Respiratory

System
Anatomy & Physiology
Respiratory System

LOREM IPSUM
It is a continuous network of tubules that functions in exchanging gases
by acquiring oxygen and removing carbon dioxide from the blood.
DOLOR SIT AMET,
Oxygen is breathed in, and carbon dioxide is expelled.

CONSECTETUER
Functions:
1. Ventilation and Respiration
ADIPISCING ELIT2
• Ventilation – referred to as the breathing process or the physical
movement of air into and out of the respiratory passages and the
lungs.
• Pulmonary
Lorem ipsum dolor sitRespiration or External Respiration – the movement of
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• Systemic Respiration or Internal Respiration – the movement of gases
between the blood and the body’s cells.
Respiratory System

LOREM IPSUM
DOLOR SIT AMET,
CONSECTETUER
ADIPISCING ELIT2
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Respiratory System
cranial number 1

Functions:
LOREM IPSUM
2. Olfaction – sense of smell is activated when breathing moves air to
the odor receptor cells in the nose.
DOLOR SIT AMET,
3. Sound Production – movement of air across the vocal cords in the
CONSECTETUER
larynx produces sound and makes speech possible.
4. Regulation of Blood pH – breathing volume and rate determine the
ADIPISCING ELIT2
concentration of carbon dioxide in blood, which affects blood pH.
5. Production of Chemical Mediators – the lungs produce an enzyme
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component
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pressure regulation.
6. Protection – the respiratory system provides protection against some
microorganisms by preventing them from entering the body and
removing them from respiratory surfaces.
Respiratory Tract

LOREM IPSUM
• Conducting Zone – these are
DOLOR SIT AMET,
structures from the nose to the
smallest air tubes within the
CONSECTETUER
lungs and is strictly for
ventilation.
ADIPISCING ELIT2
• Respiratory Zone – these are
structures solely within the
lungs and dolor
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specialized small air tubes and
the alveoli. Gas exchange
occurs within this zone.
Upper Respiratory Tract

LOREM IPSUM
DOLOR SIT AMET, The entire Upper Respiratory
CONSECTETUER Tract is lined with epithelium
that secretes mucus. Dust and
ADIPISCING ELIT2 other inhaled particles trapped
in the mucus are swept out by
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Upper Respiratory Tract

1. Nose – forms the external entrance to the nasal cavity, functions in

breathing, immunity, and the sense of smell.
• Nares – or nostrils are the anterior external openings. Stiff hairs at
the entrance of each nostril keep dust and other large particles out.
• Nasal cavity – open chamber inside the nose and adjusts the
temperature and humidity by warming the incoming air to ensure
that the respiratory surface of the lungs remains moist. This cavity is
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• Nasal septum – a wall of tissue that divides the nasal cavity into left
and right halves.
Nose

1. Nose
• Vestibule – a region in the anterior part of the nasal cavity that is
lined with a mucous membrane consisting of pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells. Mucus is secreted
by the goblet cells to catch airborne bacteria and dust particles.
The cilia on the surface of the mucous membrane sweep the mucus
posteriorly to the pharynx, where it is swallowed and eliminated by
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Nose

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Upper Respiratory Tract

2. Pharynx – also known as the throat and is the common opening of

both digestive and the respiratory systems. The pharynx receives air
from the nasal cavity and receives air, food, and drink from the oral
cavity. The pharynx is connected to the respiratory system at the
larynx and to the digestive system at the esophagus.
• Nasopharynx – the most superior portion of the pharynx and is a
continuation of the nasal cavity. It is continuous with the middle ear
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Pharynx

2. Pharynx
• Oropharynx – the middle portion of the pharynx and a continuation
of the nasopharynx. Air, food, and drink pass through the oropharynx.
The palatine and lingual tonsils are located near this area.
• Laryngopharynx – is a continuation of the oropharynx. It spans the
posterior length of the larynx, from the most superior larynx structure,
the epiglottis, to the esophagus. Food and drink pass through the
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Pharynx

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Upper Respiratory Tract

3. Larynx – also known as the voice box and is located in front of the
laryngopharynx and extends from the base of the tongue to the
trachea. It is a box like structure that produces the voice. The larynx
also directs chewed food toward the esophagus and away from the
respiratory system. The larynx’ rigid structure helps keep the airway
constantly
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Larynx

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Upper Respiratory Tract

3. Larynx
• Vocal Cords – also known as the vocal folds. These are two elastic
bands of tissue stretched over the larynx and vibrate as air from the
lungs passes through. Vibrations of the vocal cords produce the
sounds of speech.
• Glottis – a slit-like opening between the vocal cords allowing the
passage of air.
• Epiglottis
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to allow entry of food into the esophagus and not the lungs. It helps
protect the lower respiratory tract from foreign materials.
Larynx

