obtaining crystals from a
saturated solution is known as crystallisation. This method can be used to
separate most soluble substances from their solutions.
A worker at a Salt extraction pan.
Application
1. Extraction of salt from salty water e.g Lake Magadi and Ngomeni in
Malindi.
2. Extraction of sugar from sugar cane.
3. Extraction of medicinal substances from plants.
Experiment 2.8: How can a solvent be obtained from a solution?

Place about 20cm3 of sodium chloride solution in a boiling tube or a round-
bottomed flask. Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 2.7. Heat the solution
until all the solvent has evaporated. Record your observation.
Place about 20cm3 of the sodium chloride solution on a watch glass. Place the
watch glass on a water bath. Heat the sodium chloride solution to dryness.
Remove the watch glass from the water bath and allow it to cool. Record your
observations.
Place the liquid collected in tube B on another watch glass. Place the watch
glass on the water bath. Heat the liquid to dryness. Allow the watch glass to
cool. Record your observation.
Fig. 2.7: Set- up for simple distillation.

1. What is observed in the delivery tube as the solution boils?
2. What is the purpose of cold water in the beaker?
3. What is observed in test state tube A after all the solvent has evaporated.
4. What is observed on the watch glass containing:
(i) sodium chloride solution?
(ii) liquid from test state tube B when heated to dryness? Explain.
Discussion
The steam passes through the delivery tube where some of it condenses on the
cooler parts of the delivery tube to a colourless
liquid. The steam is cooled and condenses to liquid water in test state tube B.
The cold water in the beaker therefore acts as a coolant.
A white solid remains in tube A. The white solid is sodium chloride. This
method of separating a solute from a solvent is called simple distillation. The
liquid collected in tube B is called a distillate.
NOTE
Distilation is the process of evaporating a liquid from a solution and condensing the vapour produced back
into liquid.
When sodium chloride solution is placed on a watch glass and evaporated to

dryness, a white residue is left behind. When the distillate is placed on a watch
glass and evaporated, no residue remains. This shows that the distillate no longer
contains dissolved sodium chloride.
To improve the condensation process, a Liebig condenser is used as shown in
figure 2.8.
Fig 2.8: Simple distillation with Liebig condenser.
Liquid-liquid mixtures
There are two types of liquid-liquid mixtures namely immiscible and miscible
liquids.
Immiscible liquids do not mix but form distinct layers. Examples of such
mixtures are vegetable oil and water, kerosene and water. Miscible liquids mix to
form a homogenous mixture. Examples are water and ethanol, water and milk.
Separating Immiscible Liquids

Experiment 2.9: How can immiscible liquids be separated?
Fig 2.9 (a): The separating funnel in use.
Put 10cm3 of coloured water in a conical flask. Add 10cm3 of kerosene and
shake well. Transfer the mixture into a separating funnel as shown in figure 2.9
(a). Allow the mixture to stand for a while and observe. Remove the stopper.
Open the tap of the separating funnel and allow the bottom layer to flow into a
beaker. Discard the interphase leaving the top layer in the separating funnel.
1. Which layer is at the top in the separating funnel? Explain
2. Explain why the interphase was discarded.
3. Which other method could be used to separate the two layers?
NOTE
Interphase is the boundary between water and kerosene.
Discussion
A mixture of water and kerosene is immiscible. The water is coloured to
distinguish it from kerosene.
Kerosene floats on water because it is lighter. The interphase contains both water
and Kerosene. It is discarded because it is not easy to separate the two liquids at
the interphase. Immiscible liquids are separated by use of a separating funnel.
Decantation can also be used to separate immiscible liquids but it is not efficient.
See figure 2.9 (b)
Fig 2.9 (b): Decanting in liquids.
NOTE
A burette may be used to separate the immiscible liquids.
A dropper can also be used to separate immiscible liquids by sucking the upper
layer. The dropper is used to suck one layer transferring it to another beaker
repeatedly. This method too is not accurate. See figure 2.9 (c).
Fig 2.9 (c): Use of the teat pipette in separation of immiscible liquids
Separating Miscible Liquids

Experiment 2.10: How can a mixture of water and ethanol be
separated?
Place 20cm3 of ethanol on a watch glass and ignite. Record your observations.
Place 20cm3 of water in a round-bottomed flask. Add 20cm3 of ethanol and
shake the mixture. Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 2.10.
Fig 2.10: Separating miscible liquids.
Heat the mixture gently and note the temperature changes. Collect the distillate
in the conical flask. Transfer a little distillate on a watch glass and light it.
Record your observations.
NOTE
Ethanol should not be close to the flame since it is flammable.

1. Why is it possible to separate ethanol from water?
2. Explain the role played by the fractionating column.
3. State the role of the glass beads in the fractionating column.
4. At what temperature does ethanol distil off?
5. What would happen if the inlet and outlet were exchanged in the Liebig’s
condenser?
Discussion
Water and ethanol are miscible liquids. They are separated because they have
different boiling points. Pure ethanol boils at 78.2°C while pure water boils at
100°C at sea level. When the mixture is heated, ethanol boils off first at about
78°C, and is collected as the first fraction of the mixture.
The temperature remains fairly constant until the ethanol distils off. At this
stage the temperature starts rising and the distillate collected thereafter is mainly
water as a second fraction. This process of separation is called fractional
distillation. The purpose of the fractionating column is to allow water vapour to
condense into liquid and flow back into the flask before the boiling point of
water is reached. The glass beads increase the surface area for condensation.
Fractional distillation is used to separate miscible liquids that have different but
close boiling points.
A Liebig condenser uses the counter flow principle to cool the vapour
efficiently. If the inlet and outlet were exchanged in the Liebig condenser,
condensation would still occur but less efficiently.
Applications
1. Distillation of:
(a) crude oil to obtain fractions such as diesel, petroleum, cooking gas. (Kenya
Petroleum Refinery in Changamwe, Mombasa),
(b) recycling of used oil (at Athi River and Kikuyu town).
2. Liquid air in the manufacture of nitrogen and oxygen. (British Oxygen
Company, BOC)
Oil storage tanks at an oil refinery.
Experiment 2.11: How can oil be extracted from nuts and seeds?
Crush about 20 groundnut seeds in a mortar using a pestle. Continue crushing
the nuts while adding propanone a little at a time. Decant the resulting solution
into an evaporating basin. Leave the solution in the sun for sometime. Put a drop
of the residual liquid on a piece of paper and hold the paper against light. Record
your observations. Cashew nuts, coconuts, castor oil seeds, sunflower seeds and
cotton seeds may also be used.

1. What is the role of propanone in the experiment?
2. Explain why water is not used as a solvent in this experiment.
3. Why is the solution left in the sun?
NOTE
Solvent extraction, also known as liquid-liquid extraction is a process that allows the separation of two or
more components due to their unequal solubilities. The solvent, also known as an extractant is chosen to
selectively extract a certain component from a mixture.
Discussion
Groundnuts, cashew nuts and coconuts contain oil which is useful. The oil can
be extracted using a suitable solvent such as propanone. The nuts are first
crushed to increase the surface area in contact with the solvent. Water which is a
common solvent cannot be used in this extraction because it will not dissolve oil.
Once the oil has dissolved in the propanone the solution is left in the sun for
the solvent to evaporate. The oil having a higher boiling point than the solvent is
left in the evaporating dish. This method of extraction is known as solvent
extraction. Oils leave a translucent patch on paper. This can be used as a simple
test for their presence. Oil obtained this way can be made more pure by washing
the product in water and separated from the water using a separating funnel.
Applications
1. Extraction of:
(i) oil from nuts and seeds.
(ii) natural dyes from plants.
(iii) some herbal medicines from plants
(iv) caffeine from tea and coffee
2. In dry-cleaning to remove dirt.
Separation of Coloured substances

Naturally occurring substances may contain several pigments (colours). For
example green grass has several pigments.
Experiment 2.12: How can a mixture of pigments be separated?

Crush some green leaves or grass in a mortar using a pestle. Add propanone as
you continue crushing the leaves.
Decant the extract into a beaker. Place a filter paper on top of an empty
beaker. Using a dropper place one drop of the extract at the centre of the filter
paper and allow it to spread as far as possible. Add a second and third drop at the
same spot. Each time allow the extract to spread as far as possible.
Once the spot of the extract has stopped spreading, add the solvent drop-wise
each time allowing the solvent to spread. Continue adding the solvent until it
spreads out close to the edge of the filter paper. Draw the diagram of the filter
paper showing the results obtained.
Fig 2.11: How to conduct a simple paper chromatography.

1. What is observed at the end of the experiment?
2. How many pigments are there in green leaves extract?
3. Explain how the pigments separate?
NOTE
Adsorption involves the binding of molecules or particles of a gas or liquid to the surface of a solid. It is a
temporary and reversible process. It differs from absorption, the filling of pores in a solid.
Discussion
The colouring matter in green leaves is composed of different substances.
Propanone is used to dissolve the colouring matter. Each coloured substance has
a different solubility in propanone and a different extent of adsorption on the
filter paper (adsorbent material). As the propanone spreads the pigments which
are more soluble and less adsorbed are carried furthest while the less soluble and
more adsorbed are left behind; as a result separation takes place. The furthest
point where the solvent reaches on the adsorbent material is called the solvent
front.
This method of separation is called chromatography. Chroma means colour
and chromatology means study of colours. The coloured matter in leaves
separates into two distinct pigments; a green colour due to a substance called
chlorophyll and a yellow colour due to xanthophylls. The dry filter paper
showing the separated pigments is called chromatogram. Xanthophyll is more
soluble and less adsorbed.
Chromatography can be used to determine the presence of a substance in a
mixture by comparing it with a pure substance. The suspect mixture is placed on
an adsorbent medium alongside the pure substance on the same baseline as
shown in figure 2.12 (a).
Fig 2.12 : Strip ready for ascending paper chromatography.

The paper strip is then placed in a beaker containing a solvent as shown in figure
2.13 (a).
The solvent is allowed to ascend to the top (solvent front) and the paper is then
removed and allowed to dry. The position of the spots from the mixture and the
pure substance are noted and compared.
If any of the spots in the mixture moves the same distance as the spot in the pure
substance, then the mixture contains the pure substance as one of the
components. This procedure is known as ascending paper chromatography.
Figure 2.13 (b) shows a sample chromatogram.
Fig 2.13 Ascending paper chromatography.
Applications
1. In sports, chromatography, is used to identify banned substances, for
example steroids in urine or in blood samples.
2. In the pharmaceutical industry, to test purity of drugs.
3. In food industry, to identify contaminants in food and drinks.
4. In the cosmetics industry, to identify harmful substances.
Effect of Heat on Substances

States of Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter exists in three
physical states namely solid, liquid and gas. A substance can exist in any of the
three states depending on the prevailing temperature.
Experiment 2.13: What happens when naphthalene is heated?
Place a spatulaful of naphthalene in a boiling tube. Note the temperature of the
naphthalene. Place the boiling tube in a beaker of water as illustrated in figure
2.13. Heat the beaker. Record the temperature of the naphthalene every half a
minute throughout the experiment until all the solid has melted. Continue
heating for about two more minutes. Record the temperature readings as in table
2.2 and plot a graph of temperature against time.
Fig 2.14: Heating pure sample of naphthalene.
Table 2.2: Effect of heat on naphthalene.

