Sustainable Energy

in Architecture and Urban Planning

Chapter 4
Solar Energy Technologies and Applications
Table of Contents

Table of Contents.....................................................................................
List of Figures.........................................................................................
4.1. Objective...........................................................................................
4.2. Solar Energy......................................................................................
4.2.1. Solar Electric.............................................................................2
4.2.2. Managing Photovoltaic Projects................................................3
4.2.2.1. Typical glazing ratio...............................................................4
4.2.2.2. Surface to volume ratio...........................................................4
4.2.2.3. Building and facade height.....................................................4
4.2.2.4. Typical surface reflectance.....................................................4
4.2.2.5. Irradiation mapping................................................................4
4.3. Cost-Effective Hybrid Energy Supply..............................................
4.4. Case Study.........................................................................................
4.4.1. Nomenclature.............................................................................6
4.4.2. Pre design and Technical Consideration.................................7
4.4.3. Load Demand............................................................................8
4.4.4. Available Electricity Sources Estimation................................10
4.4.5. System Explanation.................................................................11
4.4.6. Equipments Sizing and Selecting............................................11
4.4.6.1. PV Array...............................................................................12
ii
4.4.6.2. Battery Bank.........................................................................13
4.4.6.3. Converter..............................................................................15
4.4.6.4. DGs.......................................................................................15
4.4.6.5. System Accessories..............................................................16
4.4.7. Entire Hybrid System Efficiency.............................................16
4.4.8. System Layout.........................................................................16
4.4.9. Economic Analysis..................................................................17
4.4.9.1. Life Cycle Cost and Payback Analysis.................................17
4.4.9.2. Present Value and Worth Concept Analysis.........................18
4.5. Solar Water Heater..........................................................................
4.6. Appendix.........................................................................................
Questions................................................................................................
References..............................................................................................

iii
List of Figures and Tables

Figure 1 Eight Keys Topics for Solar Energy Deployment .............2

Figure 2 Photovoltaic Project Phases................................................3
Figure 3 Typical Grid Connected Photovoltaic System Scheme .....5
Figure 4 24 Hours Load Profile.......................................................10
Figure 5 Solar Radiation Data for the Proposed Location..............12
Figure 6 Relation between Battery Cycle Lifetime and DoD.........15
Figure 7 Typical Solar Domestic Water Heater..............................19
Figure 8 Customary Bock and Interface Diagram...........................22

Table 1 Load Demand Estimation with Distinguish of Seasons.......9

Table 2 Proposed Fluorescent Lamps Specification.......................10
Table 3 Share of PV and DGs in the Hybrid Power System...........11
Table 4 24 Hours Energy Demand Forecasting..............................21
Table 5 Specification of the System Nominal and Key Elements...22

iv
 Chapter 4: Solar Energy Technologies and
Applications

1.1. Objective

Solar energy as an interminable source of electricity has a lion share

potential in the world. In this chapter, the studies are lied on solar
energy technologies, especially, photovoltaic system, solar water
heating and real-life utilization of renewable and nonrenewable
energy resources as hybrid cost-effective system through preliminary
design process.

1.2. Solar Energy

In order to use onsite renewable energy wherever technically feasible

and lifecycle cost effective. A preliminary technical feasibility
review/ study shall conduct for the following strategies and for others
(geographically specific or unlisted here) in early conceptual/
schematic design to determine those appropriate for the project [1]:

 Solar electric
 Solar water heater
 Solar heating, cooling, and lighting
 Hybrid solar systems

1
 Application

Legal Aspects Project Scale

Finance Policy

Building
Potential
Design

Urban Design

Figure 1 Eight Keys Topics for Solar Energy Deployment [2]

1.1.1. Solar Electric

Modern societies and cities are based on complex and sophisticated

infrastructures. Photovoltaic is a reliable, competitive and simple
solution able to contribute to the successful functioning of this
infrastructure; standalone photovoltaic systems can also supply
energy for parking meters, phone boxes, streetlights, information
panels, signs, etc [3]. The reports indicate that the PV market
continues to grow at a steady rate throughout the world.

