LESSON 1: Introduction to ABANDONING THE STUDY OF THE MIND

Cognitive Psychology ● During the early to mid 20th century, the

PSY 11: Cognitive Psychology study of cognition fell out of favor in
psychology with the rise in popularity of the
behaviorist perspective.
○ BF Skinner proposed that language
STUDYING THE MIND: DEFINING THE MIND learning occur through conditioning
processes.
● Cognitive Psychology can be defined as our ○ Noam Chomsky suggested that children
perception of the world around us through our produced language that has never been
senses and how we interpret the sensations produced around them or reinforced.
brought in by our senses. Thus, children have the mental capacity
● It is also the attentional processes that allow to learn the rules of the language(s)
us to focus on a particular stimulus in our spoken around them without explicit
environment. feedback on the language they produce.
● It is how our memory operates to allow us to
remember episodes, information, and
intentions when we attempt to retrieve them. THE REBIRTH OF THE STUDY OF THE MIND
● It is our language processes that help us
● Another influential event in the development of
communicate our thoughts and ideas with
cognitive psychology research was the
others.
invention of the computer, which presented an
● It is the processes that contribute to our
information-processing model as a way of
decision making, both helpful and hindering
thinking about cognitive processes.
● The brain activity that controls all of the
● The brain could be thought of as a biological
processes described so far.
computer, capable of storing large amounts of
information and acting to alter that
EXAMPLES OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
information as learning takes place.
● Noticing that the lights are dim in your kitchen
● Cognitive processes were the “software” that
(senses and perception)
processed the information (with the brain as
● A brightly colored sign catching our attention
the “hardware”).
in a grocery store (attention and stimulus)
● This model also provided a universal language
● Remembering—or not remembering—na may
to allow researchers to discuss the processes of
quiz tayo sa Cogni sa Wednesday. (memory) the mind and their connection to the brain.
● Being able to read and interpret yung readings
● 1967 – Ulric Neisser’s book on Cognitive
ni Doc Eve na pagkahaba-haba (language Psychology
processes)
○ He integrated topics such as memory,
● Deciding kung gagastos ka o hindi (decision
perception, attention, and language as
making)
a unified field.
○ He is considered the “Father of
STUDYING THE MIND: EARLY WORKS Cognitive Psychology.”

● 1880s – it is not possible to study the mind

● 1868 – Franciscus Donders seminal work: CURRENT APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
○ “How long does it take for a person to COGNITION
make a decision?” Donder measured
simple reaction time (push a button as
REPRESENTATIONALISM
rapidly as possible when they see a
light turn on) and choice reaction time ● Knowledge about the world is represented in
(using two lights, push button where our minds such that cognitive processes can
the light is on). “operate” on the representations.
● 1879 – Wundt’s psychology laboratory ● The representationalist approach arose from
○ He studied conscious experience the computer and information-processing
through introspective methods that model of cognition. Information is stored in
involved systematic self-reports of a computers in the form of 0’s and 1’s that form
person’s thoughts chains of “off” and “on” signals. This is similar
● 1885 – Ebbinghaus’ memory experiment to the way that neurons either fire or do not
○ He studied the processes of memory fire at any given time.
by testing his own memory extensively ● The primary model for representationalism is
to determine the savings in relearning the computer metaphor for the mind.
that can be gained from previous ○ The language of computers is typically
exposures to information. evoked in describing the representations
○ He measured the decline in his found in the mind.
memory performance over time and
thus mapped out the forgetting curve.
 EMBODIED COGNITION interest, allowing for focused investigation of
● Cognition is an interaction between humans the impact of a relatively small set of variables
(and other animals) and their environment.
● Memory, language, and perception processes COMMONLY USED MEASURES WITHIN
depend on our interactions with the world COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
around us. ● Researchers began using measures like
○ Memory of a text is better when people accuracy (e.g., percentage of correct
act it out as compared with other responses) and response time (e.g., how fast
learning strategies, like rereading it. subjects make a response to a stimulus) as
○ People will look at the space on an indicators of mental processes (sometimes
empty screen when recalling information referred to as mental chronometry).
previously presented at that location on ● Accuracy
the screen. ○ Accuracy measurements are common in
research designs in which there are right
BIOLOGICAL and wrong responses.
● It describes cognition according to the ○ Research examining the nature of
mechanisms of the brain. memory has a long tradition of using
● Connectionist models based on networks of accuracy as a measure of mental
connections loosely analogous to networks of processing.
neurons. ○ However, accuracy isn’t always just
○ Researchers have considered the way in about how many items you can correctly
which neurons are connected in networks recall; it can also be about the number
in the brain and simulated such networks and kinds of errors you make.
in models of memory. ● Response Time
○ How we identify language through ○ Response time pertains to how long it
individual features of letters and spoken takes to respond to a stimulus.
words. ○ Donders developed a reaction time
technique called the subtractive method
to examine cognitive processing (simple
RESEARCH IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY reaction time and choice reaction time).