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Lower Respiratory Tract

Tracheobronchial Tree – consists of the

trachea and the network of air tubes in
the lungs.
• The trachea divides to form a left and
right main bronchus, each of which
divides to form smaller and smaller
bronchi.
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Tracheobronchial Tree

The walls of the air passageway

are supported by cartilage and
smooth muscle as well as lined with
ciliated epithelium which functions
as a mucus-cilia escalator,
trapping
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Lower Respiratory Tract

1. Trachea – also known as the windpipe is an air-cleaning tube just

beneath the larynx and allows air to flow into the lungs. It is lined by
a mucous membrane with goblet cells that produce mucus.
• Tracheal Rings – 15 to 20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage
that reinforces the trachea. The rings support the trachea and
prevent it from collapsing. The cartilages support the anterior and
lateral sides of the trachea to protect it while maintaining a
patent passageway for air.
Trachea
Lower Respiratory Tract

2. Bronchi – or the main bronchi or primary bronchi are two

passageways of air branching out from the trachea and lead to
each lung. The bronchi branch repeatedly, each branch
decreasing in diameter and wall thickness.
• Carina – a ridge of cartilage located where the trachea divides
into two main bronchi. The carina has a mucous membrane
sensitive to mechanical stimulation. If foreign matter is inspired to
the level of the carina, it stimulates a powerful cough reflex.
Carina
Lower Respiratory Tract

3. Lobar Bronchi – or secondary bronchi arise directly from the main

bronchi. In the left lung, there are two lobar bronchi. In the right
lung, there are three lobar bronchi. Each lobar bronchus supplies
its own section of lung lobe.
4. Segmental Bronchi – or tertiary bronchi supply subdivisions within
each lung lobe, which are called bronchopulmonary segments.
As the bronchi become smaller, the cartilage becomes sparse,
and smooth muscle becomes abundant.
Bronchi
Lower Respiratory Tract

5. Bronchioles – “little bronchi” result from continued branching of the

segmental bronchi. The bronchioles have less cartilage, but their
walls contain more smooth muscle and is controlled by the
autonomic nervous system.
6. Terminal Bronchioles – arise from several subdivisions of bronchioles.
The terminal bronchioles have no cartilage in their walls, but the
smooth muscle later is prominent.
7. Respiratory Bronchioles – narrowest airway arising from the terminal
bronchioles and are attached to the alveoli. As the respiratory
bronchioles divide to form smaller respiratory bronchioles, the
number of attached alveoli increases.
Bronchioles
Airway Diameter

The bronchi and bronchioles are capable of changing their diameter.

• Bronchodilation – occurs when the smooth muscle relaxes, making
the diameter larger.
• Bronchoconstriction – occurs when the smooth muscle contracts,
making the bronchiole diameter smaller.
Lower Respiratory Tract

8. Alveoli – a grape-like cluster where gas exchange takes place and

is the site of pulmonary respiration.
• Alveolar Ducts – arise from the respiratory bronchioles where the
alveoli are attached.
• Alveolar Sacs – chamber that connects and houses two or more
alveoli at the end of the alveolar duct.
Each alveolus is a tiny sac with a wall of epithelial tissue that is
one cell layer thick. A vast network of capillaries surrounds each
cluster of alveoli. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse through
thin walls of the alveoli and the neighboring capillaries.
Alveoli
Lower Respiratory Tract

9. Lungs – are the primary organs of the respiratory system that houses
the alveoli. They occupy the thoracic cavity.
• Base – portion of the lungs in contact with the diaphragm.
• Apex – portion of the lungs that extends above the clavicle.
• Hilum – is an indentation on the medial surface of the lung. It is
where structures, such as the man bronchus, blood vessels,
nerves, and lymphatic vessels, enter or exit the lung.
• Cardiac Notch – a medial indentation in the left lung that
provides room for the heart to lie between the lungs.
• Lobe – sections or divisions of the lung. The right lung has three
lobes, while the left lung has two lobes.
Lungs
Lungs
Lungs

Pleura – a pair of membranes lining the thoracic cavity and covers the
lungs. The pleural membranes produce pleural fluid which allows the
lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during breathing movements
and causes the 2 pleural layers to cling together.
• Mediastinum – a central region in the thoracic cavity that separates
two pleural cavities containing each lung. The mediastinum houses
the heart, trachea, esophagus, and other structures, such as blood
vessels and the thymus.
• Parietal Pleura – the serous membrane that covers the inner thoracic
wall, the superior surface of the diaphragm, and the mediastinum.
• Visceral Pleura – covers the surface of the lung.
Pleura
Gas Exchange

Simple Diffusion – movement

of a substance from an area
of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration
without energy requirements.
It is the process used for gas
exchange in the alveoli and
at the body’s tissues.
Gas Exchange

Lung Gas Exchange

This exchange takes place during external respiration or pulmonary
respiration. Inhaled oxygen diffuses down from the alveoli into the blood
while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the air in the lungs for
exhalation. The heart then pumps the freshly oxygenated blood to the rest
of the body.

