FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The functions of the respiratory system are:

 Oxygen supplier. The job of the respiratory system is to keep the body constantly
supplied with oxygen.
 Elimination. Elimination of carbon dioxide.
 Gas exchange. The respiratory system organs oversee the gas exchanges that
occur between the blood and the external environment.
 Passageway. Passageways that allow air to reach the lungs.
 Humidifier. Purify, humidify, and warm incoming air.

Anatomy of the Respiratory System

The organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and their smaller branches, and the lungs, which contain the alveoli.

The nose
The nose is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system.
 Nostrils. During breathing, air enters the nose by passing through the nostrils, or
nares.
 Nasal cavity. The interior of the nose consists of the nasal cavity, divided by a
midline nasal septum.
 Olfactory receptors. The olfactory receptors for the sense of smell are located in
the mucosa in the slitlike superior part of the nasal cavity, just beneath the
ethmoid bone.
 Respiratory mucosa. The rest of the mucosal lining, the nasal cavity called the
respiratory mucosa, rests on a rich network of thin-walled veins that warms the
air as it flows past.
 Mucus. In addition, the sticky mucus produced by the mucosa’s glands moistens
the air and traps incoming bacteria and other foreign debris, and lysozyme
enzymes in the mucus destroy bacteria chemically.
  Ciliated cells. The ciliated cells of the nasal mucosa create a gentle current that
moves the sheet of contaminated mucus posteriorly toward the throat, where it is
swallowed and digested by stomach juices.
 Conchae. The lateral walls of the nasal cavity are uneven owing to three
mucosa-covered projections, or lobes called conchae, which greatly increase the
surface area of the mucosa exposed to the air, and also increase the air
turbulence in the nasal cavity.
 Palate. The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity below by a partition, the
palate; anteriorly, where the palate is supported by bone, is the hard palate; the
unsupported posterior part is the soft palate.
 Paranasal sinuses. The nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring of paranasal sinuses
located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones; theses sinuses
lighten the skull, and they act as a resonance chamber for speech.

Pharynx
 Size. The pharynx is a muscular passageway about 13 cm (5 inches) long that
vaguely resembles a short length of red garden hose.
 Function. Commonly called the throat, the pharynx serves as a common
passageway for food and air.
 Portions of the pharynx. Air enters the superior portion, the nasopharynx, from
the nasal cavity and then descends through
the oropharynx and laryngopharynx to enter the larynx below.
 Pharyngotympanic tube. The pharyngotympanic tubes, which drain the middle
ear open into the nasopharynx.
 Pharyngeal tonsil. The pharyngeal tonsil, often called adenoid is located high in
the nasopharynx.
 Palatine tonsils. The palatine tonsils are in the oropharynx at the end of the soft
palate.
 Lingual tonsils. The lingual tonsils lie at the base of the tongue.

Larynx
The larynx or voice box routes air and food into the proper channels and plays a role in
speech.
 Structure. Located inferior to the pharynx, it is formed by eight rigid hyaline
cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage, the epiglottis.
 Thyroid cartilage. The largest of the hyaline cartilages is the shield-shaped
thyroid cartilage, which protrudes anteriorly and is commonly called Adam’s
apple.
 Epiglottis. Sometimes referred to as the “guardian of the airways”, the epiglottis
protects the superior opening of the larynx.
 Vocal folds. Part of the mucous membrane of the larynx forms a pair of folds,
called the vocal folds, or true vocal cords, which vibrate with expelled air and
allows us to speak.
 Glottis. The slitlike passageway between the vocal folds is the glottis.
Trachea
 Length. Air entering the trachea or windpipe from the larynx travels down its
length (10 to 12 cm or about 4 inches) to the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra,
which is approximately midchest.
 Structure. The trachea is fairly rigid because its walls are reinforced with C-
shaped rings of hyaline cartilage; the open parts of the rings abut the esophagus
and allow it to expand anteriorly when we swallow a large piece of food, while the
solid portions support the trachea walls and keep it patent, or open, in spite of the
pressure changes that occur during breathing.
 Cilia. The trachea is lined with ciliated mucosa that beat continuously and in a
direction opposite to that of the incoming air as they propel mucus, loaded with
dust particles and other debris away from the lungs to the throat, where it can be
swallowed or spat out.