Before starting to design a solar power system, it is important to

assess whether solar power provides the best solution to the problem
at hand, solar power is best suited to applications where [4]:

2
  The energy requirement is modest. The amount of energy,
which is required, has a direct bearing on the size and cost of
any proposed solar power system.
 There is no other source of power available. One of the
major factors affecting the choice of solar power is the
availability of other potential sources of power.
 There is a good solar resource. The availability of a good
solar resource has a strong influence on the cost-
effectiveness of a solar power system.

1.1.2. Managing Photovoltaic Projects

Photovoltaic projects can be divided into three phases: initiation,

preparation and installation [4].

Phase 1: Initiation Phase 2: Preparation Phase 3: Installation

Attractiveness of
Investment in time and
photovotaic to many Use of reputed installers
expertise
diverse interests
Inspiration and
Facilitation by Strong interaction
motivation by
municipalities between actors
municipalities
Prestige as an important
Focus on quality control
motivation

Figure 2 Photovoltaic Project Phases

3
Strong differences in shades of grey at street level, between the two
sites indicate the relative building height, the darker the street the
deeper the canyon. Strong variation of shades of grey on roofs gives
an indication of the urban roughness: the higher the occurrence of
greyness on roofs the rougher the urban canopy. The area offers a
large surface area suitable for roof-mounted photovoltaic but few
unobstructed facades. The area with a relatively small potential for
roof mounted systems offers scope for appropriate facade
installations. This can be described by massing characteristics and
the effect of spacing between buildings and is determined by the sky
view factor.

1.1.2.1. Typical glazing ratio

In cities where buildings tend to have high glazing ratios
photovoltaic can be incorporated as a shading strategy.

1.1.2.2. Surface to volume ratio

While higher surface to volume ratios indicate a higher proportion of
facade area potentially available for facade-integrated photovoltaic, it
also tends to imply more obstructions for a given density of
development. Lower values indicate larger uninterrupted roof area
for potential photovoltaic application.

1.1.2.3. Building and facade height

Planning legislation will clearly affect building heights. Where this
results in all building heights being similar there is little obstruction
to roofs, which are thus the best location for photovoltaic systems.

1.1.2.4. Typical surface reflectance

High reflectance means that there is significantly more diffuse light
available for photovoltaic systems and therefore optimizing
orientation becomes less important. For low reflectance zones,
photovoltaic systems need to be designed for direct solar radiation
access.

4
1.1.2.5. Irradiation mapping
Irradiation mapping allows accurate prediction of the total annual
solar energy received by all surfaces within a suitably mapped area.
The factors indicate seasonal aggregates or components of the total
(e.g. sun, sky, inter-reflected radiation etc.) can also be created. It can
be applied at any architectural scale from simple ‘sketchbook’
designs to highly complex city models.

1.3. Cost-Effective Hybrid Renewable and

Nonrenewable Energy Supply

Modern renewable energy is being used increasingly in four distinct

markets: power generation, heating and cooling, transport, and
rural/off-grid energy services in which renewable energies are vital
elements of rural electrification programs in many countries, and
dozens of international actors were involved in advancing energy
access through renewables during 2014 [5]. Building integrated
photovoltaic systems offer opportunities to generate electricity
without occupying valuable urban land. In this way, photovoltaic can
contribute to the urban energy demand at source [3].

5
 Figure 3 Typical Grid Connected Photovoltaic System Scheme [7]

1.4. Case Study

The first solar or photovoltaic (PV) cell was invented by Charles

Fritts in the 1880s. PV installations have grown around 50% per year
since 2000 [6]. This case study is conducted to offer real-life solution
and leads to turning the opportunity into reality. The hybrid system is
investigated to meet the domestic load demand that is estimated
based on the communities’ electricity consumption culture. At first,
customary pre-design is pursued. Afterward, the BEP (break-even
point) and NPV (net present value) algorithms are applied for
economic analysis.

