POKHARA UNIVERSITY

MADAN BHANDARI SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
URLABARI-3, MORANG

A REPORT ON: ARCHITECTURE OF MUSTANG

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

ANU GHIMIRE (04) ASST. PROF SUNITA SHRESTHA

MANEETA RAI (18) AR. PRASHANT KARKI

OJJESWI GAUTAM (24)

OSIN ANGDEMBE (25)

ROHINI DAHAL (34)

SANJU BHATTRAI (37)

TARA GURAGAIN (45)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we offer our most sincere and gratitude to our respected teachers, asst. prof Sunita
Shrestha mam and ar. Prashant Karki sir for their kindly guidance and helpful suggestion to prepare
this study report properly. We would like to submit this dissertation to department of architecture for
genuine evaluation.
Contents
CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................
1.2 Background of the project.................................................................................................................
1.3 Objective of the study........................................................................................................................
1.4 Methodology.....................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 2. MUSTANG ARCHITECTURE.......................................................................................................
2.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................
2.2 LOCATION..........................................................................................................................................
2.3 ORIGIN...............................................................................................................................................
2.4 LANGUAGE.........................................................................................................................................
2.5 RELIGION...........................................................................................................................................
2.6 CULTURE............................................................................................................................................
2.7 ECONOMY..........................................................................................................................................
2.8 SETTLEMENT PATTERN......................................................................................................................
STREET PATTERN...............................................................................................................................
WATER SUPPLY..................................................................................................................................
ELECTRICITY.......................................................................................................................................
DRAINAGE SYSTEM............................................................................................................................
DESIGN TYPOLOGY............................................................................................................................
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE......................................................................................................................
2.9 TYPICAL HOUSE PLANNING OF LOWER MUSTANG..........................................................................
2.10 MATERIALS....................................................................................................................................
2.11 CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY......................................................................................................
FOUNDATION:...................................................................................................................................
WALL..................................................................................................................................................
ROOF AND FLOOR..............................................................................................................................
2.11 CHARACTERSTICS...........................................................................................................................
ROOF.................................................................................................................................................
OPENINGS..........................................................................................................................................
PLASTER AND PAINTING:...................................................................................................................
COMPACT DESIGN.............................................................................................................................
DECORATIVE ELEMENTS....................................................................................................................
2.12 INFLUENCE OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE..........................................................................
2.13 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................
2.14 REFERENCE....................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
This project is done as the part of assignment of ‘history of Nepalese architecture’. The topic
introduces with the architecture of mustang. The general structures built in this area usually,
incorporates, stone and mud in their walls, foundations. The settlement is compact, following with
its own culture, traditions and religion.

1.2 Background of the project

This project aims to address about the architecture of mustang. This study delves into the social
spaces, cultures and mostly about the construction technology, materials, and the house of the
lower mustang region.

1.3 Objective of the study

The study is conducted to learn about the basic data related to the people of mustang, and to gain
knowledge about the techniques, materials, and the influence of contemporary architecture.

1.4 Methodology
To complete this project, following methods will be applied:

1. Research on the origin, culture, religion will be done.

2. Understanding the settlement patterns of lower mustang.
3. Learning about the construction technologies of houses.
4. Analysis of the data surveyed through research papers, pdf’s
CHAPTER 2. MUSTANG ARCHITECTURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Each country has its own unique identity, own
unique culture, and own unique architecture.
From developed countries to least developed
countries around the world we can see that
uniqueness in the vernacular architecture in old
settlements. In Mustang most of the buildings
are vernacular with its own unique architectural
style.
The village behind the mountain’, is the home
for the Thakali and Hindu people with unique
culture, traditions, and language. Mustang is one of the
interesting places in Nepal. Until 1992, Mustang was the
Fig: view of mustang district
forbidden kingdom and was isolated from the world. Even
after that, only a few thousand people get a permit to visit mustang annually. It is very interesting that
even though it just been 27 years since Mustang got exposure with the outer world, the culture, and
architecture of this place has been already influenced.