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD BEYOND ACCURACY AND RESPONSE TIME

● The scientific method is a method of gaining ● Within the rapidly growing field of cognitive
knowledge in a field that relies on observations neuroscience, recent technological advances in
of phenomena and which allows for tests of brain imaging techniques have led to the
hypotheses about those phenomena. development of brain visualization measures.
● The scientific method have four core
principles:
● Empiricism is the principle that the key to
understanding new things is through LESSON 2: Cognitive
●
systematic observation.
Determinism is the principle that behaviors Neuroscience
have underlying causes and that PSY 11: Cognitive Psychology
“understanding” involves identification of what
these causes are and how they are related to
the behavior of interest
● Testability is the principle that theories must CLINICAL CASE STUDIES IN COGNITIVE
be stated in ways that allow them to be NEUROSCIENCE
evaluated through observation.
● Parsimony is the principle to prefer the simple
explanations over more complex ones. RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
● One of the first clinical cases to contribute
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES knowledge about brain function was that of
● Case Studies focuses on intensive analyses of Phineas Gage.
a single individual or more broadly on a single ● While on the job, a blasting cap drove a metal
observation unit. Often, the focus of case rod into his left eye, up through the frontal lobe
studies is on unique individuals who display of his brain and out the top of his skull. Gage
characteristics outside of what is considered survived the accident and lived for several
the norm. more years, but his personality and cognitive
● A correlational study allows one to abilities were altered from the way he was
systematically observe groups, recording the before the accident.
frequency and/or intensity of many variables ● From this clinical case, we learned that the
at once. frontal lobe is important in emotional
● An experimental study is designed to simplify regulation and decision making.
the contexts surrounding the behavior of
 BROCA’S AREA
STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
● A patient named Tan was studied by Paul
Broca in the late 1800s. After Tan’s death,
Broca examined Tan’s brain and found damage NEURON
to the left frontal lobe. ● The brain is composed of billions of
● This location was named Broca’s area, and microscopic neuron cells forming the basic
damage to this area causes Broca’s aphasia, a structure below.
disorder where a person has difficulty ● The neuron:
producing speech. ○ Chemicals called neurotransmitters are
first brought into the cell by the
dendrites at the top end of the neuron
WERNICKE’S AREA ○ The cell body of the neuron takes in
● Another important brain area for language was these chemical signals from the
identified by Karl Wernicke. This area is in the dendrites and determines if there is
left temporal lobe close to the front of the enough of an excitatory signal to allow
occipital lobe and is known as Wernicke’s area. the neuron to fire.
A person with Wernicke’s aphasia can speak, ○ If so, an action potential occurs that
but his or her speech is meaningless. The creates an electrical signal that travels
person produces what is known as a “word down the neuron’s axon
salad,” ○ Once the electrical signal reaches the
end of the axon, the terminal buttons
OLIVER SACKS release neurotransmitters into the
● Oliver Sacks (1990) described a patient he saw synapse to be collected by other neurons
who had difficulty in distinguishing between nearby.
living and nonliving objects. ● Parts of a neuron:
● However, the patient was an academic in the ○ Neuron is the basic cell of the brain
field of music and had little difficulty with other ○ Dendrites are extensions from neurons
cognitive abilities. that receive chemical messages
● This condition is known as object agnosia, the (neurotransmitters) from other neurons
inability to correctly recognize objects. ○ Axon is an extension from the neuron
nucleus where an electrical impulse in
H.M.’S HIPPOCAMPUS the neuron occurs
● H. M. was a man who suffered from a form of ○ Synapse is a space between neurons
amnesia where he could remember portions of where neurotransmitters are released
his life before the damage occurred but could and received.
not remember episodes of his life that occurred
after the damage.
● H. M. 's brain lesion was caused by a surgical
procedure he received early in his life to help
diminish the severity of epileptic seizures.
● During the surgery, a brain area known as the
hippocampus was damaged. After the surgery,
H. M. seemed to have lost the ability to form
new memories.
● Researchers learned about the importance of
the role of the hippocampus in memory
abilities.

