Introduction To Agriculture Handout

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Introduction to Agriculture Handout
agriculture (Eastern Samar State University)
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BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL SCIENCES
This Instructional Material is for Eastern Samar State University, College of

Agriculture and Natural Sciences- Department of Agricultural Technology use ONLY.

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University Vision
A technologically-advanced university producing professionals and competitive
leaders for local and national development.
University Mission
To provide quality education responsive to the national and global needs focused
on generating knowledge and technology that will improve the lives of the
people.
Core Values
Excellence
Individual commitment to excellence is central to the values that ESSU
promotes. The university will be able to achieve excellence through adherence to
the highest standards of performance and by collaborating with the very best in
the fields of instruction, research, extension, and production.
Accountability
Every member of the ESSU community has the obligation to account for his
every action, decision or activities and for whatever money or property the
university entrusts to him. He must accept responsibility for whatever will be the
consequences it may bring and to disclose the results in a transparent manner.
Thus, he must act with caution and utmost consideration for ethics and honesty in
the workplace.
Service
Service is the commitment of the university to serve not only its stake holder
to provide quality instruction, research, extension and production but also to serve
the need of every member of ESSU community to advance their wellbeing.

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PREFACE
The art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops, and raising livestock is known
as agriculture. It entails preparing plant and animal goods for human consumption as well as
their distribution to markets. Agriculture is responsible for the majority of the world's food and
textiles. Agricultural items include cotton, wool, and leather. Wood for construction and paper
products are also provided by agriculture. These goods, as well as the agricultural practices
employed, may differ from one region to the next.
This course discusses the overview of agriculture with emphasis on Philippine

agriculture. This module is divided into several units to help facilitate an efficient learning
process. At the end of every unit, self-assessments should be answered to measure how
much you have learned for each lesson you have covered. The answers to the assessments
should be compiled and submitted on an agreed date and format. Likewise, a regular
monitoring schedule is set per week to cater to your course-related queries and updates.
RINA C. ALDE
Faculty In charge

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Cover i
University Vision, Mission and Goals ii
Preface iii
General Instruction v
Unit I. Growth and development of Agriculture 6

Lesson 1. Brief historical development of World Agriculture and Philippine 6
Agriculture
Lesson 2. Agriculture as an Economic factor in capitalist and non- capitalist 7
societies
Lesson 3. Agriculture as an industry, a science and a profession 9
Assessment 14
Unit II. Introduction to Agriculture and the Ecosystems 16

Lesson 1. Agriculture and the Environment 16
Lesson 2. Agriculture and Society 20
Assessment 21
Unit III. Analysis of food production and population growth in developed and 22
developing countries
Assessment 24
Unit IV. Overview of Philippine Agriculture 25

Lesson 1. Resources 25
Lesson 2. Production 27
Lesson 3. Small-hold farming and Agri-business 29
Lesson 4. Need for balanced Agro- industrial growth in Agricultural production 30
Profile of the Filipino Farmer
Assessment 31
Unit V. Profile of the Filipino Farmer 32

Lesson 1. Socio- cultural and economic status; needs and aspiration 32
Assessment 35
Unit VI. Agriculture and Development 36

Lesson 1. Agriculture and rural poverty in developing countries and 36
underdeveloped countries
Lesson 2. Development Goals and strategies 37
Lesson 3. Organizations for Agriculture: functions, models of operations and 38
institutional linkages
Lesson 4. Assessment of some development programs 41
Assessment 44
Unit VII. Where do we go here? Directions for Growth 46

References 53
56
Course Guide
60
Quality Policy

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GENERAL INSTRUCTION
• Use this module with care.

• Do not write, highlight, erase, alter or
tear the pages of this module.
• In answering activities or exercises, use a
separate sheet of paper or refer to your
instructor for further or other
instructions.
• This module must be returned after the
end of the semester.
• If lost, the holder of this module will pay
its equivalent value.
If this module is lost and found, please return to:
EASTERN SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY

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UNIT I
Growth and Development of Agriculture
Introduction
The art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops, and raising livestock is known
as agriculture. It entails preparing plant and animal goods for human consumption as well as
their distribution to markets. Cotton, wool, and leather are all agricultural items that provide
the majority of the world's food and clothing. Wood for construction and paper products are
also provided by agriculture. These goods, as well as the agricultural practices employed, may
differ from one region to the next.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

a. Understand the importance, history, and development of agriculture
b. Differentiate a capitalistic and non-capitalistic agriculture
c. Explain agriculture as an industry, science and profession
Lesson Proper
Lesson 1. Brief historical development of World agriculture and Philippine Agriculture
Paleoanthropologists believe the oldest

fossil evidence of Homo sapiens—anatomically
modern humans—dates back to 196,000 years. We
have gotten our food by gathering it from the wild for
the great bulk of the time since our species first
appeared on the evolutionary stage. Wild plant-
based foods and fungus, including wild descendants
of certain species that are commonly cultivated
today, were essential staples in the paleolithic diet.
While the prehistoric hunt for wild animals is
generally depicted as an epic battle against woolly
mammoths, woolly rhinos, huge elk, and other
prehistoric megafauna, early people often ate insects
and scavenged the carcasses of deceased animals.
People began a gradual transition away from Figure 1. Agricultural scenes of
a hunter-gatherer lifestyle toward producing crops threshing, a grain store, harvesting
and raising animals for nourishment as early as with sickles, digging, tree-cutting
11,000 BCE. Northern China, Central America, and and ploughing from Ancient Egypt.
the Fertile Crescent, an area in the Middle East that Tomb of Nakht.

