KGE3543

ELECTRICAL MACHINE
(CHAPTER 2 - DC MACHINE)
TOPICS
1) Introduction to Machinery Principles
2) DC Machines
3) Synchronous Machine
4) Induction Machine
5) Transformer
DC MACHINES
ØGenerators that convert
mechanical energy to
DC electric energy;
ØMotors that convert DC
electric energy to
mechanical energy.

Will there be AC current / voltage during the operation of DC machine?

• During operation, there can be brief instances of alternating current (AC) characteristics due to the
nature of the magnetic field and the rotating armature.
DC MACHINES - BASIC CONSTRUCTION
This chapter will first explain the principles of DC machine
operation by using simple examples and then consider some
of the complications that occur in real DC machines.
ØThe simplest rotating machine: single
loop of wire rotating about a fixed axis.
ØRotating part: Rotor
ØStationary part: Stator

• The magnetic field for the machine is

supplied by the magnetic north and
south poles.
• The loop wire of rotor is positioned
within the the slot of the ferromagnetic
core.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
To have constant-
width air gap between
the rotor and stator
we may use the
curved shaped of pole
face as in the figure.

The reluctance and

the magnetic flux
density will also be the
same everywhere
under the pole.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
Some views….

Fig: Example of the simplest Fig: View of the field lines Fig: Top view of the rotor
DC Machine

The loop of wire shown rectangular: side ‘ab’ and ‘cd’ perpendicular to plane; sides
‘bc’ and ‘da’ parallel to the plane.

What will happen when the rotor start rotating?

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
THE VOLTAGE INDUCED IN A ROTATING LOOP
Note: 2vBl can
be also written
in other forms:

The voltage out of the loop is alternately

a constant positive value and a constant
Voltage is affected by the:
negative value
a) Flux in the machine
b) The speed of rotation
The total induced voltage on the loop: c) A constant representing the
eind = ( v ´ B )l
construction of the machine

vBL 0 vBL 0 = 2vBL

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
GETTING DC VOLTAGE OUT OF ROTATING LOOP
COMMUTATOR
Add: Commutator & brushes
• Construction: It is made up of several segments
(usually copper) that are insulated from each
other. Each segment is connected to the ends of
the loop.
• Function The commutator is a mechanical switch
that reverses the direction of current in the
armature winding as it rotates. This ensures that
the output voltage remains DC.

BRUSH
• Construction: Brushes are typically made of
carbon or a composite material, chosen for their
good conductivity and durability.
• Function: Brushes maintain electrical contact
with the rotating commutator. They provide a
path for current to flow between the stationary
part of the machine and the rotating armature.

“Commutation process”
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
GETTING DC VOLTAGE OUT OF ROTATING LOOP

Add: Commutator & brushes

COMMUTATION PROCESS

The commutation process in a DC machine

converts alternating current (AC) generated in the
rotating rotor into direct current (DC) by using the
commutator to switch connections at the right
moments, while brushes maintain contact for
continuous current flow.

Fig: The resulting output voltage

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES

“Commutation process”
Every time the voltage of the loop
switches direction, the contacts also
switch connections, and the output
of the contacts is always built up in
the same way
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
Let the machine is now connected to
a battery, switch is closed, and current
is flowing into it.

What will happen

to the machine?
“Force”
“Torque”
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
THE INDUCED TORQUE IN THE ROTATING LOOP
Table : Summary of force and torque
Segment Force Torque
ilB (tangent to direction
ab rilB (CCW)
of motion)
bc 0 (I parallel to B) 0
ilB (tangent to direction
cd rilB (CCW)
of motion)
da 0 (I parallel to B) 0
Fig: The machine is now connected to a battery.

The resulting induced torque on the loop:

The force on a segment of the loop and

torque are given by:
or

Torque is affected by the:

a) Flux in the machine
b) The current in the machine
c) A constant representing the construction of the
machine
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DC MACHINES
Summary of what may happen when the switch is closed?

1) When switch is closed, a current flow in the loop.

