Instrumentation and Control

MN / RN 467 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Objectives

The course aims at providing knowledge on instrumentation and measurement science, and control
system applications. It is designed to help students;

i. understand instrumentation and measurement systems,

ii. understand analogue, digital and hybrid signals;

iii. know the theory and application of sensors and transducers,

iv. have good knowledge of temperature, pressure, flow and level measurements and their
control systems.

Content

Instrumentation and measurement. Signal diagram, analogue and digital signals. Sensors and
transducers; the Wheatstone bridge. Strain measurement; the strain gauge. Temperature
measurement. Pressure measurement. Level measurement. Flow measurement.

Further Reading Materials

Bolton W. (2004) “Instrumentation and Control Systems”, Elsevier Science & Technology
Books Publishers, 339 pp. , ISBN: 0750664320

Johnson, C. D. (2007), Process Control and Instrumentation Technology, Prentice Hall of India,
8th edition, 704pp. ISBN-13: 978-8120330290.

Kirk, W. F. (2014), Instrumentation and Process Control, American Technical Publishers,6th

edition, 690 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0826934420.

Patranabis, D. (2011), Instrumentation and Control, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd., India, 392 pp.

US Department of Energy (2010), DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Instrumentation and Control,

Volumes 1&2, Knowledge Publications, 300 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1603220095.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 1

Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 1

MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS

1. 1 Introduction
A system can be defined as an arrangement of parts within
some boundary which work together to provide some form
of output from a specified input or inputs as shown in Fig.
1.1.
Characteristics of a system include:
a. The boundary divides the system from the
environment.
b. System interacts with the environment by means of;
i. Signals crossing the boundary from the Fig. 1.1
environment to the system, i.e. inputs,
ii. Signals crossing the boundary from the system to the environment, i.e. outputs.

Interconnected system is one or more systems connected together to achieve specific goal (Fig.
1.2). Connection is done by arrows representing information flow in a specific direction.

Fig. 1.2 Interconnected System

1.2 Instrumentation Systems

Instrumentation system is the interconnection of devices to measure physical quantities.

Measurements instrumentation system gives numerical value. It has input of true value of variable
being measured with output as the measured value.

Fig. 1.3 Instrumentation systems: (a) pressure, (b) speed, (c) flow rate

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 2

Instrumentation and Control

1.2.1 Constituent Elements of an Instrumentation System

Instrumentation system consists of several active elements which are used to carry out particular
functions. These include:

1. Sensors
Element of the system which is effectively in contact with the
process for which a variable is being measured. It gives an output
which depends on the value of the variable and which can be
used by the rest of the measurement system to give a value to it.

Eg. Automatic Flight Control System

Sensors: speed control, height, position, doors,
obstacle, fuel, maneuvering and many more.
Signal processor: Computer
Display: Observed in engines, flaps, rudders etc.

Sensors are classified based on their field of A good sensor obeys the following rules:
application such as acoustic, automotive, • sensitive to the measured property
• insensitive to any other property
electrical and environmental. Some types of
• does not influence measured property.
sensors are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Types of Sensors

Ionizing radiation, subatomic Acoustic, sound, vibration Thermal, heat, temperature
particles
Geophone Bolometer
Cloud chamber Hydrophone Bimetallic strip
Geiger counter Microphone Calorimeter
Geiger-Muller tube Seismometer Exhaust gas temperature gauge
Ionisation chamber Sound locator Flame detection
Neutron detection Gardon gauge
Proportional counter Proximity, presence Golay cell
Scintillation counter Heat flux sensor
Semiconductor detector Alarm sensor Infrared thermometer
Thermoluminescent dosimeter Doppler radar Microbolometer
Motion detector Microwave radiometer
Flow, fluid velocity Occupancy sensor Net radiometer
Proximity sensor Quartz thermometer
Air flow meter Passive infrared sensor Resistance thermometer
Anemometer Reed switch Special sensor microwave/imager
Flow sensor Stud finder Temperature gauge
Gas meter Triangulation sensor Thermistor
Mass flow sensor Touch switch Thermocouple
Water meter Wired glove Thermometer
Pyrometer

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 3

Instrumentation and Control

Table 1.1 Types of Sensors _Cont’d

Optical, light, imaging, photon Chemical sensors Position, angle, displacement,
distance, speed, acceleration
Charge-coupled device Breathalyzer
CMOS sensor Carbon dioxide sensor Auxanometer
Colorimeter Carbon monoxide detector Capacitive displacement sensor
Contact image sensor Catalytic bead sensor Capacitive sensing
Electro-optical sensor Chemical field-effect transistor Flex sensor
Flame detector Chemiresistor Free fall sensor
Infra-red sensor Electrochemical gas sensor Gravimeter
Kinetic inductance detector Electronic nose Gyroscopic sensor
LED as light sensor Fluorescent chloride sensors Impact sensor
Nichols radiometer Holographic sensor Inclinometer
Fiber optic sensors Hydrocarbon dew point analyzer Laser rangefinder
Optical position sensor Hydrogen sensor Laser surface velocimeter
Thermopile laser sensors Hydrogen sulfide sensor LIDAR
Photodetector Infrared point sensor Linear encoder
Photodiode Ion-selective electrode Liquid capacitive inclinometers
Photomultiplier tubes Nondispersive infrared sensor Odometer
Phototransistor Microwave chemistry sensor Photoelectric sensor
Photoelectric sensor Nitrogen oxide sensor Piezoelectric accelerometer
Photoionization detector Olfactometer Position sensor
Photomultiplier Optode Position sensitive device
Photoresistor Oxygen sensor Angular rate sensor
Photoswitch Ozone monitor Rotary encoder
Phototube Pellistor Selsyn
Scintillometer pH glass electrode Shock detector
Shack-Hartmann Potentiometric sensor Shock data logger
Single-photon avalanche diode Redox electrode Tilt sensor
Transition edge sensor Smoke detector Tachometer
Visible light photon counter Zinc oxide nanorod sensor Ultrasonic thickness gauge
Wavefront sensor Ultra-wideband radar
Variable reluctance sensor
Velocity receiver

Pressure sensors Force, density, level sensors Electric current, electric

potential, magnetic, radio
Barograph Bhangmeter
Barometer Hydrometer Current sensor
Boost gauge Force gauge and Force Sensor Daly detector
Bourdon gauge Level sensor Electroscope
Hot filament ionization gauge Load cell Electron multiplier
Ionization gauge Magnetic level gauge Faraday cup
McLeod gauge Nuclear density gauge Galvanometer
Oscillating U-tube Piezocapacitive pressure sensor Hall effect sensor
Permanent Downhole Gauge Piezoelectric sensor Hall probe
Piezometer Strain gauge Magnetic anomaly detector
Pirani gauge Torque sensor Magnetometer
Pressure sensor Viscometer Magnetoresistance
Pressure gauge MEMS magnetic field sensor
Tactile sensor Metal detector
Time pressure gauge Planar Hall sensor
Radio direction finder
Voltage detector

