FORMATION OF HEAVY

ELEMENTS (PART 2)
SAMELYN E. INTONG
 NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
•Is the process by which new
atomic nuclei are formed from
pre-existing or seed nuclei.
Nuclei/nucleus …..synthesis means to make
 TYPES OF NUCLEOSYNTHESIS:

•Big bang nucleosynthesis

•Stellar nucleosynthesis
•Supernova nucleosynthesis
 BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

• Is the process of producing the light elements (h, he

and li) during the big bang expansion
• Produced the light elements hydrogen, helium, lithium and
beryllium.
• The beryllium formed in the big bang nucleosynthesis was
unstable and decayed spontaneously to lithium.
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
 BIG BANG THEORY: SUMMARY OF EVENTS

1. SINGULARITY
originating single point, an infinitely small
space which was a very dense, compact
and very hot fireball, having the same
amount of energy/mass we now see around
us, but crammed into a small space.
 BIG BANG THEORY: SUMMARY OF EVENTS
2. EXPANSION OF SINGULARITY

(the initial expansion process is also known as

cosmic inflation)
 Gamma rays (γ) –
•The highest energy form of light,
•it is the most energetic, most powerful form of
light.
 BIG BANG THEORY: SUMMARY OF EVENTS

3. Formation of subatomic particles

(protons, neutrons, electrons)
NUCLEAR FUSION

is a type of reaction that fuses lighter

elements to form heavier ones.
It requires very high temperatures and
pressures.
 BIG BANG THEORY: SUMMARY OF EVENTS

4. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

- the process of producing the light elements
(hydrogen, helium and trace amounts of
lithium) during first 3 minutes of the big
bang.
4. BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

DEUTERIUM
 4. BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

DEUTERIUM DEUTERIUM HELIUM-3

HELIUM-3 = was formed by combining of 2 deuterium and a release of
a neutron
 4. BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

DEUTERIUM DEUTERIUM TRITIUM

Hydrogen-3(Tritium) = was formed by combining of 2 deuterium

and a release of a proton.
 4. BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

DEUTERIUM HELIUM-3 HELIUM-4

Helium-4= was formed by combining of a deuterium and Helium-3

a release of a proton.
 4. BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

DEUTERIUM TRITIUM HELIUM-4

Helium-4= was formed by combining of a deuterium and Tritium

(Hydrogen-3) a release of a proton.
 4. BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

HELIUM-4 TRITIUM LITHIUM-7

Lithium-7= was synthesized from Helium-4 and Tritium (Hydrogen-

3).
 4. BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

HELIUM-4 HELIUM-3 BERELIUM-7

Berelium-7= was produced from Helium-4 and Helium-3.

 TYPES OF NUCLEOSYNTHESIS:

•Big bang nucleosynthesis

•Stellar nucleosynthesis
•Supernova nucleosynthesis
Stellar
Nucleosynthesis
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
•The formation of a star starts with the dense
regions of molecular clouds.

What force pulls matter together to form

these regions?
Stellar nucleosynthesis
Stellar nucleosynthesis
Stellar nucleosynthesis
 Stellar nucleosynthesis

Produced elements up to iron(Fe)

in the core of the stars. (heavy
elements)
Stellar nucleosynthesis
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
•Main sequence star - starts to form when
nuclear fusion occurs at the core of the star.
It begins to contract, glow and become
stable.
About 90% of the stars in the universe including the sun are main
sequence star
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
What happens at the core of main sequence star?

•Hydrogen burning happens as hydrogen

is converted to helium. And in the process
energy is released in the form of gamma
rays.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
• Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most
abundant in space. Thus, the formation of
heavier elements starts with hydrogen.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Hydrogen Burning- the stellar process that
produces energy in the stars
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:

(1)The proton-proton chain

(2)Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
(1)The proton-proton chain
• is a series of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It
is the main source of energy radiated by the sun and
other stars.
• thermonuclear reactions- the process that achieves nuclear fusion by
using extremely high temperature.
• the fusion of hydrogen into helium in the core of a
main sequence star.
(thermo means heat + nuclear means fusion)
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
(1)The proton-proton chain
• It happens due to the large kinetic energies of
the protons.

• If the kinetic energies of the protons are high

enough to overcome their electrostatic
repulsion, then proton-proton chain proceeds.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Hydrogen Burning Process
Proton-proton chain
In this process, the
average star gets
its energy and
convert hydrogen
into helium.