Tissue Gas Exchange

This exchange takes place during internal respiration or systemic
respiration. Blood coming from the lungs brings oxygen and diffuses into
the body tissues while carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues back to the
blood. The deoxygenated blood is then transported back to the lungs.
Gas Exchange
Gas Exchange
Mechanisms of Ventilation

• The movement of air into and out of the lungs involve the muscles of
respiration and air pressure gradients.
• The function of the muscles for respiration is to change the volume of
the thoracic cavity, which allows for air to flow into and out of the lungs.
• Air flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
• One respiratory cycle consists of one inhalation and one exhalation.
Mechanisms of Ventilation

Inhalation or Inspiration – when air moves into the lungs. The contraction of
muscles in diaphragm and rib cage expands chest cavity, lowering
pressure in the lungs and draws in air.
• Muscles of inspiration increase the volume of the thoracic cavity and
lowers the air pressure: diaphragm, external intercostals, pectoralis
minor, and scalene
• During inspiration, air flows into the lungs down its pressure gradient.
Inspiration
Mechanisms of Ventilation

Exhalation or Expiration – when air flows out of the lungs. The relaxation of
muscles in diaphragm and rib cage allows the lungs to recoil, making the
pressure inside high and expels air.
• Muscles of expiration decrease the thoracic volume by depressing the
ribs and sternum thereby increasing air pressure: internal intercostals
and transverse thoracis with the assistance of the abdominal muscles.
• During expiration, air flows out of the lungs down its pressure gradient.
Expiration
Pulmonary Volumes

• Tidal Volume – is the normal volume of air inspired and expired with
each breath. At rest, quiet breathing results in a tidal volume of
approximately 500 ml.
• Inspiratory Reserve Volume – is the amount of air that can be inspired
forcefully after a normal inspiration, approximately 3100 ml at rest.
• Expiratory Reserve Volume – is the amount of air that can be forcefully
expired after a normal expiration, approximately 1200 ml at rest.
• Residual Volume – is the volume of air still remaining in the respiratory
passages and lungs after the most forceful expiration, approximately
1200 ml.
Pulmonary Capacities

• Inspiratory Capacity – is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve

volume. It is the amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a
normal expiration, approximately 3600 ml at rest.
• Functional Residual Capacity – is the expiratory reserve volume plus the
residual volume. It is the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end
of a normal expiration, approximately 2400 ml at rest.
• Vital Capacity – is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal
volume, and the expiratory reserve volume. It is the maximum volume of
air a person can expel from the respiratory tract after a maximum
inspiration, approximately 4800 ml.
• Total Lung Capacity – is the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve
volumes plus the tidal volume and the residual volume, approximately
6000 ml.
Volumes and Capacities
Breathing Control

Neural Control
• The neural centers that control respiratory rhythm and depth are located
in the medulla oblongata and the pons. The medulla oblongata controls
the respiratory rate.
• A collection of neurons in the pons helps regulate respiration rate.
• The activity of the respiratory muscles and the diaphragm is regulated by
nerve impulses transmitted to them from the brain by the phrenic and
intercostal nerves.

Local Control
• The control of breathing illustrates negative feedback. It relies on the
amount of dissolved carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood. The body is
particularly sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide levels and blood pH.
Breathing Control
Blood pH Regulation

Hypoventilation – extremely slow or shallow breathing resulting in

hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis.

Hypercapnia – too high blood carbon dioxide.

High concentration of carbon dioxide results in a decrease in blood pH.
The medulla oblongata of the brain is then triggered to stimulate an
increase in breathing rate (Hyperventilation). Blood carbon dioxide
then decreases as it is exhaled and oxygen is taken in.
Blood pH Regulation

Hyperventilation – excessive rate and depth of breathing resulting in

hypocapnia and respiratory alkalosis.

Hypocapnia – too low blood carbon dioxide.

Low concentration of carbon dioxide increases the blood pH. In the
medulla oblongata of the brain, the neurons that trigger inhalation are
inhibited and slows down breathing (Hypoventilation). Blood carbon
dioxide then increases since it is not readily expelled.