ISSN 2582- 564X

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Agricultural Extension Journal 2023; 7(4):148-153

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effects of Climate Change Variability on Physical, Natural, and Financial Livelihood

Assets of Rural Farmers in Imo State, Nigeria
R. A. Ihenacho1, J. N. Ohagwam2, C. C. Godson-Ibeji3, G. O. Aminu3
Department of Agricultural Extension and Management, Imo State Polytechnic, Omuma, Imo State, Nigeria,
1

2
Department of Cooperative Economics and Management, Imo State Polytechnic, Omuma, Imo State, Nigeria,
3
Department of Agricultural Extension, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
Received: 31-07-2023; Revised: 12-09-2023; Accepted: 16-10-2023
ABSTRACT
The study investigated the effect of climate change variability on the livelihood assets of the rural farmers
in Imo State, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to ascertain farmers’ awareness of climate change signs;
sources of information on climate change; identify the livelihood activities of respondents; and describe the
effect of climate change on the livelihood assets of the farmers. A purposive sampling technique was used
in selecting a sample size of 120 respondents. Data were collected by use of a structured questionnaire and
interview schedule. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. The result revealed that the major
signs of climate change included increased temperature, unpredictable rainfall patterns, drought, flooding,
increased precipitation, crop damage, and others. The major livelihood activities of the respondents in the
study area include crop farming, poultry farming, fishing and fish farming, trading, and livestock rearing.
Climate change affects the livelihood of rural people and can be seen in the effects it has on their physical,
natural, and financial capital. We recommend that rural people should be well educated on the issue of
climate change and made aware of its various effects so that they can get a good understanding of the
concept before devising ways to battle it.
Key words: Capital, climate change, farmers, livelihood, rural

INTRODUCTION[1-5] Although the share of agriculture in gross domestic

product is decreasing, the share of agriculture in
Rural households obtain livelihoods through employment is still high (Mahendra-Dev, 2011).[10]
agriculture, rural labor market, and self-employment In many rural and urban areas, the livelihoods of
in rural non-farm economies and others through people are limited to a fairly narrow range of
migrating to towns, cities, and other countries activities, but these activities may be combined
(Campbell et al., 2003).[5] Agriculture, therefore, in complex ways and are sometimes short-lived
is the major source of livelihood in many African (Aniah, 2016).[2]
countries, Nigeria inclusive. Large numbers of the Climate change and extreme weather events
rural population are dependent on agriculture for present severe threats and erode essential needs,
their livelihoods. In Sub-Saharan Africa, more than capabilities, and rights, especially for the poor and
60% of the economically active population and their marginalized thereby redesigning their livelihoods
dependents rely on agriculture for their livelihoods. (UNDP, 2010; Adger, 2010;[1] IPCC, 2014).[8] A
number of livelihoods are directly climate-sensitive,
Address for correspondence: such as rain-fed agriculture, seasonal employment
R. A. Ihenacho in agriculture (for example fishing and pastoralism),
E-mail: rachelihenacho9@gmail.com and tourism (IPCC, 2014).[8] Campbell et al. 2003[5]

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 Ihenacho, et al.: Effects of Climate Change on Livelihood Assets