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nurtured some of the world's early civilizations, are thought to have experienced the change
to agriculture independently. Most of the farm animals we are acquainted with today were
domesticated about 6000 BCE. Agriculture was practiced on every major continent except
Australia by 5000 BCE.
Why did mankind abandon hunting and gathering in favor of agriculture? There are
numerous probable explanations, all of which are likely to have had a role at various times
and in different parts of the world. Climate change may have made wild food sources too cold
or too dry to rely on. Greater human density may have necessitated more food than could be
found in the wild, and farming supplied more food per acre, albeit at the cost of more time and
energy. Overhunting may have contributed to the extinction of woolly mammoths and other
megafauna. Agriculture would have been a more viable lifestyle if new technologies, such as
domesticated seeds, had been available.
Farming was likely more labor intensive than hunting and gathering, but it is estimated
that it provided 10 to 100 times more calories per acre. More plentiful food supply could support
denser populations, and farming was a way for people to stay connected to their land. Small
villages became towns, and towns became cities.
People were free to pursue pursuits other than worrying about what they would eat
that day because agriculture generated enough food. Soldiers, priests, bureaucrats, artists,
and scholars were among those who did not need to be farmers. As early civilizations grew,
political and religious leaders rose to power, dividing society into classes of "haves" and "have-
nots." Agriculture led to a system of ownership over land, food, and currency that was not (and
currently is not) evenly distributed among the people, whereas hunter-gatherer communities
generally saw resources as belonging to everyone.
Some have questioned whether abandoning the hunter-gatherer lifestyle was in
humanity's best interests, citing issues such as social injustice, starvation, and armed warfare
that have arisen as a result of the adoption of farming. Agriculture has been dubbed the
"biggest error in the history of the human race" by one famous scientist. That may be true, but
given the size and density of today's human populations, reverting to a paleolithic lifestyle is
not feasible. Hunting, collecting, and farming, on the other hand, can all work together to create
a more diverse and abundant food source. Aquatic plants and animals are still harvested from
the sea, and even city inhabitants can find tasty berries, greens, and mushrooms in their
neighborhood park.
Lesson 2. Philippine Agriculture
Many anthropologists disagree about

how agriculture spread into the Philippines, and
the exact date of its beginning is unknown.
However, there are proxy indications and other
pieces of evidence that anthropologists can use
to estimate when and how particular crops
arrived in the Philippines.
The Negritos, who became the ancestors
of today's Aetas, or Aboriginal Filipinos,
descended from more northerly abodes in Figure 2. Antique Ifugao house wares
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Central Asia around 30,000 years ago.

Archaeologists studied charred organic material
from two pottery sherds in an archaeological
research done in Old Kiyyangan Village in Ifugao to
determine when rice agriculture and cooking rice
first began in the Philippines. The study revealed
that the earthenware sherds were not from rice
pots, but rather from pots used to cook starchy
crops like taro, yams, and other root vegetables. It
demonstrates that the people of Ifugao utilised a
variety of food resources other than rice throughout Figure 3. Banaue rice terraces,
pre-colonial times. Starchy foods and domesticated system of irrigated rice terraces in
animals like as pigs, water buffalo, and fowl were the mountains of north-central
grown. They most likely maintained a relationship Luzon, Philippines, that were
created more than 2,000 years ago
with neighboring communities in order to hunt for
by the Ifugao people.
protein while clearing area to produce their crops.
These pieces of evidence support the concept that
early inhabitants in Ifugao were able to subsist without rice farming or intense agriculture in
general until colonization, when population densities increased, implying that intensive
agriculture emerged later.
Chinese traders and settlers arrived in the Philippines in 200 BC. Jars, which were a
symbol of prosperity, were among the objects cherished by the people. Furthermore, the
Malays remained the majority ethnic group throughout the 16th century. Filipino farmers began
practicing kaingin, or subsistence farming, at that time. Individuals were the owners of large
haciendas. The Galleon Trade was crucial to the early colonial economy. Mechanization was
widely used in agriculture during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Farm productivity and
efficiency have increased dramatically as a result of mechanization.
Nearly 8 million hectares (over 25% of total land) were under cultivation in the
Philippines in the late 1980s, with 4.5 million hectares in field crops and 3.2 million hectares
in tree crops. The amount of arable land per person employed in agriculture decreased from
around one hectare in the 1950s to roughly 0.5 hectare in the early 1980s due to population
expansion. Multicropping and higher yields have to account for the majority of the increase in
agricultural output. In 1988, double-cropping and intercropping yielded 13.4 million hectares
of harvested land, far more than the amount of land under cultivation. The two cereals
extensively farmed in the Philippines, palay (unhusked rice) and corn, accounted for nearly
half of total crop area. Coconuts, a major export earner, occupied another 25% of the
producing area. Sugarcane, pineapples, and Cavendish bananas (a dwarf kind) were also
significant foreign exchange earners, albeit accounting for a small percentage of total planted
land.
The agriculture industry has not gotten appropriate money for key programs or
projects, such as irrigation system construction. According to the World Bank, the Philippines
had only approximately 19.5 percent irrigated crop area in the mid-1990s, compared to 37.5
percent in China, 24.8 percent in Thailand, and 30.8 percent in Vietnam. With the Medium-
Term Agricultural Development Plan and the Agricultural Fisheries Modernization Act, the
government aimed to modernize the agriculture industry in the late 1990s.

