25.04.

2018

MEE210 Electrical Machines

L01
DC Motors

Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Introduction
An electrical machine is a term which collectively refers to motors and generators, both of which can be designed
to operate using AC (Alternating Current) power or DC power.
Operation Principle of DC Motor Physical parts of an electrical machine
The purpose of an electrical motor is to convert electrical Using the idea of electromagnetic coupling one can
power into mechanical power. DC motors do this by using divide any motor into two physical parts:
direct current electrical power to make a shaft spin. The • one part which rotates «the rotor»
mechanical power available from the spinning shaft of • one part which does not rotate «the stator».
the DC motor can be used to perform some useful work
such as turn a fan.
The rotation of the DC motor is accomplished by the force
which is developed on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field.
The current-carrying conductor is connected to the shaft
which is able to rotate relative to the stationary body of
Since DC motors use DC current and voltage to power
the DC motor.
the motor, it is necessary to change the direction of the
DC current that is applied to the current-carrying
conductor within the rotor. This is accomplished by
utilizing a segmented metal ring, called a commutator.

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Physical parts of an electrical machine
A commutator is directly connected to the current-carrying The commutator maintains electrical contact with its
conductor, so it will rotate with the rotor. external DC electrical power source by using metal or hard
carbon brushes

The commutator is made from two round pieces of copper, one on

each side of the spindle. A piece of carbon (graphite) is lightly pushed
against the copper to conduct the electricity to the armature. The
carbon brushes against the copper when the commutator spins.
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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Functional parts of an electrical machine Operation of a DC Motor
Electrical machines can also be divided into two functional A DC motor operates by using the force described by the
parts. Magnetic force law.
• One functional part is the magnetic field, simply
The current passing through the stator coil creates an
called the field, and
electro-magnet with a North/South pole
• the other functional part is the conductor, which is
called the armature.
  
In a given machine, one functional part is associated with one F  i( l  B )
physical part, and the other functional part is then associated
with theother physical part. So there are two possible
configurations for electrical machines:
1. The field rotates with the rotor and the armature is on
the stator, or
2. The armature rotates with the rotor while the field is
on the stator.
The DC motor will use a
DC voltage is applied across the armature and the current
rotating armature inside a
carrying armature moves in the magnetic field generated
magnetic field, which is
in the stator.
developed within the
stator as shown

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Operation of a DC Motor
  
F  i( l  B )
The magnetic Force is a result of a cross product, it can be seen that the magnetic force acts
• to pull the top conductor (“a”) of the armature loop towards the left,
• to pull the lower conductor (“b”) towards the right.
These two forces rotate the armature that is attached to the rotor.

The armature current is always in the same direction, the conductor (“a”) shown on
the top in Figure will always be pulled towards the left and the conductor (“b”)
shown on the bottom in Figure will always be pulled towards theright

At best, this motor would only rotate through one-half (180º) of a rotation andwould
stop when the “a” conductor is in the 9 o’clock position and the “b” conductor is in
the 3 o’clock position
The force is now directed to pull the “a” conductor towards the
right and the “b” conductor towards the left, allowing the
In order to provide continuous rotation, the armature motor to rotate through more than one-half of a rotation.
current (Ia) must change direction every 180 degrees of
rotation. By changing the current direction every half-rotation (when the
This process (commutation) is accomplished by brushes conductors are in the 3 and 9 o’clock positions), the Lorentz
and a segmented commutator bar. force is always acting to keep the motor spinning 360 degrees
in one direction.
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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

How commutation works
A split - ring commutator
(sometimes just called a
commutator)is a simple and clever
device for reversing the current
direction through an armature
every half turn No commutation

As the motor rotates, first one piece of copper, then the As the coil becomes perpendicular to the magnetic field, the
next connects with the brush every half turn. The wire on direction of current in the coil reverses, causing the forces acting
the left side of the armature always has current flowing in on the coil to switch their direction. The coil then continues to
the same direction, and so the armature will keep turning rotate in a clockwise direction.
in the same direction

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Operation of a DC Motor

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Developed Force and Torque

Multiple sets of Each winding is only briefly

windings are used on supplied current when it is at
the rotor to ensure that the position where it would
torque is applied apply maximum torque to the
smoothly throughout rotor.
the rotation of the
motor.

This ensures maximum efficiency of the motor, since power isn’t wasted on forces which try to pull the rotor apart.

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

How commutation works
The torque produced on the armature is proportional to the
sine of the angle between the magnetic field and the plane of
the rotating coil. The torque will produce a ripple type
waveform as shown below (b). This figure shows that the
resulting torque reaches zero at the two vertical positions
during the armature (loop) rotation. This simple motor relies on
the inertia of the armature to carry it through the zero torque
points to continue its rotation

To eliminate this effect and keep a level of torque always at

some point above zero. a four-segment commutator and two
armature coils may be used (see figure below - c). This
arrangement staggers forces to keep the torque at an
acceptable level. The torque/position curve will then look like
the figure below (d).