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 4

Instrumentation and Control

Table 1.1 Types of Sensors _Cont’d

Environment, weather, Others Automotive Sensors
moisture, humidity sensors
Actigraphy Air flow meter
Actinometer Air pollution sensor Air–fuel ratio meter
Air pollution sensor Analog image processing AFR sensor
Bedwetting alarm Atomic force microscopy Blind spot monitor
Ceilometer Catadioptric sensor Crankshaft position sensor
Dew warning Chemoreceptor Hall effect sensor
Electrochemical gas sensor Compressive sensing Wheel speed sensor
Fish counter Cryogenic particle detectors Airbag sensors
Frequency domain sensor Dew warning Brake fluid pressure sensor
Gas detector Diffusion tensor imaging Camshaft position sensor
Hook gauge evaporimeter Digital holography Crankshaft position sensor
Humistor Electronic tongue Exhaust gas temperature sensor
Hygrometer Fine Guidance Sensor Fuel level sensor
Leaf sensor Flat panel detector Fuel pressure sensor
Lysimeter Glass break detector Knock sensor
Pyranometer Heartbeat sensor [Light sensor]
Pyrgeometer Hyperspectral sensors MAP sensor
Psychrometer Laser beam profiler Mass airflow sensor
Rain gauge LORROS Oil level sensor
Rain sensor Millimeter wave scanner Oil pressure sensor
Seismometers Magnetic resonance imaging Oxygen sensor
SNOTEL Moire deflectometry Parking sensor
Snow gauge Molecular sensor Radar sensor
Soil moisture sensor Nanosensor Speed sensor
Stream gauge Nano-tetherball Sensor Throttle position sensor
Tide gauge Omnidirectional camera Tire pressure sensor
Organoleptic sensors Torque sensor
Speed sensors Optical coherence tomography Turbine speed sensor
Phase unwrapping techniques Variable reluctance sensor
Wheel speed sensors Polygraph Truth Detection Vehicle speed sensor
Speedometers Positron emission tomography Water-in-fuel sensor
Pitometer logs Push broom scanner Wheel speed sensor
Pitot tubes Quantization (signal processing)
Airspeed indicators Range imaging Navigation instruments
Piezo sensors Scanning SQUID microscope
LIDAR SPECT Air speed indicator
Ground speed radar Smartdust Altimeter
Doppler radar Attitude indicator
ANPR Depth gauge
Fluxgate compass
Gyroscope
Inertial navigation system
Inertial reference unit
Magnetic compass
MHD sensor
Ring laser gyroscope
Turn coordinator
Variometer
Vibrating structure gyroscope
Yaw rate sensor

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 5

Instrumentation and Control

2. Signal processor
Element that takes output from sensor and converts it into suitable form for display or onward
transmission in some control system. Eg. amplifier to increase e.m.f. of thermocouple.

Signal conditioner: Used to convert the output of a sensor into a suitable form for further
processing. Thus, for resistance thermometer there might be a signal conditioner, a Wheatstone
bridge, which transforms the resistance change into a voltage change, then an amplifier to increase
the voltage for display.

3. Data presentation
Measured value displayed by a pointer moving across the scale of a meter (analogue) or perhaps
on a Visual Display Unit (VDU); usually digital. Constituent elements of a measuring system is
shown below. A number of data presentation types are given in Table 1.2.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 6

Instrumentation and Control

Table 1.2 Display Types

Display types Types Applications Underlying Technologies
Segment displays • Seven-segment display mostly used in • Incandescent filaments
• show only digits or • Fourteen-segment digital watches • Vacuum fluorescent display
alphanumeric display and pocket • Cold cathode gas discharge
characters • Sixteen-segment display calculators • Light-emitting diode (LED)
• segments are • HD44780 LCD • Liquid crystal display (LCD)
usually single controller a widely
LEDs or liquid accepted protocol for
crystals. LCDs.

Full-area 2- • Television • Cathode ray tube display (CRT)

dimensional displays set • LED
(video displays) • Computer • Electroluminescent display (ELD)
monitors • Electronic paper, E Ink
• Head- • Plasma display panel (PDP)
mounted • Liquid crystal display (LCD)
display • High-Performance Addressing
• Broadcast display (HPA)
reference • Thin-film transistor display (TFT)
monitor • Organic light-emitting diode
• Medical display (OLED)
monitors • Digital Light Processing display
(DLP)
• Surface-conduction electron-emitter
display (SED) (experimental)
• Field emission display (FED)
(experimental)
• Laser TV (forthcoming)
• Carbon nanotubes (experimental)
• Quantum dot display
(experimental)
• Interferometric modulator display
(IMOD)
• Digital microshutter display (DMS)
Three-dimensional • Swept-volume display • Broadcasting Stereo displays
displays • Varifocal mirror display • Medical Side-by-side images
• Emissive volume display imaging Stereoscope/stereographic card
• Laser display • Defense and Transparency viewers
• Holographic display security Head-mounted displays
• Integral imaging • 3D viewing Head-mounted projection
Anaglyph
• Compressive light field
Polarization systems
displays
Eclipse method
Interference filter technology
Autostereoscopy
Mechanical types • Ticker tape Rackmount display
• Split-flap display Screens and board displays
• Flip-disc display Cartographic displays
• Rollsign Actuator displays
• Tactile electronic display
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_device)

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 7

Instrumentation and Control

1.2.2 Transducers
✓ Converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another form of energy.
✓ Can be defined as a device which converts a non- electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity. Thus, sensors can be transducers.
✓ Contain two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing element and
transduction element. Thus, a transducer performs two functions:
• Detects or senses the presence, magnitude & changes in physical quantity being measured;
• Provides a proportional electrical output.

1. Transducer classification
• Active/Passive
• Primary/Secondary
• Analog/Digital
• Capacitive Electromagnetic Inductive
• Transducers: non-electrical to electrical / Inverse Transducers (Bidirectional)
• Transducers may be classified according to their: application, method of energy
conversion, nature of the output signal, on the basis of Quantity to be measured and so on.

Table 1.3 Clarification in Transducer Basic Types

Active transducers Passive transducers
• self-generating • Not self-generating
• Draw energy from the system under measurement. • Need external source of power for their operation.
• Usually give very small output • DC power supply or audio frequency generator is
• use of amplifiers thus become essential. used as an external power source.
• IV. Produce equivalent electrical output signal • Eg. Resistance thermometers, thermistors,
• E.g. thermocouples, piezoelectric transducer, differential transformer, photoemission cell.
photovoltaic cell
sensor actuator
• Transducer that receives and responds to a signal or • Device responsible for moving or controlling a
stimulus from a physical system. mechanism or system.
• Produces a signal, which represents information • Operated by a source of energy, which can be
about the system mechanical force, electrical current, hydraulic fluid
pressure, or pneumatic pressure and Converts that
energy into motion.

2. Transducer selection factors

a. Operating Principle: Resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.

b. Sensitivity: Must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.
c. Operating Range: Should maintain the range requirement and have a good resolution.
d. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
e. Cost & availability: Should be cost effective, easily available, reliable & low maintenance.
f. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described
by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 8

Instrumentation and Control

1.3 Performance Terms

Accuracy • Indicator of how close the value given by a measurement system can be to the
true value.
• Summation of all the possible errors that are likely to occur, as well as the
accuracy to which the system or element has been calibrated.
• Often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full-scale deflection
(f.s.d).
• Eg. A system might have an accuracy of ±1% of f.s.d. If the full-scale deflection
is, say, 10 A, then the accuracy is ±0.1 A.

Error • Difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured
• Error = measured value – true value
• Thus if the measured value is 10.1 when the true value is 10.0, the error is +
0.1. If the measured value is 9.9 when the true value is 10.0, the error is – 0.1

Range • Limits between which the input variable can vary.

• Eg. A resistance thermometer sensor might be quoted
as having a range of – 200 to + 800 °C. Range of
variable of an instrument is
sometimes called its span.
• Dead band or dead space is
used if there is a range of input
values with no output.

Precision • Degree of freedom of a measurement system from random errors.

• A high precision instrument gives only a small spread of readings if repeated
readings are taken of the same quantity.
• A low precision system gives a large spread of readings.
• Eg, consider two sets of readings obtained for repeated measurements of the
same quantity by two different instruments:
a) 20.1 mm, 20.2 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.0 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.1 mm, 20.0 mm
b) 19.9 mm, 20.3 mm, 20.0 mm, 20.5 mm, 20.2 mm, 19.8 mm, 20.3 mm
• First set shows smaller spread than second.
• First set → higher degree of precision; Second set → low precision.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 9

Instrumentation and Control

Repeatability • Ability of a measurement system to give the same value for repeated measurements
(precision in of the same value of a variable.
specific • Common cause of lack of repeatability are random fluctuations in the environment,
context) e.g. changes in temperature and humidity.
• Error arising from repeatability is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range
output. Eg, A pressure sensor might be quoted as having a repeatability of ±0.1% of
full range. Thus with a range of 20 kPa this would be an error of ±20 Pa.