2.2 LOCATION
Mustang lies in northern Nepal, with latitude and longitude 28.9985° N, 83.8473° E. The Marpha is a
valley of Mustang located just below the Nilgiri peaks to the east and Dhamphus and Tukuche peak to
the west whereas Jomsom is located at the bank of Kali Gandaki river 4.3 miles away from the
Marpha. The elevation ranges from 2100m in the southern part to 5400m, and above in the north. The
high peaks rise up to 8168m. Most of the human settlement is found at 2100m to 4000m elevation
along the Kali Gandaki River.

Fig: location of mustang

2.3 ORIGIN
The recorded history of Mustang dates back to the 14th century when the region was ruled by the Lo
kings. The Lo kings were known for their wealth and power, and they controlled trade along the Kali
Gandaki River, which runs through Mustang. They also established a close relationship with Tibet,
which helped them to gain influence in the region.
In the 18th century, the Lo kings came into conflict with the Gurkha army, which was expanding its
territory. The Gurkhas eventually conquered Mustang and added it to the Kingdom of Nepal.

2.4 LANGUAGE
The main language spoken are Gurung and Nepali. Inhabitants of mid-Mustang of Baragaon speak
both Tibetan and a language similar to Thakali.
The people of Mustang, Nepal speak several related Tibetic languages.
Lhowa: Also called Mustang Tibetan, Loke Tibetan, and Lhopa, this Sino-Tibetan language is spoken
by about 3,000 Tibetan people in Mustang. It is part of the Tibeto-Burman language family.
Loke: Spoken by fewer than 9,000 speakers in Upper Mustang, Nepal, with many living in Pokhara,
Kathmandu, and New York City.
Seke: Spoken by the people of Serib.

2.5 RELIGION
Mustang is known for its unique culture, history,
and geography. The majority of people in Mustang
practice Tibetan Buddhism, and there are numerous
monasteries and chortens (Buddhist Stupas)
throughout the region. The most famous of these is
the Lo Gekar Monastery, which is said to be the
oldest monastery in Nepal.
The people of Mustang are primarily Buddhists, and
their religion plays a significant role in their daily
lives. People of Mustang are a mixture of various
ethnic groups, including the Gurung, Thakali, and
Lopa. The Lopa are the original inhabitants of Mustang,
and they have their own unique culture and language. The Fig: religion of mustang
Lopa is known for their strong attachment to their
traditions and customs, which have been passed down from generation to generation. Mustangi people
are friendly and welcoming, and visitors are often invited to participate in their daily activities, such
as farming and cooking.

2.6 CULTURE
The Thakali group is the original ethnic group of Mustang who were once active in salt trade from
Tibet and across the mountains in western Nepal. The major occupation of people is business mostly
tourism while others are involved in agriculture and government office work. The lifestyle of people
is simple. The whole village is compact, and people live like a big family. Everyone knows each
other. They celebrate festivals together. The archery festival is one of the famous festivals that bring
people together. The whole village is in walkable distance and everything is connected in the village.
Most people live and work on the same building decreasing their daily travel time. Unlike another part
of Nepal, both male and female go to work but most of the household chores are handled by women
in the house. One of the famous things about this place is the alcohol made of apple. Most of the
people over there might be drunk most of the time because of the famous alcohol and the cold
weather. The old generation of people wears traditional dresses whereas the young generation of
people wears a modern dress like jackets and pants. People used to be uneducated before, but now
most young people go to school or college in the nearby city. The lifestyle of people is simple and
ground to earth in general.

Fig: culture of mustang

2.7 ECONOMY
Mustang was an important route of crossing the Himalayas between Tibet and Nepal. Many salt
caravans travelled through Mustang in the old times. Once a major thoroughfare for the trade of salt
and grain between Tibet and Nepal's southern hills, the Mustang District in Nepal's western
Himalayas remains a trading route to this day. Agriculture is the dominant economic activity in the
district in which 80.65 percent people are engaged in the district. People of Mustang are engaged in a
traditional form of agro-pastoralist economy common to the mountainous regions of Nepal. Business
(6.82%), government service (1.91%), house work (3.50%), foreign employment (3.97%) and others
(3.14%) are others occupation types besides agriculture. Many people in Mustang depend on sheep
and mountain goat rearing for livelihood. Though agro-pastoralism still provides the socio-economic
backbone of Mustang, alternative livelihood like tourism, transport and labour migration are now
emerging along agro-pastoralism. As a result, many has abandoned agriculture or animal husbandry as
source of livelihood generally in Mustang and neighbouring district of Manag, and specifically in
Jharkot, over the last couple of decades. Both number of people living in the district, their animal
herds and the number of large households in a village are down from before. In Muktinath VDC the
number of households came down to 169 from a high of 216 in 2001. Though agro-pastoralism still
provides the economic and social backbone of Mustang, many of the terraced fields are now
abandoned.