1.1.1. Nomenclature

A Annual Payment or Cost

ATS Automatic Transfer Switch
BOS Balance Of System
Bn Benefits stream

Cb Battery bank capacity

Cn Capital and operation cost

DA Days of Autonomy
DGs Diesel Generator set
DoD Depth of Discharge
DP Distribution Panel
ED Energy Demand
ESH Equivalent Sun Hours

6
i Interest rate
Ia Fluorescent lamp circuit current

I max Maximum current

I SC Short Circuit Current

MEW Ministry of Energy and Water
MRRD Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and
Development
MUDA Ministry of Urban Development Affairs
n Number of years
NSP National Solidarity Programme
NPV Net Present Value
Pballast Power dissipated in the ballast

PF (cos φ) Power Factor

Pn Fluorescent lamp nominal power
PV Photovoltaic
PW Present Worth or Value
PWV Payback Worth (Value)
r Discount Rate
SDP Strategic Development Plan
TOU Time Of Use
U Applied voltage to the fluorescent lamp
USD United States Dollar
V max Maximum Voltage

7
 V OC Open Circuit Voltage

WP Power Output

1.1.2. Pre design and Technical Consideration

This section presents a preliminary design phase for a hybrid PV and

diesel generator power system. It is based on correlations for annual
collectible solar radiation of PV arrays sizing and selecting
appropriate diesel generator. In addition, this section defines the
required equipments, cost analysis and performance trade-offs of
system pre-design. Detailed design should be different based on site
location, load demand, and use of various facilities, and so on. In
order to have optimum solution, two sets of solutions are considered
for energy demand including losses and elements efficiencies. The
operating hours scenario for PV Includes battery bank backup for 19
hours with total average estimated demand of 45kWh/day and DGs 5
hours operating from 18:00 PM to 22:00 PM, with 25.2kWh/day total
average demand. The proposed hybrid system can consist the wind
power likewise PV. Guideline can apply to the real electrification
project like medium scale size applications that required detailed
design with on-site compatibility.

1.1.3. Load Demand

Accurate electric load forecasting plays an essential role for electric

power system planning and design. The load demand estimation has
been for hypothetical individual community with considering sphere
demand for variations of load and public services areas
electrification. The proposed load demand is forecasted accordance
to the desired household priority into two types’ small/medium and
large households, to supply 24 hours electricity. For a medium size

8
village, the 24 hours load estimation is typically a central focus of
decision on capital investment, which are the primary determinant of
cost for power supply sizing and operation (Appendix A, Table 4) [9-
10]. Mainly, the residential load demand in such areas are mostly
steeped of the time factor (Figure 4). Therefore, the estimation is
carried out with considering of time scale factor. The total demand is
calculated for the sum of all appliances nominal power, but in real
supplied is not practical and should distinct the non-controllable
appliances. In order to propose a hybrid system, the load demand
factors application leads to the total demand adequate estimation.
The non-controllable appliances include all the domestic appliances
which take action of on/off, such as TV, lights [11].
Total
Total Energy Energy
Average
Average Demands Demands in Numbers
Energy Type of
Power in Fall and Spring and of
Demand Consumers
Demand Winter Summer Consumer
(kWh/day
(kW) (kWh/day) (kWh/day)
)
Small/
1.293 31.032 1.460 1.988 18 Medium
House
1.627 39.048 2.390 4.118 12 Large House
Public
0.200 4.800 2.400 2.400 2
Services
3.120 74.88 Total
Table 1 Load Demand Estimation with Distinguish of Seasons

Apparently, the power Pn on the fluorescent lamps does not include

the power dissipated in the ballast. The current is given by [12]:

Pballast + P n
(1) I a=
U cosφ

9
Where U is the voltage applied to the lamp. Moreover, according
Schneider general rules of electrical installation design, if no power-
loss value is indicated for the ballast, a figure of 25% of Pn may be
used. According Figure A6 [12], single tube fixture equipped with
power factor correction capacitor as Table 3, are proposed. More
details are given in [12].
Arrangement
Current (A) at 230 V
of lamps
Tube Tube
Magnetic ballast
Power length
Without PF With PF Electronic
(W) (cm)
correction correction ballast
Single tube
capacitor capacitor
18 0.20 0.14 0.10 60
36 0.30 0.23 0.18 120
Table 2 Proposed Fluorescent Lamps Specification