1. What happens to naphthalene when it is heated? Explain.
2. Is there a temperature change as naphthalene is melting?
3. How does heating cause melting?
4. Explain how the change observed in the experiment can be reversed.
Discussion
When naphthalene is heated, its temperature rises steadily until it starts to melt.
At this point, the temperature remains constant until all the naphthalene has
melted then the temperature starts rising again. Heating in a water bath does not
allow the boiling point of naphthalene (218°C) to be attained and therefore
protects the thermometer from breaking.
NOTE
If a thermometer of 0 - 360°C range is used, naphthalene can be heated directly.
A sketch of the graph of temperature against time obtained when naphthalene

is heated to melting given in figure 2.15 (a). Such a graph is called a heating
curve.
If liquid naphthalene is allowed to cool, the reverse can be obtained. It is then
referred to as cooling curve.
Fig 2.15 (a) Graphical representation of heating and cooling curves of naphthalene
Region AB: The temperature increases steadily as the naphthalene absorbs

heat energy. The heat absorbed increases the kinetic energy of the
particles and they vibrate more vigorously.
Region BC: The temperature remains constant until all the naphthalene melts.
Here, the heat supplied is used to weaken the forces of attraction
holding the particles of naphthalene together. The particles
therefore move far apart. As a result, the naphthalene changes its
state from solid to liquid.
Region CD: Temperature rises steadily as the liquid naphthalene absorbs heat
energy. The heat supplied increases further the kinetic energy of
the particles causing them to move fast. Figure 2.15 (b)
represents a heating curve of a solid which is heated from room
temperature to boiling point.
Fig 2.15 (b): Heating curve of a pure substance.
Experiments 2.14: What happens when water is heated?

Put 10 cm3 of distilled water in a boiling tube. Measure and record the
temperature of the water. Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 2.16. Heat
the water gently and record its temperature every 30 seconds until it boils.
Continue heating the water after it has boiled for two more minutes. Record your
observations as in table 2.3. Draw a graph of temperature against time.
NOTE
The glass tubing ensures that there is no pressure build up in the boiling tube. Increased pressure causes an
increase in boiling point of the water. Water may not boil at 100°C because of variation in pressure from
place to place due to changes in altitude.
Fig 2.16 Heating water to boiling point.
Table 2.3: Effect of heat on water

1. What is observed when water is heated? Explain.
2. Is there a temperature change as water is boiling? Explain.
3. How does heating cause boiling of liquids?
NOTE
Boiling occurs through out a liquid at a fixed temperature. Evaporation. occurs only at the surface of a
liquid and at any temperature.
Discussion
When water is heated its temperature steadily increases as molecules absorb heat
energy, which increases their kinetic energy. The temperature of the water
continues to rise untill the water starts to boil.
The temperature of the water remains constant as it boils. This is because the
heat energy supplied is used to break the forces of attraction holding the particles
together. As a result some particles break free and the water changes from liquid
to gaseous state. The graph of temperature against time obtained when water is
heated to boiling is given in figure 2.17.
Fig 2.17 Graph showing temperature changes when water is heated to boiling point.
Change of state from solid to liquid and liquid to gas can be reversed by
cooling. On cooling, the gas condenses into liquid and finally the liquid freezes
into solid. These changes are shown in the flow diagram below.
The use of the thermometer enables us to observe that changes in the states of
matter are not accompanied by temperature changes. Some forces of attraction
hold together the particles which make up matter. Heating provides the energy
required to overcome these forces.
Some substances such as iodine do not undergo the above changes because
they sublime.
The explanation for the behaviour of matter in terms of the movement of

particles is provided by the kinetic theory of matter.
The Kinetic Theory of Matter

According to the theory, matter is made up of particles which are in a continuous
state of motion. The kinetic theory forms the basis of the theoretical model of
matter. Figure 2.18 shows the model in which circles represent small particles of
matter.
Fig 2.18: A theoretical model of matter.
In the solid state, the particles are closely packed together and can only vibrate
within fixed positions. They do not move from one point to another because
there are forces that hold them in these positions. When a solid is heated, the
kinetic energy of the particles increases and they begin to vibrate more
vigorously. At a certain temperature which is fixed for particular substance, the
forces holding the particles are weakened enough to allow the particles to change
position as a result the solid changes into a liquid. This temperature is known as
the melting point.
NOTE
The rate of evaporation of a liquid is highest at its boiling point.
In the liquid state, particles are not as close together as they are in the solid
state. They can move from one position to another within the liquid. This
explains why a liquid has no definite shape and will take the shape of the
container. However, a liquid has a definite volume. The particles exert some
attraction on one another and these forces of attraction make them to stay
together.
When a liquid is heated, the particles move more rapidly as the forces of
attraction are further weakened. The weakening continues until the particles gain
enough energy to overcome the forces between them. At this point, the liquid
boils as particles break free and enter the gaseous phase/state. The constant
temperature at which a pure liquid boils is called the boiling point and is fixed
for a particular substance. The temperature at which a liquid boils depends on
the external atmospheric pressure.
In the gaseous state the particles are far apart and free to move randomly in all
directions. This is why a gas does not have definite shape or volume but
occupies the whole space within a container.
When a gas is cooled the particles lose kinetic energy and hence slow down.
As they slow down they easily attract their neighbouring particles and move
close to form a liquid. This process is called condensation. Condensation occurs
at the same temperature as evaporation.
On further cooling of the liquid, the kinetic energy of the particles continues
to decrease and the particles take up fixed positions as the liquid solidifies. This
process is called freezing. Freezing takes place at the same temperature as
melting.
Effect of Impurities on Melting and Boiling Points of Substances

Experiment 2.15: What is the effect of impurities on melting point of
naphthalene?
Place a spatulaful of naphthalene on a clean piece of paper. Add a small amount
of camphor and mix them thoroughly. Put the mixture into a boiling tube.
Place the boiling tube in a beaker of water as shown in figure 2.19. Heat the
water gently and stir it continuously. Record the temperature after every half-
minute throughout the experiment. Note the temperature at which the mixture
starts to melt and when all of it has melted. Record the temperature readings as
shown in table 2.4 and plot the graph of the temperature against time.
Fig 2.9: Heating an impure sample of Naphthalene.
Table 2.4: Effect of impurities on melting and boiling points

1. At what temperature;
(a) does the impure naphthalene start melting?
(b) is the melting of the impure naphthalene complete?
2. Compare the temperature at which pure naphthalene and impure
naphthalene melts.
3. What effect do impurities have on the melting point?
Discussion
The melting point of pure naphthalene is 80.2°C. If camphor or another
substance is added as an impurity, the naphthalene melts over a temperature
range that is lower than the melting point of pure naphthalene. Impure
naphthalene does not have a sharp melting point. Impurities therefore lower the
melting point of substances.
The graph of temperature against time obtained for impure naphthalene when
heated to melting is given in figure 2.20.
Fig 2.20: Heating curve of impure naphthalene.
Applications
The lowering of melting point by impurities is applied in:
1. Clearing of ice from roads in temperate countries by spreading common salt
on the ice.
2. Extraction of metals from their molten compounds. For example, calcium
chloride is added to rock salt during the extraction of sodium from sodium
chloride.
Experiment 2.16: What is the effect of impurities on the boiling

point of water?
Put 5cm3 of distilled water into a boiling tube as shown in figure 2.21. Heat the
water gently and record the temperature at which it boils. Allow it to cool. Add a
spatulaful of sodium chloride (impurity) to the water. Measure and record the
temperature of the solution.
Repeat the experiment. Record the temperature at which the solution begins to
boil. Continue heating for a further two minutes recording after every half a
minute.
Fig 2.21: Effect of impurities on the boiling point of water.

1. At what temperature does:
(a) pure water boil?
(b) impure water boil?
2. What effect do impurities have on the boiling point?
Discussion
The boiling point of pure water is 100°C at sea level. The impure water starts to
boil at a temperature above 100°C. The temperature continues to rise as the
impure water boils. Thus the impure water boils over a range of temperature.
Impurities raise the boiling point of a liquid. The heating curves for pure and
impure water are shown in figure 2.22 (a) and (b).
Fig 2.22: Heating curves of pure and impure water.
Criteria of Purity
Pure substances melt and boil at constant temperatures that are specific for a
particular substance. Melting and boiling points are therefore used for
determining purity of substances.
Temporary and permanent changes

Substances undergo various changes when subjected to different conditions of
temperature. This section classifies and defines changes that take place in
substances.
Experiment 2.17: What happens when different solids are heated?

Put half a spatulaful of zinc oxide in a test-tube. Heat the test-tube until no
further change occurs. Allow it to cool. Record your observations as in table 2.5.
Repeat the experiment using wax, and iodine.
Table 2.5: Effect of heat on various substances
Observation
Solid
When heated On cooling
Zinc oxide
Wax
Iodine
Discussion
When zinc oxide is heated, its colour changes from white to yellow. On cooling,
the yellow solid turns white. This change can be represented as:
Wax melts on heating. When cooled, liquid wax changes back to solid.
When iodine is heated, the shiny black solid turns to a purple vapour. When
cooled, the purple vapour changes back to the shiny black solid.
Heating zinc oxide, wax and iodine does not result in the formation of a new
substance. Cooling, reverses the changes these substances undergo. A change
which can easily be reversed and in which no new substance is formed is called
a temporary physical change. The following are the characteristics of
temporary physical changes.
(a) They are easily reversible.
(b) No new substance is formed.
(c) The mass of the substance does not change.
(d) They are not accompanied by net heat change.
Experiment 2.18: What happens when copper (II) sulphate crystals

are heated?
Put a spatulaful of copper (II) sulphate crystals in a dry boiling tube and set-up
the apparatus as shown in figure 2.23. Heat the copper (II) sulphate gently until
there is no further change. Disconect the delivery tube, continue heating for a
while, then stopper the boiling tube. Allow it to cool and record your
observations. Divide the solid into two portions. Put the portions into two
separate test-tubes. Put a thermometer into the first test tube. Measure and record
the temperature of the solid. Using a dropper, add about three to four drops of
tap water into the test tube. Take the temperature of the resultant mixture. Place a
thermometer into the second portion, measure and record the temperature of the
solid. Add two to three drops of the liquid collected during heating. Take the
temperature of the resultant mixture. Repeat the experiment using cobalt (II)
chloride crystals.
Fig 2.23: Heating of copper sulphate crystals.

1. What is observed when:
(a) copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated?
(b) cobalt (II) chloride crystals are heated?
2. What is observed:
(a) when a few drops of tap water are added to the solid products in 1(a)
and (b)?
(b) the liquid collected in 1(a) and (b) is added to the residue in each case
respectively?
3. Identify the liquid collected in the above experiment.
4. Classify the changes.
NOTE
A temporary change may be physical or chemical. In a temporary physical change, no new substance is
formed. In a temporary chemical change new substances are formed. However the reactions are reversible if
the conditions are reversed.
Discussion
Crystals of copper (II) sulphate contain water of crystallisation. It is said to be
hydrated. When heated it decomposes to produce white copper (II) sulphate
powder and water. The white copper (II) sulphate powder does not contain water
of crystallisation and is said to be anhydrous.
The white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate does not regain the original blue
colour on cooling.
Similarly pink cobalt (II) chloride decomposes to form blue anhydrous cobalt
(II) chloride and water vapour.
The blue cobalt (II) chloride does not regain the pink colour on cooling.
The decomposition of a substance when it is heated is referred to as thermal

dissociation.
Heat is evolved when a little water is added to the anhydrous copper sulphate or
the blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride. The anhydrous substances become
hydrated and regain their original colour.
Heating hydrated copper (II) sulphate or hydrated cobalt (II) chloride results
into a temporary chemical change. The characteristics of temporary chemical
change are:
(a) A new substance is formed.
(b) Heat energy is evolved or absorbed.
(c) There is change in mass.
(d) The change can be reversed.
CAUTION
Small quantities of copper (II) Nitrate and Potassium Manganate (VII) should be used as the fumes
produced on heating could be harmful when inhaled.
Experiment 2.19: What happens when copper (II) nitrate is heated?

Weigh a dry test tube. Put a half spatulaful of copper (II) nitrate crystals in the
test-tube and weigh. Heat the copper (II) nitrate crystals gently and then strongly.
Record your observations. Test the gas evolved with a glowing splint. Allow the
product to cool and then re-weigh. Repeat the experiment using potassium
manganate (VII).