Loop is initially in
stationary hence eind = 0

2) The current flows through the rotor loop

producing a torque

Fig: Example of the simplest DC

3) The induced voltage in the motor is: Machine – single loop of wire rotating
about a fixed axis

4) As the current falls, torque decreases, and

machines works in steady state with torque is zero
and the battery voltage VB = eind
EXERCISE 1
Figure shows a simple rotating loop
between curved pole faces connected to
a battery and a resistor through a switch.
The resistor shown models the total
resistance of the battery and the wire in
the machine. The physical dimensions
and characteristics of this machine are:

Fig: Example of the simplest DC

Machine – single loop of wire
rotating about a fixed axis

Note :
r is the radius from axis of rotation out to
the edge of the loop
l is the length of the loop
EXERCISE
a) Calculate the:
i. machine’s maximum starting current
ii. the steady-state angular velocity at no-load.
b) If a load is attached to the loop with resulting
load torque is 10Nm.
i. Calculate the new steady-state speed.
ii. Find the power supplied to the shaft of the machine.
iii. Find the power supplied by the battery.
iv. Is the machine is a motor or generator.
c) If the machine is again unloaded and 7.5 Nm
torque is applied to the shaft in the rotating
direction,
i. calculate the new steady-state speed. Fig: Example of the simplest DC
ii. Is the machine is motor or generator? Machine – single loop of wire
rotating about a fixed axis
d) Suppose the machine is running unloaded,
a) Find the final steady-state speed of the rotor if the flux
density were reduced to 0.2T.
b) What can you conclude from the finding?
COMMUTATION: IN SIMPLE FOUR LOOP DC
MACHINE More complex than single-loop but less complex than real DC machine.
• This machine has four complete loops
buried in slots are laid into the slots in a
special manner.
• The "unprimed" end of each loop is the outermost wire
in each slot,
• The "primed" end of each loop is the innermost wire in
the slot directly opposite.

• The pole faces of the machine are curved à

for uniform air-gap width and flux density
everywhere under the faces.
Fig: A four-loop, two pole DC machine at time wt = 0
WINDING CONNECTION TO
MACHINE COMMUTATOR

Notice that:
• Loop 1 stretches between commutator
segments a & b
• Loop 2 stretches between b & c
• Loop 3 stretches between c &d
• Loop 4 stretches between d &a
THE VOLTAGE ON THE ROTOR
CONDUCTORS AT wt=0
The voltage in each 1,2,3', and 4' ends of the loops
is given by:

The voltage in each 1',2',3, and 4 ends of the loops is

given by:

The 1,2,3', and 4' ends The 1',2',3, and 4 ends

The total voltage at the brushes of the machine
of the loops are of the loops are under
under the north pole the south pole face is:
face,
 WINDING CONNECTION TO MACHINE
COMMUTATOR

Total voltage
at brushes

• Notice that there are two parallel paths for current

through the machine. Fig: The voltages on the rotors at wt=0
• Multiple paths for the current to flow through the armature.
• This arrangement is crucial for improving the machine's
performance, particularly in terms of output voltage and
current capacity
WINDING DIAGRAM SHOWING
CONNECTION TO THE ROTOR
ROTATION OF FOUR LOOP DC MACHINE

Fig: A four-loop, two pole DC machine Fig: A four-loop, two pole DC machine Fig: A four-loop, two pole DC machine
at time wt = 0 at time wt = 45 at time wt = 90

Loops 1 and 3 have rotated

into the gap between the
poles, so the voltage across
each of them is ZERO
THE RESULTING OUTPUT VOLTAGE

As the number of
loops on the rotor
increases, the
approximation to a
perfect DC voltage
continues to get
better and better.
COMMUTATION & ARMATURE IN REAL
DC MACHINE Note: Armature = Loops on the rotor.
1) There are several ways the armature can be
connected to its commutator segments.
2) The technique may affect:
a. the number of parallel current paths within the rotor,
b. the output voltage of the rotor,
c. the number and position of the brushes riding on the
commutator segments.

Fig: Example of schematic

winding diagram for a DC
Machines with commutator

Fig: A partially-constructed DC armature,

showing the incomplete winding
THE ROTOR WINDINGS
The Rotor Coils

1) Most are diamond-shaped

preformed coils.
Ø Better fitting into the slot
Ø Offer enhanced magnetic interaction

2) Each coil consists of number of

turns (loops) of wire – each Fig: The shape of typical preformed rotor coil

taped and insulated from the

other turns and the rotor slot.
The number of conductor :

3) Each side of a turn is called a

conductor.
Z = number of conductors on rotor
C = number of coils on rotor
NC = number of turns per coil
 CONNECTION TO COMMUTATOR
1 SEGMENTS
Progressive rotor winding Retrogressive rotor winding

End of a coil is connected to a End of a coil is connected to a

commutator segment ahead of the commutator segment behind of the
one its beginning is connected to. one its beginning is connected to.
 CONNECTION TO COMMUTATOR
2 SEGMENTS
According to the “plex”