2.8 SETTLEMENT PATTERN

The traditional settlement pattern of Lower Mustang are compact with buildings built with local
materials, narrow roads, dense settlement, proper water, and drainage system. . All these Villages
have their own stone-paved secondary and tertiary roads.
In this chapter, the settlement of the Marpha and Jomsom is explained in term infrastructure. To
understand the village and its sustainability it is important to understand the village as a whole, not
only one building. We can never achieve sustainability with one building. The sustainability of the
society as a whole is necessary. Hence roads of Mustang can be categories into two division.

1. BENI-JOMSOM highway
Fig: economy source of mustang
2. Inner-Village Road.
Before the construction of Beni-Jomsom Highway, means of transportation was either walking or
horse ride. 1-week walking distance from Marpha to Beni is subtracted to 1- day travel distance by
this highway. 12m wide, unpaved highway start from Beni to Upper Mustang. The drainage channel
passes at the right of the highway and the highway also serves the electric pole to pass on its right side
at a certain interval. The advantages and disadvantage highway lead to the village and people over
there is a list about below:
Advantages:
1. Shorten the distance between the village and Beni Sahara.
2. Increase possibilities of trade and marketing.
3. Enhance other infrastructures in the village.
4. Increase people in the village.
Disadvantages:
1. Discourage the tourist, as highway replaces the trek route.
2. Noise and environment pollution. Fig: primary road
3. Damage agriculture and health due to dust and dirt.
4. Increase out-migration

Fig: secondary road

 Fig: territory road

Curve Marpha Road is paved with flagstone. The Marpha road leaves the BeniJomsom Highway and
passes through the village and re-joins with the highway at the end of the village. Houses are arranged
at either side of the road. The width of the road varies from 6’ to 8’ depending on the topography of
the place. The road inside the village can be divided as a primary, secondary and tertiary road.
Primary roads are the main roads with hotels and shops on either side. Secondary roads are smaller
than primary road and these roads contain houses on either side. The tertiary road connects the
secondary road and is very narrow. Primary and secondary roads are paved with dressed flagstone.
The tertiary road is not paved. Primary road has big flagstone in its right side beneath which the
drainage of the overall village is set-up. The big size stone is placed as a covering of drainage
channel. Big size stone is placed so that it can’t be misplaced easily

Jomsom:
The Jomsom can be divided into Old New Jomsom based on the infrastructure, building types and the
facilities available. New Jomsom locating at Marpha VDC road structure differ from the Old Jomsom
of Jomsom VDC. The government office area also has different road structure. So, the road of
Jomsom can be divided into three types according to the location. Road of New Jomsom is much
wider and managed than the road of Old Jomsom. 24’ wide (8m) road of New Jomsom is a vehicular
road with streetlamp and proper drainage facilities. 2m in either side is a footpath and 4m in the center
is the vehicular road. The footpath is dressed regular stone-paved while the vehicular road is
undressed irregular stone-paved. The streetlamp is placed at 40’ interval. The buildings along the road
are a hotel, shops, and business orientated. Road of the area where government offices are situated has
well managed and planned road structure. The road of that area is 28’ wide with footpath, green belt,
and vehicular zone separated.

STREET PATTERN

Marpha: One of the identities of Marpha village is curved streets. Because of the organic street
pattern, the wind speed is blocked and thus it feels warm when inside the village. The stone paved
historical street patterns which once created vibrancy for trekkers and tourists is equally adopted to
bikes at present. But the road is quite narrow for vehicular access.

Jomsom: The major street in New Jomsom is as big as the two-way vehicle can access easily. The
settlement has grown on either side of the street. After crossing the bridge, the street pattern in the old
Jomsom is again articulate pattern. Thought the old Jomsom is articulate pattern, it is somehow
straight and linear. The road of Jomsom lacks the curviness.