1. What is observed when,
(a) copper (II) nitrate is heated?
(b) potassium manganate (VII) is heated?
2. Explain why there are changes in mass after heating in both cases.
Discussion
When copper (II) nitrate is heated it decomposes to form a black solid and a
mixture of gases. The black solid is copper (II) oxide. The mixture of gases
consists of a red brown gas and another gas which relights a glowing splint. The
red brown gas is nitrogen (IV) oxide while the gas which relights the glowing
splint is oxygen.
The mass of copper (II) oxide is found to be less than that of copper (II)
nitrate because the gaseous products escaped into the atmosphere.
Potassium manganate (VII) decomposes to form a black-green solid and a
colourless gas, which relights a glowing splint. The black-green solid is a
mixture of black manganese (IV) oxide and green potassium manganate (VI).
The black-green solid weighs less than the original potassium manganate (VII).
The decomposition of copper (II) nitrate and potassium manganate (VII) are
examples of permanent chemical changes. Permanent chemical changes have
the following characteristics.
(a) New substances are formed.
(b) The change is irreversible.
(c) The change is accompanied by change in mass.
(d) Heat energy is released or absorbed.
Constituents of Matter
In the preceeding discussions, matter has been classified as solid, liquid or gas.
Pure substances can be classified as elements or compounds.
Elements
Elements are pure substances which can not be split into simpler substances by
chemical means. Examples of elements include oxygen, hydrogen, copper,
sulphur, carbon and iron. There are over a hundred known elements.
Elements are made up of atoms. The atom is defined as the smallest particle
of an element, which can take part in a chemical change. Atoms of the same
element are similar.
The atoms of some elements can not exist independently but join together to
form small groups of atoms. These discreet particles are called molecules. A
molecule is defined as the smallest particle of an element or compound, which
can exist separately.
Compounds
Experiment 2.20: What happens when a mixture of iron and
sulphur is heated?
Place half a spatulaful of fresh iron filings on a piece of paper. Take another
piece of paper and place on it a spatulaful of powdered sulphur. Examine the two
substances and note their colours. Mix them on one piece of paper and note the
colour of the mixture.
Hold a magnet above the mixture and observe what happens.
Place a small amount of this mixture in a crucible and heat strongly. Allow it to
cool. Observe its colour. Hold a magnet over it. Record your observations.

1. What is observed when the mixture is being heated?
2. What is the:
(a) colour of the new substance formed in the experiment?
(b) effect of the magnet on the new substance?
Discussion
Iron filings are grey in colour while sulphur is a yellow solid. When the two are
mixed, they form a mixture in which the elements (iron and sulphur) retain their
individual colours. When a magnet is held above the mixture, the iron filings are
attracted.
On heating the mixture strongly, a red glow spreads through the mixture. This
is due to the heat produced as a result of a chemical reaction-taking place. A
black solid is formed. The solid is not attracted by a magnet.
The black solid contains sulphur and iron chemically combined. When two or
more elements combine chemically they form a compound. A compound is a
pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined. The
compound formed when iron and sulphur chemically combine is called iron (II)
sulphide.
It is possible to tell which elements are present in a compound from its name.
Names ending in –ide means the compound is composed of two elements only.
e.g:
Sodium Chloride is made up of Sodium and Chlorine.
Iron (II) Sulphide is made up of Iron and Chlorine.
Calcium Nitride is made up of Calcium and nitrogen.
Calcium carbide is made up of Calcium and Carbon.
Sodium hydride is made up of Sodium and hydrogen.
An exception to this are the hydroxides.
Names ending in –ate means the compound is composed of three elements
one of which is oxygen. eg:
Sodium Sulphate is made up of sodium, sulphur and oxygen.
Sodium Carbonate is made up of sodium, carbon and oxygen.
Potassium chlorate is made up of potassium, chlorine and oxygen.
Calcium nitrate is made up of calcium, nitrogen and oxygen.
Exceptions to this rule are the hydrogen carbonates and hydrogensulphates.
Names ending in –ite means the compound is made up of three elements one
of which is oxygen. However, the amount of oxygen is less than in those
compounds whose names end in –ate e.g
Sodium Sulphite is made up of sodium, sulphur and oxygen.
Calcium Sulphite is made up of calcium, sulphur and oxygen.
Chemical Symbols
In Chemistry, elements are represented by letters. The letters are referred to as
chemical symbols. A chemical symbol of an element is usually the first letter or
the first and another letter of the element’s English or Latin name.
The first letter of a chemical symbol must always be a capital letter while the
second letter is always a small letter. Table 2.6 shows the chemical symbols of
some common elements.
Table 2.6 Symbols derived from first letter of name of element
Element Symbol
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Hydrogen H
Symbols of several elements may begin with the same letter. It is therefore
necessary to represent some of these elements with two letters as shown in the
following table. The second letter in a chemical symbol is always a small letter.
Table 2.7 Symbols derived from first and second letter of name of element
Elements Symbol
Calcium Ca
Cobalt Co
Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg
Manganese Mn
In some cases, the symbol of the element is derived from the element’s Latin
name as shown in the table below.
Table 2.8 Symbols derived from latin name of element
Element Latin name Symbol
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
Iron Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Copper Cuprum Cu
Chemical Equations
Iron and sulphur combine chemically to form iron (II) sulphide. In this process
iron and sulphur are referred to as the reactants whereas the iron (II) sulphide is
referred to as the product.
Chemical combination of elements is known as a reaction.
When a reaction is represented as shown, the representation is called a word

equation. In a chemical equation reactants are written on the left hand side of
the arrow sign while the products are written on the right hand side.
NOTE
When charcoal burns the mostly carbon material combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, the ash left
behind constitutes impurities in the charcoal. An example of a useful chemical reaction.
The forward arrow sign is used where the reactions are permanent and
proceed only in one direction. Two arrow signs in opposite directions are
used where the reactions are reversible. This means the reaction can proceed in
either direction.
NOTE
The plus sign on the reactants side means “react with.” The plus sign on the product side means “and”
The arrow sign between the reactants and the products means to “yield”.
1. Iron reacting with sulphur
2. Sulphur reacting with oxygen
3. Carbon reacting with oxygen

4. Sublimation of Iodine
Chemical reactions can also be represented using chemical symbols. This will
be studied in Pupils’ Book 2.
Summary
1. Matter exists in three physical states; solid, liquid and gas.
2. Liquids which do not mix with each other are said to be immiscible.
Those which mix are said to be miscible.
3. Fractional distillation is a method of separating miscible liquids with
different but close boiling points.
4. Oil in nuts and seeds can be obtained by solvent extraction.
5. A mixture of coloured substances is separated by chromatography.
6. Melting is the change from solid to liquid and freezing is the change
from liquid to solid. Both processes occur at the same temperature.
7. The kinetic theory of matter states that matter is made up of particles
which are in a continuous state of motion.
8. The particles in solids and liquids are held together by cohesive forces.
9. Melting and boiling points can be used to determine the purity of
substances.
10. An element is a substance made of one kind of atoms and can not be
split into a simpler substance by chemical means.
11. An atom is the smallest particle of an element, which can take part in a
chemical change.
12. A compound is a substance which is made up of two or more chemically
combined elements.
13. Changes in physical state are temporary changes. They are easily
reversed.
Revision Exercise
1. Explain the differences between solid, liquid and gaseous states using the
theoretical model of matter in terms of the kinetic theory.
2. The graph below shows the shape of the curve obtained by a student when
solid X was heated to boiling.
(a) (i) Determine the melting point of solid X.
(ii) State and explain what portions PQ, QR and RS represent.
(b) If candle wax was used in this experiment, the portions QR would not
be horizontal. What does this tell us about candle wax.
3. Name four examples of;

(a) mixtures
(b) compounds
(c) elements
4. Name the elements present in the following compounds.
(a) Sodium bromide
(b) Zinc sulphide
(c) Lead oxide
(d) Magnesium nitride
(e) Potassium iodide
5. Which of the following best shows two elements combining to form a
compound? Explain.
6. Name a solvent that can be used for the following:
(a) removing ink from clothes
(b) cleaning greasy hands
7. How can one separate and collect the solvent from a salt solution?
8. Explain how Elianto oil is obtained from maize seeds.
9. Give two examples of:
(i) temporary physical change.
(ii) temporary chemical change.
(iii) permanent change.
10. List three differences between temporary and permanent changes.
11. Spots of pure pigments A and B, and a mixture Z were placed on a filter
paper and allowed to dry. The paper was then dipped in a solvent. The
results obtained were as on the paper chromatogram.
(a) Which is the:

(i) base line?
(ii) solvent front?
(b) Which of the pure pigments was a component of Z? Explain.
(c) (i) Name a solvent that is used in paper chromatography.
(ii) Why is water not a suitable solvent in paper chromatography?
12. Write a word equation for the reaction between:
(i) carbon and oxygen
(ii) sodium and sulphur
(iii) copper and chlorine
CHAPTER THREE
ACIDS, BASES AND INDICATORS
Some of the foods that man eats are sour while others are bitter. The sour taste is
due to the presence of acids whereas the bitter taste is due to the presence of
bases. Examples of substances that contain acids are fruits such as oranges,
lemons and sour milk. Examples of substances that contain bases include anti-
acid tablets and wood ash solution.
Using taste to classify substances as acids or bases is not an accurate method.
There are however certain substances, which show different colours when in
acids or bases. Such substances are called indicators and they are used to
classify various substances as either acids or bases.
By the end of this Chapter, you should be able to:
• Define indicator, acid, base and pH.
• Prepare and use plant extracts as acid–base indicators.
• Describe and use the pH scale.
• Use indicators to identify acids and bases.
• State properties of acids and bases.
• Name the uses of acids and bases.
• State and explain the effects of acids.
Simple Acid-Base Indicators

Experiment 3.1: Can flower extracts be used as acid-base
indicators?
Crush the flower petals provided using mortar and pestle. Add a small amount of
ethanol or propanone. Continue crushing until a deep coloured solution of the
extract is obtained. Decant the extract into a beaker or a boiling tube. Place 2cm3
of each of the following substances into separate test-tubes and label
appropriately: hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, sulphuric acid, potassium
hydroxide, lemon juice, orange juice, lime water, wood ash, baking powder and
sugar. Add two to three drops of the flower extract into each test-tube and
classify the substances in the test-tube as acids or bases. Record your
observations as shown in table 3.1. Leave the mixtures to stand until the end of
the lesson.

1. (a) Does the flower extract give the same colour in all the solutions tested?
(b) Classify the solutions tested according to the colours observed on
addition of the flower extract.
(c) Do the colours remain the same after sometime? Explain.
The sharp, sour taste in lemons is due to citric acid.
Table 3.1: Use of flower extracts as acid-base indicators
Substance Colour of flower extract in the State whether acid or

substance base
Water
Hydrochloric
acid
Sodium
hydroxide
Discussion
Solutions of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, orange juice and lemon juice give
similar colour changes with the same flower extract. Lime water, solutions of
sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide, wood ash and baking powder give a
similar but different colour. Water and sugar solution have no effect on the
flower extract. They are neutral substances.
The extract from this common ornamental is an indicator, in some varieties

flower colour is a good indicator of soil pH.
The composition of flower extracts continuously changes with time causing

the colour of the extract to change. The mixture of the flower extract and acid or
base also changes colour with time. Flower extracts therefore give inconsistent
results when used as acid-base indicators.
For the best results flower extracts should be used when freshly prepared.
Other coloured parts of plants may also be used, for example tradescantia, red
cabbage and beetroot. In the Laboratory, commercial indicators, which give
more consistent results are used as acid base indicators.
Commercial Indicators
Experiment 3.2 (a): What is observed when litmus solution is added
to an acid, a base or a neutral solution?
Place 2cm3 of sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid and water into separate test-
tubes. Add two drops of litmus solution into each test-tube and record your
observations.
What is the colour of the litmus indicator in :
(i) an acid.
(ii) a base.
(ii) a neutral solution.
Discussion
Litmus indicator is red in an acid, blue in a base and retains its purple colour in a
neutral solution. Litmus indicator is one of the commonly used commercial acid-
base indicators. The indicator is also available in paper form as litmus paper.
Other commercial acid-base indicators include phenolpthalein and methyl
orange.
Experiment 3.2 (b): What is observed when some commercial

indicators are added to different solutions?
Take three test tubes and put 2cm3 of hydrochloric acid in each. To the first test-
tube, add two drops of litmus solution. To the second and third add two drops of
phenolphthalein and methylorange respectively. Record your observation as
shown in table 3.2.
Repeat the experiment using water, lemon juice, solutions or suspensions of
the following: soap, wood ash, baking powder, anti-acid tablets, toothpaste, sour
milk, ammonia, ammonium sulphate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide,
carbon (IV) oxide (carbon dioxide), sulphur (IV) oxide (sulphur dioxide),
sulphuric acid, nitric acid, calcium hydroxide and magnesium oxide.