Main Bronchi
 Structure. The right and left main (primary) bronchi are formed by the division of
the trachea.
 Location. Each main bronchus runs obliquely before it plunges into the
medial depression of the lung on its own side.
 Size. The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left.

Lungs
 Location. The lungs occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the most central
area, the mediastinum, which houses the heart, the great blood vessels, bronchi,
esophagus, and other organs.
 Apex. The narrow, superior portion of each lung, the apex, is just deep into the
clavicle.
 Base. The broad lung area resting on the diaphragm is the base.
 Division. Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures; the left lung has two lobes,
and the right lung has three.
 Pleura. The surface of each lung is covered with a visceral serosa called
the pulmonary, or visceral pleura, and the walls of the thoracic cavity are lined by
the parietal pleura.
 Pleural fluid. The pleural membranes produce pleural fluid, a slippery serous
secretion that allows the lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during
breathing movements and causes the two pleural layers to cling together.
 Pleural space. The lungs are held tightly to the thorax wall, and the pleural space
is more of a potential space than an actual one.
 Bronchioles. The smallest of the conducting passageways are the bronchioles.
 Alveoli. The terminal bronchioles lead to the respiratory zone structures, even
smaller conduits that eventually terminate in alveoli or air sacs.
  Respiratory zone. The respiratory zone, which includes the respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, is the only site of gas
exchange.
 Conducting zone structures. All other respiratory passages are conducting zone
structures that serve as conduits to and from the respiratory zone.
 Stroma. The balance of the lung tissue, its stroma, is mainly elastic connective
tissue that allows the lungs to recoil passively as we exhale.

The Respiratory Membrane

 Wall structure. The walls of the alveoli are composed largely of a single, thin
layer of squamous epithelial cells.
 Alveolar pores. Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs and provide
alternative routes for air to reach alveoli whose feeder bronchioles have been
clogged by mucus or otherwise blocked.
 Respiratory membrane. Together, the alveolar and capillary walls, their fused
basement membranes, and occasional elastic fibers construct the respiratory
membrane (air-blood barrier), which has gas (air) flowing past on one side and
blood flowing past on the other.
 Alveolar macrophages. Remarkably efficient alveolar macrophages sometimes
called “dust cells”, wander in and out of the alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon
particles, and other debris.
 Cuboidal cells. Also scattered amid the epithelial cells that form most of the
alveolar walls are chunky cuboidal cells, which produce a lipid (fat) molecule
called surfactant, which coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces and is very
important in lung function.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Functions of the Endocrine System

Despite the huge variety of hormones, there are really only two mechanisms by which
hormones trigger changes in cells.
1. Water equilibrium. The endocrine system controls water equilibrium by regulating
the solute concentration of the blood.
2. Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation. The endocrine system controls the
growth of many tissues, like the bone and muscle, and the degree of metabolism
of various tissues, which aids in the maintenance of the normal body temperature
and normal mental functions. Maturation of tissues, which appears in the
development of adult features and adult behavior, are also determined by the
endocrine system.
3. Heart rate and blood pressure management. The endocrine system assists in
managing the heart rate and blood pressure and aids in preparing the body for
physical motion.
4. Immune system control. The endocrine system helps regulate the production and
functions of immune cells.
5. Reproductive function controls. The endocrine system regulates the development
and the functions of the reproductive systems in males and females.
6. Uterine contractions and milk release. The endocrine system controls uterine
contractions throughout the delivery of the newborn and stimulates milk release
from the breasts in lactating females.
7. Ion management. The endocrine system regulates Na+, K+, and
Ca2+ concentrations in the blood.
8. Blood glucose regulator. The endocrine system controls blood glucose levels and
other nutrient levels in the blood.
9. Direct gene activation. Being lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid hormones can
diffuse through plasma membranes of their target cells; once inside, the steroid
hormone enters the nucleus and binds to a specific receptor protein there; then,
the hormone-receptor complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA,
activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA; the mRNA then is
translated in the cytoplasm, resulting in the synthesis of new proteins.
10. Second messenger system. Water-soluble, nonsteroidal hormones-protein, and
peptide hormones- are unable to enter the target cells, so instead, they bind to
receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma membrane and utilize a second
messenger system.

Anatomy of the Endocrine System

Compared to other organs of the body, the organs of the endocrine system are small
and unimpressive, however, functionally the endocrine organs are very impressive, and
when their role in maintaining body homeostasis is considered, they are true giants.