Sensitivity • Indicates how much the output of an instrument system or system element
changes when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount, i.e. the ratio:
ouput/input.
• Eg, A spring balance has its deflection measured
for a number of loads and gave the following
results. Determine its sensitivity.
• Load in kg = 0 1 2 3 4
Deflection in mm = 0 10 20 30 40
• Graph of output against input gives a slope of 10
mm/kg and so this is the sensitivity.

Stability • Ability of a system to give the same output when used to measure a constant
input over a period of time.
• Drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time.
• The drift may be expressed as a percentage of the full range output.
• Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero input.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 10

Instrumentation and Control

1.4 Standards

Standards don't just make life easier they make it safer…and they enhance companies' profitability.
For instance, builders save money because construction materials are available in standard sizes.
At the same time, electrical codes that builders must follow save lives.

1.4.1 Key Features, Advantages and Benefits of Standards

Standards help realize a direct return on investment by:

i. lowering installation and startup costs;
ii. reducing need to maintain large inventories;
iii. enabling interchangeability of components;
iv. improving design with less "custom" effort; and
v. increasing safety.

Use of standards in industry include the following:

i. improves communication;
ii. provides practical application of expert knowledge; and
iii. represents years of experience and avoids necessity of starting each project from ground.

Standards helps to achieve operational excellence by:

i. improving performance;
ii. lowering maintenance costs;
iii. reducing downtime;
iv. enhancing operability; and
v. saving money.

1.4.2 Standard Units (SI Units)

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI, from the French Système International d’unités)
is the metric system used in science, industry, and medicine. Also available is “imperial” system
(gallons, feet, miles, and pounds). Prefixes redefine the measurement as either a multiple or a
fraction of the basic unit. Some accepted prefixes are given below.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 11

Instrumentation and Control

1.4.3 Other Standards

Ghana Standards Authority (GSA)

The Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) is the National Statutory body responsible for the National
Quality Infrastructure embracing Standardization, Metrology, and Conformity Assessment. The
GSA offers a wide variety of services and activities categorized as follows (GSA, 2019):
− Sale of Standards (National and International)
− Standards Development and Adoption
− Calibration, verification and inspection of weighing and measuring devices.
− Inspection of Products
− Product Certification
− System Certification
− Laboratory Testing

In Ghana, a number of Legislative Instruments and Constitutional Instruments present standards

on various issues regarding the constitution, elections (Electoral Commission of Ghana), public
laws (Millennium Development Authority – Act 702, West African Examinations Council – Act
2006, Whistleblower – Act 2006, Act 720), criminal law (Domestic Violence Act 2007, Act 732),
civil laws (Lands Commission – Act 1994), commercial laws (Ghana Free Zones Board – Act
1995 - ACT 504, Ghana Standards Board), company laws, labour laws (Fair Wages and Salaries
Commission – Act 2007, Act 737 and Labour – Act 2003), health law (National Health Insurance
Authority – Act 650 and Food and Drugs Authority – Act 1992), mining laws (Minerals
Commission – Act 1993), tax laws (Internal Revenue Authority – Act 2000), banking laws
(Internal Audit Agency – Act 2003), communications and media laws (National Communications
Authority – Act 2008, Act 769), transport and maritime laws (Driver and Vehicle Licensing
Authority, Ghana Civil Aviation Authority, Ghana Maritime Authority, Ghana Port and Harbour
Authority), environmental laws (Environmental Protection Agency – Act 1994 - Act 490),
intellectual property (Copyright – Act 2005, Act 690) and energy laws (Energy Commission Act,
1997 - Act 541, Ghana National Petroleum Corporation – Act 1983).

A list of other standards worthy of mention include the following:

ISA: International Society of Automation
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
SAMA: Scientific Apparatus Makers Association
BIPM: International Bureau of Weights and Measures (French: Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures)
IEC: International Electrochemical Commission
EIA: Electrical Industries Association
ISO: International Standards Organization
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 12

Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 2

ERRORS
2. 1 Measurement Errors

Instrumentation • inherent feature of an instrument and can arise in the manufacture of the
errors instrument.
• causes include: i) tolerances on the dimensions of mechanical components
ii) values of electrical components used in the construction of the
instrument. iii) accuracy with which the instrument has been calibrated
iv) readings being taken under different conditions to which the
instrument was calibrated,

Reading errors • arise due to the limited accuracy with which scales can be read. When the
pointer of an analogue instrument falls between
• two scale markings ( uncertainty in reading), reading error might be
quoted as ± 0.5 mm. Eg, 65 ± 0.5 mm.
• For digital displays, no uncertainty in value displayed, but values between
digits are not displayed since reading move in jumps of digits.

Human errors • Include misreading of the position of a pointer on a scale or, where there
are multiple scales,
• For ou-of-phase pointer and scale, reading obtained depends on angle at
which the pointer is viewed against the scale; termed parallax errors.
• Some instruments incorporate a mirror alongside the scale so that the scale
is read when the pointer and its image are superimposed, thus ensuring
that the pointer is being viewed at right angles to the scale.

Insertion errors • In some measurements, insertion of instrument into the position to

measure a quantity can affect the value obtained.

Hysteresis error • Difference in outputs given from the same value

of quantity being measured according to whether
that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing
change.
• Thus, thermometer can measure same level of
temperature of a liquid if it is reached by the
warming up or by cooling down.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 13

Instrumentation and Control

Non- • Error that occurs as a result of assuming a linear

linearity relationship between the input and output over the
error working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted
against input is assumed to give a straight line.
• Few systems or elements, however, have a truly
linear relationship and thus errors occur as a result
of the assumption of linearity. Linearity error
expressed as a percentage error of full range or full scale output.

2. 2 Random Errors

All errors, whatever their source, can be described as random or systematic.

Random errors can vary in a random manner between successive readings of the same quantity.
These may be due to personal errors by the person making the measurements or perhaps due to
random electronic fluctuations (termed noise) in the instruments or circuits used, or perhaps
varying frictional effects.
Systematic errors are errors which do not vary from one reading to another. These may be due to
some defect in the instrument such as a wrongly set zero so that it always gives a high or low
reading, or perhaps incorrect calibration, or perhaps an instrument is temperature dependent
and the measurement is made under conditions which differ from those for which it was
calibrated, or there is an insertion error.

Random errors can be minimised by taking a number of readings and obtaining a mean value;
systematic errors require different instrument or measurement technique to establish them.

2. 3 Combinations of Errors

• Finding value of some quantity might require several measurements taken in an equation.
• Eg, Determination of density ρ of a solid: mass m of the body; volume V; and density m/V.
• Mass and volume each have errors associated with them.
• How then do we determine the consequential error in the density?

2.3.1 Errors when Adding Quantities

When we add two measured quantities the worst possible error in the calculated quantity is the
sum of the errors in the measured quantities.
If measured quantity A has error ± ∆A and quantity B an error
± ∆B; then worst possible error in Z (i.e. if the quantities are at
the extremes of their error bands and the two errors ∆Z are both
positive or both negative) is:
Subtracting one equation from the other gives worst possible error as:

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 14

Instrumentation and Control

2.3.2 Errors when Subtracting Quantities

When we subtract two measured quantities the worst possible error in the calculated quantity is
the sum of the errors in the measured quantities.
With calculated quantity Z being difference between two measured quantities, i.e. 𝑍 = 𝐴– 𝐵, then,
worst possible error is given by;
𝑍 + ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 + ∆A) − (B + ∆B)
𝑍 − ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 − ∆A) − (B − ∆B)
and so, subtracting the two equations gives the worst possible error as:

2.3.3 Errors when Multiplying Quantities

The percentage error in the product of two measurements is equal to the sum of the percentage
errors in each of the measured quantities.
If we have the calculated quantity Z as the product of two measured quantities A and B, i.e. Z =
AB, then worst error in Z is:
Errors in A and B are small in comparison with the values of A and B so we can neglect the
quantity ∆A∆B as being insignificant. Then:

Dividing through by Z gives:

2.3.4 Errors when Dividing Quantities

The percentage error in the result of the division of two measurements is equal to the sum of the
percentage errors in each of the measured quantities.
If the calculated quantity is obtained by dividing one measured quantity by another, i.e. Z = A/B,
then the worst possible error is given by:

Using binomial series, the above is written as;

Neglecting products of ∆A and ∆B and writing A/B as Z, gives:

Hence;

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 15

Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 3

SIGNALS AND SIGNAL CONDITIONERS

3. 1 Process Flow Signals

Fig. 3.1 Process Flow Line Signals and Symbols

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 16

Instrumentation and Control

a)

b)
Fig. 3.2 Process Flow Indicator and Control Symbols

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 17

Instrumentation and Control

3.2 Understanding P&IDs Drawings

A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) is defined as ‘A diagram which shows the
interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process’. In the
process industry, a standard set of symbols is used to prepare drawings of processes. The
instrument symbols used in these drawings are generally based on International Society of
Automation (ISA) Standard S5.1.