WATER SUPPLY

Water supply in Marpha is very good. Almost all house has water supply and taps along with
community taps spread throughout the village. Source of water in Marpha is from Pom Kyu, a small
river flowing into the Kali Gandaki only a short distance north of the village. The source of Pom Kyu
is at high altitude nearpermanent snow and ice fields. Locals responded that they have no problem of
water supply for daily use even in the dry season. But they complained that due to rain, water is
contaminated for sometimes. The water system in Jomsom is also similar type. Each house is well
facilitated with water tap inside their house and community tap in different locations around the
village

ELECTRICITY

Electricity in Marpha and Jomsom is from “Chokhopani hydropower”. It was established on 2041,
Magh 1830 from the hands of Late King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah. While most of the part of Nepal
was struggling with the load shedding problem there was no problem of load shedding in lower
Mustang due to hydropower at Chokhopani which produces 240KW electricity. 500KW electricity is
provided from the zone level. During the load shedding scheduled by zone level, 240 KW is provided
from the local hydropower which reduces the load shedding problem in Marpha, Jomsom and other
parts of Muktinath. In Tukuche, there is new hydropower which is being implanted to generate
13.5kw electricity which will resolve the problem of electricity in that zone. Tukuche is 2km far 30
Water supply 40 away from Chokhopani. In Marpha, all buildings were connected to the electricity
grid except one. The house is in the occupational group and has single-member. He used an oil lamp.
Use of electricity is more in Jomsom than in Marpha. The electric pole is found on the line of the
main highway that goes to Jomsom. Not only the main highway but the electric poles run through the
village as well, which is a threat. In these compact settlements, where buildings are attached and
connected to each other are in risk of spreading fire due to short circuit.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The drainage system can be categories into two types: Individual Household Drainage System
Overall Village Drainage System

Individual Household Drainage System:

In lower mustang village, individual vernacular houses lack
the proper drainage system. The roof is constructed of stone
with mud finishing which creates the muddy roof during rain
and snow. Flat roofs collect snow and people must manually
dispose of those snow collected. In Marpha, houses built back
10-20 years have tried to solve the problem of drainage by
placing the drainage point in the roof while the houses built
back 50->100 years is still facing the problem. Jomsom can be

Fig: showing individual

drainage
divided into a new and old settlement. Since Jomsom is a touristic area, construction technology is
new with a solved drainage system in the new settlement. Roof with drainage points and projected
pipes can be seen in the new settlement of Jomsom. While in the old settlement, the drainage channels
are found in each old and new house. In a conversation with Rajani Sherchan, teacher of high school
in Jomsom, there used to be drainage channel made up of wood in each house to drain the water due
to snow, but now even in her own house she had Figure 29: Showing individual drainage 41 re-
constructed and replaced that wooden channel with PVC pipes. Still, in old houses, the wooden
drainage channels can be seen which are been drained out to the river.

Overall Village Drainage System:

In Marpha village, the overall village has an impressive way to drain out the rain and snow water.
Since the topography of the village is sloppy, water just needs to be
properly guided to flow down. From the historic age, water itself
had created its way to flow down towards the river. The people of
Marpha village have respected nature and did not disturb the
channel, instead, they left spaces for water movement. The
movement of water in place of the road is beneath it. The temporary
big size stone is placed on the right side of the road so that if any
repair is to be done road should not be damage. In Jomsom, wide
road of 8m is divided into 2m wide footpath in either side. The
footpath is sloped down towards the road and the small channel is
created in between for the movement of water. Manholes are placed
in a certain interval for maintenance. In place of speed breaker,
small drainage points are provided.
Fig; drainage under the road

DESIGN TYPOLOGY

The design typology of Marpha is diverse. 43% of the buildings have an open courtyard, 24% of the
building has covered courtyard with corrugated GI sheets. Few have used a transparent sheet for light.
23% of the building is compact and only 10% are linear.
 Fig: showing design typology

ARCHITECTURAL STYLE

Almost all the building in old

Marpha (an area we surveyed) are
vernacular architecture i.e. 97%.
Few 2% building are hybrid due to
re-construction. During
reconstruction, building façade has
been continued as in the vernacular.
Floor heights, structure and
functional aspects are as per
modern need. 1% of modern
building is totally contemporary
architecture also being true to its
material. Fig: showing architectural style