indicated that rainfall is the primary driver of This study sought to understand the impact of climate
change, altering crop production from year to year change on the livelihood assets of local communities,
and causing massive longer-term fluctuations in focusing on the rural areas of Imo State, Nigeria.
production. Households are unable to raise sufficient Thus, a livelihood can be defined as the activities,
grain for their subsistence needs in 1 out of 3 years the assets, and the access that jointly determine the
(Campbell et al., 2003).[5] living gained by an individual or household (Ellis,
Climate change is an emerging stressor that is 1998; 2000).[6,7] When it comes to an individual, a
experienced over longer time frames through livelihood is the ability of that individual to obtain
changes in climatic norms and over shorter periods the basic necessities in life, which are food, water,
through changes in the frequency and severity shelter, and clothing. Studies abound on climate
of extreme weather events. Climate change is change, but there is none on how it affects the
commonly recognized to have major implications livelihood assets of respondents.
for food security and livelihoods (Thompson and The main objective of this study was to assess the
Scoones, 2009). In sub-Saharan Africa, extreme effect of climate change variability on the livelihood
droughts already impede people’s ability to grow assets of rural farmers. Specifically, the study
food and rear livestock, and pastoralists and agro- sought to
pastoralists will need to adapt to changes in water 1. Ascertain farmers’ awareness of climate change
regimes to maintain their food security and well- signs
being (Karamba et al., 2011).[9] 2. Identify sources of information on climate
The rural farmers as part of the African society change
at large have their major livelihood source from 3. Identify the livelihood activities of respondents
agricultural activities from the various sectors 4. Describe the perceived effects of climate change
such as cropping, animal or livestock production,
on the selected livelihood assets of rural farmers.
forest and forest resources, fisheries as well as
aquatic-related activities, and all these activities are
largely dependent on the climate for their effective METHODOLOGY[6,7]
performance and productivity. This is because
most agriculture and food production activities in The study was conducted in Imo state. Imo state
Africa are sensitive to climatic changes. Climate is in Southeast of Nigeria. The state is made up of
change has affected the aforementioned livelihood three agricultural zones, namely, Orlu, Owerri, and
strategies and continuous change in climatic Okigwe agricultural zones, and 27 local government
conditions will lead to an even greater extent of areas. Imo state lies within latitude 4°45°N and
damage and deterioration in the survival capacity 7°15°N and longitude 6°50°E and 7°25°E with
of rural farmers. Climate change has directly and an area of around 5100 sqkm. It is bordered by
indirectly caused a decline in the living condition or Abia State to the East and Delta State to the west
standard of the African society at large and this has and Anambra State to the north. The estimated
direct and dire consequences on health and income population of Imo state in 2019 is 4.8 million and the
security. population density varies from 230 to 1400 people/
The foregoing argument shows that climate change square kilometer. The state has a tropical climate
can no longer be sidelined as a development issue. characterized by two distinct seasons, rainy and dry
The effect that climate change has on the poor (harmattan) seasons. The rainy season commences in
communities in sub-Saharan Africa is increasingly April and lasts until October with an annual rainfall
prominent. According to Bunce et al. (2010),[4] the varying from 1500 mm to 2200 mm (60–80). An
African continent risks becoming a major global average annual temperature above 20°C creates
food crisis epicenter if climate change issues remain an annual relative humidity of 75%, with humidity
unaddressed at local levels. The vulnerability reaching 90% in the rainy season. The dry season is
of African communities to climate change is usually from November to March, with the hottest
exacerbated by high poverty levels already high months between January and March. The population
temperatures and low precipitation. under study consisted of all farmers in the study

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 Ihenacho, et al.: Effects of Climate Change on Livelihood Assets

area. In selecting the sample, a purposive sampling Table 1: Awareness of climate change signs
technique was used to select 40 farmers from each Climate change signs Mean (X̅) SD
agricultural zone, making a total of 120 respondents. Weather pattern becomes unpredictable from year 3.89 0.31
to year
The two main sources of data collection used in this
The environmental temperature has increased 3.87 0.33
study included primary and secondary data. The
The rainfall pattern has become very unpredictable 3.76 0.56
primary data were collected from the field survey/
There is increased heat on the human body 3.76 0.56
investigation by administering the questionnaire to There is increased drought 3.76 0.56
farmers while the secondary data were utilized to Reduction in crop yield 3.74 0.57
provide background information that was necessary Increased flooding 3.71 0.51
to achieve some objectives of the study. Mean, Increased precipitation 3.68 0.59
frequency, and percentage were used to achieve Crop damage 3.65 0.60
objectives 1, 2, 3, and 4. A four (4)-point Likert- Seed germination delay 3.63 0.48
type scale of strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed, Cutoff mark: 2.5. SD: Standard deviation
and strongly disagreed, assigned values of 4 to 1,
respectively, was used to achieve objective 4 which Sources of Information on Climate Change
is mathematically represented as
Table 2 shows that a greater percentage (53.3%) of
4 + 3 + 2 + 1 10 the respondents got to know about climate change
= = 2.50 from personal observation, 39.17% got to know
4 4 from extension agents, 33.3% got the information
Therefore, a mean of 2.50 was adjudged okay and from the radio, 26.7% got the information from
acceptable while any value below 2.50 was not the newspapers, 13.3% have their source from the
accepted. television, 12.5% got to know through their various
cooperative societies, 7.5% got the information
from local town criers, and other sources which
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION[8-10] include family, friends, and the market place,
whereas only 2.5% got to know about climate
Farmers’ Awareness of Climate Change Signs change from the church. One can confidently say
Table 1 shows that the respondents are aware that the major sources of information through which
of climate change by agreeing to the following the rural farmers received information on climate
statements; weather pattern becomes unpredictable change include personal observation, friends, radio,
from year to year ( X = 3.89); the environmental television, and extension.
temperature has increased ( X = 3.87); the rainfall
pattern has become very unpredictable ( X = 3.76); Livelihood Activities of Respondents
there is increased heat on human body ( X = 3.76);
there is increased drought ( X = 3.76); reduction Table 3 shows that the livelihood activity engaged by
in crop yield ( X = 3.74); increased flooding the respondents in the zone is mainly crop farming
( X = 3.71); increased precipitation ( X = 3.68); (63.3%), 46.7% are engaged in poultry farming,
crop damage ( X = 3.65); and seed germination 37.5% engage in fishing, 27.5% are traders, 26.7%
delay ( X = 3.65). The above is true as the mean are engaged in fish farming, 19.2% are livestock
of the responses did not deviate from the standard rearers, 15% are engaged in sewing, another 15%
deviation of between zero and one (0–1). Therefore, are engaged in pottery, 8.3% are wood carvers, 5.8%
the changes in climate conditions that they have bake, 5% weave basket whereas 1.7% are engaged
observed in recent years include low rainfall, excess in other activities such as civil service and artisan.
rainfall, late onset of rainfall, early cessation of This is in line with the findings of Aniah (2016).[2]
rainfall, flooding, and extremely high temperatures. He opined that the major livelihood activities of
When the farmers were asked how low rainfall has rural people include crop farming, animal rearing,
affected them, their responses ranged from reduced petty trading, fishing, basket weaving, sewing,
crop yield to reduced water for livestock. pottery, wood carving, baking, and civil service.