The more segments added to the coils and corresponding

commutator armature, the closer the torque curve will
approximate a straight line characteristic. See the figure
below (e and f). 32-segment commutator

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Developed Force and Torque
The force between the rotating electromagnet and the
stationary magnetic field is given by the Lorentz Force Law.
  
F d  I a LxB  
Torque=Force x Distance: T  FD r  ( I a LxB )r (N  m)
where r = radius from central axis
If power is only applied to the armature wire in the optimum
position, the cross product becomes simple multiplication: T  BLI r
Torque can be significantly increased by increasing:
a
2 wires being acted upon
T  2 BLI a r
• The magnetic field
• The current The most practical way to increase torque is to T  2 NBLI a r
• The number of wires being acted upon increase the number of wires being acted upon:
where N = number of turns of wire
This equation is greatly simplified by using the torque Constant (Kt) [V*sec].

T  K tI where Kt=2NBLr

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Torque Balance With developped torque and moving
mechanical parts and other disturbance
effects, a torque balance is settled.
external

i( t ) + Mechanical ( t )
Kt
+
m Subsystem external  load  loss
N m
Armature circuit Watt   N  m=Watt  sec=V  A  sec
sec
Recall that Faraday’s Law states that a voltage is induced in a circuit when a conductor is moved through
a magnetic field. The induced voltage is given by
 
Ea  l(v  B) Turning now to a rotating machine, where v  wr
angular velocity is related to linear velocity

If power is only applied to the armature wire in the optimum Ea  2NBlrw

position, the cross product becomes simple multiplication:
Ea  K v w where Kv=2NBLr
VDC – IaRa - Ea=0

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Torque Balance With developped torque and moving
mechanical parts and other disturbance
effects, a torque balance is settled.
external

i( t ) + Mechanical ( t )
Kt
+
m Subsystem external  load  loss
N m
Developed Power Watt   N  m=Watt  sec=V  A  sec
sec
Developed power (Pd) is given by

Pd  Ea I a  Td   K v I a  , where is the angular velocity

Also, the power into the DC motor is given by: Pin  VDC I a
And the electrical losses in the armature (due to Ra) are given by: Pelecloss  I a 2 Ra
Ignoring rotational losses, developed power is the mechanical output, from which machine efficiency can be calculated as:
Pout P N m
 100  D 100 (Tloss  0) Watt   N  m=Watt  sec=V  A  sec
Pin Pin sec

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Electrical Machinery DC Motors

Review of concepts
Torque Developed: Mechanical Power Developed: Angular velocity:
Td=Kv Ia Pd = Ea Ia=Td ω = Kv Ia ω ω = 2  (RPM/60)

Back EMF:
Ea = Kv ω
VDC – IaRa - Ea=0

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

Types of a DC Motors Seperately Excited motors
The field coils or field windings
FIELD ARMATURE
are energised by a separate
DC source
 , TLOAD

Permanent Magnet DC Motor

A Direct Current Motor is named according to the

connection of the field winding with the armature. Mainly
there are two types of DC Motors.
1. Separately Excited DC Motor
2. Self-excited DC Motor. The self-excited motors are
further classified as
The permanent magnet motor is a DC-only commutated
a. Shunt wound or shunt motor,
motor that uses permanent magnets to provide the
b. Series wound or series motor and
stationary field poles. Power is applied only to the DC
c. Compound wound or compound motor
rotor (armature) through a set of carbon brushes

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Types of DC Motors Speed - Torque characteristics

DC Motors
Self-excited DC Motor: Shunt wound
The field winding is connected Shunt motor gives almost
in parallel with the armature constant speed for over
wide range of mechanical
the electrical power supplied
load torques.
VIa  EIa  I2a R A characteristic of series motors is
mechanical power developed the motor develops a large
amount of starting torque.
Self-excited DC Motor: Series Wound
However, speed varies widely
The field winding is connected in series between no load and full load.
with the armature winding. Series motors cannot be used
where a constant speed is
required under varying loads.
VI  EI  I2 ( R se  R a )
A compound wound DC
Self-excited DC Motor: offers the high starting
compound Wound torque of a series wound
motor. In addition, it offers
A DC Motor having both shunt
constant speed regulation
and series field windings is called
(speed stability) under a
a Compound Motor
given load.

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

Speed-Torque Characteristics Compared Current-Torque Characteristics Compared
Shunt - constant speed Shunt - constant field flux
due to constant flux. causes torque to vary linearly
Regulation approx. 5% with the armature current.
Compound - speed varies Compound - higher torques at
as load changes Ia values above rated. Higher
Regulation approx 15-25% toques developed at lower
Series - variable speed. speeds.
No load condition causes Series - High starting torques.
motor to accelerate to Torque is proportional
very high speeds to the square of Ia. Require
load torque to prevent run
• Shunt Motor: away.
Applications Centrifugal pumps, Fans, Conveyors, Machine tools Characteristics Constant speed,Moderate starting torque
• Series Motor:
Applications Hoists, Locomotives. Characteristics High starting torques, Wide speed range from no-load to full-load
• Compound Motor:
Applications Centrifugal pumps, Fans, Conveyors, Machine tools Characteristics Constant speed,Moderate starting torque