1. Classify the substances as acidic, basic or neutral.
2. State the colour of each indicator in acid, base and neutral solutions.
Discussion
Phenolphthalein indicator is colourless in acidic, pink in basic and colourless in
neutral solution. Methyl orange indicator is pink in acidic, yellow in basic and
orange in neutral solution.
The colours obtained when the indicators used in the experiment are added to
solutions of various substances are shown in table 3.3 (a).
Table 3.2: Effect of various solutions on indicators
Table 3.3 (a): Effect of various solutions on indicators
The substances are classified as acidic, basic and neutral as shown in table 3.3
(b).
Table 3.3 (b): Various solutions classified as acidic, basic or neutral
Acidic solutions Basic solutions Neutral solutions

Hydrochloric acid Soap solution
Lemon juice Wood ash solution
Sour milk Baking powder
Ammonium sulphate Anti-acid tablet solution Water
Carbon (IV) solution Toothpaste Sodium chloride
Sulphur dioxide Ammonia solution
solution Sodium hydroxide solution
Sulphuric acid Calcium hydroxide solution
Nitric acid Magnesium oxide solution
Universal Indicators and the pH Scale

The acid-base indicators discussed so far provide no information about the
strength of an acid or a base. Some acids are strong while others are weak.
Likewise some bases are strong while others are weak.
The universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators. It exhibits a range of
colours in acids and in bases depending on the strength of the solution. These
shades of colours are related to a continuous acid-base scale called the pH scale.
The pH scale has values that range from 0 to 14.
Experiment 3.3: What are the pH values of some solutions?

Place 1cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid into a test-tube. Add one drop of the
universal indicator and observe the colour of the solution. Place the test-tube and
its contents against the pH chart and determine the pH value.
Repeat the experiment using distilled water, dilute solutions of ethanoic acid,
lemon juice, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, sodium hydrogen
carbonate, ammonia solutions, calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, wood ash
solution and soap solution respectively. Record the results as shown in table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Effects of acids and bases on the universal indicators
Solution Colour of universal indicator in the solution pH value

Sulphuric acid
Distilled water

1. What is the pH value of;
(a) distilled water?
(b) hydrochloric acid?
(c) sodium hydroxide?
2. Which substances are:
(i) acidic.
(iii) basic.
(ii) neutral.
3. Give the range of pH values for:
(a) acidic solutions.
(b) basic solutions.
Most pH indicator papers are sold with a pH colour Chart as the one shown here.
Discussion
The pH values of acids range from zero to values just less than seven. Solutions
of sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid have pH values which range
between 0 to 4 and are strong acids.
Lemon juice and ethanoic acid have pH value which range between 4 and 7,
and are weak acids.
As the pH values decreases from 7 to 0, the strength of the acids increases.
Distilled water and sodium chloride solution have a pH value of 7. They are
neither acidic nor basic and are neutral.
The pH values of bases range between 7 and 14. Solutions of ammonia,
calcium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate have pH values between 7
and 10. They are weak bases.
Solutions of wood ash, soap, and sodium hydroxide have pH values ranging
from 10 to 14. They are strong bases. The pH scale is shown in figure 3.1.
Fig 3.1: The pH scale.
Properties of Acids
Reactions of Acids with Metals
Experiment 3.4: What happens when dilute acids come into contact
with metals?
Put a granule of zinc in two test-tubes. Add 2cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to
the first test-tube as shown in figure 3.2.
Record your observations as shown in table 3.5. Repeat the procedure using
dilute sulphuric acid in place of dilute hydrochloric acid. Repeat the experiment
using clean magnesium ribbon, aluminium foil, iron filings, lead and copper
turnings instead of zinc.
CAUTION
Potassium, sodium and calcium should not be reacted with acid.
Fig 3.2: Reactions of acids with metals.

1. What is observed when dilute acids react with some metals?
2. How is the gas identified?
3. Name the metal or metals that did not react with both acids.
4. Write word equations for the reactions that took place in the experiment.
Table 3.5: Effects of acids on metals
Metal Observation with dilute

Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid
Zinc
Magnesium
NOTE
The intensity of the “pop” sound depends on the purity and amount of the gas mixed with air.
Discussion
When the dilute acids are added to zinc, magnesium, aluminium and iron,
bubbles of a colourless gas are evolved. The production of bubbles of a gas is
referred to as effervescence. The gas produced is hydrogen gas. The gas is tested
using a burning splint. A mixture of hydrogen and air burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
This is the test for hydrogen gas.
When dilute sulphuric acid is added to zinc granules, hydrogen gas and zinc
sulphate are produced. The reaction can be represented using a word equation.
Similarly, zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and
hydrogen gas.
Magnesium and aluminium react more vigorously with the acids than zinc.
An acid is a compound that reacts with metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
Very reactive metals like potassium, sodium and calcium react violently with
acids. The reaction of calcium with dilute sulphuric acid slows down and
eventually stops due to the formation of insoluble calcium sulphate. The
insoluble salt coats the metal and prevents further reaction.
Lead reacts slowly with both hydrochloric and sulphuric acids but each
reaction eventually stops due to the formation of insoluble coating of lead
chloride and lead sulphate respectively. Copper does not react with either dilute
hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid. The name of the salt can easily be
derived from the name of the acid as shown in table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Salts produced by magnesium with different acids
Dilute acid Metal Name of salt

Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride
Sulphuric acid Magnesium sulphate
Nitric acid Magnesium Magnesium nitrate
Carbonic acid Magnesium carbonate
Phosphoric acid Magnesium phosphate
Reaction of acids with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

Experiment 3.5: How do dilute acids react with carbonates and
hydrogen carbonates
Add a spatulaful of sodium carbonate into a test-tube containing about 5cm3 of
dilute hydrochloric acid. Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 3.3.
Fig 3.3: Action of acids on carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
Record the observation as shown in table 3.7. Repeat the procedure using dilute
sulphuric acid and dilute nitric acid in place of hydrochloric acid. Record the
observations. Repeat the procedure using calcium carbonate and sodium
hydrogen carbonate in place of sodium carbonate.
Table 3.7: Action of acids on carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

1. State the observations made in test tube A and B.
2. Which gas is involved in each case.
3. Explain the observations made when dilute sulphuric acid reacts with
calcium carbonate.
4. Write word equations for each of the reactions taking place.
Discussion
When carbonates or hydrogen carbonates are added to dilute acids, effervescence
occurs as the solid is used up. A colourless gas is produced. The colourless gas
produced is carbon (IV) oxide. When the carbon (IV) oxide gas is bubbled
through calcium hydroxide solution (lime water), a white precipitate is formed.
This is the test for carbon (IV) oxide. The white precipitate is calcium carbonate.
NOTE
If carbon (IV) oxide gas is bubbled through calcium hydroxide for a long time, the white precipitate
dissolves. This is due to the formation of the soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce a salt, water
and carbon (IV) oxide (carbon dioxide). The following word equations represent
some of the reactions between acids and carbonates or hydrogencarbonates.
Sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride + water + carbon
(IV) oxide
Calcium carbonate + nitric acid Calcium nitrate + water + carbon (IV)
oxide
Copper carbonate + Sulphuric acid Copper Sulphate + water + carbon
(IV) oxide
The general equations are;

Acid + carbonate Salt + Water + Carbon (IV) Oxide
Acid + Hydrogen carbonate Salt + Water + Carbon (IV) Oxide
The reaction between sulphuric acid and calcium carbonate stops after a short
while due to the formation of an insoluble layer of calcium sulphate which stops
further reaction.
Calcium carbonate + Sulphuric acid Calcium sulphate (solid) + water +
carbon (IV) oxide
Reactions of Acids with Bases

Experiment 3.6: How do dilute acids react with bases?
(a) Measure 10cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide solution and put it in a clean
conical flask. Add two to three drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Add
dilute hydrochloric acid drop by drop, while shaking the conical flask, count
the number of drops until the indicator just changes colour. Repeat without
adding the indicator. Add the same number of drops of hydrochloric acid to
10 cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide. Put the resulting solution in an
evaporating dish and heat the solution to saturate it. Allow the saturated
solution to cool. Record your observations.
(b) Place a small sample of calcium oxide into a test-tube. Add to it 5cm3 of
dilute nitric acid. Shake the mixture. Repeat the procedure using the
following solids in different test-tubes. Zinc oxide, copper (II) oxide,
magnesium oxide and lead (II) oxide. Record your observation as shown in
table 3.8. Repeat the experiment using dilute hydrochloric acid in place of
dilute nitric acid.
NOTE
Warming increases rate of reaction between the reactants. Therefore where a reaction does not seem to
occur, the mixture can be warmed gently to encourage reaction.
Table 3.8: Reaction of acids with bases
Name of solid Observation on adding

Dilute nitric acid Dilute hydrochloric acid
Calcium oxide
Zinc oxide
Copper (II) oxide
Magnesium oxide
Lead (II) oxide

1. (a) Why was it necessary to use an indicator in experiment 3.6 (a)?
(b) Why was the indicator not used subsequently? Explain.
2. (a) What colour change is observed at the end of the reaction?
(b) Write a word equation for the reaction.
4. What name is given to the type of reaction between acids and bases?
5. Write word equations for the reactions between metal oxides and the acids.
Discussion
Phenolphthalein indicator is used to determine the end of the reaction, end
point. The indicator is used to determine the quantity of acid needed to react
with 10cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide. It is not used in the next reaction to
avoid contamination of the product. The colour of phenolphthalein is pink in
basic solution. At the end point, the colour of the indicator in the solution turns
from pink to colourless.
NOTE
End point is attained when one of the reactants has been used up.
When acids react with bases, they form a salt and water as the only products.
Salt and water are neutral products hence the reaction is referred to as a
neutralisation reaction.
Sodium hydroxide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form sodium
chloride and water only.
The following are the word equations for the reactions between some metal
oxides and acids.
Calcium oxide + Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + water
Zinc oxide + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + water
Magnesium oxide + nitric acid Magnesium nitrate + water
Lead (II) oxide + nitric acid Lead nitrate + water
Copper (II) oxide + sulphuric acid copper sulphate + water
A base is a substance which when reacted with acids forms salt and water as the
only products. Metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia solution are bases.
The table below summarises the properties of acids and bases.
Table 3.9: Properties of acids and bases
Acids Bases
Have a sour taste Have a bitter taste
Have pH values below 7 Have pH values above 7
Turn litmus red Turn Litmus blue
Turn phenolphthalein colourless Turn phenolphthalein pink
Turn Methyl orange pink Turn methyl orange yellow
React with bases to form salt and React with acids to form salt
water only and water only.
React with carbonates to form
salt, water and carbon (VI) oxide
React with metals to produce
salt and hydrogen gas
Effects of Acids on Substances

Industries emit several gases and waste products into the environment leading to
environmental pollution. Some of these gases dissolve in rain water to form acid
rain. This rain reacts with stone work, iron roofs and other metallic surfaces
causing damage. This effect is called corrosion. When these acidic gases in the
atmosphere are inhaled they cause respiratory disorders.
A badly corroded wall, could this be the effect of pollution.
Soil may become acidic due to leaching and water logging. Such soil is
unsuitable for the growth of many plants.
Applications of Acids and Bases

