18 Aug 2022

The Digestive Process

Professor Cherry Ann Garcia-Durante

Outline
GI Anatomy
GI Movement and Neural Activity
GI Endocrine and Paracrine Substances

Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland

Tongue Sublingual gland
Salivary
Submandibular glands
gland

Esophagus Pharynx

Stomach
Pancreas
(Spleen)
Liver
Gallbladder
Transverse colon

Duodenum Descending colon

Small Jejunum
Ascending colon
intestine Ileum
Large
Cecum intestine
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
The human digestive system: Alimentary canal and accessory organs. Anus Anal canal

1
 18 Aug 2022

Mouth
• The mouth and the pharynx
provide entry to the
gastrointestinal tract.
• Several secretory glands located in
the mouth release saliva, which
begins the chemical digestion of
food while also supporting chewing
(mastication) and swallowing
(deglutination) mechanisms

Mouth
Saliva:
Lubricates food for swallowing
Solubilizes food components for
taste perception
Cleans mouth and teeth to prevent
caries
Initiates chemical digestion
Ptyalin (a-amylase) – starch digestion
Lingual lipase – hydrolyzes
triglycerides
Kallikrein – converts plasma protein to
bradykinin for better blood flow

Stomach
The stomach is approximately 25 centimeters long and is J-shaped,
with its curvature toward the right.
It is situated just beneath the diaphragm and is separated from the
esophagus by the LES; distally, the stomach is separated from the
small intestine by another smooth muscular ring called the pyloric
sphincter.
Empty adult stomach (50 mL); full stomach (1.5 liters or more).
Three segments:
1. the fundus,
2. cardia (or body), and
3. antrum.

2
 18 Aug 2022

Stomach
• Parietal (oxyntic) cells
secrete HCl and intrinsic
factor
• Peptic cells secrete
pepsinogen
• Mucous neck and surface
cells secrete large amounts Hydrochloric acid (pH: 0.8)
of mucus  Denatures proteins
 Activates pepsin
 Liberates nutrients
 Destroys ingested microbes

Small Intestine
• The contents of the Right and left
hepatic ducts
stomach are slowly from liver

released into the small Cystic duct

Common hepatic duct
intestine, which is Bile duct and sphincter
approximately 10 feet Accessory pancreatic duct
in length and can be
divided into three
segments:
1. Duodenum Gallbladder
Pancreas
Jejunum
2. Jejunum Duodenal
papilla
3. Ileum Hepatopancreatic
Main pancreatic duct and sphincter
ampulla and sphincter Duodenum

Small Intestine
Rugae, Villi, and Microvilli
The small intestine is the primary site of digestion
and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.
First, the small intestine wall is thrown into folds
(rugae) called valvulae conniventes (folds of
Kerckring). Those semicircular folds, which extend as
much as 8 millimeters into the lumen, increase the
surface area of the small intestine wall 3-fold
Next, millions of fingerlike projections called villi
protrude from the small intestine wall and enhance
the surface area another 10-fold. The villi themselves
are lined primarily with small intestine epithelial cells
called enterocytes, which are highly specialized for
digestive and absorptive operations.

3
 18 Aug 2022

Small Intestine
Rugae, Villi, and Microvilli
Finally, the plasma membranes of the enterocytes
contain fine evaginations called microvilli on their
luminal surface.
A single enterocyte may contain approximately 1700
microvilli, each typically being about 1 micrometer in
length and 0.1 micrometer in diameter.
Microscopically, this gives the lining of the small
intestine a brush border appearance. Microvilli
expand the surface area another 20-fold.
Cumulatively, the folds of Kerckring, villi, and
microvilli enhance the surface area of the small
intestine about 600 times, to approximately 300
square meters, or roughly the size of a tennis court.