• Simplex
• Duplex
• Triplex
• Multiplex
 CONNECTION TO COMMUTATOR
3 SEGMENTS
According to the sequence of connection à Lap winding, wave winding

Lap winding (or simplex series) – simplest type

1) The end of each coil is connected to the
beginning of the next coil, wrapping around
the core in a "lapping" fashion.
2) Each coil generally spans two slots, and the
number of parallel paths in the winding is
equal to the number of poles*.
3) Ideal choice for applications requiring high Fig: A simple two-pole lap-wound
current output, good torque characteristics, DC machine. (simplex)

and more robust in handling fluctuations in

load.
a = number of current paths in the rotor
Note: There are as many parallel current paths through the m = plex of the windinds (1,2,3, etc)
machine as there are poles in the machine P= number of poles on the machine
 CONNECTION TO COMMUTATOR
3 SEGMENTS
According to the sequence of connection à Lap winding, wave winding

Wave winding
1) In wave winding, the coils
are arranged in a wave-like
pattern, with coils
spanning multiple slots
before connecting to the a = number of current paths in the rotor
next coil. m = plex of the windinds (1,2,3, etc)

2) Suitable for applications

requiring higher voltage
and lower current and can
produces a smoother
output voltage.
SUMMARY OF WINDING

Choosing between lap winding and wave winding depends on the specific
requirements of the application, such as current capacity, voltage stability, and
torque characteristics. Each winding type has its own set of advantages that
make it suitable for different operational needs in DC machines.
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE
The physical structure of the machine consists of two parts:

1) Stator
• Frame: For physical support
• Pole piece: Project inward and provide
path for magnetic flux in the machine.
• Pole shoe: Distribute the flux evenly over
the rotor surface.
Ø Exposed surface of the pole shoe is called pole face
Ø Distance between pole face and the rotor is called
air gap.

Fig: A simplified diagram of DC machine

2) Rotor
• Shaft
• Armature
• Commutator
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE
Fig: A cutway view

Winding: refers to the coils of wire

wrapped around a core to create magnetic
fields and facilitate electrical energy
conversion.
SUMMARY OF
CONSTRUCTION
REAL MACHINE : THE INTERNAL GENERATED
VOLTAGE AND INDUCED TORQUE EQUATIONS

WHAT WOULD AFFECT THE VOLTAGE

AND TORQUE VALUES OF A MACHINE??
1 THE INTERNAL GENERATED VOLTAGE
The voltage out of the armature of a real machine is equal to the
number of conductors per current path times the voltage on each
conductor. e  e = vBl ind

𝑍 Z = Total number of conductor

a = number of current path
𝐸! = vBl Velocity of each conductor in the rotor v =r𝜔m
𝑎 **r is the radius of the rotor

We may present the equation is simpler The internal generated voltage in

form noting that: machine is given by:

Zrwm Bl æ ZP öæ 2p rlB ö
EA = =ç ÷ wm
Knowing that the total flux per pole in the machine
֍
may be written as: a è 2p a øè P ø
B ( 2p rl ) 2p rlB Rotor is shaped ZP ZP
f = BAp = = like cylinder EA = fwm = Kfwm where K=
P P 2p a 2p a
THE INTERNAL GENERATED VOLTAGE
As mentioned, the internal generated voltage in machine is given by:

ZP ZP
EA = fwm = Kfwm where K= Rotational speed in rad/s
2p a 2p a

If the rotational speed is given in revolutions per minute (which is more common in
the industry), the internal voltage may be written as:

ZP
E A = K 'f nm where K' = Rotational
60a speed in rpm

Note: The conversion from revolutions

per minute to radians per second:
2p
wm = nm
60
 2 THE INDUCED TORQUE
The torque in any single conductor under the pole faces was previously
mentioned as:
Icond is the current in the single conductor

t cond = rI cond lB and given as:

I cond =
IA The armature current is split among the
current paths “a”
a
Considering the number of conductor Z and the flux per pole exist in the machine, the
total induced torque may be written as:

ZP ZP
t ind = fIA t ind = Kf I A where K=
2p a 2p a
EXERCISE 2
A duplex lap-wound armature is used in a six-pole DC machine with six
brush sets, each spanning two commutator segments. There are 72
coils on the armature, each containing 12 turns. The flux per pole in the
machine is 0.039 Wb, and the machine spins at 400 r/min.