The refrigerator requires the most electricity. It will only be realistic

to have a year-round solar supply if the refrigerator is switched off in
the winter; otherwise, the winter consumption would more than
double the size of the solar system [13]. Therefore, in winter the fan
and refrigerator are supposed to be switched off. This condition
necessitates the seasonal analysis to consider the load demand into
two scenarios; spring-summer load demands, and fall-winter load
demands, separately (Table 2).

10
 8
7
6 Spring and Summer

5 Fall and Winter

4
kWh

3
2
1
0
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00

Figure 4 24 Hours Load Profile

1.1.4. Available Electricity Sources Estimation

This enormous amount of solar energy capacity makes manifest for

decision-making of generation source selection. On the other hand,
for the provision of 24 hours electricity, there has been reported on
selection of DGs. In view of the economic and environmental
aspects, the DGs operation hours are scheduled daily from 18:00 PM
to 22:00 PM. The operation hours of generator and PV system
production are correlative (Table 5). In the meanwhile, when sunlight
is unavailable, the load demand is met by the backup system (Battery
bank) at daytime. The capacity of the battery bank is sized to meet
the total demand for one day. In fact, battery bank increases the
usability of the PV system, without the battery bank, the system
could be unable to meet the load demands outside the sunny days.

% Share
kWh (Average)
PV DGs
70.2 64 36
Table 3 Share of PV and DGs in the Hybrid Power System

11
1.1.5. System Explanation

A hybrid PV/DGs system is investigated to supply a community at

the medium level (consists 30 small/medium and large household
customers). The system consists PV array, battery bank,
converter/inverter, DGs, distribution and control units, metering
system and other accessories. Technical specification of the system is
given in short in Appendix, Table 5 [14-15].

1.1.6. Equipments Sizing and Selecting

The equipments sizing and selection are denoted in Appendix, Table

5; that calculates after comprehensive analysis and perceive of
planning criteria [16-19]. The detail of obtained contents of
Appendix, Table 6 is explained in the coming sections. From the
technical point of view, installation and implementation stages
encompass these activities: Site preparation, support structure,
foundations, wiring, grounding, and fault detection and protection
equipments and etc., which the main elements of the system are
considered as following:

1.1.2.6. PV Array
The solar radiation energy depends on each time on the weakest
month. To calculate the radiation, it is necessary to taking into
account the location, inclination and temperature. The location
(34°31'13.1"N 69°10'47.7"E) is supposed as benchmark that is the
same level with less variation throughout the country to estimate the
average solar radiation. It is noteworthy that the HOMER Software
[20] is employed for obtaining the average solar radiation for
proposed point. The result shows 5.43kWh/m2/day scaled annual

12
 average value of equivalent sun hours, Figure 5 Data retrieved and
updated from HOMER Energy website on February 9, 2014.
Global Horizontal Radiation
8 1.0

0.8
6
Daily Radiation (kWh/m²/d)

Clearness Index
0.6

0.4

2
0.2

0 0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Daily Radiation Clearness Index

Figure 5 Solar Radiation Data for the Proposed Location

The power rating of thePV array is determined based on the load dem
and. In order to simplify in presentation, the conceptual results are
briefly presented after a series calculations based on the need in each
section. More details and formulas are given in [16-19].

Total ED
(2) Minimum W p =
ESH

Minimum W p
(3) Number of Panels(Modules)=
PV ( W P )
Parallel configuration:

(4) I max=I SC × Number of Panels

Series configuration:

13
 (5) V max =V OC × Number of Panels
Efficiency:

(6) PV System Overall Efficiency=Module Efficiency +BOS ( Total efficien

Simple structure design is sufficient to achieve the necessary low
structure cost. The PV system site preparation, structure, and
foundation are total system cost depend on. With selection of the first
option for low-cost equipment the site preparation, structure and
foundation cost slightly increase.