Left colic

Large Intestine (splenic) flexure

Transverse
Right colic mesocolon
• The large intestine (hepatic) flexure

(5-6 ft long) can be Transverse colon

segmented, in order,
into the cecum, Haustrum
colon, rectum, and Descending colon

anal canal.
Ascending colon
• The large intestine is
the site of a rich IIeum (cut)
Cut edge of
mesentery
bacterial population IIeocecal valve
Teniae coli
and is involved in
absorbing water and Cecum
Sigmoid colon
some electrolytes as
well as in the Appendix Rectum
activities involved in
defecation. Anal canal
External anal sphincter

Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland

Tongue Sublingual gland
Salivary
Submandibular glands
gland

Esophagus Pharynx

Stomach
Pancreas
(Spleen)
Liver
Gallbladder
Transverse colon

Duodenum Descending colon

Small Jejunum
Ascending colon
intestine Ileum
Large
Cecum intestine
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
Anus Anal canal

4
 18 Aug 2022

GI Movement
Contents are moved
throughout the length of the
digestive tract in a strategic and
coordinated manner.
Smooth muscle contractions
both mix and propel digesting
contents throughout the
digestive tract.
Digestive tract motility is
largely controlled by the enteric
nervous system (ENS)

Enteric Nervous System

I’m not fat. I’m just
really intelligent and
The ENS extends from the esophagus to my head couldn’t
the anus, contains approximately hold any more so it
100,000,000 neurons, and is started filling up the
characterized by two main plexuses. rest of me!
The myenteric plexus, or Auerbach
plexus, controls motor activity along the
length of the gastrointestinal tract.
The submucosa plexus, or Meissner
plexus, controls GI secretions, blood flow
regulation, and local absorption

Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland

Tongue Sublingual gland
Salivary
Submandibular glands
gland

Esophagus Pharynx

Stomach
Pancreas
(Spleen)
Liver
Gallbladder
Transverse colon

Duodenum Descending colon

Small Jejunum
Ascending colon
intestine Ileum
Large
Cecum intestine
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
Anus Anal canal

5
 18 Aug 2022

Gastrointestinal Endocrine
and Paracrine Substances
Distributed throughout the
gastrointestinal tract are cells
possessing endocrine or paracrine
functions or both.
Those cells manufacture and secrete
substances such as serotonin,
cholecystokinin, gastrin, secretin,
gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP),
motilin, peptide YY and somatostatin.

Gastrin
Secreted by gastrin cells (G cells)
Release stimulated by:
Presence of small peptides, certain amino
acids (phenylalanine and tryptophan), calcium
in the stomach
Vagal nerve stimulation = releasing GRP
(gastrin-releasing peptide)
Gastric distention-initiated ENS reflexes
Regulates gastric acid secretion
Mediates pepsinogen and intrinsic factor
release
Stimulates growth of oxyntic glands

Cholecystokinin
Secreted by mucosal cells in the
duodenum & jejunum
Release stimulated by:
Presence of intraluminal fatty acids, GRP,
amino acids, & monoglycerides
Stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion
Causes gallbladder contraction
Relaxes the sphincter of Oddi
Increases satiety & decreases food intake

6
 18 Aug 2022

Secretin
Secreted by mucosal cells in the
duodenum & jejunum
Release stimulated by:
Decreasing intraluminal pH (<4.5)
Stimulates pancreatic release of
bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution
Promotes water & bicarbonate
secretion
Inhibits gastric emptying

Somatostatin
Secreted by D cells in the pancreas & nerve
fibers in CNS & ENS
Release stimulated by:
Presence of fat & protein in the intestines & acidic
pH in the stomach & duodenum
Inhibits gastrin release from G cells, pancreatic
enzyme release, secretion of HCl
Inhibits secretin, motilin, CCK
Inhibits absorption of amino acids, water,
electrolytes and gut motility

Gastric Inhibitory
Polypeptide (GIP)
Secreted by cells located in the duodenum &
jejunum
Release stimulated by:
Presence of glucose, amino acids, triglycerides, &
increase pH concentration
Intensifies glucose-stimulated release of insulin
Increase beta cell regeneration
a.k.a glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
(GIP)

7
 18 Aug 2022

Motilin
Secreted by mucosal cells of the upper
small intestine
Release stimulated by:
Food intake and digestion
Initiates migrating myoelectric
complexes (MMCs)
Functions as a sweeping mechanism
moving digestive residue
“housekeeper of the gut”
Supports peristalsis in the small
intestine

Peptide YY
Secreted by cells in the ileum & colon
Release stimulated by:
Food intake
Reduces appetite
Inhibits gastric motility slowing the
transit of contents to increase
efficiency of digestion and nutrient
absorption
Increases reabsorption of water &
electrolytes in the colon