● Process of Action Potential

○ Before the neuron fires, the inside of the
OTHER INFO
axon contains a resting state negative
charge due to the division of ions in the
● Clinical case studies provide clues to the
fluid inside and outside the cell.
brain areas most important for different
○ The action potential redistributes these
types of cognitive tasks as we examine the
ions through channels in the axon’s
damage areas in these patients.
membrane.
● Researchers are limited to studying those
○ When the excitatory signal comes down
damaged brain areas in patients that are
the axon from the cell body, the axon
available for them to study
opens specific channels in the axon
membrane to allow sodium to flow into
the axon, producing a positive charge
inside the cell.
○ Once the action potential is complete,
other channels open in the axon
membrane to allow potassium (K+) to
 flow out of the cell and the sodium ● Researchers can use EEG recordings to
channels close. This redistributes the ions examine an event-related potential (ERP),
back to the resting negative state inside which is a change in activity related to a
the axon specific event like the presentation of a
stimulus.
BRAIN
● These early studies suggested that different MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG)
areas of the brain specialized in different ● Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a brain
functions. recording technique that records activity of
large sections of neurons from different areas
of the scalp using a large magnet that is
placed over the head
● Instead of electrodes placed on the head as for
an EEG, MEG involves placing the head in or
near an electrical scanner that can detect
electrical activity with better location accuracy
than EEG.
● As with EEG recordings, MEG recordings can
occur during a task such that changes in
activity can be detected that correspond to the
presentation of cognitive stimuli.

ELECTRICAL STIMULATION/INHIBITION OF
NEURONS
● Two similar techniques are used in order to
● Recent brain research has suggested that stimulate or suppress neurons.
despite the general feature of localization of ● Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a
function, many complex cognitive tasks (e.g., method of temporarily stimulating or
memory retrieval, object identification) are a suppressing neurons using a magnetic field.
function of distributed processing in the brain. ○ It involves tracing a magnetic coil over
● In other words, brain areas work together in the area of the brain the researcher
systems to process different kinds of wishes to study.
information. ● Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is
a method of temporarily stimulating or
suppressing neurons using an electrical current
MEASURES IN COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE ○ tDCS delivers a small electric current to
the brain through electrodes attached to
the scalp
SINGLE-CELL RECORDING
● Single-cell recording is a brain activity
BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES
recording technique that records activity from
● Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a
a single neuron or small group of neurons in the
technique to image the internal portions of the
brain.
body using the magnetic fields present in the
● In this technique a tiny recording needle is
cells
inserted into a neuron in an area of the brain
● Using positron emission tomography (PET),
the researcher is interested in.
researchers can measure the blood flow to
● This technique requires surgical insertion of the
different areas of the brain. PET is a technique
needle and bonding to the head to keep the
that images neuron activity in the brain
needle steady.
through radioactive markers in the
● Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Gallese, and Fogassi (1996)
bloodstream.
discovered a new type of neuron they called a
● Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
mirror neuron using a single-cell recording..
is an MRI technique that images brain activity
This neuron fired both when the monkeys
during a task.
picked up an object and when the monkeys
○ It records brain activity with a scan of
were watching the researchers or other
the magnetic properties of the blood
monkeys perform that action.
flowing through the brain.
○ It relies on a subtraction method, where
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)
activity recorded before the task (called
● When recording an EEG, a set of electrodes is
the baseline recording, which is a control
placed on the head to record the electrical
condition in this type of study) is
signals from groups of neurons in different
subtracted from the activity recorded
areas of the brain.
during the task.
● The activity is recorded over time to detect
changes (positive or negative) in the electrical
signals.
 an energy that produces a response inside a
CAN ALL MENTAL PROCESSES BE EXPLAINED IN
sense organ.
TERMS OF BRAIN ACTIVITY?
● The sensory systems enables it by processing
● Libet (1985) describes studies of EEG brain the sensations coming into every sense organ.
activity showing that about half a second ○ Primary visual cortex (V1) is known as
before someone is aware that he or she will the receiving area of visual information
perform an intentional action (eg. pressing a in the cortex of the brain.
button), the brain signals that it is preparing to ○ Primary auditory cortex (A1) is known as
perform that action. the receiving area of auditory
● Schurger, Sitt, and Dehaene (2012) have information in the cortex of the brain.
argued that the activity seen in the brain
before these choices are consciously made
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
indicates readiness to make a choice rather
PERCEPTION
than the actual choice itself.
● Another area where progress has been made in
investigating how brain activity translates into COMPUTATIONAL APPROACHES
specific behaviors in patterns of ● This type of approach towards perception
activity-related to identification of simple enables us to consider how we use the features
subjects. of such scenes and objects to interpret and
○ Some studies have shown that a unique understand them. In our respective
pattern of brain activity accompanies environment, the cues of features help us turn
the identification of objects such as the distal stimulus into the proximal stimulus in
faces and houses. our minds.
● The research highlighted is promising in ● In bottom-up processing, beginning with the
making specific connections between basic units or features of a stimulus, perception
predictable brain activity and cognitive is conducted through these, and then the
behavior. However, one criticism is that the addition of its parts together to understand
behaviors being examined are too simple. and to identify a rational object.
● It may be much more difficult, and maybe ● Top-down processing is defined as the
impossible, to make such precise connections instance where individuals perceive objects
between brain activity and more complex using their respective knowledge of the world.
behaviors.
● An alternate idea is that the mind and body are
separate and distinct entities (Descarte) THEORY OF UNCONSCIOUS INFERENCE
○ The mind exists and functions separately ● When an individual perceives the world, the
from the functioning of the brain. This theory of unconscious inference proposes that
idea has been debated by philosophers it makes an unconscious inference about the
for over a century and is called the world.
mind-body problem. ● In other words, human vision is incomplete and
○ Dualists believe that the mind exists that details are inferred by the unconscious
separately from the brain– that the mind mind to create a complete picture.
is our conscious self and is not reducible
to brain functions.
○ In contrast is the view presented earlier–
that the mind is defined by brain GESTALT APPROACHES
function and cannot be separated from ● Perception happens through an application of
brain activity. organizational principles that follows the
● The research presented here represents some physical processes of the innate world.
cognitive neuroscience support for this view,
but this question is still typically discussed at a SIMILARITY
philosophical level, given the current state of Individuals perceive similar looking elements
●
the field. as being collected and then being clustered
together.
● eg. In the picture below, we do not define it by
LESSON 3: Perception saying “orange pen, black scissor, blue pen,”
PSY 11: Cognitive Psychology and so on. Rather, we identify it as “school
supplies.”