Most of the buildings were found to be of vernacular architectural style. Those buildings were the
oldest one. The oldest architecture was more than 200-300 years old, but those buildings were not
used as residential building anymore. The purpose of those buildings has been changed to animal
sheds. The comparison of the collected data shows that the oldest buildings are more vernacular while
the buildings 50-100 years are more hybrid and the buildings less than 50 years are more modern.
2.9 TYPICAL HOUSE PLANNING OF LOWER MUSTANG

The building is vertically divided as per the use of the buildings. The upper floor is used for private
purposes: cooking, sleeping and living while the ground floor is used for more public purposes:
working, animal shed, storage. According to the villagers, they prefer to live in the upper floor
because it prevents the direct coldness from the ground and they also believe that the heat loss by the
animals below helps to keep the upper floor warm.

Fig: Ground floor plan

Fig: first floor plan
Fig: section and elevation with description
2.10 MATERIALS

The material used in the vernacular architecture is the stone, earth, wood, limestone, and red mud. All
of these materials are locally available. The stones are collected from the banks of Kaligandaki and
Thak khola. Larger sized stones are found on the mountain quarries and they are hammered into
desirable size for construction.
35 The bare mountains are the sources of the clay for the rammed earth construction with limestone
and red mud for the wall painting. The wood used in the vernacular architecture is also available
locally in the nearby forest. We can see that all the material used in the vernacular architecture are
locally available. The closed-loop system can be seen, where the material from nature eventually ends
up in nature. Since all the materials are locally available, reducing the transportation cost and energy.

2.11 CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Fig: structural details of buildings

The wall thickness of building is 14” which reduce the heat exchange between the surfaces and
insulate building thermally. Structurally, the ground floor has 4” wooden pillar with three layers of
wooden raters. Over a wooden beam, the wooden plank is placed with stone and mud floor finishing.
The depth of the slab is deeper in balcony space
than in other parts.

FOUNDATION:
The foundations and plinth are of stone rubble masonry using mud mortar. The foundation depth is a
maximum of 60 cm (24”) The rubble masonry is often raised up above the ground floor level.
Foundation runs above the earth to form the wall and it has a similar thickness to that of wall i.e. at
least 45 cm (18”).

Fig: foundation details

WALL

Generally, in Mustang, the main construction materials of

the wall are stone and earth. The earth walls that are 45 cm
thick are constructed either rubble masonry or rammed earth
(gyanka tha). Earth construction is preferred wherever the
soil quality allowed. Rubble stone masonry is preferred if the
soil quality is not suitable.

Construction of the rammed earth wall is a step by step

process. At a time, the wooden shutter of fixed length and
height (about 18 inches) are positioned on top of the
foundation and mixture of earth, grain stalks and husk are
rammed by the wooden handle and is left to dry for a couple
of days before construction of a wall on top of it.33 In the
case study building locally available flat stones are used with
the mud mortar. The height of the stone wall is 5’6” on the
ground floor while on the upper floor it is 7’6”.

Fig: wall details

ROOF AND FLOOR

Most of the roof in mustang is flat. The flat roofs give the freedom to construct irregular shaped
rooms and add the extension. Each room is enclosed with earth walls, the roof or next floor being
supported by central wooden posts. Wooden brackets on the posts give better support to the main
beam, which is supported on the ends by additional posts or stone wall-plates. The joists are usually
round sections of 4” diameter, placed 18” apart. The joists are covered with planks or split wood, a
layer of wheat stalks and twigs covered with approximately 4” of packed white clay (Sakara mud).
The side walls are raised slightly above the level of the roof to clamp down the beams and joints.

Fig: floor details inside the room

Fig: roof detail with stone and mud finishing at balcony

2.11 CHARACTERSTICS

ROOF

The roof of the Mustang is one of the unique roofs in the world. The tradition of Mustang is to stack
wood the through generation to generation at the top of the building around the roof. It helps to
separate the compact houses from each other. We asked people over there and we got many reasons
behind it. One of the reasons was that every people stack the wood on their roof so that it could be
used at the time of their death for burning. Some people said that it shows how wealthy the family is,
according to the more the logs are wealthier the family is considered. Another reason we heard is the
log in each house were kept by their ancestors and it as a blessing for them. Since there is lack of trees
in mustang, people said that they stack the woods through generation to save wood as much as they
can and so that during winter, they can use those wood for heat.