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

Separately Excited Dc Motor Model Back EMF, Ea, proportional to speed
Ia Motor with constant field current  p  kG  K e
Rc
Racir La Where Ke is the back EMF constant
+ Previous Ea equation simplifies to:
Ea  K v   Ea
Vt 
Rf Lf
Ea
Load Ke
Developed torque related to the field strength and the armature
Vf current.
Where: TD = developed torque
Motor Model Equations TD  k m  Bp  I a Bp = flux density of field poles
Ia = armature current
Inducted EMF Equation: E  k     km = motor design constant
a G p
km depends on number of turns, effective conductor length, # poles
Solving for gives: Ea pole flux density to the motor field current

kG   p p N  If N  If
Bp  p  Bp 
KVL around armature loop gives: A R A R
V  Ea N
for armature Ia  t So now developed torque is given by kF 
Vt  E a  I a  R acir A R
current R acir TD  k F  If  Ia R:reluctance

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

Steady-State Operation of Separately Excited Dc Motors
Developed Torque Back EMF KVL in Armature Circuit Developed Power

T  K T  i a  Tf [ Nm] e b  K e  m [V] ea  i a  R a  e b [V] P  m  T [W]

T = motor torque ea= armature voltage
ωm= shaft speed (rad/s) P = shaft power
KT = torque constant
eb = back emf eb = back emf
Tf = motor friction torque
ia = armature current Ke = back emf constant Ra = armature resistance

Torque-Current Curve Speed-Torque Curve

T KT=∆T/∆ia ωm
ωm=ωnl – (∆ ω
m/∆T)T
ωnl
∆ ω
m
∆T ∆T

∆ia
ia Τ
-Tf

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

Field Controlled Self-excited DC Motor
In field controlled DC servo motor arrangement:
• the field of DC motor is excited be the
amplified error signal and
• armature winding is energized by a
constant current source .

The field is controlled below the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve. At that portion of
the curve the mmf linearly varies with excitation current. That means torque developed in the
DC motor is directly proportional to the field current below the knee point of magnetizing
saturation curve.

i a  cons tan t K t  K aK f ia Tm ( t )  K t i f ( t )
Vf  Vf ( t ) Vf ( t )  R f i f ( t )  L f di f ( t )  R f i f ( t )  L f i f ( t )
dt external

Vf ( t ) i( t ) + ( t )
Electrical Mechanical
Kt
Subsystem + Subsystem
m

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

Armature Controlled Self-excited DC Motor
the armature is energized by amplified error signal
and field is excited by a constant current source

i f  sbt Va  Va ( t )
little change in armature current Ia there will be a prominent
changer in motor torque. That means servo motor becomes
much sensitive to the armature current.

The field is operated at well beyond the knee point of magnetizing saturation curve. In this
portion of the curve, for huge change in magnetizing current, there is very small change in mmf
in the motor field. This makes the servo motor is less sensitive to change in field current. Actually
for armature controlled DC servo motor, we do not want that, the motor should response to any
change of field current.

Permanent Magnet DC Servo Motor

is the case of permanent magnet DC
motor as the field is a permanent The direction of rotation of the motor can easily
magnet here. DC motor working be changed by reversing the polarity of the error
principle in that case is similar to signal.
that of armature controlled motor.

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

Armature Controlled Self-excited DC Motor

Since we are working in armature circuit then we should

also take the generator operation in to account

Motor Action K t  K aK f i f Tm ( t )  K t i a ( t )
Generator Action  b ( t )  K b ( t )
di a ( t )
Va ( t )  Vb ( t )  R a i a ( t )  L a  R a i a ( t )  L ai a ( t ) Tm ( t )  TL ( t )  J 
 ( t )  C ( t )
dt
external
Va ( t ) i( t ) + ( t )
Electrical Mechanical
Kt
_ Subsystem + Subsystem
m

Kb

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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Driving DC Motors

Unidirectional drive

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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Flyback diode
A Flyback diode is also called as freewheeling diode. It is also called by many other names
like snubber diode, suppressor diode, catch diode or clamp diode, commutating diode. Here
catch diode is used to eliminate flyback, when the abrupt voltage spike is witnessed across
the inductive load when the supply current abruptly reduced. It helps the circuit from
damaging.
In the steady-state, the . If the switch is opened, the inductor will
switch will be closed for a resist the sudden drop of current. If dI/dt is
long time so, that the large then voltage is large by using its stored
inductor gets fully energized magnetic field energy and will create its own
and behaves as though it is a voltage.
short

The diode will be reversed biased when the switch is

closed against the power supply and which doesn’t
exist in the circuit for practical purposes. However,
the diode becomes forward-biased when the switch
is opened, in relative to the inductor, and allows
conducting current in a circular loop from the
positive potential at the bottom of the inductor to
the negative potential at the top
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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Driving DC Motors
Bidirectional drive

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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Driving DC Motors
Bidirectional drive

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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Driving DC Motors

H Bridge drive Basics

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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Driving DC Motors

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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Driving DC Motors

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

PWM

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Types of DC Motors DC Motors

PWM

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Control of DC Motors DC Motors

Driving DC Motors

H Bridge drive Basics

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