Uses of acids
Carbonic Acid is used in aerated drinks to enhance taste.
Hydrochloric acid is used to clean metal surfaces.
Sulphuric acid is used in car batteries, manufacture of ferterlizers, etching of
metals, manufacture of paints and detergents.
Nitric acid is used to manufacture of dyes, paints, explosives and fertilizers.
Ethanoic acid and citric acid are used as a flavour in foods.
Table 3.11: Uses of bases
Base Use
Magnesium oxide and Manufacture of anti-acid tablets.
hydroxide Lining of furnaces.
Calcium oxide and hydroxide Neutralising soil acidity and industrial
wastes.
Making cement and concrete.
Manufacture of toothpaste.
Sodium hydroxide Manufacture of soap.
As a degreasing agent.
Ammonia solution As a degreasing agent.
Manufacture of fertilizers.
Manufacture of nitric acid.
Summary
1. An indicator is a substance, which gives a definite colour in an acidic
solution and a different definite colour in a basic solution.
2. Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators, which shows strengths of
acids or bases.
3. Acids react with some metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
4. Ammonia solution, metal oxides and metal hydroxides are bases.
5. Acids react with bases to produce salt and water only. This reaction is
called neutralisation.
6. Acids react with carbonates or hydrogen, carbonates to form salt, water
and carbon (IV) oxide.
Revision Exercise
1. (a) What are acid-base indicators?
(b) Give three examples of commercial acid-base indicators and state the
colours they show in acidic and basic solutions.
(c) What are the advantages of the universal indicators over other acid-base
indicators?
2. (a) What is a pH scale?
(b) State whether solutions with the following pH values are acidic, basic
or neutral:
pH = 3, pH = 6, pH = 2, pH = 12, pH = 7, pH = 8
(c) Which of the following pH values listed above is of:
(i) a strong acid?
(ii) a weak base?
(iii) a strong base?
(iv) a weak acid?
3. (a) Write word equations for the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid
and each one of the following:
(i) zinc metal.
(ii) calcium hydrogen carbonate.
(iii) magnesium oxide.
(iv) potassium hydroxide.
(b) Which of the reactions are neutralisation reactions?
4. Dilute sulphuric acid was added to a compound of magnesium P. The solid
reacted with the acid to form a colourless solution, Q and a colourless gas R
which formed a white precipitate when bubbled through lime water.
(a) Name:
(i) compound P.
(ii) solution Q.
(iii) colourless gas R.
(b) Write a word equation for the reaction that took place.
(c) State the observations that would be made if a similar compound of
calcium was used instead of magnesium. Explain.
CHAPTER FOUR
AIR AND COMBUSTION
Air sustains life on earth. Living organisms need air for respiration. Plants need
air for photosynthesis. Air is required for combustion of fuels to give energy.
By the end of this chapter , you should be able to:
• State the composition of air.
• Determine experimentally the percentage of oxygen in air by volume.
• Describe fractional distillation of air.
• Define combustion.
• Investigate the conditions for rusting and state the composition of rust.
• State the methods of preventing rusting.
• Prepare and investigate the properties of oxygen.
• Experimentally compare the rates of combustion of elements in air and in oxygen.
• State the nature of the products of burning elements in air and in oxygen.
• State the pollution effects of combustion.
• State the applications of the reactivity series.
Composition of air
Air is a mixture of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon (IV) oxide and water
vapour. Table 4.1 shows the approximate percentage composition by volume of
air.
Table 4.1 Approximate percentage composition of air
Component Percentage composition

Nitrogen 78.1
Oxygen 20.9
Carbon (IV) oxide 0.03
Noble gases 0.97
Water vapour Variable
Dust Variable
Experiment 4.1 (a): What percentage of air supports combustion

Put dilute sodium hydroxide solution in a trough. Place a small candle on a cork
and float it on the solution as shown in figure 4.1 (a) to (c). Cover it with a gas
jar. Mark on the gas jar, the level of the solution. Measure the height of the air
column and record it.
Remove the jar and light the candle. Gently cover the burning candle with the
gas jar. After the candle has gone off leave the apparatus to cool to room
temperature. Mark on the gas jar the final level of the solution. Measure and
record the height of the air column once more.
Remove the gas jar and measure the change in height. Record all your
observations.
Fig 4.1: Measurement of the amount of air that supports combustion.

1. Why does the candle go off after burning for some time?
2. Explain why the level of dilute sodium hydroxide solution rises in the gas
jar after the candle goes off.
3. What was the length of the air column in the gas jar before and after
burning?
4. Determine the percentage of air used up by the burning candle.
5. Why is sodium hydroxide preferably used in the experiment instead of
water?
6. State the sources of errors in the experiment.
7. Why is it necessary to leave the apparatus to cool before taking the final
reading?
NOTE
A thin candle of length 3cm produces better results in the experiment above.
Discussion
The candle burns for a while then it goes off. As the candle burns, it uses up the
active part of air in the fixed amount of air enclosed in the gas jar. This leaves a
partial vacuum in the jar. Greater atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of
the sodium hydroxide forces the solution up into the jar. The following are
sample results for a similar experiment.
Height of air column before burning = 16.0cm
Height of air column after burning = 12.9cm
Height of air used during burning = 3.1cm
Percentage of air by volume used up–
Combustion or burning is a process in which a substance combines with

oxygen with the production of heat. The part of air that supports combustion is
active air. The active part is oxygen, which forms about 20% of dry air by
volume. The part of air that remains in the gas jar does not support combustion.
The component of air that is inactive is mainly nitrogen.
The experimental result is not the same as the theoretical value of the
percentage of oxygen in air by volume. This is due to experimental error, which
may result from:
• The sodium hydroxide solution may not absorb all the carbon (IV) oxide gas.
• The candle may go off before all the oxygen is used up due to the build-up of
carbon (IV) oxide levels.
Dilute sodium hydroxide is preferably used instead of water to absorb carbon
(IV) oxide that was initially in the gas jar and that which is produced during
combustion.
Heating causes expansion of gases therefore the apparatus should be allowed
to cool before the final reading is taken.
NOTE
For this experiment, the combustion tube can be made from an ignition tube.
CAUTION
Always handle glass wool with a pair of tongs.
Experiment 4.1 (b): What proportion of air is used up when copper

is heated in a fixed volume of air?
Pack copper turnings in a long hard glass tube about 6cm long. Connect the tube
with two glass syringes as shown in figure 4.2 with one syringe containing a
specific volume of air while the other is empty.
Fig 4.2: Determination of the active part of air using copper.
Heat the copper turnings until they are red hot. Slowly pass the air from
syringe A through the hot turnings to syringe B and back. Repeat this process
while heating the copper turnings until the new volume of air in syringe A is
constant. Allow the glass tube to cool and record the volume of the gas in
syringe A.

1. What is the use of the glass wool plug in the experiment?
2. Why is the air passed through copper turnings
(a) slowly?
(b) repeatedly until there is no further change in volume?
3. (a) What is the volume of the air in syringe A;
(i) before heating?
(ii) after heating?
(b) Use the data obtained to calculate the;
(i) volume of air used up during the experiment.
(ii) percentage by volume of air used during the experiment.
4. Why does the volume of air in the syringe decrease?
5. State the sources of error in this experiment.
Discussion
Copper is a red-brown metal. When it is heated in air, it turns black. This is
because it combines with oxygen to form black copper (II) oxide. Below is a
word equation for the reaction.
The following are sample results for the experiment:

Volume of air in syringe A before heating = 7.5cm3
Volume of air in syringe A after heating = 6.0cm3
Volume of air used up during heating = 1.5cm3
About 20% by volume of air is used during combustion and the 80% of air left
does not react with heated copper.
In this experiment, the glass wool plug is used to stop the copper turnings
from being sucked into the syringes. The air is passed repeatedly over heated
copper to ensure that all oxygen in the syringes and tube is used up. The air is
passed slowly to allow enough time of contact between the reactants. The gas
left in the syringe does not react with copper. It is mainly nitrogen.
The possible sources of error in this experiment include:
(a) The air initially present in the tube is not accounted for.
(b) There is possible leakage of air.
(c) Not all the oxygen may have been used up.
Experiment 4.1 (c): What percentage of air is used when iron filings
rust?
Wet a measuring cylinder and sprinkle some iron filings on the wet surface.
Remove the excess iron filings. Invert the measuring cylinder in a trough of
water. Read the volume of air column in the measuring cylinder. Leave the set up
for 48 hours. Read and record the volume of the air column. Record all your
observations.
Fig 4.3: Determination of the amount of air used up during rusting of iron.

1. Why is the measuring cylinder made wet before sprinkling the iron filings?
2. State the observations made after 48 hours.
3. What percentage volume of air is used up in the experiment?
Discussion
The measuring cylinder is made wet to ensure that the iron filings stick onto the
wet surface. When iron filings are left for 48 hours in the measuring cylinder, a
brown coating is formed on the filings. The brown coating is rust. Rust is a
compound of iron and oxygen. During rusting, oxygen is used and therefore
water rises up in the measuring cylinder to replace the volume of air used during
rusting. About 20% of air by volume is used up during rusting.
CAUTION
Avoid getting into contact with phosphorous or inhaling its fumes.
Experiment 4.1 (d): What percentage of air is used when white
phosphorus smoulders?
Invert an empty measuring cylinder in a trough of water. Record the volume of
the air column. Cut a small piece of white phosphorous under water. Attach the
piece of white phosphorous to the end of a piece of copper wire. Arrange the
apparatus as shown in the diagram, figure 4.4.
Fig 4.4: Measuring the amount of air used by smouldering white phosphorous.
Leave the set-up overnight and record the volume of the air column. Record your
observations at the end of the experiment.

1. What is observed when phosphorous is exposed to air?
2. What is the percentage volume of air used up in this experiment?
3. Why is phosphorus stored under water?
Discussion
Yellow and white phosphorus smoulder in air. This is because phosphorus reacts
spontaneously with oxygen to form a mixture of oxides. This explains why
phoshorous is stored under water as it does not react with water. The reaction
can be represented by the following word equations.
Phosphorous + oxygen phosphorous (III) oxide
Phosphorous + oxygen phosphorous (V) oxide
After 24 hours, the water level inside the measuring cylinder will have risen to
occupy the volume of oxygen used up. The difference in volume can be used to
calculate the percentage of oxygen by volume in air.
CAUTION
The white phosphorous should not be allowed to come in contact with the walls of the measuring cylinder
because it stops smouldering.
Experiment 4.2: How can the presence of Carbon (IV) oxide and
water in air be established?
(a) Place 2cm3 of fresh calcium hydroxide solution (lime water) in a boiling
tube. Pass water slowly from a tap into an aspirator as shown in figure 4.5.
Record your observations.
Fig 4.5: Demonstration of the presence of carbon (IV) oxide in air.
(b) Pack the bottom of a U-tube with anhydrous calcium chloride. Arrange as
shown in figure 4.6. Pass air through the U-tube by means of an aspirator or
a suction pump. Record your observations.
Fig 4.6: Demonstration of the presence of water vapour in air.