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Commercial, municipal, and aquaculture fisheries are the three sub-sectors of the
fisheries sector (cultivation of the natural produce of bodies of water). The Philippines
produced 2.2 million tons of fish in 1995, accounting for 2% of the global catch, placing it 12th
among the top 80 fish-producing countries. In the same year, the country was named the
fourth largest producer of seaweed and the ninth largest producer of aquaculture products in
the world.
At current rates, the fisheries sector provided P80.4 billion in 1999, or 16 percent of
agriculture's gross value added. In 1999, total production was 2.7 million tons. Aquaculture
was the largest contributor, accounting for 949,000 tons, followed by commercial fishing
(948,000 tons) and municipal fisheries (911,000 tons). Domestic demand for fish is high, with
annual fish consumption averaging 36 kilograms per person, compared to 12 kilograms for
meat and other food products.
Lesson 3. Agriculture as an Economic factor in capitalist and non- capitalist societies
As an agricultural production
unit, the ideal type capitalist farm is
one in which all factors of production
(land, labor, capital, and
management) are acquired on the
market: Another way of putting it is
that the factors of production are
commodities with a market value.
The ideal typical capitalist farm (or
firm) is: I employees hired for salaries
(rather than recruited through non-
market ways); (ii) managed by
professionals (rather than family
Figure 4. Capitalist type of farming
members); and (iii) owned by
corporations who have invested their money in the farm. Land may be owned or rented in the
capital, just as it is for family farmers. To be financially viable, the capitalist farm, like other
capitalist companies, must provide a return on investment in the long term at rates comparable
to other types of investment. More specifically, the agricultural investment must generate
sufficient returns on all capital invested in all inputs of production, including land. As a result,
the capitalist farm must compete with other farms or businesses in the same markets (here
we are mainly concerned with output markets). Normally, many family farms would be rivals.
The pulls and pushes of the capitalist system, as all sectors strive to maximize profits,
produce an agriculture in which: (a) there are hungry people despite an abundance of food;
(b) there is little true cycling of nutrients, increasing reliance on fertilizers at the same time that
excess nutrients accumulate on factory animal farms and in the ci However, a rising number
of conventional farmers are adopting more ecologically friendly techniques such as planting
cover crops, minimizing tillage, and improving livestock treatment.
Several farmers have combined environmental and social goals into their farming
practices. The most renowned of these are Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) farms,
which are environmentally friendly (many are organic) and cultivate food for a specific group
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of people. Many offer sliding-scale pricing for families or other measures to accommodate low-
income individuals. These are basically non-capitalist endeavors, although operating in a
capitalist society. However, many of these merely provide a bare minimum of income to the
farmers. Other small-scale farmers use environmentally friendly procedures and good
rotations to cultivate for a variety of outlets, including restaurants and farmers markets.
However, some large-scale farms use “ecological” (or organic) methods as marketing tactics,
but from an economic standpoint, they are just another type of capitalist farm—doing less
damage to the environment, but generally not particularly pleasant to workers.
Figure 5. Non-capitalist type of farming
Lesson 4. Agriculture as an industry, a science and a profession
Agro-industries are those that use agricultural produce as a source of raw materials.
Agro-industries are a main means of transforming raw agricultural inputs into value-added
goods, as well as a source of income and employment, and they contribute to general
economic development. The scale of these businesses varies greatly, ranging from small-
scale cottage industries to large-scale factories. These industries are not just located in rural
locations where raw materials are produced; they can also be found in urban and emerging
urban areas. Agro-industries include a wide variety of technological levels, employ tens of
thousands of people around the world, and utilise both simple and complex processes. This
could be anything as simple as using solar drying to eliminate moisture before storing goods,
or it could be the utilization of cutting-edge processes and equipment for new or developing
technologies like food irradiation, high-pressure processing, pulse light treatments, and so on.
Because they are so diverse, it is difficult to classify agro-industries, however, the majority can
be considered to come within one of the following categories:
• Storage
• Pre- and post-distribution
• Packaging and marketing
• Food and beverage industries
• Fibers and textiles
• Abattoirs, and associated meat processing and leathers industries
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• Transport
• Farm and agro-industrial machinery
• Animal feeds
• Farm chemicals, including pesticides and fertilizers
Agriculture as a Science
Agricultural science is a vast multidisciplinary field of biology that comprises the

