Theorem of Physics 2
Theorem of Physics 2
Theorem of Physics 2
Φ E =∫ E cos φ dA=∮ ⃗
Ed ⃗
A
b. Gauss's law:
Gauss's law state that the total electric flux through a closed surface, which can be
written as the surface integral of the component of E normal to the surface, equals a constant
times the total charge Qencl enclosed by the surface.
Qencl
Φ E =∫ E cos φ dA=∮ ⃗
Ed ⃗
A=
ϵ0
V a −V b=∫ ⃗
E d ⃗l
4. Equipotential surfaces:
An equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential has the same value at every
point. At a point where a field line crosses an equipotential surface, the two are
perpendicular. When all charges are at rest, the surface of a conductor is always an
equipotential surface and all points in the interior of a conductor are at the same potential.
When a cavity within a conductor contains no charge, the entire cavity is an equipotential
region and there is no surface charge anywhere on the surface of the cavity.
∮ ⃗B ∙ d l⃗ =μ0 I encl
2. Application:
Current Point in Magnetic-Field Magnitude
distribution magnetic field
Long, straight Distance r from μ0 I
B=
conductor conductor 2 rπ
Circular loop of On axis of loop μ0 I a
2
radius a B= 2 2 3/ 2
2(x + a )
At center of loop μ0 I (for N loops,
B= multiply these
2 πa expressions by N)
Long cylindrical Inside conductor, μ0 Ir
B=
conductor of radius r<R 2π R
2
R Outside conductor, μ0 I
B=
r>R 2 rπ
Long, closely wound Inside solenoid, B=μ0 ∋¿
solenoid with n near center
turns per unit Outside solenoid B≈0
length, near its
midpoint
Tightly wound Within the space B=μ0 ∋ ¿ ¿
toroidal solenoid enclosed by the 2rπ
with N turns windings, distance r
from symmetry axis
Outside the space B≈0
enclosed by the
windings
√
2
' 1 R
ω= − 2
LC 4 L
Topic 13: The system of Maxwell’s equations, the concept of
electromagnetic field
1. The system of Maxwell’s equations:
a. Gauss’s law:
Qencl
∮ ⃗E ∙ d ⃗A = ∈0
b. Gauss’s law for magnetism:
∮ ⃗B ∙ d ⃗A=0
c. Ampere’s law:
d ΦE
∮ ⃗B ∙ d l=μ
⃗
0 (iC +∈0 )
dt encl
d. Faraday’s law:
−d Φ E
∮ ⃗E ∙ d l=
⃗
dt
2. The concept of eletromagneticfield:
Electromagnetic field, a property of space caused by the motion of an electric charge. A
stationary charge will produce only an electric field in the surrounding space. If the
charge is moving, a magnetic field is also produced. An electric field can be produced
also by a changing magnetic field.
We begin with Maxwell's equations in free space, where there are no charges or currents:
Gauss's law for electricity: ∇ ⋅ E = 0
Gauss's law for magnetism: ∇ ⋅ B = 0
Faraday's law of induction: ∇ × E = -∂B/∂t
Ampere's circuital law with Maxwell's addition: ∇ × B = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀∂E/∂t
where:
Taking the curl of both sides of Faraday's law and substituting Ampere's law with Maxwell's
addition, we get:
∇ × (∇ × E) = -μ₀∂/∂t(∇ × B) = -μ₀ε₀∂²E/∂t²
Using a vector identity relating the curl of the curl to the gradient and the Laplacian, we can
simplify this equation:
∇²E - μ₀ε₀∂²E/∂t² = 0
This is the wave equation for electromagnetic waves in free space! It describes how the electric
field E propagates through space and time. The term ∇²E represents the spatial variation of the
electric field, while the term μ₀ε₀∂²E/∂t² represents the rate of change of the electric field with
time.
Solutions to the wave equation often take the form of sinusoidal plane waves:
E(x, y, z, t) = E₀ cos(kx - ωt + φ)
where:
E₀ is the amplitude of the electric field
k is the wave vector, which determines the direction of propagation
ω is the angular frequency, which determines the frequency of the wave
φ is the phase constant
x, y, z are the spatial coordinates
t is the time
These waves have a constant amplitude, frequency, and direction of propagation. They are the
simplest form of electromagnetic waves and serve as a good starting point for analyzing more
complex wave phenomena.
3. Speed of light:
3. Average speed:
√
v av =
8 kBT
πm
=
√8 RT
πM
4. Root- mean- square speed
√ √
3 kT
v rms= √ v 2av =
m
=
3 RT
v mp=
√ √
2 kBT
m
=
2 RT
M
Topic 17: The first law of thermodynamics and applying for kinds of
thermodynamic processes: adiabatic, isochoric, isobaric and isothermal
processes:
1. The first law of thermodynamics:
States that when heat Q is added to a system does work W, the internal energy U
changes by an amount equal to Q – W. This law can also be expressed for an
infinitesimal process.
∆ U =Q−W
dU =dQ−dW
2. Applying for kinds of thermodynamic processes:
a. Adiabatic: is defined as one with no heat transfer into or out the system; Q=0
U 2−U 1=∆ U =−W
b. Isochoric: is a constant-volume process. When the volume of a thermodynamic
system is constant, it does no work on it surroundings. Then W = 0 and
U 2−U 1=∆ U =Q
c. Isobaric process: is a constant-pressure process. In general, none of the three
quantities ∆ U , Q∧W is zero in an isobaric process, but calculating W is easy
nonetheless.
W =p (V 2−V 1 )
d. Isothermal process: is a constant-temperature process. For a process to be
isothermal, any heat flow into or out the system must occur slowly enough that
thermal equilibrium is maintained. In general, none of the quantities ∆ U , Q∧W is
zero in an isothermal process.
e=
W
QH
=1+
QC
QH
=1−
| |QC
QH
W: the net work done by the working substance.
Q H : the amount of heat energy by the hot reservoir (>0)
QC : the heat rejected in the exhaust (<0)
5. The Carnot cycle is the hypothetical, idealized heat engine that has the maximum
possible efficiency consistent with the second law. It consists of the following steps:
+ The gas expands isothermally at temperature T H absorbing heat Q H
+ It expands adiabatically until its temperature drops to T C
+ It is compressed isothermally at T C, rejecting heat |QC|
When a system proceeds from an initial state with entropy S1 to a final state with entropy S,
the change in the entropy ∆ S=S 2−S1 defined by the above equation does not depend on the
path leading from state 1 to state2.
2. Entropy changes in irreversible processes: all irreversible processes involve an increase in
entropy. The entropy of an isolated system can change, but it can never decrease.
3.The second law of thermodynamics has several important implications and meanings. One of
the main implications is that it sets limits on the efficiency of energy conversion processes. For
example, it is impossible to construct a perfect engine that can convert all of the heat energy
into work without any loss. This is because some of the energy will always be lost as unusable
heat energy during the conversion process, and this loss is dictated by the second law of
thermodynamics.
Topic 20: Differences between ideal and real gases, Van der Waals
equation of state, critical point:
1. Differences between ideal and real gas:
Does not really exists in the environment and is a It really exists in the environment
hypothetical gas
( )
2
an
p+ 2
( V −nb )=nRT
V
3. Critical point:
The endpoint at the top of the vaporization curve, at which distinction between liquid and vapor
disappears.
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