Atomic Structure - 3

THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRON
Louis de Broglie suggested that small particles, such as

electrons, protons and neutrons display wave properties.
He predicted that a particle with a mass, M and velocity, v
should have the wavelength, λ associated with it:
The numerical value of the wavelength is given by
λ = H / m v .....(*)
( where h = Planck’s constant)

∆E = mc2 ( from Einstein equation).....(1)
∆E = hn (from Planck’s equation)......(2)
Substituting ‘c’ with ‘v’, the equation become (*).

• Therefore, the Bohr statement’s that the electrons occupy
certain energy levels are not been acceptable anymore.
• If the electrons have a wave property, therefore the

‘position’ of them cannot be specified
( because a wave extends in space ).
THE HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
• To describe the problem of trying to locate a subatomic particle that

behaves like a wave, Werner Heisenberg formulated what is known
as the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
• He stated that; ‘It is impossible to know simultaneously both the

momentum, p (mass times velocity) and the position of a particle
with certainty’.
• Applying the principle to the hydrogen atom, the electron
does not orbit the nucleus in a well-defined path, as Bohr
thought.
• But we could find the probability distribution of electrons

within a specified region in space.
• 95% of the time the electron will be found within a specified region of
space quite close to the nucleus (based on Schrödinger’s theory ).
• The region of space in which an electron of a given energy is most

probably located is called orbital.
THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION
• In 1926, Schrödinger formulated an equation that describes

a possible energy state for the electrons in an atom.
• Each solution is described by a set of quantum numbers:

n, l, ml, s
This equation tells us the
• Energy levels……. n
• Shapes ……………. l
• Orientations, (ml ) of the probability
distributions of the electrons (orbital) in
atoms………… ml
• Behavior of an electron…….. s
QUANTUM NUMBERS
The first three quantum numbers are to describe the

distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other atoms:
✓The principal quantum number
✓The angular momentum quantum number
✓The magnetic quantum number
The fourth quantum number describes the behavior of a
specific electron:
✓ The spin quantum number, s

The Principal Quantum Number, n
• The principal quantum number can have integral values 1,2,3,4 ...∞.
• The value n of is the primary factor in determining the energy of an

electron.
• Two or more electrons with the same n value are said to be in the
same electron shell.
• It also relates the average distance of the electron from the nucleus.
The larger n is the greater the distance of an electron in the orbital
from the nucleus.
Thus, the larger the electron’s orbital.

The Angular Momentum Quantum Number
• It tells us the ‘shape’ of the orbital.
• The values of l depend on the values of the principal quantum
numbers, n.
• The possible values of l are from
0, 1, 2, 3, ........... n-1
l 0 1 2 3 4 …
Name of s p d f g etc
orbital
• The electrons of a given shell can be grouped into
subshells.
Example:
The shell with n=2, is composed of two subshells,
l=0 and 1. These subshells are called 2s and 2p.
n l The name of orbital subshell
2 0 s 2s
1 p 2p
The Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• It tells us the orientation of the orbital in space.

• Within a subshell, the value of ml depends on the value of angular
momentum quantum number, l.
• The values of ml, indicates the number of orbitals in a subshell with a
particular l value.
• For a certain value of l, the ml values are :
-l, (-l + 1), ....0...., (+l - 1) , +l
For example:
l=1 ml = -1, 0, +1
There are three values of ml which indicates the total of three p
orbital.
The Electron Spin Quantum Number, s
• It is found that electrons spin on their own axes as the earth does.
• Two possible spinning motions of an electron, one clockwise and the
other counterclockwise.
• Therefore the electron spin quantum number has a value of + ½ and -
½.
ATOMIC ORBITALS
s Orbitals
• All s orbitals are spherical in
shape but differ in size,
which increases as the n
number increases.
• At the first energy level, the

only orbital available to
electrons is the 1s orbital.
p Orbitals
• Not all electrons inhabit s orbitals.

• There are also orbitals called p orbitals.
• There are three types of p orbitals, namely

Px , P y and Pz
and they differ to each other

in the orientation.
• A p orbital is rather like 2
identical balloons (lobes)
tied together at the nucleus.
Once again, the orbital
shows where there is a 95%
chance of finding a particular
electron.
• The three p orbitals are perpendicular to each other.
d Orbitals
• At the third level, there is a set of five d orbitals
where the electrons inhabit.
They are named:
dxy, dxz, dyz, d x2-y2 , dz2
• All, the 3d orbitals are identical in energy but with

different orientations accordingly to the axis.

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THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRON

Louis de Broglie suggested that small particles, such as

( where h = Planck’s constant)

∆E = hn (from Planck’s equation)......(2)

Substituting ‘c’ with ‘v’, the equation become (*).

• If the electrons have a wave property, therefore the

• To describe the problem of trying to locate a subatomic particle that

• He stated that; ‘It is impossible to know simultaneously both the

• But we could find the probability distribution of electrons

• The region of space in which an electron of a given energy is most

• In 1926, Schrödinger formulated an equation that describes

• Each solution is described by a set of quantum numbers:

The first three quantum numbers are to describe the

✓ The spin quantum number, s

• The value n of is the primary factor in determining the energy of an

Thus, the larger the electron’s orbital.

• It tells us the ‘shape’ of the orbital.

• The values of l depend on the values of the principal quantum

• The possible values of l are from

• It tells us the orientation of the orbital in space.

• At the first energy level, the

• Not all electrons inhabit s orbitals.

• There are three types of p orbitals, namely

and they differ to each other

• All, the 3d orbitals are identical in energy but with

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