portions of exact, natural, economic, and social sciences that are applied in agricultural
practice and understanding. Agriculture refers to a series of actions that alter the environment
in order to produce animals and plants for human use. The following are the branches of
agriculture:
Branches of Agriculture
1. Crop production
It deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops, fodder crops,
fibre crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. It includes agronomy, plant breeding, soil science,
entomology, pathology, microbiology, etc.
2. Horticulture
Deals with the production of fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental plants, spices,
condiments, and beverages.
Five (5) main branches of Horticulture

a) Floriculture- Cultivation of flowers (cut and potted) and foliage
b) Pomology- Production and cultivation of fruit crops
c) Nursery/ Plant propagation- Development and dissemination of plant seeds,
shrubs, trees, ornamental plants, and ground covering
d) Olericulture- Farming, processing, storage, and marketing of all edible parts of
vegetables.
e) Landscape Horticulture-Design, construct, and take care of landscapes in homes,
businesses, and public areas.
3. Forestry
Deals with production of large scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying wood,
timber, rubber, etc. and also raw materials for industries.
4. Animal Husbandry
Deals with agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock in order to provide
food for humans and to provide power (draught) and manure for crops.
5. Fishery Science
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Deals with practice of breeding and rearing fishes including marine and inland fishes,
shrimps, prawns etc. in order to provide food, feed and manure.
6. Agricultural Engineering
Deals with farm machinery for field preparation, inter-cultivation, harvesting and post-
harvest processing including soil and water conservation engineering and bio-energy.
7. Home Science
Deals with application and utilization of agricultural products in a better manner in order
to provide nutritional security, including value addition and food preparation.
Agriculture as a Profession
Agriculture is an occupation that has existed since the dawn of humans, possibly for
thousands of years. Agriculture may have been the sole reason of our civilization's
emergence. People used to regard agriculture to be their way of life, and they would migrate
from one location to another in search of water to cultivate crops. This established the
groundwork for a culture, communities, and societal interactions, among other things. Farmers
who choose agriculture as a profession have a wealth of knowledge about a variety of topics
such as soil fertility, seasonal crops, rainfall forecasts, pesticides, crop rotation techniques,
farming equipment, and so on, that it demands to be treated as seriously as any other
profession in the world.
Farming experts confront the onerous task of keeping up with the increasingly rapid
advances in agricultural research and equipment technology. Biotechnology is being used in
industrial livestock operations, for example, to create healthier animals and enhance breed
development, resulting in more meat, eggs, and dairy products to suit market demand.
You can work in the agriculture sector if you have a degree in agricultural science.
Agribusiness, R&D organizations, public and private agencies, government and policy-making
institutions, and private consulting firms are all major domains within the agricultural sector.
Agricultural science is concerned with the production, processing, and productivity of crops,
as well as the final products for
customers. Agricultural science
specialists play a critical role in
ensuring the society's food supply.
Improving the quality and quantity of
farming, increasing agricultural
output, reducing labor, conserving
soil and water, and pest management
are all major efforts. Following are
some of the agricultural occupations Figure 6. Agriculturist gathering data
that agriculture students can pursue
after graduation.
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Agricultural Careers
1. Agronomist
Studies crops and soils and how they interact; how to get healthier crops (both field
crops and aquatic).
2. Animal Scientist
Studies the best and most nutritional diets for animals on the farm (including horses);
healthy babies for animal moms, diseases of animals.
3. Beekeeper
Cares for bees that produce honey; also uses bees to help farmers pollinate crops.
4. Agricultural Engineer
Designs machinery used for farming to produce more and better food
5. Entomologist
Studies insects and how they affect agriculture – both helpful, such as bees, and
harmful.
6. Food Scientist
Studies better ways to preserve, process, package, and distribute food, including
ingredients; studies what happens to color, flavor, nutritional properties when food is
cooked, shipped, or stored.
7. Horticulturist
Specializes in growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, and plants, and comes up with new
and different plants.
8. Marketing/ sales
Designs sales and marketing campaigns and advertisements, works with customers,
does market research.
9. Microscopist
Investigates using a microscope to study plant and animal cells, bacteria, and viruses
10. Nematologist
Studies worms (nematodes or roundworms) that don’t have segments like earthworms;
many are parasites that live on or in animals and plants.
11. Plant ecologist

Studies how plants grow, the effects of climate and soil.
12. Plant Geneticist

Studies plants’ genes and how to strengthen or weaken certain traits like tolerance to
cold, size, or sweetness of fruit.
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13. Plant Pathologist

Studies diseases of plants and ways to prevent or cure them.
14. Plant Physiologist

Studies life processes of plants and photosynthesis.
15. Soil conservationist

Takes care of the land/soil to prevent erosion, etc.
16. Soil Scientist

Studies properties of soil (sand, silt, clay ratios); effect on plants and what farmers can
do to get best results.
17. Veterinarian
Person who is an animal doctor and practices veterinary medicine. Veterinary medicine
is the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion,
domestic, exotic, wildlife, and production animals.
18. Agricultural researcher

Develop effective, safe and environmentally sustainable techniques for raising
livestock and harvesting crops. Specialty areas in this field can include animal science,
food science, bio resource science and soil science.
19. Extensionist
Application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through
farmer education.
20. Agricultural Instructor