1.1.2.7. Battery Bank

Storage devices such as batteries play an important role in reducing
energy cost, preventing electricity shortage, and offsetting immense
load peaks. In addition, storage devices in the system improve
efficiency of renewable energy resource utilities and the flexibility of
TOU electricity prices [21]. Notwithstanding from the economic
point of view, increase in energy cost due to the battery storage
system high investment and short lifetime has caused concern.

Total ED
(7) Minimum C b= × DA
DoD ×Operational Voltage of the System

Operational Voltage of the System

(8) Number of Batteries∈Series=
Battery Nominal Voltage

Minimum C b
(9) Number of Batteries∈¿=
Battery Rated Capacity

(10) Battery Bank=Number of Batteries∈Series × Number of Batteries∈¿

14
According McDowall [22] and [23], the relation between lifetime
and the DoD of the battery is given as a linear function. Where x
represents the DoD.

{
−53333 x+12667 ,0 % < x ≤ 20 %
B
(11) f ( x )= −4000 x +2800 ,20 %< x ≤50 %
−900 x+ 1250 ,50 % < x ≤ 100 %

From this linear equation obtains, if the battery discharge fully each
time, the cycle life is 350. Vice versa, with keeping the DoD to 20%,
the cycle life of the battery will reach 2000. In this study, the DoD is
supposed 60%.

14000

12000

10000
Cycle Lifetiem

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

DoD (%)

Figure 6 Linear Relation between Battery Cycle Lifetime and DoD

The inclusion of the energy storage could make the power supply
system more reliable and more efficient [24].

15
1.1.2.8. Converter
From various configuration of hybrid systems with different type and
usage of converters, the central converter is preferred in this case.
The rest elements in the system has played their own important role
in the system. Controller ensures the smoothing functioning of the
battery, and charge controller can increase the lifetime of the battery
manifold.

1.1.2.9. DGs
At the first step in sizing and selecting the diesel generator is to
consider the project required parameters, namely; choosing
maximum allowable step voltage dip and frequency under high peak
loads operation, minimum generator light load (operating generator
under light load can lead to engine damage, reducing reliability) at
least 30% of rated load [25], duty cycle, balanced single load
distributed, frequency and voltage, which are calculated for this study
and detailed in Appendix, Table 5. In general, there are no
considerable specific loads such motor loads, and low and high-
inertia loads. Despite all, the battery charger loads are a non-linear
load, this factor could be negligible because the battery charger loads
in this study is supposed slightly used. Obviously, after years of
utilization of the hybrid generation system and its component, theirs
efficiency and features steadily decrease and need to corrective
maintenance or replacement. Allocation of some budget for
amortization purpose is imperative.

1.1.2.10. System Accessories

In order to control the customers’ electricity consumption; the digital
controller using suggests keeping the power consumption below a
certain limit, especially during peak. While, there is no immense
peak to offset such peaks from air conditioning load and so on. Other
system accessories are mentioned in Appendix, Table 5.

16
1.1.7. Entire Hybrid System Efficiency

Efficiency study is known as a key factor in power system planning

and design. For this case, the 20% spare load demand is taken into
account to compensate the entire system loss. This percentage pursue
to increase the system overall performance at satisfaction level.

1.1.8. System Layout

Reference to the design criteria, the system with the high saving to
investment ration should be chosen for detailed design. However,
there is no comparable competitor from resource accessibility point
of view. Therefore, the present hybrid system is considered as
feasible and economical system. The System layout phase identifies
the hybrid system requirement that will impose certain arrangement
of the equipments (Appendix, Figure 8).

