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    Lecture 5 & 6 - Electronic Structure of Atoms

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    1. The document provides an overview of electronic structure and quantum mechanics concepts including quantized energy, photons, line spectra, Bohr model, wave-particle duality, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals, Pauli exclusion principle, and electron spin. 2. It discusses key experiments and theories that led to the current understanding of electronic structure including Planck's quantization of energy, Einstein's photon theory, Bohr's model of the atom, de Broglie's proposal of wave-particle duality, and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. 3. The document uses examples of light-matter interactions and hydrogen/neon spectra to illustrate these foundational concepts in quantum mechanics and atomic structure.

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    Lecture 5 & 6 - Electronic Structure of Atoms

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    1. The document provides an overview of electronic structure and quantum mechanics concepts including quantized energy, photons, line spectra, Bohr model, wave-particle duality, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals, Pauli exclusion principle, and electron spin. 2. It discusses key experiments and theories that led to the current understanding of electronic structure including Planck's quantization of energy, Einstein's photon theory, Bohr's model of the atom, de Broglie's proposal of wave-particle duality, and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. 3. The document uses examples of light-matter interactions and hydrogen/neon spectra to illustrate these foundational concepts in quantum mechanics and atomic structure.

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    Lecture 5 & 6- Electronic Structure of Atoms

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    1. The document provides an overview of electronic structure and quantum mechanics concepts including quantized energy, photons, line spectra, Bohr model, wave-particle duality, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals, Pauli exclusion principle, and electron spin. 2. It discusses key experiments and theories that led to the current understanding of electronic structure including Planck's quantization of energy, Einstein's photon theory, Bohr's model of the atom, de Broglie's proposal of wave-particle duality, and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. 3. The document uses examples of light-matter interactions and hydrogen/neon spectra to illustrate these foundational concepts in quantum mechanics and atomic structure.

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    67 views43 pages

    Lecture 5 & 6 - Electronic Structure of Atoms

    Uploaded by

    api-19824406
    1. The document provides an overview of electronic structure and quantum mechanics concepts including quantized energy, photons, line spectra, Bohr model, wave-particle duality, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals, Pauli exclusion principle, and electron spin. 2. It discusses key experiments and theories that led to the current understanding of electronic structure including Planck's quantization of energy, Einstein's photon theory, Bohr's model of the atom, de Broglie's proposal of wave-particle duality, and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. 3. The document uses examples of light-matter interactions and hydrogen/neon spectra to illustrate these foundational concepts in quantum mechanics and atomic structure.

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    of 43

    Chemistry 111

    General Chemistry
    Dr. Rabih O. Al-Kaysi

    Ext: 47247
    Email: kaysir@ksau-hs.edu.sa
    Lectures 5 & 6
    Electronic Structure of
    Atoms

    1 - Electronic Structure
    • Our goal:
    • Understand why some substances behave as they do.
    • For example: Why are K and Na reactive metals? Why do H and
    Cl combine to make HCl? Why are some compounds molecular
    rather than ionic?
    • Atom interact through their outer parts, their electrons.
    • The arrangement of electrons in atoms are referred to as
    their electronic structure.
    • Electron structure relates to:
    • Number of electrons an atom possess.
    • Where they are located.
    • What energies they possess.

    2 - The Wave Nature of Light


    • Study of light emitted or absorbed by substances has lead
    to the understanding of the electronic structure of atoms.
    • Characteristics of light:
    • All waves have a characteristic wavelength, λ , and
    amplitude, A.
    • The frequency, ν , of a wave is the number of cycles
    which pass a point in one second.
    • The speed of a wave, v, is given by its frequency
    multiplied by its wavelength:
    c=λ ν
    • For light, speed = c.

    Identifying λ and ν
    3 - Electromagnetic Radiation
    • Modern atomic theory arose out of studies of the
    interaction of radiation with matter.
    • Electromagnetic radiation moves through a vacuum with
    a speed of 2.99792458 × 10-8 m/s.
    • Electromagnetic waves have characteristic wavelengths
    and frequencies.
    • Example: visible radiation has wavelengths between 400
    nm (violet) and 750 nm (red).
    4 - The Electromagnetic Spectrum
    Class Guided Practice Problem
    • The yellow light given off by a sodium vapor lamp used for public
    lighting has a wavelength of 589 nm. What is the frequency of this
    radiation?

    c=λ ν
    Class Practice Problem
    • A laser used to weld detached retinas produces radiation with a
    frequency of 4.69 x 1014 s-1 . What is the wavelength of this
    radiation?