PERCEPTION
● Perception is known as the interpretation,
integration, and analysis of stimuli carried out
by an individual’s organs and its brain.
Whereas, the stimulus is the passing source of
 PROXIMITY ● As described by Pomerantz and Portillo (2012),
● In our minds, the elements that are closer through the Gestalt approach in perception,
together are clustered together inside. studies have shown that compared to smaller
● eg. In the picture, whichever image the text is basic arrays and stimuli shown to objects,
physically close to, is what we perceive is
larger arrays of stimuli containing basic
related to the text.
feature elements and more complex stimuli are
easier to perceive.

PERCEPTION/ACTION APPROACHES
● Perception/action approaches focus more on
the “what for” aspect of perception.
● Perception/Action Approaches are connected
to each other. One’s actions depend on its
perception since it examines how an individual
sees and aids in projecting behaviors.
CONTINUITY ○ To recognize and locate an object,
● It refers to an individual's comprehension that there is part of the brain that is
objects still continue, even if the parts of them responsible (Milner & Goodale, 2008).
are blocked. ○ The lower occipital lobe includes the
"what" brain pathway (ventral
pathway), which travels to the
temporal lobe, which controls
language processes, and is responsible
for object recognition.
○ The upper occipital lobe contains the
dorsal pathway, which is the "where"
brain channel that guides the
movement of the motor cortex to the
parietal lobe.
CLOSURE
● Individuals commonly cluster elements to COMPARISON OF APPROACHES TO PERCEPTION:
formulate complete and surrounded figures MOTION PERCEPTION
rather than open figures; They tend to overlook ● Multiple approaches to the study of motion
the breaks in favor of focusing on the overall perception can aid in constructing a full
form. understanding of how it is accomplished. The
● Eg. despite being incomplete, the picture still three approaches described in this chapter
looks like a football. have each contributed information about how
these processes operate in humans and other
animals.