Responsible for the instruction of Agriculture courses in the areas of Animal science,
Plant science and Agriculture business and management, and related courses for
majors and non-majors.
Suggested Reading
Magdoff, Fred. 2015. A Rational Agriculture is Incompatible with Capitalism. Monthly Review.
Retrieved July 2, 2020. https://monthlyreview.org/2015/03/01/a-rational-agriculture-is-
incompatible-with-capitalism/
Assessment
DISCUSSION. Briefly discuss the following.
1. Why did the ancient people transition from hunter-gatherer lifestyle to farming?
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2. Explain how agriculture began in the Philippines.
3. Differentiate the goals of a capitalist agriculture and non-capitalist agriculture.
4. Identify an agro-industry found in your town/province/country. Explain how they

convert raw agricultural materials into value added products. Explain ways they can
improve their production or sale.
5. Identify at least 1 agricultural career/profession that appeals to you. Explain why you
would want that career after graduating BS-Agriculture.
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UNIT II
Introduction to Agriculture and the

Ecosystems
Introduction
An agricultural ecosystem is one that is managed for a specific purpose, such as the
production of crops or animal products. Humans build agricultural ecosystems, which are
based on a vast history of experience and trials. In Western Europe, for example, the
emphasis has shifted from maximum productivity to environmental factors such as nutrient
losses to groundwater and maintaining an open landscape with high biodiversity, among other
things. Environmental concerns are still a low priority in less fertile places such as Sub-
Saharan Africa.
Agricultural ecosystems cover over 40% of the planet's total land surface. Arable land
(land that is farmed with crops) accounts for about 11% of the total land area, while permanent
pasture (land that is grazed by cattle, goats, sheep, camels, and other animals) accounts for
about 27% of the total land area. Plant biodiversity is exceedingly low; if weed management
is effective, only one species may be present. Despite this, belowground biodiversity can be
high, if not always as high as in natural habitats.
Learning Outcomes

a. Understand the impact of agriculture on the environment
b. Analyze the link of agriculture to the development of societies
Lesson Proper
Lesson 1. Agriculture and the Environment
Feeding an ever-increasing global population while decreasing environmental impact

and maintaining natural resources for future generations is a major problem for agriculture.
Agriculture can have a big environmental impact. While negative effects such as pollution and
deterioration of land, water, and air are important, agriculture can also have a positive impact
on the environment, such as trapping greenhouse gases inside crops and soils or lowering
flood risks through the employment of particular farming practices.
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The environmental impact of agriculture

refers to the influence that various farming
techniques have on the ecosystems in which they
operate, as well as how those effects can be linked
to those activities. Agriculture's environmental
impact varies depending on the wide range of
agricultural practices used around the world.
Finally, the environmental impact is determined by
the farming system's production processes. The
link between environmental emissions and the Figure 7. Farmer spraying herbicide
farming system is indirect because it is also
influenced by other climate variables such as rainfall and temperature. Other influences can
include the sorts of agricultural machinery employed, as well as the farmer's choice of how to
handle his or her cattle.
There are two types of environmental impact indicators: "means-based," which is
based on the farmer's production methods, and "effect-based," which is based on the influence
of farming practices on the farming system or on environmental emissions. The quality of
groundwater, which is affected by the amount of nitrogen given to the soil, is an example of a
means-based indicator. Effect-based indicators would represent the loss of nitrate to
groundwater. The means-based evaluation examines farmers' agricultural practices, whereas
the effect-based evaluation assesses the agricultural system's real impacts. For example, a
means-based analysis may look at pesticides and fertilization methods used by farmers,
whereas an effect-based analysis might look at how much CO2 is emitted or how much
nitrogen is in the soil.
Agriculture's environmental impact is influenced by a number of aspects, including soil,
water, air, animal and soil variety, people, plants, and the food itself. Climate change,
deforestation, dead zones, genetic engineering, irrigation concerns, pollution, soil
degradation, and waste are some of the environmental
issues associated with agriculture.
Soil quality (sustainability concerns)
Contamination, erosion, desertification, nutrient

delivery, and moisture balance are all issues here.
Changes in land use practices such as deforestation,
hedgerow removal, overgrazing, ignoring soil
conservation strategies, or cropping of uncultivated land
can all harm soils. In Mediterranean countries, soil
erosion is a particularly serious issue.
Water quality and quantity (pollution concerns)
Nutrient and pesticide leaching, water extraction