    5 - Quantized Energy and Photons


    • Planck: energy can only be absorbed or released from
    atoms in certain amounts “chunks” called quanta.
    • The relationship between energy and frequency is
    E = hν
    where h is Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 J.s).
    • To understand quantization consider walking up a ramp
    versus walking up stairs:
    • For the ramp, there is a continuous change in height whereas up
    stairs there is a quantized change in height.
    6 - The Photoelectric Effect
    • Planck’s theory revolutionized experimental
    observations.
    • Einstein:
    • Used planck’s theory to explain the photoelectric effect.
    • Assumed that light traveled in energy packets called
    photons.
    • The energy of one photon:

    E = hν
    7 - Line Spectra and the Bohr Model
    Line Spectra
    • Radiation composed of only one wavelength is called
    monochromatic.
    • Most common radiation sources that produce radiation
    containing many different wavelengths components, a
    spectrum.
    • This rainbow of colors, containing light of all
    wavelengths, is called a continuous spectrum.
    • Note that there are no dark spots on the continuous
    spectrum that would correspond to different lines.
    Specific Wavelength “Line Spectra”

    When gases are placed under reduced pressure in a tube and a high
    voltage is applied, radiation at different wavelengths (colors) will be
    emitted.
    Line Spectra
    • Balmer: discovered that the lines in the visible line
    spectrum of hydrogen fit a simple equation.
    • Later Rydberg generalized Balmer’s equation to:

    1  RH  1 1 
    =  2 − 2 
    λ  h  n1 n2 

    where RH is the Rydberg constant (1.096776 × 107 m-1 ), h


    is Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 J·s), n1 and n2 are
    integers (n2 > n1).

    8 - Bohr Model
    • Rutherford assumed the electrons orbited the nucleus
    analogous to planets around the sun.
    • However, a charged particle moving in a circular path
    should lose energy.
    • This means that the atom should be unstable according to
    Rutherford’s theory.
    • Bohr noted the line spectra of certain elements and
    assumed the electrons were confined to specific energy
    states. These were called orbits.
    9 - Line Spectra (Colors)
    • Colors from excited gases arise because electrons move
    between energy states in the atom. Neon lamps

    Line Spectra (Energy)


    • Since the energy states are quantized, the light emitted
    from excited atoms must be quantized and appear as line
    spectra.
    • After lots of math, Bohr showed that

    ( )
    −18  1 
    E = − 2.18 ×10 J  2 
    n 
    where n is the principal quantum number (i.e., n = 1, 2, 3,
    … and nothing else).
    10 - Limitations of the Bohr Model
    • Can only explain the line spectrum of hydrogen
    adequately.
    • Electrons are not completely described as small particles.

    11 - The Wave Behavior of Matter


    • Knowing that light has a particle nature, it seems
    reasonable to ask if matter has a wave nature.
    • Using Einstein’s and Planck’s equations, de Broglie
    showed: h
    λ=
    mν
    • The momentum, mv, is a particle property, whereas λ is
    a wave property.
    • de Broglie summarized the concepts of waves and
    particles, with noticeable effects if the objects are small.
    The Wave Behavior of Matter
    The Uncertainty Principle
    • Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: on the mass scale
    of atomic particles, we cannot determine exactly the
    position, direction of motion, and speed simultaneously.
    • For electrons: we cannot determine their momentum and
    position simultaneously.
    • If ∆ x is the uncertainty in position and ∆ mv is the
    uncertainty in momentum, then
    h
    ∆x ⋅ ∆mν ≥
    4π

    12 - Quantum Mechanics and Atomic


    Orbitals
    • Schrödinger proposed an equation that contains both
    wave and particle terms.
    • Solving the equation leads to wave functions.
    • The wave function gives the shape of the electronic
    orbital.
    • The square of the wave function, gives the probability of
    finding the electron,
    • that is, gives the electron density for the atom.
    Electron Density Distribution

    Probability of finding an electron in a hydrogen


    atom in its ground state.

    13 - The Three Quantum Numbers
    1. Schrödinger’s equation requires 3 quantum numbers:
    2. Principal Quantum Number, n. This is the same as Bohr’s
    n. As n becomes larger, the atom becomes larger and the
    electron is further from the nucleus. (n = 1, 2, 3…)
    2. Azimuthal Quantum Number, l. This quantum number
    depends on the value of n. The values of l begin at 0 and
    increase to (n - 1). We usually use letters for l (s, p, d and f
    for l = 0, 1, 2, and 3). Usually we refer to the s, p, d and f-
    orbitals. (l = 0, 1, 2…n-1). Defines the shape of the
    orbitals.
    3. Magnetic Quantum Number, ml. This quantum number
    depends on l. The magnetic quantum number has integral
    values between -l and +l. Magnetic quantum numbers give
    the 3D orientation of each orbital in space. (m = -l…0…+1)

    14 - Orbitals and Quantum Numbers


    Class Guided Practice Problem
    • (a) For n = 4, what are the possible values of l? (b) For l
    = 2. What are the possible values of ml? What are the
    representative orbital for the value of l in (a)?