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 Ihenacho, et al.: Effects of Climate Change on Livelihood Assets

Table 2: Sources of information on climate change Table 4: Effects of climate change on physical capital
Source of information Frequency, n (%)* Climate change effects Mean SD
TV 16 (13.3) Destruction of property and household 3.79 0.43
Radio 40 (33.3) Collapse of buildings and structures 3.92 0.27
Personal observations 64 (53.3) Damage and disruption of road networks 3.86 0.35
Newspapers 32 (26.7) Disruption of communication channels 3.77 0.42
Cooperatives 15 (12.5) (phones, television, and radio waves)

Churches 3 (2.5) Prevention of marketing activities 3.73 0.45

Extension agent 47 (39.17) Encourages procurement of irrigation facilities 3.67 0.47

Local town crier/others 9 (7.5) Encourages set up of soil conservation structures 3.60 0.49
Cutoff mark: 2.5. SD: Standard deviation
*Multiple response

Table 3: Livelihood activities of respondents livelihoods. Furthermore, petty trading is disrupted

Livelihood activity Frequency, n (%)* or affected by climate change in the form of high and
Crop farming 76 (63.3) unstable food prices and supply among others. The
Poultry farming 56 (46.7) above is true as the mean did not deviate from the
Livestock rearing 23 (19.2) standard deviation of between zero and one (0–1).
Fish farming 32 (26.7)
Fishing 45 (37.5)
Wood carving 10 (8.3) Natural capital
Basket weaving 6 (5) The actual resources here include soil, air, water
Trading 33 (27.5) and all living organisms. Table 5 shows that the
Sewing 18 (15) respondents agree that the effects of climate change on
Baking 7 (5.8) their natural capital include soil erosion ( X = 3.70);
Pottery 18 (15) decrease in crop yield ( X = 3.60); destruction or loss
Others 2 (1.7) of certain economic trees (deforestation) ( X = 3.60);
*Multiple response drying up of water bodies (rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.)
( X = 3.49); decreased biodiversity ( X = 3.47);
Effect of Climate Change on Livelihood Assets
reduction in livestock numbers ( X = 3.46); decline
Physical capital in on-farm conservation practices ( X = 3.46);
These include transport, buildings, water wilting and withering of crops and trees ( X = 3.45);
management, energy, and communications and drought ( X = 3.41); increased harvesting of
productive capital (tools, machines, etc.) which wild food ( X = 3.41); loss of pasture/graze land
enable people to pursue the livelihoods. Table 4 ( X = 3.35); pest infestation and high disease incidence
shows that the respondents agree that the effects on crops and trees ( X = 3.35); and leaching
of climate change on their physical capital include occurrence ( X = 3.30).
collapse of buildings and structures (= 3.92); damage This is in line with a study by Antwi-Agyei (2012)[3]
and disruption of road networks (= 3.86); destruction that crop farming through perennial droughts, erratic
of property and household (= 3.79); disruption of and delayed rainfall patterns is severely disrupted
communication channels (phones, television, and by climate change and this has led to declining crop
radio waves) (= 3.77); prevention of marketing production or yield. Again, livestock farming was
activities (= 3.73); encourages procurement of most disrupted by climate change which supports the
irrigation facilities (= 3.67); and encourages set up current study. Livestock production is particularly
of soil conservation structures (= 3.60). hampered by the unavailability of pasture/grass for
These are in line with the findings of Aniah animals to graze, inadequate water for animals to
(2016)[2] that the destruction to physical property, drink, and more importantly, diseases that have been
collapse of buildings and structures, damage and killing animals in recent times. Furthermore, a study
disruption of roads, and communication networks by Aniah (2016)[2] reported droughts which result in
as a result of and rainfall and floods were indicated the withering of crops as a major negative effect of
as a critical menace of climate change on their climate change on their livelihoods. As indicated by