and drainage, and floods are all issues here.
Contamination of ground and surface waters due to high Figure 8. Water pollution due to
levels of production and usage of manure and chemical dairy farming in the Wairarapa
fertilizers is a severe concern, especially in places area of New Zealand
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where extensive livestock or specialist crop cultivation is practiced. In places where water
usage surpasses critical levels in relation to available water resources, water quantity issues
develop. Agriculture is the greatest significant user of water in the Mediterranean portions of
Europe, with an increasing area of irrigated farmland. The best way to distribute limited water
supplies among competing applications is a pressing challenge.
Air quality (pollution concerns)
The challenges here include greenhouse gas emissions and ammonia emissions.
Agriculture produces roughly 8% of overall greenhouse gas emissions in the EU, but it is the
primary source of methane (from cow production) and nitrogen oxide (from grazing animals),
accounting for around 40% of these two pollutants.
Biodiversity (conservation concerns)
Genetic, species, and environmental variety are all issues to consider. Agriculture
intensification has resulted in widespread extinction of species and habitats. However, over
two-fifths of the EU's agricultural land is still under low-intensity systems, primarily grazing
land managed through various animal management systems or permanent crops managed
through traditional methods. They protect semi-natural areas and endangered wildlife species,
yet they are at risk of being abandoned or intensified. These dangers could be exacerbated in
the future if food prices rise in response to rising food and biofuels demand.
Landscape (amenity concerns)
It's more of a cultural and aesthetic issue. If farming becomes unprofitable,

marginalization of agricultural land might lead to its abandonment. In contrast, agricultural
intensification can result in the loss of essential landscape elements like hedges and ponds,
as well as the expansion of fields and the replacement of traditional farm buildings with
industrial constructions. In the purpose of more effective farming, access rights may be limited.
Concerns about food safety and animal welfare
Rather than the physical environment, the impact of agricultural practices on human
health is at issue. There is also worry about the impact of increased pesticide and medicine
use on the quality and safety of the food supply, leading to a push for organic farming.
Current and emerging solutions
Reduction of pollution by fertilizer
To limit fertilizer pollution, the EU and North America have used a variety of research
and regulatory measures, including research on slow release and other less polluting
formulations; stricter emission and discharge standards for fertilizer factories, as well as higher
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fines; public and private advisory (extension) services; physical limits on the use of manure
and mineral fertilizers; and application restrictions.
Reducing pesticide pollution
To assess the safety of pesticides before they are put on the market, rigorous testing
methods must be in place. In the past, developed countries have struggled with this issue and
have had to tighten their protocols. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and
other channels must be used to exchange pesticide safety information with developing
countries. Furthermore, as more developing countries begin to produce pesticides and create
their own products, it is critical that they establish their own testing, licensing, and control
methods. Pest control techniques should be used as part of an integrated pest management
strategy that aims to eliminate or reduce the use of pesticides.
Improving water management
Water scarcity and competition for water across sectors are key issues. Groundwater
recharging is also hampered as a result of deforestation and soil deterioration. Salinization is
the most important direct environmental problem. To limit salinization, three main actions could
be taken: I increased investment in better drainage and distribution canals, despite the fact
that planners have been slow to act on this option in the past; (ii) improved water management,
such as increased farmer participation in water users' associations and similar bodies; and (iii)
stronger economic incentives for water conservation.
Promotion of organic farming
Organic farming is a crop and livestock

production system that entails much more than
avoiding the use of pesticides, fertilizers, GMOs,
antibiotics, and growth hormones. Organic farming is a
holistic approach aimed at increasing the productivity
and fitness of agro-ecosystem groups such as soil
organisms, plants, livestock, and people. Crop rotations
and cover crops are encouraged in organic farming, as
are balanced host/predator relationships. On the farm,
organic leftovers and nutrients are recycled back into
the soil. To keep soil organic matter and fertility up,
cover crops and composted manure are utilized. Crop
rotation, enhanced genetics, and resistant varieties are
used as preventative pest and disease management
measures. On an organic farm, integrated pest and
weed management, as well as soil conservation Figure 9. Soybeans with a thick
techniques, are essential tools. mat of cereal rye cover crop
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Lesson 2. Agriculture and Society
An agricultural society, sometimes known as an agrarian society, is one in which social

order is built around a reliance on agriculture. Farming provides a living for more than half of
the people in that society.
The shift from hunter-gatherer and horticultural civilizations to agrarian societies was
preceded by the transition from hunter-gatherer and horticultural societies to industrial
societies. The Neolithic Revolution, or shift to agriculture, has occurred several times
separately. Horticulture and agriculture as forms of subsistence emerged in the Fertile
Crescent region of the Middle East between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago. Climate change and
the stockpiling of food excess for competitive gift-giving are two possible explanations for the
development of agriculture. After a long period when some crops were intentionally cultivated
and other foods were obtained from the wild, there was undoubtedly a gradual transition from
hunter-gatherer to agrarian cultures. Aside from the Fertile Crescent, agriculture appeared in
East Asia (rice) by at least 6,800 B.C.E. and subsequently in Central and South America
(maize and squash). Small-scale agriculture is also thought to have emerged independently
in India (rice) and Southeast Asia during the early Neolithic period (taro). However, it wasn't
until the Bronze Age that people became completely reliant on cultivated crops and animals,
with natural resources contributing just a minor nutritional component to the diet.
When less than half of the population is directly involved in agriculture production,
agrarian civilizations transition to industrial societies. Such civilizations began to emerge as a
result of the Commercial and Industrial Revolution, which began in the Mediterranean city-
states between 1000 and 1500 C.E. Classical knowledge was reacquired from scattered
sources as European cultures grew during the Middle Ages, and a new set of maritime trading
organizations arose in Europe. The city-states of Venice, Florence, Milan, and Genoa were at
the forefront of the early innovations. By the year 1500, a number of these city-states had most
likely met the criteria of having half of their populace engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and
had become commercial society. These little states were highly urbanized, imported a lot of
food, and were trading and manufacturing hubs in a way that conventional agrarian cultures
were not.
Industrial technology, the application of mechanical sources of energy to an ever-
increasing variety of production challenges, was the culminating development, which is
currently ongoing. By 1800, Britain's agricultural population had shrunk to around a third of the
entire population. By the mid-nineteenth century, non-farm occupations employed more than
half of the population in all Western European countries, as well as the United States of
America. Even now, the Industrial Revolution is far from replacing agrarianism with
industrialism fully. Even while most largely agrarian civilizations include a significant industrial
component, only a fraction of the world's people live in industrialized nations today.
Crop breeding, better soil nutrient management, and enhanced weed control have all
contributed to higher yields per unit area. Simultaneously, the introduction of mechanization
has reduced the amount of labor required. Because it lacks the newest science, capital, and
technology, the developing world produces poorer yields. Agriculture employs more people
than any other economic activity on the planet, although it only accounts for 4% of global GDP.
In the twentieth century, the fast expansion of mechanization, particularly in the shape of the
tractor, eliminated the need for humans to do the physically difficult chores of seeding,
harvesting, and threshing. These chores could be completed at a speed and scale never seen
before, thanks to mechanization. These advancements have resulted in a significant increase
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in agricultural yields, resulting in a decrease in the percentage of people in developed