Fig. 3.3 Typical P&ID

Fig. 3.3 consists of the following:
(a) Sensors/Measuring or Sensing elements:
TE 03 is a field mounted thermocouple that senses the change in the outlet temperature of the
process liquid and converts the change in temperature to a millivolt signal. The milivolt

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 18

Instrumentation and Control

signal(electric) then goes to TT 03, a temperature transmitter, which then converts the millivolt
signal to a standard 4-20mA signal for transmission toTIC 03.
LT 01 is a level transmitter which senses and measures changes in the level of the process liquid
in the vessel(exchanger). The level measurement is converted into a standard 4-20mA signal
for transmission to LIC 01. PT 02 is a pressure transmitter that measures the process pressure
in the vessel. This measurement is then converted into a 4-20mA signal for transmission to PIC
02.

(b) Controllers/Controlling Elements:

Also, in the above P&ID are devices we call controllers. They receive the standard signals from
the transmitters/sensing elements (TT 01, PT 02 and (LT 01).
TIC 03 is a control room mounted, Temperature Indicator and Controller. It receives the 4-20mA
signal from TT 03 and compares it to a preset temperature set point and then initiates a control
action by sending a corresponding electric signal to TCV 03 via TY 03.
LIC 01 is a control room mounted Level Indicator and Controller. It receives a 4-20mA from LT
01 and compares it to a preset level set point within the controller. Based on this comparison,
LIC 01 initiates a control action and sends a corresponding signal to the final control element
LCV 01 via LY.
Lastly, PIC 02 is a control room mounted, Pressure Indicator and Controller. It gets a 4-20mA
signal from PT 02, compares it to a preset pressure set point and initiates a control action by
sending a corresponding signal to final control element PCV 02 via PY.

(c) Final Control Elements:

TCV 03, is a field mounted Temperature Control Valve which receives its control signal from TIC
03 (located in the control room) to either open or close to drain condensate in order to control
the temperature of the process liquid.
On TCV 03 is TY 03. TY 03 is an I/P converter which converts the electric signal it receives from
TIC 03 to a pneumatic signal.
Similarly, LCV 01 (a level control valve) and PCV 02 (pressure control valve) get signals from
LIC 01 and PIC 02 to either open or close, thereby controlling level and pressure respectively.
TY 03, LY 01 and PY 02 are called transducers. They convert electrical signals to pneumatic
signals.

Important things to note in the P&ID of Fig. 3.3:

There are three control loops in the P&ID namely temperature control (TE 03-TT 03- TIC 03 –
TCV 03), level control (LT 01-LIC 01-LCV 01) and pressure control (PT 02-PIC 02-PCV 02).
NB: The complexity of the P&ID is not important rather what is important is the individual control
loops that make up the P&ID. Understand the P&ID, you understand the process!

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 19

Instrumentation and Control

3.3 Signal Conditioning Processes and Transducers

Signal conditioning processes include the following:
• Filtering
• Amplifying
• Electrical Isolation
• Excitation
• Linearization
• Cold Junction Compensation
• Attenuation

3. 4 Filtering

3.4.1 Linear Continuous-Time Filters

• Chebyshev filter, has the best approximation to the ideal response of any filter for a
specified order and ripple.
• Butterworth filter, has a maximally flat frequency response.
• Bessel filter, has a maximally flat phase delay.
• Elliptic filter, has the steepest cutoff of any filter for a specified order and ripple.

3.4.2 Frequency Response Filters

Frequency response can be classified into a number of different band forms describing which
frequency bands the filter passes (the passband) and which it rejects (the stopband):

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 20

Instrumentation and Control

• Low-pass filter – low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.
• High-pass filter – high frequencies are passed, low frequencies are attenuated.
• Band-pass filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.
• Band-stop filter or band-reject filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are attenuated.
• Notch filter – rejects just one specific frequency - an extreme band-stop filter.
• Comb filter – has multiple regularly spaced narrow passbands giving the band form the
appearance of a comb.
• All-pass filter – all frequencies are passed, but the phase of the output is modified.
• Cutoff frequency is the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass signals. It is usually
measured at a specific attenuation such as 3 dB.
• Roll-off is the rate at which attenuation increases beyond the cut-off frequency.
• Transition band, the (usually narrow) band of frequencies between a passband and
stopband.
• Ripple is the variation of the filter's insertion loss in the passband.
• The order of a filter is the degree of the approximating polynomial and in passive filters
corresponds to the number of elements required to build it. Increasing order increases roll-
off and brings the filter closer to the ideal response.

3. 5 Amplifiers

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 21

Instrumentation and Control

• Electronic device that can increase power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current).
• Amplification level measured by gain: i.e. ratio of output to input. Power gain > one.
• Can either be a separate piece of equipment or an electrical circuit contained within another
device.

3.5.1 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)

where Av is open loop gain

Virtual shor

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 22

Instrumentation and Control

3.5.2 Op Amps Examples

1. Assuming an ideal op-amp, determine voltage gain of the
circuit.
20𝑘
Soln: 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + = 21
1𝑘

4𝑘+2𝑘 6000
Soln: 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + = 1+ = 31
200 200

2. For the difference amplifier circuit

shown, determine the output voltage at
terminal A.
3𝛺
𝑉𝑖𝑛+ = 25𝑉 ( ) = 9.375 𝑉
5𝛺 + 3𝛺
By virtual short, 𝑉𝑖𝑛− = 9.375 𝑉
Using Ohm’s law,

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 23

Instrumentation and Control

30𝑉−9.375 𝑉
𝐼15 = = 1.375 𝑉; For infinite input impedance, 𝐼𝑖𝑛− = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼15 = 𝐼20
15𝛺
Using Kirchoff’s voltage law, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛− − 20𝐼20 = 9.375 𝑉 − 20𝛺 × 1.375 𝐴 = −18.125 𝑉

3. What is the current, i?

Soln:
The input current in an op amp is so small that
it is assumed to be zero.

4. What is the output voltage, Vo?

Soln: This op amp circuit is a summing amplifier. Since i=0,

5.For the ideal op-amp shown, what should be the value of Rf to obtain a gain of 5?

Since the op amp draws no current, if=i,

3. 6 Electrical Isolation
• Galvanic isolation: Principle of isolating functional sections of electrical systems to
prevent current flow; with no direct conduction path permitted.
• Used where two or more electric circuits must communicate, but their grounds may be at
different potentials.
• An effective method of breaking ground loops by preventing unwanted current from
flowing between two units sharing a ground conductor.

3.6.1 Transformer
Transformers couple by magnetic flux.
Autotransformer does not provide isolation.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 24

Instrumentation and Control

Voltage difference applied between windings without

risk of breakdown (the isolation voltage) is specified in
kilovolts by an industry standard.
𝐸𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠
= = =
𝐸𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝

Isolation Transformer
• Transfer power between two circuits which
must not be connected;
• Protect against electric shock;
• Suppress electrical noise in sensitive devices by blocking transmission of
DC component in signals.
• Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used in power supplies
of sensitive equipment such as computers, medical devices, or laboratory
instruments.