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 Ihenacho, et al.: Effects of Climate Change on Livelihood Assets

Table 5: Effect of climate change on natural capital Table 6: Effect of climate change on financial capital
Climate change effects Mean SD Climate change effects Mean SD
Soil erosion 3.70 0.46 High input cost of production 3.76 0.43
Decrease in crop yield 3.60 0.49 Poor market value of liquid assets (livestock, poultry, fish, etc.) 3.68 0.53
Destruction or loss of certain economic trees (deforestation) 3.60 0.49 Decrease in total available cash 3.69 0.64
Drying up of water bodies (rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.) 3.49 0.50 Poor savings 3.56 0.80
Drought 3.41 0.56 Reduction in wages 3.53 0.72
Leaching occurrence 3.30 0.64 Increased expenditure 3.55 0.50
Loss of pasture/grazing land 3.35 0.54 Borrowing from informal sectors (relatives, friends, rural 3.49 0.50
Pest infestation and high disease incidence on crops and trees. 3.35 0.60 cooperatives, money lenders, etc.)

Wilting and withering of crops and trees 3.45 0.50 Reduction in income from farm and off‑farm sources 3.49 0.50
Cutoff mark: 2.5. SD: Standard deviation
Reduction in livestock numbers 3.46 0.50
Decline in on‑farm conservation practices 3.46 0.50
are eroding households/farmers’ livelihoods through
Increased harvesting of wild food 3.41 0.49
Decreased biodiversity 3.47 0.50
decreases in crop yield periodically complicated
Cutoff mark: 2.5. SD: Standard deviation
by the proliferation of insect infection, pathogens,
parasitic weeds, diseases, reduced availability of
Van et al., (2004) and supported by Aniah (2016),[2] and access to medicinal plants, and biodiversity loss,
droughts affect household livelihood more than these effects lead to high input cost of production,
other circumstances (floods) since wet years are decrease in total available cash, poor savings,
normally good years, and hence, there are fewer reduction in wages, increased expenditure, poor
extreme cases in which excess rainfall results in yield market value of liquid assets (livestock, poultry,
declines. Aniah also noted that “soil erosion caused fish, etc.), hence supporting the study. The above is
by loss of vegetative cover due to overgrazing and true as the mean did not deviate from the standard
over-cultivation in the midst of droughts increase deviation of between zero and one (0–1).
the vulnerability of households.” Another effect
of climate change is wilting of crops by excessive
CONCLUSION
rainfall and he also noted that “streams, ponds, lakes,
rivers, dams, and even groundwater are drying up The study revealed that rural farmers are aware of the
due to droughts (poor rainfall).” climate change menace as evidenced by increased
temperature, unpredictable rainfall patterns,
Financial capital[11] drought, flooding, increased precipitation, crop
The financial resources available to people include damage, and others. The major livelihood activities
savings, supplies of credit, regular remittances and of the respondents in the study area included crop
pensions, social security payments, or insurance farming, poultry farming, fishery and fish farming,
which provide them with different livelihood trading, and among others. Climate change makes
options. These include finances (including credit). the livelihood of rural people difficult in terms
Table 6 shows that the respondents agree that the of damage and low productivity of their various
effects of climate change on their financial capital crops, animals, and other natural activities rivers
include; high input cost of production (M = 3.76); and others. Rural people should be well educated
decrease in total available cash (M = 3.69); poor on the issue of climate change and be made aware
market value of liquid assets (livestock, poultry, of its various effects so that they can get a good
fish, etc.) (M = 3.68); poor savings (M = 3.56); understanding of the concept before devising ways to
increased expenditure (M = 3.55); reduction in battle it. Rural people should also be enlightened on
wages (M = 3.53); borrowing from informal sectors the causes of climate change and their contribution
(relatives, friends, rural cooperatives, money lenders, to climate change to make them understand the
etc.) (M = 3.49); and reduction in income from farm need to manage their surroundings or environment
and off-farm sources (= 3.49). The above showed properly to minimize their contribution to climate
that climate change and extreme weather conditions change. The government, NGOs, and other agencies

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 Ihenacho, et al.: Effects of Climate Change on Livelihood Assets

should provide the rural areas with amenities and 5. Campbell BM, Luckert MK, Mutamba M. Household
infrastructures that will enable them to carry out Livelihoods in Semi-arid Regions: Is there a Way Out of
Poverty? Sweden: The Swedish University of Agricultural
adaptation strategies against climate change effects.
Sciences, Wikströms Tryckeri AB; 2011.
6. Ellis F. Household strategies and rural livelihood
diversification. J Dev Stud 1998;35:1-38.
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