1.1.9. Economic Analysis

Economic feasibility study of the electrification project becomes the

foundation of the planning process. A feasibility study of the hybrid
system is performed to show it is deemed economically feasible and
technically applicable. The electricity supply industry is highly
capital intensive. It is probably more capital intensive than any other
sector, particularly in the developing countries [26]. The investment
cycle for this project is presumed into two phases: the initial
investment (pre-investment) and operational investment.
Determining the cost effective hybrid power system feasibility in
view of technical, economical, cultural and environmental impact
assessment of residential system is focused in this section. For the
system cost analysis is tried to pursue the BEP cost method. The
efficiency of the entire hybrid system is also deliberated cost

17
effectively in estimating total costs. Appendix, Table 4 shows the
total cost of the system in detail.

1.1.2.11. Life Cycle Cost and Payback Analysis

The lifetime of the system is anticipated10 years to suffer the most
rural and remote areas under this condition. A real interest rate of 5%
per annum is assumed for the system analysis. The estimated price is
included the net price of material cost, fixing (installation and
configuration), waste, labor and applicable discounts. Pay-back
period indicates [27], in how many years, the cumulative revenue
will be equal the initial investment including overall expenditure.

PWV
A=
(12) ( 1+i )n−1
n
i ( 1+i )
The payback cost for total capital cost of the system is taken into
consideration into two phases for the initial capital cost, and
operation and maintenance cost, with the same interest rate of 5%.
For the first four years, the payout cost is 7679.18 USD/year,
whereas, for next six years the payback amount is 7240.79 USD/year.

1.1.2.12. Present Value and Worth Concept Analysis

In order to determine whether a hybrid power system is economical,
we need deal with NPV analysis [26]. The understanding from worth
in this study is the initially invested capital with interest to have a
particular amount for the future. The NPV analysis is carried out for
understanding the proximity of the assumptions to the real system,
which directly related to the residences’ lifestyle and country
political stability. The factors such as positive NPV, least and
efficient initial investment, establishing the political stability through
equality, and low operation cost of the system are taken into account.

18
 n
( B n−C n )
(13) NPV =∑
0 ( 1+r )n
The system life span is proposed 10 years. The discounted cash flow
calculations with 5% interest is supposed for expected 10 years. For
cost reduction, two aspects of the hybrid system features were
supposed; selection of low-cost equipments, and vice versa more
efficient equipments. In view of the current situation, there is
preferred the first option in the case study. The total amount of
investments for the expected year of the project is considered into
two phases that are including project initial capital cost 27230 USD
for the first four years and operational cost 36752 USD for the rest
six years. So total life cycle cost will amount to 63982 USD. The 5%
interest can recompense the capital expenditure and depreciation of
the entire system by lapse of time and probable unexpected failure.
The hybrid system treated in this method offers a cost-effective
solution. Therefore, in this study, 27230 USD initial investment is
proposed to electrify a medium size community that the cost is
estimated 20.72 USD/monthly (0.2775 USD/kWh) for each
household for a 10 year life span.

1.5. Solar Water Heater

Using the sun’s energy to heat water is not a new idea. More than one
hundred years ago, black painted water tanks were used as simple
solar water heaters in a number of countries. Solar water heating
technology has greatly improved during the past century. These
technologies are in use in countries such as China, India, Germany,
Japan, Australia and Greece [8]. In addition to the energy cost
savings on water heating, there are several other benefits derived
from using the sun’s energy to heat water. Most solar water heaters
come with an additional water tank, which feeds the conventional hot
water tank. Users benefit from the larger hot water storage capacity

19
and the reduced likelihood of running out of hot water. Some solar
water heaters do not require electricity to operate. For these systems,
hot water supply is secure from power outages, as long as there is
sufficient sunlight to operate the system. Solar water heating systems
can also be used to directly heat swimming pool water, with the
added benefit of extending the swimming season for outdoor pool
applications [8]. Solar water heating systems use solar collectors and
a liquid handling unit to transfer heat to the load, generally via a
storage tank [8].

 Collection: Solar radiation is captured by a solar collector;

 Transfer: Circulating fluids transfer this energy to a storage

tank; circulation can be natural (thermosiphon systems) or
forced, using a circulator (low-head pump); and

 Storage: Hot water is stored until it is needed at a later time

in a mechanical room, or on the roof in the case of a
thermosiphon system.