3.6.2 Opto-Isolator
• Opto-isolator, optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical
isolator transmits info by light waves.
• The sender (light source) and receiver (photosensitive
device) are not electrically connected; and typically held
in place within a matrix of transparent, insulating plastic.
Source-Sensor Combinations
1. Near infrared LED – Photodiode LED; Dielectric barrier; phototransistor
Closed optical
2. LED – LASCR (dielectric)
3. Lamp – Photoresistor channel

LED converts electrical input into light

Photosensor detects light and generate electric energy

3.6.3 Capacitor
• Capacitors allow AC to flow, but block DC;
• They couple ac signals between circuits at different direct voltages.
• Depending on conditions, a capacitor may fail and become "short circuited", ending its
electric isolation function, which creates risk to the "now connected circuit" and, possibly,
human danger.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 25

Instrumentation and Control

• Class-X and Class-Y capacitors help to minimize the generation of EMI/RFI and the
negative effects associated with received EMI/RFI. (EMI --- electromagnetic interference
and RFI --- radio-frequency interference; RFI is simply higher-frequency EMI).
• To perform their EMI/RFI filtering tasks, capacitors are directly connected to the AC
power input, i.e., the AC “line” and the AC “neutral”.
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/safety-capacitor-class-x-and-class-y-capacitors/

3.6.4 Hall Effect Sensors

• A hall effect current sensor allows non-contact detection of direct and alternating currents,
using a hall element, a magnet-electric converting element.
• Used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications. Discovered in 1879 by American physicist Edwin H. Hall (1855–1938).
https://www.explainthatstuff.com/hall-effect-sensors.html

The HC Series offers open-loop current sensors that

directly detect magnetic fields generated by the target
current. This type of sensor has a hall element that is fit
inside a gap in the core that surrounds the current bus.
This hall element detects the magnetic field generated by
the target current (I) and converts it into a voltage. Since
the Hall element’s output is low, it is amplified to a
voltage of several volts by a downstream amplifier before
being output. http://www.kohshin-ele.com/en/products/cs_hallsensor.html

HD Series HS Series HP Series

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 26

Instrumentation and Control

HC Series: Simple construction; small and reasonably-priced; Low current consumption

HD Series: High noise resistance realized by digital signal wiring; no A/D conversion on receptor.
HS Series: High accuracy (high linearity and small temperature drift); wide band and high-speed
response; high noise-resistant; low output noise
HP Series: Cost reduction using hall IC; uses temperature compensation circuit for small
temperature drift.

Key elements of closed loop Hall effect sensor

Formulas: Abbreviations
N P x I P = NS x I S NP : turn number of the primary winding
IP : primary current IPN : nominal primary current
V A = e + V S + VM NS : turn number of the secondary winding
IS : output secondary current
VS = RS x IS VA : supply voltage
e : voltage drop across output transistors (and in the protection
VM = RM x IS diodes, if relevant)
VS : voltage drop across secondary winding
VM : measuring voltage RS : resistance of the secondary winding
RM : measuring resistance
Example with ES300C sensor

NP/NS =1/1200
IPN =300 A
RS =33 Ω (at +70 °C)
IS = 0,15 A (at IPN)
e =1 V
i. What load resistance (RM) is required to obtain an 8V measuring signal (VM = 8 V) when the
IP current = 520 A peak?
IS = (NP / NS) x IP = (1 / 2000) x 520 = 0,26 A peak
RM = VM / IS = 8 / 0,26 = 30,77 Ω
We must check that the sensor can measure these 520 A peaks i.e.: VA ≥ e + VS + VM
If VA = ±15 V (±5%), then we must check that
15 x 0,95 ≥ 1 + (33 x 0,26) + 8 which is false since 14,25 V< 17,58 V
Therefore a supply greater than or equal to 17.58 V must be selected. Select a ±24 V (±5%)
supply. We verify that 24 x 0.95 ≥ 17.58 V.
Conclusion:
An ES300C sensor can measure a peak of 520A in the following conditions:
VA = ±24 V (±5%) and RM = 30,77 Ω to obtain an 8 V signal at a peak of 520 A

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 27

Instrumentation and Control

ii. What is the maximum current measurable by an ES300C in specific conditions?

For example, the conditions are: VA = ±15 V (±5%) and RM = 15 Ω
From the base formulas, we obtain the following formula:
ISMAX = (VAMIN - e) / (RS + RM) = [(15 x 0,95) - 1] / (33 + 15) = 0,276 A peak
Now calculate the equivalent primary current:
IP = (NS / NP) x IS = (2000 / 1) x 0,276 = 552A peak
Conclusion :
An ES300C sensor can measure a peak of 552 A in the following conditions:
VA = ±15 V (±5%) and RM = 15 Ω
Note: the 552 A peak current must not be a continuous current. For specific requirements,
contact your distributor.

3. 7 Signal Processing
Signal processing may be applied to signals that may be;
• too small and have to be amplified,
• analogue and have to be made digital,
• digital and have to be made analogue,
• resistance change and have to be made into current change,
• voltage change and have to be made into suitable size current change,
• pressure change and have to be made into current change, etc.

3.7.1 Resistance to Voltage Converter

1. Potential divider circuit

When the resistance of the thermistor changes, the
fraction of the 6 V across the 10 kΩ resistor changes.

2. Wheatstone Bridge
For Vo = zero, pd between B and D = 0. Hence, potential at B
must equal to that at D. The potential difference across R1 i.e.
VAB, must then equal that across R3, i.e. VAD. Thus:

➔ Bridge is balanced

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 28

Instrumentation and Control

Consider resistance R1 to be a sensor which has a resistance change, e.g. a strain gauge which has
a resistance change when strained. A change in resistance from R1 to R1 + δR1 gives a change in
output from Vo to Vo + δVo, where;

Hence
If δR1 is much smaller than R1 then the denominator R1 + δR1 + R2 approximates to R1 + R2 and
so the above equation approximates to:

Example: A platinum resistance coil is to be used as a temperature sensor and has a resistance at
0°C of 100 fi. It forms one arm of a Wheatstone bridge with the bridge being balanced at this
temperature and each of the other arms also being 100 Ω, If the temperature coefficient of
resistance of platinum is 0.0039 K-1, what will be the output voltage from the bridge per degree
change in temperature if the supply voltage is 6.0 V?
Soln: The variation of the resistance of the platinum with temperature can be represented by:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝑎𝑡)
where Rt, is the resistance at t °C, Ro the resistance at 0 °C and 𝑎 the temperature coefficient of
resistance. Hence:
change in resistance 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 = 𝑅0 𝑎𝑡. Thus, for a one degree change in temperature:
change in resistance = 100 × 0.0039 × 1 = 0.39 𝛺
Since this resistance change is small compared to the 100 Ω, the approximate equation for the
output voltage can be used. Hence, the change in output per degree change in temperature is:

3. Maxwell’s Bridge
Measures value of given inductance by comparison with a variable standard self-inductance.

Let; L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1,

L2 = variable inductance of fixed resistance r2,
R2 = variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2,
R3, R4 = known non-inductive resistances.
At balance,

Resistance R3 and R4 are normally a selection of values from 10,

100, 1000 and 10,000.
Example: Arm ab consists of a coil with inductance L1 and resistance r1
in series with a non-inductive resistance R. Arm bc and ad are each a non-
inductive resistance of 100Ω. Arm ad consists of standard variable inductor L of resistance 32.7Ω. Balance is obtained
when L2 = 47.8mH and R = 1.36Ω. Find the resistance and inductance of the coil in arm ab.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 29

Instrumentation and Control

Soln: At balance, [(𝑅1 + 𝑟1) + 𝑗𝑤𝐿1] ∗ 100 = (𝑟2 + 𝑗𝑤𝐿2) ∗ 100 Equating the real and
imaginary terms; R1+r1 = r2 and L2=L1. Therefore, resistance of coil: r1 = r2 – R1 = 32.7 –
1.36 = 31.34Ω. Inductance of coil: L1 = L2 = 47.8mH.