EXAMPLE RESEARCH
● “Likes” for Self-Love? The Effects of Social
Media on Self-Perception by Gallinari, E. (2017)
● The Social Comparison Theory explains how
individuals do self evaluation by doing such
social comparisons to other people. The
PERCEPTION
present study considered and investigated
● Pragnanz is a German term that is translated whether gaining lesser “likes” will make them
as succinct or concise. The principle of feel unpleasant, whilst gaining more “likes” on
Pragnanz (also known as the law of simplicity social media compared to other people will
or law of good figure) proposes that we cause women to gain more confidence and feel
perceive scenes as simply as possible. Thus, better with themselves. Social comparisons
this principle has a proposition that we view through the use of social media platforms,
scenes in the most concise way and simplest especially Facebook, does have an impact on
interpretation. the levels of self-worth as proven by prior
 studies. Furthermore, studies about the BROADBENT'S FILTER MODEL (1958)
Instagram application are restricted, which is ● Donald Broadbent developed the first model
the reason why it is the center of this study. 124 for the function of attention.
female participants were gathered, all of whom ● Broadbent's Filter theory suggests that our
were aged 18 to 25. The present study is attention acts like a selective filter, focusing on
composed of two conditions highlighting a specific physical characteristics, such as tone
manipulated Instagram post. The participants or pitch.
were then asked to see a recent post on their
respective Instagram account and consider the
amount of “likes,” which was aimed to
generate a social comparison. After the
participants were exposed to the manipulated
post, they were asked to complete the State
Self-Esteem scale for the researchers to
measure the feelings of self-esteem. The results
have shown that while comparing the “likes” on
Instagram, it did not significantly affect the
levels of self-esteem of the participants.
However, there was a small, yet positive
correlational relationship detected among the SHADOWING
participants’ own amount of “likes” and their ● Colin Cherry (1953) proposed shadowing.
levels of appearance self-esteem. ● Research supporting the filter model of
attention comes from a task called shadowing.
In this task, participants listen to a message in
one ear and repeat it, while a different
LESSON 4: Attention message plays in the other ear. Despite being
PSY 11: Cognitive Psychology able to complete the task well, when asked
about the content of the competing message,
participants often can't accurately report it.

ATTENTION
● William James defined attention as "taking
possession of something in clear and vivid
form."
● A definition from American Psychological
Association, it is a cognitive process where our
mental resources are directed towards specific
aspects of our environment, while other stimuli
are disregarded.
● As researchers have attempted to define
attention as a cognitive process, several
metaphors have arisen to aid in the description
of what attention is (Fernandez-Duque &
Johnson, 1999).
● Attention has been described as a: COCKTAIL PARTY EFFECT
○ filter sifting information, ● The Cocktail Party Effect by Colin Cherry (1953)
○ spotlight highlighting specific things is the ability of humans to focus on and
○ glue connecting different aspects of our understand one conversation, even when there
surroundings. are lots of other noises and conversations
happening around them. Psychologists have
been fascinated by this ability for a long time.
ATTENTION AS AN INFORMATION FILTER
It's also called "selective auditory attention" or
● Attention operates as a cognitive process to "selective hearing" because it shows how we
filter out irrelevant stimuli in the environment. can choose what we want to listen to and
understand, even in noisy environments.
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN FILTERING
ATTENTION AS A MENTAL CAPACITY
ABILITY
● Conway, Cowan, and Bunting (2001) explored ● Attention is often seen as a limited resource,
why some people detect their name in the especially in capacity models of attention. So,
background message during the cocktail party how much attention we can give to something
effect. Participants listened to a message in depends on how much mental effort that task
one ear while ignoring another in the other ear. requires and how much mental energy we have
Everyone had their first name inserted into the available.
ignored message. ○ Demand-based: Difficult tasks require
● The researchers predicted that those with more attention than easy ones (e.g.,
better working memory would filter out the rush hour driving vs. quiet road).
ignored message more effectively. Indeed, ○ Interest-based: We allocate more
participants with lower working memory scores attention to things that grab our
were more likely to notice their name in the interest (e.g., interesting lectures).
ignored message compared to those with ○ Intention-based: We focus on tasks
higher scores. This supports the idea that crucial for our goals (e.g., studying for
individual differences in filtering abilities affect exams).
the cocktail party effect.