Fig: wood stack on roof

OPENINGS

The openings on the external walls are usually small whereas the larger ones are opened on to the
courtyard. In some cases, a double frame is used to support the thick rammed earth walls. Wooden
blocks that span the width of the wall are fixed perpendicular to the top member of the frame,
which is then covered with wooden planks to hold the earthen wall. Double leaf wooden shutters
are positioned on to the frame and are opened inward to the room. Marpha is much more
influenced by Tibetan traders and have Tibetan design on windows and doors. The wood used is
most often Pine, though in the older buildings the main structural elements were constructed of
Juniper. Openings on top of the roofs are also seen for skylight and smoke outlet purpose.
Fig: showing opening
PLASTER AND PAINTING:

In mustang, plasterwork is not common for rammed earth wall or neither for stoned wall buildings.
But mud and lime plaster works are seen in few buildings depending upon the owner’s choice.
However, painting of the houses is must and the houses are whitewashed by lime. Doors and windows
are painted red by enamel or by mukpa (reddish brown color- locally available material). The case
study buildings are also whitewashed by lime and the door and windows are painted by red enamel.

Fig: picture of plaster and painting

COMPACT DESIGN
The houses are typically compact in design, with small windows and narrow doorways. This helps to
conserve heat during the colder months and provides protection against the strong winds that are
common in the region.
DECORATIVE ELEMENTS
Despite the rugged environment, Upper Mustang houses often feature decorative elements such as
colorful murals, intricate woodcarvings, and Tibetan Buddhist symbols. These adornments not only
add aesthetic appeal but also reflect the cultural significance of art and spirituality in the region.
2.12 INFLUENCE OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE

In term of architecture and the settlement, the construction of road and airport introduced a whole new
perspective of development. After the construction of the road, the new buildings were started to be
built along the roadside, which forced the change in the shape of the settlement from the compact to
linear. In the compact settlement, there was less heat loss, less penetration of the wind, everything in
the settlement was within the walking distance, the community was dense and sustainable. Now, the
people want to build their house alongside the road for the better business opportunity, resulting in the
change in the shape of settlement into a linear form. In the new linear shape settlement, buildings are
only attached to each other only on one side. There is more heat loss between building and
environment, more introduction of wind inside the settlement, less dense community, the walking
distance increases leading to the decrease in walkability and increase in the use of the different mode
of transportation and many other factors. Connecting the village with the cities and the world
introduced a new method of construction and designs. For the people of Marpha and Jomsom, the
architecture, facilities, and lifestyle of cities like Pokhara or Kathmandu are more sophisticated, and
they want to change their lifestyle, their houses and develop their community like the cities.
Small development can result in big influences and
impacts.

To understand the changes and the result of those

changes, the contemporary architecture of Jomsom
was studied, the common design principals of the
contemporary architecture is listed out and then those
changes are implied on the same case study
vernacular architecture studied before. The common
design principals of contemporary architecture are
listed as below:

 The building standing along without Fig: example of comtempory

attached walls with the surrounding building. architecture
 The fencing around the building was uncommon
before while in contemporary buildings the fencing was found.
 Two or more stories building without courtyard.
 RCC structure building where brick, cement, steel, and concrete are the main building
materials.
 Big windows all around the buildings.
 Shading devices all around the building.
 High Ceiling height.
 Stone, brick or paint finishing.

2.13 CONCLUSION
After the completion of this project, we came to understand about the diversity in architecture
culture, religion, and language of mustang. We learn about the history and existence of the stone
masonry walls use in construction and the changes that are seen in the present day due to the
influence of contemporary architecture.

2.14 REFERENCE

 Asmita, D. et al. (2014) Marpha Settlement Study. Settlement Planning Course Report. Nepal
Engineering College.
 Duns, R. (no date) Vulnerability of livelihoods in Kagbeni Mustang district, Nepal.
 Kapil, B. (2019) ‘To Marpha: Nepal’s postcard vintage village’, Online Khabar,
 11 March. Available at: http://english.onlinekhabar.com/400232.html.
 Merit, M. (2019) ‘Marpha magnificent’, E-Kantipur, 12 March. Available
 at: http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-10-06/marphamagnificent.html.