Hypothalamus
 The major endocrine organs of the body include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
adrenal, pineal, and thymus glands, the pancreas, and the gonads.
 Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system, is also
considered a major endocrine organ because it produces several hormones. It is
an important autonomic nervous system and endocrine control center of the brain
located inferior to the thalamus.
 Mixed functions. Although the function of some hormone-producing glands is
purely endocrine, the function of others (pancreas and gonads) is mixed- both
endocrine and exocrine.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is approximately the size of a pea.
 Location. The pituitary gland hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the
hypothalamus of the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by the “Turk’s saddle”
of the sphenoid bone.
 Lobes. It has two functional lobes- the anterior pituitary (glandular tissue) and the
posterior pituitary (nervous tissue).

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

There are several hormones of the anterior pituitary hormones that affect many body
organs.
 Growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is a general metabolic hormone,
however, its major effects are directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and
long bones of the body; it is a protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that causes
amino acids to be built into proteins and stimulates most target cells to grow in
size and divide.
 Prolactin (PRL). Prolactin is a protein hormone structurally similar to growth
hormone; its only known target in humans is the breast because, after childbirth,
it stimulates and maintains milk production by the mother’s breast.
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH regulates the endocrine activity of
the cortex portion of the adrenal gland.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH, also called thyrotropin hormone
influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
 Gonadotropic hormones. The gonadotropic hormones regulate the hormonal
activity of gonads (ovaries and testes).
  Follicles-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates follicle development in the
ovaries; as the follicles mature, they produce estrogen and eggs that are readied
for ovulation; in men, FSH stimulates sperm development by the testes.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH). LH triggers the ovulation of an egg from the ovary and
causes the ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen; in men,
LH stimulates testosterone production by the interstitial cells of the testes.

Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine gland in the strict sense because it does not
make the peptide hormones it releases, but it simply acts as a storage area for
hormones made by hypothalamic neurons.
 Oxytocin. Oxytocin is released in significant amounts only during childbirth and in
nursing women; it stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle
during labor, during sexual relations, and during breastfeeding and also causes
milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a nursing woman.
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water
from the forming of urine; as a result, urine volume decreases and blood volume
increases; in larger amounts, ADH also increases blood pressure by causing
constriction of the arterioles, so it is sometimes referred to as vasopressin.

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a hormone-producing gland that is familiar to most people primarily
because many obese individuals blame their overweight condition on their “glands”
(thyroid).
 Location. The thyroid gland is located at the base of the throat, just inferior to the
Adam’s apple, where it is easily palpated during a physical examination.
 Lobes. It is a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes joined by a central mass,
or isthmus.
 Composition. Internally, the thyroid gland is composed of hollow structures
called follicles, which store a sticky colloidal material.
 Types of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormone often referred to as the body’s
major metabolic hormone, is actually two active, iodine-containing
hormones, thyroxine or T4, and triiodothyronine or T3.
 Thyroxine. Thyroxine is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicles.
 Triiodothyronine. Most triiodothyronine is formed at the target tissues by
conversion of the thyroxine to triiodothyronine.
 Function. Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is “burned”
oxidized, and converted to body heat and chemical energy; it is also important for
normal tissue growth and development.
 Calcitonin. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be
deposited in the bones; calcitonin is made by the so-called parafollicular
cells found in the connective tissues between the follicles.
Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are mostly tiny masses of glandular tissue.
 Location. The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland.
 Parathormone. The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) or
parathormone, which is the most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis
of the blood; PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone (that is, it acts to increase blood
levels of calcium), whereas calcitonin is a hypocalcemic hormone.; PTH also
stimulates the kidneys and intestines to absorb more calcium.

Adrenal Glands
Although the adrenal gland looks like a single organ, it is structurally and functionally
two endocrine organs in one.