KAHNEMAN'S CAPACITY MODEL OF ATTENTION

ATTENUATION THEORY OF ATTENTION ● Kahneman came up with a model that says our
● Anne Treisman (1964) suggested a modified attention is like a limited resource that we
filter model called the attenuation theory, divide between different tasks.
where some information is allowed to pass ● Kahneman also said that our level of alertness,
through the filter but at a lower volume than or arousal, affects how much attention we
the most relevant information. have.

DUAL-TASK METHOD
● David Strayer and William Johnston (2001)
conducted a research procedure where
subjects are given two tasks to perform at
once—to compare with performance on one
task alone—to examine interference due to the
second task.
CONCEPT OF ATTENTION AS A SPOTLIGHT ● Strayer and Johnston (2001) did a study to see
● Attention is like a spotlight, focusing on how well people drive while using cell phones.
specific parts of the environment while Participants used a joystick to control a car on
ignoring others. The spotlight can be moved a simulated road. They had to react quickly to
intentionally or automatically based on red lights. First, they did this task alone. Then,
salience (e.g., movement, brightness, color). they did it while talking on a cell phone. Results
● Scientists used the spotlight idea to study what showed that when talking on the phone, they
people pay attention to. missed more red lights and reacted slower. This
○ Eye tracking: Measures where people study helps us understand when our attention
look to understand their focus. isn't enough for tasks and shows that our
○ Reaction time: Measures how quickly attention is limited.
people respond to stimuli to assess
detection ease.
ATTENTION AS A FEATURE BINDER
● The Zoom Lens Analogy
○ Experimental subjects can control
FEATURE-INTEGRATION THEORY OF ATTENTION
whether they focus on a specific target
● Treisman developed the feature-integration
(the middle letter of a five-letter word)
theory of attention. In this theory, attention
or spread their attention (across all the
works in two stages.Two-stage process:
letters) (La Berge,1983)
○ Automatic stage: Unconsciously
○ Attention is directed to a particular
identifies basic features (color, shape,
region of The area however can be
etc.).
increased or decreased depending in
the requirements.
 ○ Conscious stage: Focuses attention to ● Stroop Task:
bind features and understand the ○ Word meaning interferes with color
whole. naming if they conflict (automatic
● Attention capture: We are drawn to things that reading vs. controlled color naming).
stand out (e.g., blue T in a sea of red). Performance improves with practice,
● Feature integration: The more features to suggesting automaticity development.
integrate, the harder to find an object. ● Schneider & Shiffrin's Study:
● Supports brain function: Different brain areas ○ Consistent distractors (easy) suggest
process different features, some bind them. automatic processing. Varied
distractors (hard) require controlled
attention.Schneider & Shiffrin's Study: -
HOW ATTENTION AFFECTS OUR PERCEPTIONS
Google Search
● Logan's Instance Theory:
THE GORILLA IN THE ROOM: INATTENTIONAL ○ Automaticity develops through
BLINDNESS
repeated experiences ("instances").
● Daniel Simons illustrated this phenomenon in
More instances lead to faster and more
studies where subjects failed to notice
effortless information retrieval.
significant changes, like a person being
○ A race between the memory search
replaced or a gorilla dancing across the scene,
and the procedure
while they were engaged in another task.
○ Each instance of the problem
encountered makes the memory
INCOMPATIBILITIES TAX ATTENTION: THE SIMON
EFFECT search faster the next time
● The Simon effect refers to the phenomenon
where the reaction time to complete a task is
affected by the location of the presentation or
the spatial compatibility between the task and
the response. For instance, in an experiment
where subjects were asked to press a key on
the left side for one target and a key on the
right side for a different target, their reaction
time was slower when the target appeared in a
location incompatible with the required
response. This effect was first demonstrated by
Richard Simon in the 1960s.

EFFECTS OF AUTOMATIC PROCESSES ON

ATTENTION: THE STROOP TASK
● The Stroop task is a classic test used to
measure one's ability to inhibit automatic
processes and focus attention on a conflicting
task.
● Stroop found that with practice, subjects
improved at the task, suggesting that some
cognitive processes, like reading in one's native
language, become automatic over time. In
contrast, tasks like color naming of words
require more attention and effort because they
are not performed automatically.

AUTOMATIC AND CONTROLLED PROCESSING: A

COGNITIVE DICHOTOMY
● Automatic processing refers to mental
activities that happen effortlessly and without
conscious effort. These tasks are fast and don't
need much attention because they're
automatic – they happen almost automatically.
Controlled processing is when you intentionally
focus and put effort into a task.