AVERAGE STAR 39
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Hydrogen Burning Process

⋆ The chain starts when Proton-proton chain

two protons fuse.
⋆ When the fused proton
breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a
neutron.(Release of
positron and neutrino in the
proton)

⋆ The proton and neutron

then pairs, forming an
isotope of hydrogen
called deuterium.

AVERAGE STAR 40
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Hydrogen Burning Process
Proton-proton chain
⋆ Another proton
collides with a
deuterium
forming a
helium-3 nucleus
and a gamma
ray.

AVERAGE STAR 41
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Hydrogen Burning Process
Proton-proton chain
• Finally, two
helium-3 nuclei
collide, and a
helium-4 is
created with the
release of two
protons.

AVERAGE STAR 42
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
(1)The proton-proton chain
•What will happen if all the hydrogen at the core
is burned ?
•When most of the hydrogen in the core
is fused into helium, fusion stops, and
the pressure in the core decreases.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
(1)The proton-proton chain
•What will happen if all the hydrogen at the core
is burned ?
❖ Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and hydrogen
burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while
hydrogen is converted to helium in the shell surrounding the
core. The star has become a red giant.
TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS

1. The triple-a process

begins when two He-4
Nuclei fuse to form an
unstable Be-8 nucleus

Happens in red giant star once they leave the

stage of main sequence star. This is how the
three helium-4 are converted into carbon.
TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS

2. If this nucleus collides

with another he-4 nucleus
before it breaks apart, the
two will fuse to form a
Carbon-12

Happens in red giant star once they leave the

stage of main sequence star. This is how the
three helium-4 are converted into carbon.
TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS

3. The energy released is

carried of the C-12 nucleus
and a gamma ray

Happens in red giant star once they leave the

stage of main sequence star. This is how the
three helium-4 are converted into carbon.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Hydrogen Burning- the stellar process that
produces energy in the stars
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:

(1)The proton-proton chain

(2)Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

• For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-

nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more favorable route in
converting hydrogen to helium.
• The CNO is a catalytic cycle of gamma emission and
beta decay that converts hydrogen to helium.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

1. The Carbon-12 captures a

proton
and gives off a gamma ray,
producing an unstable
nitrogen 13.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta

decay to form Carbon-13
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

3. Carbon-13 captures a proton

and releases a gamma ray to
become nitrogen-14.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

4. Nitrogen-14 then captures

another proton and releases a
gamma ray to produce oxygen-
15.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

5. Oxygen 15 undergoes beta

decay and becomes nitrogen-
15.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis
Two dominant hydrogen burning processes:
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

6. Finaly, nitrogen-15 captures a

proton and gives off helium
(alpha particle) ending the cycle
and returning to carbon-12.

Carbon-12 acts a catalyst for the cycle.

It is used in the initial reaction and is
regenerated in the final one.
The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon
fusion. Elements lighter than iron can be fused because when
two of these elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a
mass lower than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is
released as energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter
than iron releases energy. However, this does not happen to iron
nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei
requires an input of energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and
including iron can be produced in a massive star, but no
elements heavier than iron are produced.
Stellar nucleosynthesis
Bigbang nucleosynthesis
 TYPES OF NUCLEOSYNTHESIS:

•Big bang nucleosynthesis

•Stellar nucleosynthesis
•Supernova nucleosynthesis
 SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

• When the core can no longer produce energy to

resist gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity
squeezes the core until the star explodes and
releases a large amount of energy. The star
explosion is called a SUPERNOVA.
A supernova is a star that
blows apart and releases a
large amount of energy.
supernova nucleosynthesis
– produced the elements heavier
than iron.
Neutron Capture

It is not only protons that can react with an existing nucleus; neutrons
can also be captured and fuse with a nucleus. This is called neutron
capture. Since neutrons have no electric charge, they can enter a
nucleus more easily than positively charged protons, which are
repelled electrostatically.

Neutron capture can be slow (s process) or rapid (r process).

S process or slow process happens when there is a
slow rate of capturing neutron and there is a
faster rate of radioactive decay, thus increasing
the number of proton by 1.

We have an example of this next slide:

R-process or rapid process or neutron capture
means that there is faster rate of capturing
neutron before it undergoes radioactive decay
thus, more neutrons can be combined in the
nucleus.
What happens in neutron
capture?

When a neutron is added to

an existing nucleus, it can
become unstable or
radioactive, and undergo
decay process to become
stable. Beta decay normally
occurs in nuclei that have too
many neutrons to achieve
stability.
THANK YOU FOR LISTENING!
The life cycle of a star