1. Why is it necessary to allow water to flow into the aspirator in experiment
4.2?
2. Explain what was observed when air was bubbled through lime water?
3. Why is it necessary to allow the water to flow out of the aspirator in
experiment 4.2?
4. What happens when air is passed through anhydrous calcium chloride?
NOTE
A deliquescent substance is one which absorbs water from the atmosphere and dissolves.
Discussion
Water is allowed to flow into aspirator A to drive out air and bubble it through
the calcium hydroxide solution. When the stream of air is passed through
calcium hydroxide solution, a white precipitate is formed. This indicates that
carbon (IV) oxide gas is present in air. Water is allowed to flow out of aspirator
B in order to create a suction force which draws air through the U-tube.
Anhydrous calcium chloride is a white solid. When air is passed through the U-
tube the anhydrous calcium chloride absorbs water vapour from the air and
becomes wet. It may form a colourless solution depending on the amount of
moisture in the air. Substances, which absorb moisture from the air to form a
solution are called deliquescent substances. Other deliquescent substances are
anhydrous iron (III) chloride, magnesium chloride and zinc chloride.
Fractional Distillation of Liquefied Air
As already established, air is a mixture of many gases. It can be separated into its
constituent gases by fractional distillation.
The air is first purified by passing it through filters to remove dust. The dust-
free air is then passed through a solution of concentrated sodium hydroxide to
remove carbon (IV) oxide gas. The remaining part of air is then cooled to -25°C
to remove water vapour, which solidifies out as ice. The remaining part of air is
then compressed to a pressure of 200 atmospheres and allowed to expand.
Repeated compression and expansion of the air cools it to liquid at -200°C.
Fig 4.7: Summary of fractional distillation of air.
The liquid air consists of oxygen, nitrogen and noble gases. Since these gases
have different boiling points, they can be separated by fractional distillation.
Liquid oxygen boils at -183°C and nitrogen at -196°C. Nitrogen distils out first
because it has a lower boiling point. The other gases, made of mainly argon, boil
at -186°C. They form the second fraction. The argon can be separated from
oxygen by further distillation. This process is known as fractional distillation of
liquefied air.
NOTE
Corrosion of iron is called rusting. Corrosion of other metals is not refered to as rusting.
Rusting
Have you ever known why old iron nails or sheets look different from new ones?
Old iron sheets are brown and dull while new ones are shiny. Many other metals
change after sometime due to some chemical reactions, which take place on their
surfaces. These reactions are referred to as corrosion. Corrosion of iron due to its
reaction with atmospheric oxygen and moisture is called rusting. Rust forms a
brown coating on the surface of iron material. Because rust is porous, once an
object starts to rust, the process continues until the object is completly destroyed.
Experiment 4.3: What are the conditions necessary for rusting?

Label five boiling tubes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Put two clean nails in each
of the boiling tubes. To the first tube add 10cm3 of tap water. To the second tube,
add 10cm3 of boiling water followed by about 3cm3 of oil. To the third tube,
push a piece of cotton wool half-way and place some anhydrous calcium
chloride on it and cork the tube. To the fourth tube, add salted water. The fifth
boiling tube contains nails only. Observe the nails after three days and record
your observations.
Fig 4.8: Finding out what conditions favour rusting.

1. What is observed in each of the tubes after three days?
2. Why is the water in the second tube
(a) boiled?
(b) covered with oil?
3. What is the purpose of anhydrous calcium chloride?
4. Why is it necessary to cork the third tube?
5. List the conditions necessary for rusting to occur.
6. Suggest methods by which rusting can be prevented.
Discussion
It is observed that the nails in boiling tube 1 would have rusted after three days.
The nails in tube 5 would have rusted to a smaller extent. The rusting in tube 4 is
more intense. No rust is observed in tubes 2 and 3.
Tap water contains dissolved oxygen. The iron nails combine with oxygen in
the presence of water to form hydrated iron oxide.
Iron + oxygen Iron (III) oxide
Iron (III) oxide + water hydrated iron (III) oxide (brown)
Rusting occurred in tube 1 because both water and oxygen were present. Some
rusting occurred in tube 5 since there was some moisture in the air. Rusting was
more intense in tube 4 due to presence of dissolved sodium chloride.
When water was boiled, all the dissolved gases in it were expelled. The layer
of oil covering the boiled water prevented re-entry of air. There was no oxygen
in tube 2 and therefore the nails did not rust. Anhydrous calcium chloride
absorbs moisture from the air, thus air in tube 3 is dry. It was necessary to cork
tube 3 to prevent entry of water vapour from the atmosphere. The nails in tube 3
do not rust because there was no water in it.
The presence of water and oxygen are thus necessary for iron to rust. Rusting
occurs faster in salty or acidic surroundings. For example, cars rust faster in
Mombasa than in Nairobi.
A rusted shell of a vehicle consigned to the scrap yard.
Methods of Preventing Rusting

Rusting destroys machinery, equipment and roofs made of iron. Rusting can be
very expensive. Prevention of rusting is therefore of great importance. The basis
of rust prevention is to keep iron out of direct contact with water and oxygen.
The following methods are widely used to prevent rusting of iron.
(i) Painting e.g. cars, roofs, marine vessels etc.
(ii) Coating with other metals. This can be done through galvanisation or
electroplating.
(iii) Alloying: This involves the mixing of iron with one or more metals to
produce a substance, which does not rust.
(iv) Oiling and greasing: This method is used in moving engine parts where
other methods can not be used due to friction.
(v) Sacrificial protection: In this arrangement, a more reactive metal such as
zinc or magnesium is attached to the iron structure. The more reactive metal
corrodes instead of iron. The method is applied in ships, water and oil pipes
Oxygen
Oxygen exists freely in the atmosphere as a gas. Its chemical symbol is O. Two
atoms of oxygen combine to form a molecule with a chemical formula of O2.
Oxygen is also found combined with other elements such as hydrogen in water
and metals in metal oxides. It is the most active component in air.
Experiment 4.4: How is oxygen prepared in the laboratory?
Fig 4.9: Laboratory preparation of oxygen.
Set the apparatus as shown on figure 4.9 and remove the lid. Put about 2g of
manganese (IV) oxide into a flat-bottomed flask. By means of a dropping funnel
add hydrogen peroxide drop-wise into the flask. Let the first few bubbles escape
then collect the gas as shown in figure 4.9.
Note the colour and smell of the gas collected. Lower a glowing splint into a
gas jar containing the gas. Record all your observations.
CAUTION
Handle hydrogen peroxide with care it is corrosive.

1. Why are the first few bubbles of oxygen produced not collected?
2. What is the colour and smell of oxygen?
3. Why is it possible to collect oxygen over water?
4. What is the function of manganese (IV) oxide in the experiment?
5. Describe how oxygen is tested.
NOTE
Catalysts will only catalyse specific reactions and act best when in powder form.
In the absence of manganese (IV) oxide, the hydrogen peroxide can be warmed to speed up the reaction.
Discussion
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes slowly to produce oxygen and water under
normal conditions. On adding manganese (IV) oxide the rate of decomposition is
speeded up. Manganese (IV) oxide acts as a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance
that alters the rate of a reaction.
Manganese (IV) oxide is used as a catalyst in the decomposition of hydrogen

peroxide.
The first few bubbles of oxygen are not collected because the gas is mixed
with air which was originally in the flask. Oxygen is a colourless, odourless gas
with a low boiling point of -183°C. It is slightly solube in water and so it can be
collected over water.
Oxygen relights a glowing splint. This is the test for oxygen. Oxygen can also be
prepared in the laboratory by:
(i) Adding water to Solid Sodium Peroxide using the set-up in figure 4.9
Sodium peroxide + water → Sodium hydroxide + Oxygen
(ii) Heating Potassium Manganate (VII) (Potassium Permanganate)
Potassium Heat Potassium + Manganese (IV) oxide + Oxygen
Manganate (VII) Manganate (VII)
Burning of Substances in Air

The most familiar chemical reaction of air is burning. There are many
substances, which burn in air. It has been established that oxygen is the active
part of air, which supports burning.
Experiment 4.5: How do metals burn in air and in oxygen?

Warm a piece of sodium in a deflagrating spoon until it begins to burn. Lower it
into a gas jar of air as shown in figure 4.10. Record your observations.
Fig 4.10: Burning metals in oxygen.
NOTE
Use a pair of tongs for heating magnesium, iron and copper.
Allow the gas jar to cool, add some water to the product and shake the
mixture. Test any gas given out with moist red and blue litmus paper. Test the
solution in the gas jar using litmus papers and record your observations. Repeat
the experiment using oxygen instead of air.
Repeat the whole procedure using calcium, magnesium, iron and copper in
place of sodium.
Record your observation as shown in table 4.2
Table 4.2: Burning Metals in Oxygen

1. State the difference in the way substances burn in air and in oxygen.
2. Write a word equation for the reaction taking place for each of the metals.
3. Arrange the metals in order of their reactivity.
4. Suggest the name of the products formed when sodium and magnesium burn
in air. Explain what happens when water is added to the products.
Discussion
Many metals burn in air and in oxygen at different rates. They burn faster in
oxygen than in air. Nitrogen is the component of air, which slows down the rate
of burning. When metals burn in oxygen they form metal oxides.
Sodium + Oxygen sodium oxide
Calcium + Oxygen calcium oxide
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
Iron + Oxygen Iron (III)oxide
Sodium reacts most vigorously with oxygen while copper is the least reactive.
A summary of the observations made when metals burn in air and in Oxygen is
given in table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Products of Burning Metals in Oxygen

NOTE
Sodium burns in excess oxygen to form sodium peroxide which is a yellow solid.
Reactive metals such as sodium, calcium and magnesium react with nitrogen
in the air to form nitrides.
Sodium + Nitrogen Sodium nitride
Calcium + Nitrogen Calcium nitride
Magnesium + Nitrogen Magnesium nitride
When the nitrides react with water, ammonia gas is given out.
Sodium nitride + Water Sodium hydroxide + Ammonia
Calcium nitride + Water Calcium hydroxide + Ammonia
Magnesium nitride + Water Magnesium hydroxide + Ammonia
The reactions in which elements combine with oxygen are referred to as
oxidation.
The substance to which the oxygen is added is said to have been oxidised.
The metals can be arranged in order of their rates of reaction with oxygen from
the most reactive to the least reactive. This arrangement is referred to as a
reactivity series of metals.
Mercury, silver and gold are less reactive than copper and are not easily
oxidised.
The following is part of the Reactivity Series for some metals.
CAUTION
Products of burning sulphur and phosphorus are poisonous and therefore the experiments should be done in
a fume cupboard. Phosphorus is also highly flammable.
Experiment 4.6: What happens when non-metallic elements burn in

oxygen?
Heat sulphur in a deflagrating spoon until it begins to burn. Lower it into a gas
jar of oxygen and record your observations. Add a little water to the product and
shake the mixture. Test the resulting solution with litmus paper. Repeat the
experiment using carbon (charcoal) and red phosphorus in place of sulphur.
Record your observations as shown in table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Burning non-metals in oxygen

(i) Write word equations for each of the reactions of the non-metallic elements
with oxygen.
(ii) State whether the products of burning the non-metals are acidic or basic.
Explain
Discussion
Sulphur burns in oxygen to give a gaseous product which has a choking irritating
smell. The product is sulphur (IV) oxide.
Sulphur + Oxygen Sulphur (IV) oxide
A solution of sulphur (IV) oxide in water is acidic and turns blue litmus paper
red. The acid is called sulphuric (IV) acid (sulphurous acid).
Sulphur (IV) oxide + Water Sulphurous acid.
Oxides which dissolve in water to form acidic solutions are referred to as
acidic oxides. Table 4.5 shows the summary of the effect of burning some non-
metals in oxygen.
Table 4.5: Summary of effect of burning non-metals in oxygen
The following equations represent the reactions of the non-metals with oxygen.
Some non-metallic elements form oxides which are neither acidic nor basic.
These oxides are referred to as neutral oxides. Carbon (II) oxide and water
(hydrogen oxide) are examples of neutral oxides.
Experiment 4.7: Is there change in mass when a substance burns in

air?
Weigh about 1g clean magnesium ribbon in a crucible. Set up the apparatus as
shown in figure 4.11.
Heat the crucible, occasionally lifting the lid to let air in. Do not allow any
contents to escape from the crucible. When all the magnesium has burned, allow
the crucible to cool. Weigh the cool crucible and its contents again. Record your
observations as follows:
Fig 4.11: Burning substances in air
Mass of crucible + Magnesium before burning = Xg

Mass of crucible + contents after burning = Yg
Change in Mass = (Y–X)g

1. Why is it necessary to occasionally allow air into the crucible?
2. Does the mass increase or decrease after the burning? Explain.
Discussion
When magnesium is burned in a closed crucible, most of the oxygen inside is
consumed. It is therefore necessary to allow air in so that burning can continue.
The mass of the product is more than the original mass of magnesium. This
shows that as it burns, magnesium combines with air to form a new product.
When substances burn in air, they combine with oxygen to form oxides. If the
product is a solid there is increase in mass. When the product is gaseous there is
decrease in mass. The decrease in mass is because the products, being gaseous
escape into the air.
Experiment 4.8: How do elements compete for combined oxygen?