4. Schering Bridge
Measurement of capacitance

Let; C1= capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,

r1 = a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor C1
C2 = a standard capacitor; R3 = a non – inductive resistance; C4 = a variable capacitor
R4 = a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with variable capacitor C4
At balance;
Equating real and imaginary parts;

Two independent balance equations are obtained

if C4 and R4 are chosen as the variable elements.

The dissipation factor is given by:

Advantages of Schering Bridge:

• The balance equation is independent of frequency.
• Used for measuring the insulating properties of electrical cables and equipment.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 30

Instrumentation and Control

5. Anderson Bridge

Advantages of Anderson’s Bridge:

• Very easy to obtain the balance point as
compared to Maxwell’s bridge.
• Fixed standard capacitor is used therefore
there is no need of costly variable capacitor.
• Very accurate for measurement of
capacitance in terms of inductance.

Disadvantages of Anderson’s Bridge:

• More complex as compared with Maxwell’s
inductance bridge.
• An additional junction point increases the
difficulty of shielding the bridge.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 31

Instrumentation and Control

6. Hay Bridge for Measurement of Inductance

L1=unknown resistance having a resistance R1,

R2, R3, R4=known non-inductive resistance,
C4=standard capacitor.
At balance,

Separating real and imaginary terms, we obtain:

Solving the above two equations we have,

and Q factor of coil is:

Advantages of the Hay’s bridge:

• Gives simple expression for unknown inductance for high Q coils,
• Suitable for coils having Q > 10.
• Gives simple expression for Q factor.
• For high Q factor the value of resistance R4 should be small.
Disadvantages of Hay’s bridge:
• Suited for measurement of high Q inductors, Q > 10.

3.7.2 Other signal processing systems include the following:

i. Temperature compensation using strain gauge.
ii. Using wheatstone bridge as Thermocouple Compensation
iii. Protection

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 32

Instrumentation and Control

Protection: An important element that is often present with signal processing is protection against
high currents or high voltages. For example, sensors when connected to a microprocessor can be
damaged if high currents or high voltages are transmitted to the microprocessor.
• Series resistor used to limit the current to an acceptable level
• A fuse to break if the current does exceed a safe level.
• Zener diode circuit used to protect against high voltages and
wrong polarity voltages.
✓ Zener diodes voltage ratings indicate at which voltage
they become conducting.

3. 8 Strain Gauge
When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the result.
A Strain gauge (sometimes referred to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance varies with
applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance
which can then be measured. Invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938.

Stress is force per unit area. When a material is stretched in one

Strain is the deformation of a direction it tends to get thinner in
solid due to stress. the other two directions

• Strain gauges are attached to the substrate with a special glue.

• Type of glue depends on the required lifetime of the measurement system.
• Short term measurements (up to some weeks) – cyanoacrylate glue is appropriate,
• Long lasting installation – epoxy glue used; requiring high temperature curing (at about
80-100 °C).
• Surface preparation to fix strain gauge – of utmost importance. Surface must be smoothed
(e.g. with very fine sand paper), deoiled with solvents, with solvent traces removed and
strain gauge glued immediately to avoid oxidation or pollution of the prepared area. [For
reliable and predictable measurement errors].
• Gauges attached to a load cell – normally expected to remain stable over years or decades;
while those to measure response in dynamic experiment – attached for few days, energized
for less than an hour, and operated for less than a second.
• Load cell: is a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is
directly proportional to the force being measured. The various load cell types include
hydraulic, pneumatic, and strain gauge.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 33

Instrumentation and Control

Gauge factor (GF) or strain factor of a

strain gauge is the ratio of relative change
in electrical resistance R, to the mechanical
strain ε. The gauge factor is defined as:
OR

𝐺𝑓 =

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∗𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Where
𝛥𝐿
𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿0
ΔL = absolute change in length
L0 = original length
ν = Poisson's ratio [the negative of the ratio
of transverse strain to axial strain. For small
values of these changes, is the amount of
transversal expansion divided by the
amount of axial compression.
𝑅𝐴
𝜌 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐿
ΔR = change in strain gauge resistance
R = unstrained resistance of strain gauge

3.8.1 Strain Gauge Wheatstone Measurements

Stress (σ) = strain (ε0) x (young’s modulus) E

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 34

Instrumentation and Control

3. 9 Digital-To-Analogue Converters

3.9.1 Simple Resistive Divider Network for DAC

• Can be used to convert 3-bit digital input into
equivalent analogue output.
• If RL is much larger than R, then the output analogue
voltage is given by

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 2𝑉 4𝑉
[ 1⁄𝑅 ]+[ 2⁄(𝑅 ⁄2)]+[ 3⁄(𝑅 ⁄4)] [ 1⁄𝑅 ]+[ 2⁄𝑅 ]+[ 3⁄𝑅 ]
𝑉𝐴 = = [1⁄𝑅 ]+[2⁄𝑅 ]+[4⁄𝑅 ]
[1⁄𝑅 ]+[1⁄(𝑅 ⁄ )]+[1⁄(𝑅 ⁄ )]
2 4

𝑉1 + 2𝑉2 + 4𝑉3 𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22
𝑉𝐴 = =
7 23 − 1
Hence, generalized expression is given by:
𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 × 2𝑛−1
𝑉𝐴 =
2𝑛 − 1
if V1= V2= _ _ _ = Vn = V, then a logic ‘1’ at the LSB position would contribute V/(2n −1) to the
analogue output, and a logic ‘1’ in the next adjacent higher bit position would contribute 2V/(2n
−1) to the output, etc. When all input bit positions have a logic ‘1’, the analogue output is given
by
𝑉 (20 + 21 + 22 + ⋯ + 2𝑛−1 )
𝑉𝐴 = =𝑉
2𝑛 − 1

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 35

Instrumentation and Control

If all inputs are in the logic ‘0’ state, VA = 0. Therefore, the analogue output varies from 0 to V
volts as the digital input varies from an all 0s to an all 1s input.

3.9.2 Binary Ladder Network for DAC

The binary ladder, too, is a resistive network that produces an analogue output equal to the
weighted sum of digital inputs.

𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22 + 𝑉4 × 23
𝑉𝐴 =
24
In general, for an n-bit DAC using binary ladder
network,
𝑉1 × 20 + 𝑉2 × 21 + 𝑉3 × 22 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 × 2𝑛−1
𝑉𝐴 =
2𝑛

For V1= V2= V3= … = Vn = V, 𝑉𝐴 = [(2𝑛 − 1)/2𝑛 ]𝑉.

For V1= V2 = V3 = ・ ・ ・ =Vn = 0, VA = 0.
The analogue output voltage in this case varies from 0 (for an all 0s input) to [(2n −1)/2n] V (for
an all 1s input).

3.9.3 Parallel Output N-Bit Shift Register DAC

The Fig. shows four resistors connected to the outputs of a 4-bit parallel output shift register and
having their other terminals connected in common. The register values bear a binary relationship
to one another as shown. The voltage applied to a resistor by its associated register output is either
0 V or + 5 V, etc. depending on whether that output is low or high.
A1 R
2R
A2
4R
A3
4–bit Shift Register
8R
A4
Eg; Input digital word is 1000. Then circuit is redrawn as:
 Ro 
Vo =   V
 R + Ro 

where V = + 5 V; R0 is the equivalent resistance for the three parallel-

connected resistors
1 1 1 1 8R
= + +  R0 =
R0 2 R 4 R 8 R 7
Hence;
8𝑅/7 8 8
𝑉0 = 𝑅+8𝑅/7 5 = 15 5 = 3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 = 2.67 𝑉

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 36

Instrumentation and Control

3.9.4 BCD-Input DACs

A BCD-input DAC accepts BCD equivalent decimal digits at input. Eg. A two-digit BCD DAC is
an eight-bit DAC. Such a converter has 99 steps and accepts decimal digits 00 to 99 at its input. A
12-bit converter will have 999 steps. The weight of the
different bits in the least significant digit (LSD) will be 1
for A0, 2 for B0, 4 for C0 and 8 for D0. Weights of
corresponding bits in the next higher digit will be 10 times
the weights of corresponding bits in the lower adjacent
digit. So, 10 for A1, 20 for B1, 40 for C1 and 80 for D1. In
general, an n-bit D/A converter of the BCD input type
will have (10n/4 − 1) steps. The percentage resolution of
such converter is given by [1/(10n/4 − 1)]×100.