countries who are forced to labor in agriculture to feed the rest of the population.
Suggested Reading
Bruinsma, Jelle. 2003. World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030. A FAO Perspective. Earthscan
Publications Ltd. pp 332-355. Retrieved June 28, 2020. http://www.fao.org/3/a-y4252e.pdf
Assessment
1. Explain agricultural practices in the farm in your town or province that may have
negative impact on the environment. Recommend solutions to lessen their damage to
the environment.
2. Discuss the cause of transition of agrarian societies into industrial societies.
3. How did the rise of mechanization help the farmers? Cite some examples.
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UNIT III
Analysis of Food Production and

Population Growth in Developed and
Developing Countries
Introduction
Every major advancement in agriculture has resulted in an increase in global

population. Early farmers were able to rely on a consistent food supply. Irrigation, the capacity
to efficiently clear large swathes of land for farming, and the advent of fossil-fuel-powered
agricultural machinery allowed humans to grow more food and carry it to where it was needed.
On the other hand, for the population to continue to rise, more agricultural advancements and
an ever-increasing quantity of water will be required. Our ingenuity has expanded human
carrying capacity by cultivating crops, bartering for required goods, and devising new ways to
harness difficult-to-access resources, such as groundwater. And the majority of these
resources are scarce. Is it possible that we have now exceeded the planet's carrying capacity,
despite the fact that we have expanded its carrying capacity?
Learning Outcomes