Place a spatulaful of magnesium oxide in a bottle top. Add magnesium powder
and mix well. Heat and record your observations. Repeat the experiment using
zinc oxide, iron (III) oxide, Lead oxide and copper (II) oxide. Repeat the
experiment using lead, copper, zinc and iron in place of magnesium. Record the
results shown in table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Competition for oxygen

1. (a) Name the metals displaced from their oxides by:
(i) magnesium (ii) zinc (iii) iron (iv) lead (v) copper
(b) Arrange the metals in order of their decreasing reactivity with combined
oxygen.
Discussion
Magnesium combines with oxygen more readily than copper. Therefore,
magnesium removes combined oxygen in copper (II) oxide to form magnesium
oxide. Copper is said to have been displaced by magnesium. Copper on the other
hand does not remove combined oxygen from the oxides of magnesium, lead,
zinc and iron. This is due to the fact that copper reacts with oxygen less readily
than these metals. It is the least reactive.
A more reactive metal removes combined oxygen from a metal oxide of a less
reactive metal. More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their
oxides. Table 4.7 shows a summary of the competition for combined oxygen.
Table 4.7: Summary of the competition for combined oxygen by elements

From the table, magnesium displaces four metals from their oxides. Zinc
displaces three while lead and iron displaces two and one respectively. Copper
displaces none. Therefore, magnesium is the most reactive while copper is the
least reactive.
By considering the number of metals displaced, a reactivity series similar to
the one developed earlier can be obtained.
NOTE
A reaction in which both reduction and oxidation occur simultaneously is called a REDOX reaction.
Removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction. When a metal oxide
loses oxygen, it is said to have been reduced. The metal, which gains oxygen is
said to have been oxidised.
Zinc + Copper (II) oxide Zinc oxide + Copper
In the above equation, zinc is oxidised while copper oxide is reduced. Both
reduction and oxidation take place simultaneously.
Application
The extraction of metals from their ores uses the concept of reduction. The ores
that contain the metal oxides are reduced by more reactive metals. For example,
Aluminium is used to reduce iron (III) oxide by the thermite process.
Carbon, a non-metal can remove combined oxygen from some metal oxides
such as iron (III) oxide and copper (II) oxide.
Carbon + Copper (II) oxide Carbon (IV) oxide + Copper
The ability of carbon to reduce some metal oxides is applied in the extraction
of metals such as copper and zinc from their ores.
NOTE
A pollutant is a substance (contaminant) or form of energy which has harmful effects to the enviroment.
Atmospheric Pollution
Human activities have changed the composition of air in some places. Gases
such as carbon (IV) oxide, carbon (II) oxide, sulphur (IV) oxide and
phosphorous (V) oxide, are examples of harmful substances emitted into the
atmosphere mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels. These gases cause
pollution of the atmosphere. For example, sulphur (IV) oxide dissolves in rain
water and is converted to sulphurous acid, which forms “acid rain”. Acid rain
destroys plants and aquatic life. It also corrodes iron sheets, zinc roofing and
buildings.
Uses of Oxygen
1. Air enriched with oxygen is used in hospitals by patients with breathing
difficulties.
2. When mixed with helium it is used by mountain climbers and deep-sea
divers.
3. Oxygen is used to burn fuels such as those used for propelling rockets.
4. A mixture of oxygen and acetylene burns to produce a very hot flame used
in welding and for cutting metals.
5. During steel making, oxygen is used to remove iron impurities.
6. Oxygen is used as one of the reactants in fuel cells.
Deep sea divers inspect fish and corals.
Summary
1. Air is a mixture of gases.
2. Oxygen and water are necessary for iron to rust. Rust is mainly hydrated
Iron (III) oxide.
3. Atmospheric pollution is caused by presence of harmful gases in the air.
4. A catalyst alters the rate of a reaction.
5. (a) Most metals burn in oxygen to form basic oxides.
(b) Most non-metals burn in oxygen to form acidic oxides.
(c) Some non-metals burn in oxygen to form neutral oxides.
6. (a) Addition of oxygen to a substance is called oxidation.
(b) Removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction.
7. The ability of a metal to compete for combined oxygen depends on the
position of that metal in the Reactivity Series.
Revision Exercise
1. Explain what happens when anhydrous calcium chloride or anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate are exposed to the atmosphere for about two days.
2. Describe an experiment to show that there is increase in mass when
magnesium is burned in air.
3. Is air a mixture or a compound? Explain.
4. Explain why cars in the coastal city of Mombasa rust faster than cars in
Kisumu City.
5. State one advantage and three disadvantages of rusting.
6. List some industrial plants in Kenya and indicate the gaseous pollutants they
emit.
7. Describe an experiment for the preparation and collection of oxygen from
sodium peroxide.
8. The apparatus below were used to determine the volume of oxygen in air.
About 200cm3 of air were passed repeatedly from syringe A to syringe B
over heated copper turnings as shown in the diagram.
After sometime, the volume of air in syringe A was 160 cm3 and syringe B 0
cm3.
(a) Calculate the percentage of oxygen in the initial sample of air.
(b) Write down a word equation for the reaction that took place in the
combustion tube.
(c) What are the possible sources of error in the experiment?
CHAPTER FIVE
WATER AND HYDROGEN
Water is the most abundant substance on earth. About 71% of the earth’s surface
is covered by water. The sources of water are seas, lakes, rivers and oceans.
Water has diverse uses and hence its study is important.
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• Describe experiments to show that water is a product of burning organic matter and that it contains
hydrogen.
• State the products of reactions of metals with cold water and steam then derive the reactivity series of the
metals.
• Prepare hydrogen and investigate its properties and uses.
Experiment 5.1: What products are formed when candle wax burns
in air?
Set the apparatus as shown in figure 5.1. Light the candle and turn on the pump.
Allow the candle to burn for about 15 minutes. Observe and record what
happens in tube A and B.

1. What observations are made in:
(a) test-tube A?
(b) test-tube B? Explain.
2. Explain why test-tube A is dipped in cold water.
Divide the contents of test-tube A into two portions. To one portion, add
anhydrous copper (II) sulphate or blue cobalt (II) chloride paper. Record your
observations.
Fig 5.1: Products of burning a candle in air.
3. What is the effect of the contents of test-tube A on:

(i) anhydrous copper (II) sulphate?
(ii) anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride?
4. Identify the products formed when candle wax burns in air.
5. Which elements are present in candle wax?
Discussion
Candle wax burns in air to form a colourless liquid, which turns white anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate to blue and blue cobalt (II) chloride paper to pink. The
liquid formed is water. A colourless gas that forms a white precipitate with lime
water is also produced. This gas is carbon (IV) oxide.
Candle wax is a compound of carbon and hydrogen. It belongs to a group of
compounds called hydrocarbons. It burns in air to form carbon (IV) oxide and
water. Other hydrocarbons include kerosene, petrol and diesel.
Carbon and hydrogen are the major components of organic matter. When
organic matter burns in air carbon (IV) oxide and water are produced.
Reactions of Water with Metals

Experiment 5.2: What happens when some metals are in contact
with cold water?
(a) Cut a very small piece of sodium metal, the size of a rice grain. Drop it into
a trough containing cold water, as shown in figure 5.2. Test the solution in
the trough using pieces of red and blue litmus papers. Record your
observations.
CAUTION
The piece of sodium used in this experiment should be not more than the size of a rice grain!
Fig 5.2: Reaction of sodium metal with cold water
(b) Drop a piece of calcium metal into water in a trough. Invert a funnel over
the calcium. Fill a test-tube with water and invert it over the funnel. Collect
the gas given off as shown in figure 5.3. Cork the test-tube to prevent the
gas from escaping. Lift the test-tube from water and turn it upright. As you
remove the cork, bring a burning splint near the mouth of the test-tube.
Observe what happens. Test the solution in the beaker using pieces of red
and blue litmus paper. Record your observations.
Fig 5.3: Reaction of calcium with cold water
(c) Put a two-centimetre piece of clean magnesium ribbon into a test-tube

containing water. Record your observations. Repeat the experiment using
clean zinc granules and fresh iron filings respectively.

1. What is observed when each of the metals reacts with water? Identify the
gas liberated in each case.
2. What is observed when the solution is tested with litmus paper? Explain.
3. Write word equations for the reactions which occurred.
4. Why was it necessary to clean the magnesium ribbon?
NOTE
Sodium and potassium are stored under paraffin because they react with air and moisture.
Discussion
When a piece of sodium metal is placed in water, it melts into a silvery ball as it
reacts vigorously darting on the surface of the water with a hissing sound. The
resulting solution turns red litmus blue showing that it is basic.
Sodium + Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen.
When calcium is added to water it sinks and reacts moderately with water
producing a steady stream of bubbles. When the gas is tested with a burning
splint, it burns with a ‘pop’ sound indicating the gas is hydrogen. A basic
solution of calcium hydroxide is formed. A white suspension is observed
because the calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in water. A water soluble base
is called an alkali.
Calcium + Water Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Magnesium reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form a coating of magnesium
oxide. The coating has to be removed so that the metal surface comes into
contact with the water. Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water while zinc
and iron do not react.
The reaction of potassium with water is explosive. A small piece of potassium
placed on water melts into a silvery ball and moves about rapidly on the surface.
The reaction generates a lot of heat. As a result, hydrogen gas produced ignites
spontaneously.
The flame produced is lilac (purple) due to the presence of potassium vapour
produced during the reaction.
Potassium + Water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Fig 5.4 Reaction of potassium metal with cold water.
NOTE
• The magnesium ribbon is coiled in order to increase the surface area in contact with the boiling tube.
• The iron fillings must be fresh. Alternatively use steel wool.
Reactions of Metals with Steam

Experiment 5.3: What happens when steam is passed over heated
metals?
Place clean, wet sand in a boiling tube. Clean a piece of magnesium ribbon about
6cm long and make it into a spiral coil. Place it in the middle of the boiling tube
and arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 5.5. Heat the magnesium strongly
and warm the wet sand gently as you continue heating the magnesium. Observe
what happens. Remove the delivery tube before you stop heating. Test the gas
produced using a burning splint. Record your observations. Repeat the
experiment using zinc powder and iron filings.
Fig 5.5. Effect of steam on metals.

1. Why is the wet sand warmed?
2. What is observed when steam is passed over heated magnesium, zinc or
iron?
3. For each reaction;
(a) name the gas involved.
(b) the solid left in the test-tubes.
(c) Write word equations for the reactions which occurred.
4. Why is the delivery tube removed before heating is stopped?
5. Arrange the metals in order of their reactivity with cold water and steam.
Discussion
Wet sand is warmed to generate steam, which reacts with the metal. Some
metals, do not react with cold water but react with steam. Magnesium burns
brightly in steam to form white magnesium oxide powder and hydrogen gas.
Magnesium + Steam Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Zinc and iron do not burn in steam, they glow. Zinc metal reacts with steam to
form a yellow powder of zinc oxide, which turns white on cooling.
Zinc + Steam Zinc oxide + Hydrogen gas
Iron forms a black residue of an oxide called tri-iron tetra oxide and hydrogen.
Iron + Steam Tri-iron tetra oxide + Hydrogen gas
Aluminium reacts with steam but quickly forms a layer of aluminium oxide
which prevents further reaction. Lead and copper do not react with either cold
water or steam. During this experiment the delivery tube is removed before
heating stops to prevent water being sucked into the hot boiling tube as it cools.
Table 5.1 summarises the reactions between metals and water or steam.
Table 5.1: Summary of reaction of metals with cold water and steam
Metal Action of metal on water Action of metal on steam
Potassium Violent Explosive

Sodium Violent Explosive
Calcium Moderate Violent
Magnesium Very slow Rapid
Aluminium No reaction Slow
Zinc No reaction Slow
Iron No reaction Slow
Lead No reaction No reaction
Copper No reaction No reaction
Metals can be arranged in order of their reactivity with water. The

arrangement gives the Reactivity Series of metals.
Reactivity Series of Metals
NOTE
The sun is almost entirely made up of hydrogen.
Hydrogen
Hyrogen is the simplest and lightest element. It does not occur as a free element
on earth but exists in combined form. Examples of compounds containing
hydrogen are water, hydrocarbons and and sugar.
Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen

Hydrogen gas is prepared in the laboratory by the reaction between dilute acids
and some metals. Dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid react with some
metals to liberate hydrogen gas. Zinc is the most suitable metal for the laboratory
preparation of hydrogen gas.
Experiment 5.4: How is hydrogen prepared in the laboratory?