Example A 12-bit BCD-input DAC has a step size of 6.25 mV. Determine the full-scale output.
Solution
• A step size of 6.25 mV implies that A0 has a weight of 6.25 mV.
• The weights of B0, C0 and D0 would respectively be 12.5, 25 and 50 mV.
• Now, the weight of A1 will be 10 times weight of A0, i.e. the weight of A1 will be 62.5 mV.
• The weights of B1, C1 and D1 will accordingly be 125, 250 and 500 mV respectively.
• Similarly, weights of A2, B2, C2 and D2 will respectively be 625 mV, 1.25 V, 2.5 V and 5 V.
• For full-scale output, input will be decimal 999. Each of the three four-bit groups will be 1001.
• Hence, full-scale analogue output = 6.25 + 50 + 62.5 +500 + 625 + 5000 mV = 6.24375 V.
• Alternatively, full-scale output= step size × number of steps = 6.25 × 999 = 6.24375 V.

NB: Difference Between LSB and MSB

In a digital data bit string, the MSB is a bit of the highest digit, and the LSB is a bit of the lowest
digit. Digital data is binary, and like ordinary numerical notation, the left end is the highest digit,
while the right end is the lowest digit. For example, 99 in the decimal system is expressed as
(MSB)01100011(LSB) in the binary system. In this case, the MSB is 0 and the LSB is 1.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 37

Instrumentation and Control

CHAPTER 4

PRESSURE AND LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

4. 1 Pressure Terminologies
Static pressure: The pressure of fluids or gases
that are stationary or not in motion (Fig. 4.1).
The pressure at point A is considered as static
pressure although the fluid above it is flowing.
Dynamic pressure: The pressure exerted by a
fluid or gas when it impacts on a surface or an
object due to its motion or flow. In Fig. 4.1,
dynamic pressure is the difference in pressure between points B and A.
Impact pressure (total pressure): The sum of the static and dynamic pressures on a surface or
object. The pressure at point B in Fig. 4.1 is the impact pressure.

4.1.1 Terms Applied to Pressure Measurements

Total vacuum: Zero pressure or lack of pressure, as

would be experienced in outer space.
Vacuum: Pressure measurement made between total
vacuum and normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure on the earth’s surface
due to the weight of the gases in the earth’s atmosphere,
normally expressed at sea level as 14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa.
It is, however, dependent on atmospheric conditions. The
pressure decreases above sea level, and at an elevation of
5000 ft drops to about 12.2 psi (84.122 kPa) due to the
lower gravitational force and reduced atmospheric
pressure. Absolute pressure: Pressure measured with respect to a vacuum and is expressed in
pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or kilopascals absolute kPa (a).
Gauge pressure: Pressure measured with respect to atmospheric pressure and is normally
expressed in pounds per square inch gauge (psig) or kPa (g). Figure 4.2 shows graphically the
relation between atmospheric, gauge, and absolute pressures.
Differential pressure: Pressure measured with respect to another pressure and is expressed as the
difference between the two values. This would represent two points in a pressure or flow system,
and is referred to as the delta p, or Δp.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 38

Instrumentation and Control

4.1.2 Pressure Measurement Units

1. Pounds per square foot
(psf), or per square inch (psi)
2. Pascals (N/m2);
3. Atmospheres (atm)
4. Inches or cm. of water
5. Inches or mm of mercury
6. Torr = 1 mm mercury
7. Bar (1.013 atm) = 100 kPa

4.1.3 Pressure Formulas

Hydrostatic pressure: Pressure in a liquid. It increases as the depth in the liquid increases due to
the weight of the fluid above the measurement point. Hydrostatic pressure is given by

The hydrostatic paradox states that the pressure at a given depth in a liquid is independent of the
shape of the container or the volume of liquid contained.
Head, sometimes used as a measure of pressure, is the pressure in terms of a column of a particular
fluid; i.e., a head of 1 ft of water is the pressure that would be exerted by a 1-ft-tall column of
water, i.e., 62.4 psfg, or the pressure exerted by 1 ft head of glycerin would be 78.6 psfg.

Buoyancy: The upward force exerted on an object immersed or floating in a liquid. The weight is
less than it is in air due to the weight of the displaced fluid. The upward force on the object causing
the weight loss is called the buoyant force and is given by

Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied to an

enclosed liquid (or gas) is transmitted to all parts of the
fluid and to the walls of the container.

where AS / AL is the cross-sectional area of the smaller piston / large piston respectively. A vacuum
is very difficult to achieve in practice. Vacuum pumps can only approach a true vacuum. Pressures
less than atm. pressure are often referred to as “negative gauge” and are indicated by an amount
below atm. pressure, e.g., – 5 psig corresponds to 9.7 psia (assume atm = 14.7 psia).

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 39

Instrumentation and Control

4.2 Pressure Measurement Instruments

4.2.1 U-Tube Manometers
U-tube manometers: Consist of U-shaped glass
tubes partially filled with a liquid. When there
are equal pressures on both sides, the liquid
levels will correspond to the zero point on a scale
as shown in Fig. 4.4a. The scale is graduated in
pressure units.

where γ is the specific weight of the liquid in the manometer.

Inclined manometers: Developed to

measure low pressures. With the low-
pressure arm inclined, the fluid has a
longer distance to travel than in a
vertical tube for the same pressure
change, giving a magnified scale (Fig.
4.5a).
Well manometers: An alternative to inclined manometers for measuring
low pressures using low-density liquids. In the well manometer, one leg
has a much larger diameter than the other leg, as shown in Fig. 4.5b.
When there is no pressure difference the liquid levels will be at the same
height for a zero reading. An increase in pressure in the large leg will
cause a larger change in the height of the liquid in the smaller leg. The
pressure across the larger area of the well must be balanced by the same
volume of liquid rising in the smaller leg.

4.2.2 Diaphragms, Capsules and Bellows

Gauges: Pressure sensors that measure pressure with respect to

atmospheric pressure. When pressure is applied, a change in the shape
of gauge sensors is converted into an electrical signal using capacitive,
LVDT (linear variable differential transformer), potentiometer,
piezoelectric, strain-gauge transducer or micromachined silicon
diaphragm being the most commonly used industrial pressure sensor for
the generation of electrical signals. Gauge sensors include diaphragms,
capsules, bellows, and Bourdon tubes. Fig. 4.6 Various
Diaphragm: Consists of a thin layer of sensing film supported on a rigid Types of Pressure-
frame (Fig. 4.6a). Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for Sensing Elements

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 40

Instrumentation and Control

gauge sensing, or to both sides of the film for differential or absolute pressure sensing. Sensing
film can be rubber or plastic for low pressure devices, silicon for medium pressures, and stainless
steel for high pressures.
Capsules: Two diaphragms joined back-to-back (Fig. 4.7b) with pressure applied to the space
between the diaphragms forcing them to measure gauge pressure. Expansion of the diaphragm
may be mechanically coupled to an indicating device. The deflection in a capsule depends on its
diameter, material thickness, and elasticity. Materials used are phosphor bronze, stainless steel,
and iron nickel alloys.
Bellows: Similar to capsules except that the diaphragms instead of being joined directly together
are separated by a corrugated tube or tube with convolutions (Fig. 4.7c). When pressure is applied
to the bellows it elongates by stretching the convolutions, not the end diaphragms. Bellows devices
can be used for absolute and differential pressure measurements.