• Find the current paths in the machine?

• Calculate the induced voltage.
EXERCISE 3
A 12-pole DC generator has a simplex wave-wound armature
containing 144 coils of 10 turns each. The resistance of each turn is
0.011Ω. Its flux per pole is 0.05 Wb, and it is turning at a speed of 200
r/min.

• Find the current paths in the machine.

• Calculate the induced voltage of the machine.
• Find the resistance in each current path and effective armature
resistance (RA)
• If a 1kΩ resistor is connected to the terminals of the generator,
calculate the resulting induced counter-torque on the shaft of the
machine. (ignore the RA)
POWER FLOW AND LOSSESS IN
DC MACHINES
• DC generators take in mechanical power and produce electric power,
• DC motors take in electric power and produce mechanical power.
• In either case, not all the power input to the machine appears in useful form at the
other end-there is always some loss associated with the process.
• The efficiency of the DC machine can be calculated as follows:
The difference between
input power and output
power

The losses can be categorized into 5 basic categories:

1) Electrical or copper losses
2) Brush losses
3) Core losses
4) Mechanical losses
5) Stray load losses
THE LOSSES IN DC MACHINES
Electrical or copper losses
à Losses that occur in the armature and field windings of the machine

Brush losses
àPower loss across contact potential at the brushes of the machine.
àThe brush voltage drop is usually constant around 2 V.
THE LOSSES IN DC MACHINES
Core losses
à The core losses are the hysteresis losses and eddy current losses occurring in the
metal of the motor

Mechanical losses
àTwo basic types: friction (at the bearing) and windage (between moving part and
air inside motor’s casing)

Stray or Miscellaneous losses

àOther than the previously mentioned type of losses.
àUsually are taken as 1 % of the full load.
POWER FLOW IN DC GENERATOR

1) Mechanical power is the input into the machine and then the stray losses, mechanical
losses, and core losses are subtracted.

2) Then, the remaining power is ideally converted from mechanical to electrical form at
the point Pconv while the resulting electric power is given as

3) At the output terminal, the electrical losses and the brush losses must be subtracted.
POWER FLOW IN DC MOTOR

The power flow is simple the opposite of the DC generator.

WHAT WE HAVE SEEN SO FAR...
• The basic principles of DC machine operation through single
rotating loop.
• The concept of commutation for converting the ac voltage in rotor
conductors to a DC output.
• The physical construction of DC machine and the possible winding
arrangements of conductors in a DC rotor (lap and wave windings).
• Equations of induced voltage and torque in a DC machine,
• The types of losses in the DC machine and related to its overall
operating efficiency.
DC MOTORS - INTRODUCTION
• DC motors are widely used in:
• Automation and robotics: powering robot, conveyor belt and
automated machinery à precise speed & torque for accurate
movement and positioning
• Electric vehicle & Renewable Energy: Car, aircraft, bikes, solar
tracking system, etc
• Consumer electronics and household appliances: Electric
toothbrush, vacuum cleaner, fan

• DC motors are often evaluated based on their speed

regulation. This characteristic helps in selecting the right
motor for specific tasks, ensuring optimal functionality.
DC MOTORS – SPEED REGULATION
• Speed regulation of a motor refers to its ability to maintain a constant
speed under varying load conditions à it can indicate how much the
motor's speed changes when the load increases or decreases.
• Speed regulation of a motor is defined by:

Fig: Early DC
motor (1886)
0.5hp by Elihu
Thompson.

A motor with good speed regulation (low %) will experience

minimal changes in speed regardless of fluctuations in load,
while a motor with poor speed regulation (high %) will show
significant speed variation under different loads.
5 MAJOR TYPES OF DC MOTORS

1. The separately excited DC motor

2.The shunt DC motor
3.The permanent-magnet DC motor
4.The series DC motor
5.The compounded DC motor
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A DC MOTOR

Fig: The equivalent

circuit a DC motor.

Field circuit Armature circuit

• Armature: Consisting an ideal voltage source EA and a resistor RA.

• The brush voltage drop: represented by a small battery Vbrush opposing the direction of the current flow
in the machine.
• Field coil: produce magnetic flux & represented by inductor Lf and resistor Rf
• The separate resistor Radj: external variable resistor used to control the amount of current in the field
circuit.
THE SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A DC MOTOR
Fig: The simplified equivalent
circuit a DC motor.