    Class Practice Problem


    • (c) How many possible values for l and ml are there when
    (d) n = 3; (b) n = 5?
     15 - Representations of Orbitals

    The s-Orbitals
    • All s-orbitals are spherical.
    • As n increases, the s-orbitals get larger.
    • As n increases, the number of nodes increase.
    • A node is a region in space where the probability of
    finding an electron is zero.
    • At a node, Ψ 2 = 0
    • For an s-orbital, the number of nodes is (n - 1).

    The s-Orbitals

    The p-Orbitals

    • There are three p-orbitals px, py, and pz.


    • The three p-orbitals lie along the x-, y- and z- axes of a
    Cartesian system.
    • The letters correspond to allowed values of ml of -1, 0,
    and +1.
    • The orbitals are dumbbell shaped.
    • As n increases, the p-orbitals get larger.
    • All p-orbitals have a node at the nucleus.

    The p-Orbitals

    Electron-distribution
    of a 2p orbital.

    The d and f-Orbitals

    • There are five d and seven f-orbitals.


    • Three of the d-orbitals lie in a plane bisecting the x-, y-
    and z-axes.
    • Two of the d-orbitals lie in a plane aligned along the x-,
    y- and z-axes.
    • Four of the d-orbitals have four lobes each.
    • One d-orbital has two lobes and a collar.

    16 - Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

    • Orbitals can be ranked in terms of energy to yield an


    Aufbau diagram.
    • As n increases, note that the spacing between energy
    levels becomes smaller.
    • Orbitals of the same energy are said to be degenerate.
     

    Orbitals and Their Energies


    17 - Electron Spin and the Pauli
    Exclusion Principle
    • Line spectra of many electron atoms show each line as a
    closely spaced pair of lines.
    • Stern and Gerlach designed an experiment to
    determine why. At MIT
    • A beam of atoms was passed through a slit and into a
    magnetic field and the atoms were then detected.
    • Two spots were found: one with the electrons
    spinning in one direction and one with the electrons
    spinning in the opposite direction.
    Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion
    Principle

    Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion
    Principle

    • Since electron spin is quantized, we define ms = spin


    quantum number = ± ½.
    • Pauli’s Exclusions Principle: no two electrons can have
    the same set of 4 quantum numbers.
    • Therefore, two electrons in the same orbital must have
    opposite spins.

    18 - Electron Configurations:
    Hund’s Rule
    • Electron configurations tells us in which orbitals the
    electrons for an element are located.
    • Three rules:
    • electrons fill orbitals starting with lowest n and moving
    upwards;
    • no two electrons can fill one orbital with the same spin
    (Pauli);
    • for degenerate orbitals, electrons fill each orbital singly before
    any orbital gets a second electron (Hund’s rule).


    Electron Configurations and the
    Periodic Table

    • The periodic table can be used as a guide for electron


    configurations.
    • The period number is the value of n.
    • Groups 1A and 2A (1 & 2) have the s-orbital filled.
    • Groups 3A - 8A (13 - 18) have the p-orbital filled.
    • Groups 3B - 2B (3 - 12) have the d-orbital filled.
    • The lanthanides and actinides have the f-orbital filled.
    Class Guided Practice Problem
    • Write the electron configurations for the following
    atoms: (a) Cs and (b) Ni

    Class Practice Problem


    • Write the electron configurations for the following
    atoms: (a) Se and (b) Pb
    Condensed Electron Configurations
    • Neon completes the 2p subshell.
    • Sodium marks the beginning of a new row.
    • So, we write the condensed electron configuration for
    sodium as
    Na: [Ne] 3s1
    • [Ne] represents the electron configuration of neon.
    • Core electrons: electrons in [Noble Gas].
    • Valence electrons: electrons outside of [Noble Gas].
    Transition Metals
    • After Ar the d orbitals begin to fill.
    • After the 3d orbitals are full, the 4p orbitals begins to fill.
    • Transition metals: elements in which the d electrons are
    the valence electrons.

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