Put a few zinc granules into a conical flask and arrange the apparatus as shown
in figure 5.6. Add dilute hydrochloric acid using the dropping funnel and collect
several test-tubes of the gas produced. If the reaction is slow, add a few crystals
of copper (II) sulphate. If the gas is required dry, it should be bubbled through
concentrated sulphuric acid and collected by upward delivery as shown in figure
5.7.
Fig 5.6: Preparation of hydrogen gas.
Fig 5.7: Collection of dry hydrogen.
Perform the following tests on the samples of the gas collected. Record your
observations.
1. Note the colour and smell of the gas.
2. Test the gas using:
(i) a lighted splint.
(ii) wet blue and red litmus paper.
3. Invert an empty test-tube over the one containing the gas for about half a
minute as shown in figure 5.8. Take a lighted splint to the mouth of the
upper test-tube as you turn it upright.
Fig 5.8: The density of hydrogen gas compared to that of air.

1. Why is it possible to collect the gas;
(a) by downward displacement of air?
(b) over water?
2. What is the;
(a) colour of hydrogen gas?
(b) smell of hydrogen gas?
3. What is the use of copper (II) sulphate in the reaction?
4. What is the test for hydrogen?
5. Write the word equation for the reaction generating hydrogen gas.
Discussion
When zinc granules are added to dilute hydrochloric acid there is effervescence
and hydrogen gas is evolved. A small amount of copper (II) sulphate crystals
may be added to speed up the reaction. Copper (II) sulphate acts as a catalyst.
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Dry hydrogen gas can be obtained by passing wet hydrogen through
anhydrous calcium chloride in a U-tube or passing it through concentrated
sulphuric acid.
Nitric acid is not used to prepare hydrogen gas because the hydrogen formed
is oxidised to water. However, very dilute nitric acid liberates hydrogen with
magnesium metal.
Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium react explosively with dilute acids
hence must not be used. Magnesium could be used for the laboratory
preparation of hydrogen but it is expensive. Aluminium forms a protective layer
of aluminium oxide, which should be washed using concentrated hydrochloric
acid before the metal can react with dilute acids. Zinc is preferably used because
it reacts moderately with dilute acids. Impure iron gives a mixture of gases
including the bad smelling hydrogen sulphide when it reacts with dilute acids.
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless gas and is insoluble in water, so it is
collected over water. Hydrogen is less dense than air and it can also be collected
by upward delivery. This method is also called downward displacement of
air.
Fig. 5.9: Two methods of collecting hydrogen gas.
Hydrogen has no effect on litmus paper. It is neutral. When mixed with air,
hydrogen burns with a ‘pop’ sound. This is the test for hydrogen gas. The
intensity of the pop sound diminishes as the purity of hydrogen increases. Pure
hydrogen burns quietly with a blue flame. Hydrogen does not support
combustion but it burns in air.
Experiment 5.5: What happens when hydrogen is passed over

heated copper (II) oxide?
Place a spatulaful of copper (II) oxide in a porcelain boat or on a piece of
aluminium foil. Place the boat or aluminium foil in a combustion tube. Set the
apparatus as shown in figure 5.9. Pass dry hydrogen through the tube for some
time to drive out the air from the apparatus. Collect a sample of the gas from the
jet in a test-tube and test it with a burning splint. Continue collecting and testing
until a sample of the gas burns silently (without a ‘pop’ sound).
Fig. 5.10: Action of hydrogen gas on heated copper oxide.
Light the gas at the jet and start heating copper (II) oxide as shown in figure
5.9. Ensure a steady flow of hydrogen gas. Continue heating until there is no
further change. Observe what happens. Allow the apparatus to cool as you
continue passing the stream of hydrogen gas over the residue. Disconnect the
apparatus and test the colourless liquid in the cooler parts of the combustion
tube.

1. Why is it important to drive out all the air from the combustion tube before
lighting the jet?
2. State and explain the observations made in the combustion tube.
3. Why is excess hydrogen burned and not allowed to escape into the air?
4. Why is the supply of hydrogen gas continued while the apparatus cools?
5. Write a word equation for the reaction between hydrogen and copper (II)
oxide.
6. Define the terms reduction, oxidation, reducing agent and oxidising agent.
Discussion
Air is driven out of the apparatus to ensure the hydrogen being burned at the jet
is pure to avoid explosion. On passing a stream of dry hydrogen gas over hot
copper (II) oxide the black copper (II) oxide changes to red-brown. At the same
time a colourless liquid condenses and collects on the cooler parts of the
combustion tube.
Hydrogen combines with oxygen from the copper (II) oxide to form water which
is the colourless liquid. The red-brown solid is copper metal. Removal of oxygen
from a compound is known as reduction while the addition of oxygen is known as
oxidation. In this reaction copper (II) oxide is reduced to copper metal while
hydrogen is oxidised to water.
Copper (II) oxide + Hydrogen Copper metal + Water
Hydrogen removes oxygen from copper (II) oxide and is therefore referred to as
a reducing agent. Copper (II) oxide loses oxygen to hydrogen hence it is an
oxidising agent. Hydrogen will also reduce the oxides of lead and iron.
Lead (II) oxide + Hydrogen Lead metal + Water
Iron (III) oxide + Hydrogen Iron metal + Water
Hydrogen does not remove oxygen from oxides of more reactive metals.
The supply of hydrogen gas is continued while the apparatus cools to avoid
the reoxidation of the hot metal by oxygen from the air. Excess hydrogen gas is
burned because its mixture with oxygen (air) is explosive when ignited. The
excess gas is therefore not allowed to escape into the air for safety reasons.
Experiment 5.6: What is formed when hydrogen burns in air?

Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 5.10. Pass a stream of hydrogen gas
through anhydrous calcium chloride. Test the gas for purity by collecting
samples over the jet and testing with a burning splint until the gas burns silently.
Light the gas at the jet and turn on the pump. Draw in the products of the
burning hydrogen using the pump for about 15 minutes. Test the liquid in the
test-tube using white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.
Record your observations
Fig 5.10: Products of burning hydrogen in air.

1. (a) What is the effect of the liquid collected in the test tube on anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate? Explain.
2. What is the use of anhydrous calcium chloride in this experiment?
3. What is the use of the ice-cold water in the beaker?
4. Write a word equation for the burning of hydrogen in air.
Discussion
When hydrogen burns in air a colourless liquid which turns white anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate blue is formed. The liquid is water. Hydrogen combines with
oxygen from the air to form water. Water is therefore an oxide of hydrogen.
Hydrogen + Oxygen Hydrogen oxide (water)
Anhydrous calcium chloride is used to dry the gas. The ice cold water condenses
the steam to form liquid water.
Uses of Hydrogen
1. Hydrogen is used in the large-scale manufacture of ammonia in a process
known as the Haber process.
2. The gas is also used during the hardening of oils to form fats. When
hydrogen is passed through liquid oil in the presence of nickel catalyst, the
oil takes up hydrogen and is converted into fat. This process is called
hydrogenation. It is used in the manufacture of margarine.
3. Hydrogen is used in balloons because it is lighter than air. A balloon filled
with hydrogen floats in air. A light radio instrument can be connected to the
balloon to collect information from the atmosphere by meteorologists who
study weather conditions.
A technician prepares to launch a radio sonde.
4. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen burns to produce a very hot flame, the
oxy-hydrogen flame, which has a temperature of up to 2000°C. The flame is
used in welding and for cutting metals.
5. Hydrogen is used in rocket as fuel.
6. Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
7. Hydrogen is used as a fuel in fuel cells.
Summary
1. Water is the most abundant substance on the surface of the earth. About
71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water.
2. Hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory by the action of zinc on dilute
hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid.
3. Hydrogen burns in oxygen to produce water. Water is an oxide of
hydrogen.
4. Active metals react with cold water to produce hydrogen gas and the
hydroxide of the metal in solution. Less active metals react with steam
to produce hydrogen and the oxide of the metal. Copper and lead do not
react with water.
5. Hydrogen is a reducing agent. It removes combined oxygen from metal
oxides of the less reactive metals.
6. Reduction is the loss of oxygen from a compound. Oxidation is the gain
of oxygen by a substance.
7. A reducing agent is a substance which removes oxygen from another
substance. An oxidising agent is a substance which gives out oxygen to
another substance.
Revision Exercise
1. (a) State the chemical tests for presence of water.
(b) State the test, which is used to show that water is pure.
2. Describe an experiment to show that water is an oxide of hydrogen.
3. State the precautions that must be taken when carrying out experiments with
hydrogen.
4. Why is it not advisable to use iron in making steam boilers?
5. Write a word equation for a reaction in which hydrogen acts as a reducing
agent.
6. Name the products formed when kerosene is burned in air.
7. State what is observed when a small piece of potassium is placed in water.
Write a word equation for the reaction.
8. Draw a labelled diagram to show how a reaction between steam and
magnesium should be carried out.
9. Describe how dry hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory.

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Secondary Chemistry

First Published 1987

KLB 9086 10m 2009

Published and printed by Kenya Literature Bureau

THE MANAGING DIRECTOR

1. Cornelius Masila Muange — Mukaa Sec. School, Nunguni

2. Emma Achieng Ogutu – Moi Girls’ High School Eldoret

3. Raphael Kelly Wambua – Mutomo Mixed Sec. School, Kitui

4. Rose Amatikide Omoru – Bunyore Girls’ Sec. School

5. Silas M. Mango – St. Cecilia Misikhu Girls’ High School, Webuye.

Review of Chemistry topics learned in the primary

Experiment 1.1: What are some of the physical properties of solids?

Answer the following questions

Experiment 1:2 What are some of the physical properties of liquids?

Answer the following questions

Experiment 1.3: What are some of the physical properties of gases?

Answer the following the questions.

Conductors and non conductors

Drugs and drug abuse

Many sporting careers have been ruined by drug abuse.

Role of chemistry in society

Many products avaiable thanks to Chemistry.

Apparatus used in Chemistry

Apparatus for measuring volume

Graduated beakers, flasks and measuring cylinders are used to measure

Apparatus for measuring temperature

Fig 1.3 General purpose thermometer

An analytical balance with an accuracy of 10-3 g

Fig 1.4 Common laboratory weighing machines

Apparatus for measuring time

Fig 1.5 Apparatus for measuring time

Other commonly used apparatus are represented diagrammatically in figure 1.6.

The Bunsen Burner

Fig 1.7: Parts of a Bunsen burner.

Functions of the different parts of a Bunsen burner

Experiment 1.4: What are the types of flames produced by a Bunsen

Answer the following questions

Fig 1.8 The flames of a Bunsen burner.

Bunsen burner flames

Answer the following questions

Experiment 1.6: Which is the hottest part of a non-luminous flame?

Answer the following question

Safety in the laboratory

Laboratory safety rules

(a) Name the parts of the flame labelled A, B and C.

Separation of solid-solid mixtures

Experiment 2.1: How can a mixture of iron filings and sulphur be

Fig 2.1: Table summarising types of mixtures.

Answer the following questions

Experiment 2.2: How can a mixture of sodium chloride and iodine

Fig 2.2: Separation of a mixture of iodine and sodium chloride.

Answer the following questions

“Dry ice” Pedal cart.

Experiment 2. 3: What happens when solids are mixed with liquids?

Table 2.1: Solubility of different substances in water and propanone

Answer the following questions

Separation of insoluble solid-liquid mixtures

Experiment 2.4 (a): How can sand be separated from water-sand

Fig 2.3: Decantation