Fig. 4.7 Differential Capsule Pressure Sensor with Closed Loop Electronic Control

Fig. 4.8 Differential Bellows Pressure Gauges (P1 − P2) for Direct Scale Reading

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 41

Instrumentation and Control

Bourdon Tubes (BT): These are

hollow, flattened, or oval cross-
sectional beryllium, copper, or steel
tubes (Fig. 4.9(a)). The flattened
tube is then shaped into a three-
a.
quarter circle (Fig. 4.9(b)). The
operating principle is that the outer
Fig. 4.9 a. Cross-Section of BT,
edge of the cross section has a larger
b. BT Pressure Gauge
surface than the inner portion. When
b.
pressure is applied, the outer edge
has a proportionally larger total force applied because of its larger surface area, and the diameter
of the circle increases. The walls of the tube are between 0.01 and 0.05 in thick. The tubes are
anchored at one end. When pressure is applied to the tube, it tries to straighten, and in doing so,
the free end of the tube moves. This movement can be mechanically coupled to a pointer, which
will indicate pressure as a line-of-sight indicator, or it can be coupled to a potentiometer, which
will give a resistance value proportional to pressure as an electrical signal.

Table 4.1 Approximate Pressure Ranges for Pressure Sensing Devices

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 42

Instrumentation and Control

4.3 Level Formulas

Pressure and Buoyancy are often used as indirect methods of measuring liquid levels.

Note the units must be consistent, i.e., pounds and feet, or Newton and meters.

where area is the cross-sectional area of the object and d is the immersed depth of the object. The
liquid level is then calculated from the weight of a body in a liquid WL, which is equal to its weight
in air (WA – B), from which we get

The weight of a container can be used to calculate the level of the material in the container.

The weight of material W in a container is given by

A load cell is used to measure the weight of the container.

Capacitive probes can be used in nonconductive liquids and free flowing solids for level
measurement. Many materials when placed between the plates of a capacitor increases the
capacitance by a factor μ called the dielectric constant of the material. The capacitance (Cd) is
given by

The capacitance can be measured using a capacitance bridge circuit.

Dielectric Constant of Some Common

Liquids →

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 43

Instrumentation and Control

4.4 Level Sensing Devices

There are two categories of level sensing devices. They are direct sensing, in which the actual level
is monitored, and indirect sensing where a property of the liquid such as pressure is sensed to
determine the liquid level.

4.4.1 Direct Level Sensing

Sight glass (open end/differential) or gauge is the simplest method for direct visual reading where
the sight glass is normally mounted vertically adjacent to the container (Fig. 4.10). The liquid level
can then be observed directly in the sight glass.

Fig. 4.10 Various Configurations of a Sight Glass to Observe Liquid Levels

Floats (angular arm or pulley) are shown in Fig. 4.11. The float material is less dense than the
density of the liquid and floats up and down on top of the material being measured. An advantage
of the float sensor is that it is
almost independent of the
density of the liquid or solid
being monitored. the
disadvantage of this type of
float is its nonlinearity as
shown by the line-of-sight
scale of Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.11 Measuring Liquid Levels using (a) a Simple Float and (b) an Angular Arm Float

Fig. 4.12 Float Level Sensor Scales (a) Nonlinear Scale and (b) Linear Scale with Pulley Float
Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 44
Instrumentation and Control

4.4.2 Indirect Level Sensing

Most commonly used method
• measure the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container.
• Extrapolate depth from the pressure and calculate specific weight of the liquid using

Bubbler devices require supply of clean air or inert

gas. Gas is forced through a tube whose open end
is close to the bottom of the tank (Fig. 4.13). The
specific weight of the gas is negligible compared
to the liquid and can be ignored. The pressure
required to force the liquid out of the tube is equal
to the pressure at the end of the tube due to the
liquid, which is the depth of the liquid multiplied Fig. 4.13 Liquid Level Measurement using a
by the specific weight of the liquid. This method Bubbler
can be used with corrosive liquids as the material of the tube can be chosen to be corrosion
resistant.

Que: How far below the surface of the water is the end of a bubbler tube, if bubbles start to emerge
from the end of the tube when the air pressure in the bubbler is 148 kPa?

Displacer with force sensing element. This device uses change in

buoyant force to measure changes in liquid level. The displacers
must have a higher specific weight than that of the liquid level
being measured and have to be calibrated for the specific weight of
the liquid. A force or strain gauge measures the excess weight of Fig. 4.14 Displacer with
the displacer. There is only a small movement in this type of sensor Force Sensor
compared to a float sensor.

PROBES for measuring liquid levels fall into three categories, i.e., conductive, capacitive, and
ultrasonic.
Conductive probes are used for single-point measurements in liquids that are conductive and
nonvolatile as a spark can occur. When the liquid is in contact with two probes the voltage between
the probes causes a current to flow indicating a set level has been reached. Thus, probes can be
used to indicate when the liquid level is low and to operate a pump to fill the container. Another
or third probe can be used to indicate when the tank is full and to turn-off the filling pump.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 45

Instrumentation and Control

Fig. 4.15 Methods of Measuring Liquid Levels Using (a) Conductive Probes for Detecting
Set Levels and (b) a Capacitive Probe for Continuous Monitoring

Capacitive probes are used in liquids that are nonconductive and have a high μ and can be used
for continuous level monitoring. The capacitive probe shown in Fig. 4.15b consists of an inner rod
with an outer shell; the capacitance is measured between the two using a capacitance bridge. In
the portion out of the liquid, air serves as the dielectric between the rod and outer shell. In the
immersed section, the dielectric is that of the liquid that causes a large capacitive change, if the
tank is made of metal it can serve as the outer shell. The capacitance change is directly proportional
to the level of the liquid. The dielectric constant of the liquid must be known for this type of
measurement. The dielectric constant can vary with temperature so that temperature correction
may be required.

Que: A capacitive probe 30-in long has a capacitance of 22 pF in air. When partially immersed in
water with a dielectric constant of 80 the capacitance is 1.1 nF. What is the length of the probe
immersed in water?

Ultrasonic sensors can be used for single-

point or continuous level measurement of
a liquid or a solid. A single ultrasonic
transmitter and receiver can be arranged
with a gap to give single-point
Fig. 4.16 Ultrasonics (a) Single-Point and (b) Continuous
measurement (Fig. 4.16a). As soon as Liquid Level Measurements
liquid fills the gap, ultrasonic waves from
the transmitter reach the receiver. A setup for continuous measurement is shown in Fig. 4.16b.
Ultrasonic waves from the transmitter are reflected by the surface of the liquid to the receiver; the
time for the waves to reach the receiver is measured. The time delay gives the distance from the
transmitter and receiver to the surface of the liquid, from which the liquid level can be calculated
knowing the velocity of ultrasonic waves. As there is no contact with the liquid, this method can
be used for solids, corrosive materials, and volatile liquids.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 46

Instrumentation and Control

Table 4.2 Level Measurements

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 47

Instrumentation and Control

REFERENCES

Bolton W. (2004) “Instrumentation and Control Systems”, Elsevier Science & Technology
Books Publishers, 339 pp. ISBN: 0750664320
GSA (2019) “Catalogue of Ghana Standards 2019”, https://gsa.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads
/2019/06, Assessed: May 09, 2020.

Johnson, C. D. (2007), Process Control and Instrumentation Technology, Prentice Hall of India,
8th edition, 704pp. ISBN-13: 978-8120330290.

Kirk, W. F. (2014), Instrumentation and Process Control, American Technical Publishers,6th

edition, 690 pp. ISBN-13: 978-0826934420.

McMillan, G. K. and Considine, D. M. (1999) “Process / Industrial Instruments and Controls

Handbook”, McGraw-Hill, Fifth Edition, 1331 pp. USA. ISBN 0-07-012582-1

Patranabis, D. (2011), Instrumentation and Control, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd., India, 392 pp.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 48

Instrumentation and Control

Tooley, M. (2005) “PC Based Instrumentation and Control”, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann,

Third Edition, 496 pp. Great Britain. ISBN 0 7506 4716 7

US Department of Energy (2010), DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Instrumentation and Control,

Volumes 1&2, Knowledge Publications, 300 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1603220095.

Compiled by: Dr J. K. Annan 49