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex produces three major groups of steroid hormones, which are
collectively called corticosteroids– mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex
hormones.
 Mineralocorticoids. The mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, are produced
by the outermost adrenal cortex cell layer; mineralocorticoids are important in
regulating the mineral (or salt) content of the blood, particularly the
concentrations of sodium and potassium ions and they also help in regulating the
water and electrolyte balance in the body.
 Renin. Renin, am enzyme produced by the kidneys when the blood pressure
drops, also cause the release of aldosterone by triggering a series of reactions
that form angiotensin II, a potent stimulator of aldosterone release.
 Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP prevents aldosterone release, its goal being
to reduce blood volume and blood pressure.
 Glucocorticoids. The middle cortical layer mainly produces glucocorticoids, which
include cortisone and cortisol; glucocorticoids promote normal cell metabolism
and help the body to resist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing blood
glucose levels, thus it is said to be a hyperglycemic hormone; it also
reduce pain and inflammation by inhibiting some pain-causing molecules
called prostaglandins.
 Sex hormones. Both male and female sex hormones are produced by the
adrenal cortex throughout life in relatively small amounts; although the bulk of
sex hormones produced by the innermost cortex layer are androgens (male sex
hormones), some estrogens (female sex hormones), are also formed.

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

The adrenal medulla, like the posterior pituitary, develops from a knot of nervous tissue.
  Catecholamines. When the medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system
neurons, its cells release two similar hormones, epinephrine, also
called adrenaline, and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), into the bloodstream;
collectively, these hormones are referred to as catecholamines.
 Function. Basically, the Catecholamines increase heart rate, blood pressure, and
blood glucose levels and dilate the small passageways of the lungs; the
catecholamines of the adrenal medulla prepare the body to cope with a brief or
short-term stressful situation and cause the so-called alarm stage of the stress
response.

Pancreatic Islets
The pancreas, located close to the stomach in the abdominal cavity, is a mixed gland.
 Islets of Langerhans.The islets of Langerhans also called pancreatic islets, are
little masses of hormone-producing tissue that are scattered among the enzyme-
producing acinar tissue of the pancreas.
 Hormones. Two important hormones produced by the islet cells
are insulin and glucagon.
 Islet cells. Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting insulin, and glucagon
appropriately during fed and fasting states.
 Beta cells. High levels of glucose in the blood stimulate the release of insulin
from the beta cells of the islets.
 Alpha cells. Glucagon’s release by the alpha cells of the islets is stimulated by
low blood glucose levels.
 Insulin. Insulin acts on just about all the body cells and increases their ability to
transport glucose across their plasma membranes; because insulin sweeps
glucose out of the blood, its effect is said to be hypoglycemic.
 Glucagon. Glucagon acts as an antagonist of insulin; that is, it helps to regulate
blood glucose levels but in a way opposite that of insulin; its action is
basically hyperglycemic and its primary target organ is the liver, which it
stimulates to break down stored glycogen into glucose and release the glucose
into the blood.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is a small cone-shaped gland.
 Location. The pineal gland hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain.
 Melatonin. Melatonin is the only hormone that appears to be secreted in
substantial amounts by the pineal gland; the levels of melatonin rise and fall
during the course of the day and night; peak levels occur at night and make us
drowsy as melatonin is believed to be the “sleep trigger” that plays an important
role in establishing the body’s day-night cycle.

Thymus Gland
The thymus gland is large in infants and children and decreases in size throughout
adulthood.
 Location. The thymus gland is located in the upper thorax, posterior to the
sternum.
 Thymosin. The thymus produces a hormone called thymosin and others that
appear to be essential for normal development of a special group of white blood
cells (T-lymphocytes, or T cells) and the immune response.

Gonads
The female and male gonads produce sex hormones that are identical to those
produced by adrenal cortex cells; the major difference are the source and relative
amount produced.

Hormones of the Ovaries

The female gonads or ovaries are a pair of almond-sized organs.
 Location. The female gonads are located in the pelvic cavity.
 Steroid hormones. Besides producing female sex cells, ovaries produce two
groups of steroid hormones, estrogen, and progesterone.
 Estrogen. Alone, the estrogens are responsible for the development of sex
characteristics in women at puberty; acting with progesterone, estrogens
promote breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine lining (menstrual
cycle).
 Progesterone. Progesterone acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
cycle; during pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an implanted
embryo will not be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation.

Hormones of the Testes

The testes of the male are paired oval organs in a sac.
 Location. The testes are suspended in a sac, the scrotum, outside the pelvic
cavity.
 Male sex hormones. In addition to male sex cells, or sperm, the testes also
produce male sex hormones, or androgens, of which testosterone is the most
important.
 Testosterone. At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation of the
reproductive system organs to prepare the young man for reproduction; it also
causes the male’s secondary sex characteristics to appear and stimulates male
sex drive; Testosterone is also necessary for the continuous production of sperm.