Figure 7 System Schematic for Typical Solar Domestic Water Heater.

20
1.6. Appendix

Table 4, 24 hours energy demand forecasting.

Nominal Time Total

Load No. of
No Appliance Power of Energy
Factor Appliance
(W) Use (Wh/day)
Small/Medium House
1 Light 18 1.25 2 4 180
2 Fan 88 1 1 6 528
3 Radio 15 1 1 8 120
4 TV 70 1 1 8 560
Miscellaneous
5 25 1 1 24 600
Load
Large House
1 Light 18 1.25 3 4 270
2 Fan 88 1 1 6 528
3 Radio 15 1 1 8 120
4 TV 70 1 1 8 560
5 Computer 120 1 1 6 720
6 Refrigerator 1200 1 1 - 1200
Miscellaneous
7 30 1 1 24 720
Load
Public Services
Public
1 200 1 2 12 4800
Services
Table 4 24 Hours Energy Demand Forecasting

Table 5, specification of the system nominal and key elements.

Description Value and Unit
DGs
AC bus voltage 240 V
Frequency 50 Hz
Phase configuration Single Phase (Distribution
Side)
Generator (nominal output 7.5 kW
power)

21
 PV Module
Maximum power 300 W
V MMP 39.7 V
I MMP 7.55 A
V OC 48.9 V
I SC 8.24 A
Efficiency 13.6 %
PV Array
DC bus voltage 24 V
Number of modules 28 Unit
PV array (power rating) 8.4 kW
Mounting technique Standoff
Battery Bank
Battery capacity 200 Ah
DoD 60 %
Number of battery 32 Unit
Battery bank capacity 6400 Ah
Table 5 Specification of the System Nominal and Key Elements

Figure 8, customary bock and interface diagram of a hybrid PV/DGs

system.

PV Array DP Load

Charge ATS DGs

Controller

DC
Battery
AC
Battery Bank Charger

BOS

Figure 8 Customary Bock and Interface Diagram

22
Table 6, cost estimation.

Unit
Item Quantity Unit Total
Price

PV panel (including charge

controllers, and other accessories.
But tracking system and control 28 Set 420 11760
system (maximum power point
tracker) are not included )

Mounting hardware 28 Unit 50 1400

Wiring and installation 1 Set 300 300
Battery 32 Set 215 6880
Central inverter 1 Set 1200 1200
Meter 32 Unit 45 1440
Diesel generator set 1 Set 2200 2200
Diesel generator accessories 1 Set 300 300
ATS 1 Set 150 150
DP, Conductor and meter box,
fuses and electricity consumption 1 Set 1600 1600
controller, fuel storage and etc.
Spare parts and maintenance 10 Year 450 4500
Electrician training 20 Hour 75 1500
Fuel 14600 Litter 1.12 16352
Technical staff 120 Month 120 14400
Initial Capital Cost 27230
Operating Cost for 10 Years 36752
Total Project Cost 63982
All prices are given in USD.
Table 6 Cost Estimation

23
Questions

1. Briefly, introduce the solar energy technologies? and define the

most suitable renewable energy source from accessibility and
application point view in architecture and urban planning?

2. How solar power provides the best solution to the electricity

energy problem at hand? in which the solar power is best suited
to applications.

3. Illustrate the photovoltaic project deployment phases? and which

phase it the most sophisticated and important phase?

4. What is the most effective environmental factors on solar

electricity production? and as an architect how you can reduce
the constraints effectiveness? give supportive real-life examples.

5. Explain irradiation mapping and surface to volume ratio?

6. Explain the a scenario in which the hybrid system (renewable

and nonrenewable sources) is economically feasible and
technically viable?

7. Why sometimes nonrenewal be energy resources are cost-

effective, give examples?

8. Explain an off-grid photovoltaic preliminary design steps and

components?

9. What is the relation between project life-cycle and payback

period?

10. What is interest percentage in net present value analysis method?

11. How work a solar water heater? Explain collection, transfer and
storage process in a solar water heater?

24
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