• Eliminate the brush voltage drop as it is very small compared to Ea

• Combining Radj with field resistance.
1 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTORS
The equivalent circuit:
• In the separately excited DC motor, the
field winding is energized by an
independent external source, separate
from the armature winding.
• This configuration allows for greater
control over the motor's speed and torque
characteristics.

Fig: Separately excited DC motor.

2 SHUNT DC MOTORS
The equivalent circuit:

• In the shunt DC motor, the field winding is

connected in parallel (or "shunt") with the
armature winding.
• This configuration allows the field current to
be drawn from the same voltage supply as
the armature, enabling certain advantages in
operation.

Fig: Shunt DC motor.

SEPARATELY EXCITED AND SHUNT DC MOTORS
• When the supply voltage to a motor is assumed constant, there is no practical difference in
behavior between these two machines.
• For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque and speed, so the terminal characteristic
of a motor is a plot of its output torque versus speed.

From KVL, the terminal Knowing that:

voltage:

Hence:

Fig: Shunt DC motor.

Solve for
motor’s The output
speed: This equation is just a torque vs
straight line with a speed
negative slope.
SEPARATELY EXCITED AND SHUNT DC MOTORS
The output torque vs speed:

The way shund DC motor react to a load

Suppose that the load on the shaft increased
This equation is just a à Motor slow down (load torque > induced
straight line with a
negative slope. torque) à Induced voltage (Ea) drop à
Armature current (Ia) increases à Induced
torque increases to reach load torque at lower
mechanical speed rotation.

It is important to realize that, in order for the speed of the motor to vary linearly with torque, the
other terms in this expression must be constant as the load changes. The terminal voltage
supplied by the dc power source is assumed to be constant-if it is not constant, then the voltage
variations will affect the shape of the torque-speed curve.
 SEPARATELY EXCITED AND SHUNT DC MOTORS
However, the output torque vs speed of DC motor may be slightly difference due to
the armature reaction.

Armature reaction is the effect that the

magnetic field from the armature winding
has on the main magnetic field created by the
field winding in a DC motor (or generator)
Two main effects:
a) Net reduction in the main field flux
per pole.
b) Distortion of the main field flux wave The effect of reduction flux is to increase the
along the air-gap periphery. motor’s speed at any given load over the
speed it would run at without armature
reaction.

Fig: Torque-speed characteristics in the

presence of armature reaction (AR).

Fig: Visualization of armature reaction

SEPARATELY EXCITED AND SHUNT DC MOTORS
How to solve: Use compensating winding à no flux weakening problems.

• Compensating windings are extra coils in a DC motor and are located in the motor’s frame and
work with the armature.
• When the armature's magnetic field changes the main field, these windings create a field that
counteracts that change.
SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT DC MOTORS

Two-common ways:
a) Adjusting the field resistance Rf (and thus
the field flux).
b) Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to
the armature.

Less-common way:
a) Inserting a resistor in series with the
armature circuit.
EXERCISE 4
A 50-hp, 250 V, 1200 r/min DC shunt motor with compensating windings
has an armature resistance (including brushes, compensating windings,
and interpoles) of 0.06Ω. Its field circuit has a total resistance 50 Ω (Radj
+Rf) which produces no-load speed of 1200 r/min. There are 1200 turns
per pole on the shunt field winding.
• Draw the equivalent circuit of the motor.
• Calculate the speed of the motor when the input current is 100A.
• Calculate the speed of the motor when the input current is 200A.
• Calculate the speed of the motor when the input current is 300A.
• Plot the speed-torque characteristic of the motor (r/min vs. Nm)
EXERCISE 5
If the compensating winding of
the previous motor is removed
and the armature reaction produces
a demagnetizing magnetomotive
force of 840 A∙turns at a load
current of 200A.
• Calculate the speed of the motor when the
input current is 200A.
• How you compare the speed with when the
compensating winding is being used.

Note: The demagnetization MMF will affect the field current.

Fig. The magnetization curve of the

250 V DC motor at 1200 r/min.
EXERCISE 6
A 100-hp, 250 V, 1200 r/min shunt DC
motor has armature resistance of 0.03
Ω and field resistance of 41.67 Ω. Let
the motor use compensating
windings and the mechanical and
core losses may be neglected and
armature current is constant.
If the motor is driving a load with a
line current of 126 A and an initial
speed of 1103 r/min. Calculate the
motor’s speed if field resistance is
raised to 50 Ω.

Fig. The magnetization curve of the 250 V DC

motor at 1200 r/min.