a. Analyze the correlation of food production and population growth in developed and
developing countries
b. Determine the impact of food production and population growth to the quality of life of
the people
Lesson Proper
Between 2009 and 2050, the world's population is predicted to increase by more than
a third, or 2.3 billion people. This is a far slower pace of growth than in the previous four
decades, when it increased by 3.3 billion people, or about 90%. The emerging world is
expected to account for nearly all of this expansion. Sub-Saharan Africa would have the fastest
population growth (+114%), while East and Southeast Asia will have the slowest (+13%).
Urbanization is expected to accelerate, with urban regions accounting for 70% of global
population in 2050 (up from 49%) and rural populations actually dropping after a high
somewhere in the next decade. At the same time, per capita earnings are expected to be a
multiple of current levels by 2050. Analysts agree that recent patterns of emerging countries'
economies rising much faster than industrialized countries' economies are expected to
continue in the future. By 2050, there would be a significant reduction in relative income
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inequality. However, given the current substantial discrepancies in absolute per capita
incomes, absolute differences would remain apparent and could even widen further.
Furthermore, within today's developing globe, inter-country and inter-regional inequalities are
likely to become increasingly pronounced.
The expected global economic growth rate of around 2.9 percent per year would result
in a significant reduction, if not complete elimination, of absolute “economic” poverty in
developing nations (defined as people living on less than US$1.25 per day in 2005 prices).
Nonetheless, the globe will be far from eliminating the problem of economic deprivation and
hunger of large segments of the population even in 2050: the US$1.25/day poverty level is
simply too low. Deprivation and undernutrition will continue to be pervasive, though to a lesser
extent than they are now. These patterns indicate that food demand will continue to rise. By
2050, demand for cereals for food and animal feed is expected to reach 3 billion tons, up from
approximately 2.1 billion tons presently. Depending on energy prices and government policy,
the introduction of biofuels has the ability to change some of the expected patterns and create
a rise in global demand. Other food products that are more responsive to rising wages in
emerging countries (such as livestock and dairy products, as well as vegetable oils) will
expand at a considerably quicker rate than cereals. According to the forecasts, feeding a world
population of 9.1 billion people in 2050 will necessitate a 70 percent increase in overall food
production between 2005/07 and 2050. In poorer countries, production would have to nearly
quadruple. This would result in considerable increases in the production of a number of
important commodities. Annual cereal production, for example, would have to increase by
about one billion tons, and meat production by more than 200 million tons, to a total of 470
million tons in 2050, with 72 percent of that in developing nations, up from 58 percent now. To
sufficiently feed the world's population, it would be necessary to produce the types of foods
that are currently unavailable in order to provide nutrition security.
Figure 10. World population growth of developed and developing countries
Agricultural commodity trade is also predicted to grow significantly. Net cereal imports
into developing nations, for example, would nearly triple to over 300 million tons by 2050,
accounting for 14% of total cereal consumption, up from 9.2% in 2006/08. In the region most
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reliant on food imports (the Near East/North Africa), cereal self-sufficiency will remain low,
falling from 59 percent in 2006/08 to 54 percent in 2050. On the other hand, Latin America
and the Caribbean, which is currently a net cereals deficit zone, may become entirely self-
sufficient as a result of the region's key countries' excess production capacity. Self-sufficiency
in the other regions may fall slightly, but it will remain in the 80 to 95 percent range, compared
to 83 to 100 percent now. In terms of other important commodities, net exports of oilseeds and
vegetable oils from emerging nations would more than treble to 25 million tons (in oil
equivalent) by 2050, while net exports of sugar would double to 20 million tons. Because all
three commodity groupings are used as feedstocks in biofuel production, the introduction of
biofuels has the potential to change these prospects.
According to current forecasts, daily energy availability per person might reach 3050
kcal by 2050 (2970 kcal in developing countries), up from 2770 kcal in 2003/05. However, the
same forecasts show that increasing production alone will not be enough to provide universal
food security. While the frequency of chronic undernourishment in developing nations might
reduce from 16.3 percent (823 million) in 2003/05 to 4.8 percent in 2050 if governments ensure
that the poor and vulnerable have better access to food, this would still leave 370 million
people undernourished in 2050. The declines would be most pronounced in Asia (both East
and South Asia), but less so in Sub-Saharan Africa, of the three developing regions with the
highest numbers of undernourished people now. The World Food Summit goal of half the
number of hungry people by 2015 (from 813 million in 1990/92) may not be met until the 2040s,
based on current projections. The need of putting in place efficient poverty reduction methods,
safety nets, and rural development programs is highlighted by these estimates.
Assessment
1. Explain how poverty and the growing population will affect the people’s health and
ability to access food.
2. Should the government invest more in agriculture with the current state poverty and
population growth. Explain your answer.
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UNIT IV
Overview of Philippine Agriculture

Introduction
Agriculture is very important in the Philippine economy. Although agriculture employs

over 30% of the population, it only accounts for 12% of GDP. Almost 5 million farmers cultivate
9.7 million hectares, or almost 30% of the country's total land area. The top four crops grown
are coconut, rice, maize, and sugarcane. Despite the fact that the economy is shifting away
from agriculture and toward services and industry, agriculture remains critical to the
government's goal of being food self-sufficient.
Learning Outcomes

a. Assess the state of agriculture and the local famers in the Philippines
b. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of industrialization
Lesson Proper
Lesson 1. Resources
As of 2016, the Philippines' agricultural land (percentage of total land area) was 41.72
percent. It reached a peak of 41.72 in 2016 and a low of 25.86 in 1961 over the previous 55
years. The largest land area is occupied by Region IV (15.6%), followed by Region XI (10.6%),
Region X (9.4%), Region II (8.9%), and Region VIII (8.9%). (7.1 percent ). Region VII is the
smallest in terms of land size, accounting for only 5.0 percent of the total land area. The land
acreage and agricultural area per region are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Land area and agricultural area by region in the Philippines
Region Total Land Area1 Agricultural Land Area2

(‘000 ha) (‘000 ha)
NCR 63.60 -
CAR 1,829.36 425.39
I 1,284.02 519.92
II 2,683.76 2,021.44
III 1,823.08 1,087.85
IV 4,692.42 2,001.41
V 1,763.25 983.77
VI 2,022.32 1,072.18
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VII 1,495.14 730.25

VIII 2,143.27 921.23
IX 1,873.01 1,040.75
X 2,832.77 1,296.05
XI 3,169.28 1,263.00
XII 2,332.32 1,378.61
Philippines 30,000.00 14,741.85
Because it is an archipelago, the country has a vast spread of coastal and inland water
resources that are around seven times greater than its land resources. Over 220 million
hectares of marine waters, spanning over 17,600 kilometers of coastline, are under the
sovereignty of the government. This area includes: (a) the archipelagic waters enclosed within
the 80 straight baselines drawn from the outermost points of the outermost islands as defined
by the Archipelago Concept, (b) the territorial sea as defined by the Treaty of Paris, and (c)
the 200 nautical mile marine area, which is further divided into the coastal zone (26.6 million
ha), the oceanic zone (193.4 million ha), and the coastal zone (26.6 million ha) as defined by
the Treaty of Paris (BFAR, 1994).
Table 2. Fishery resources of the Philippines in 1994
A. Marine Resources
1. Total Territorial Water Area (including the EEZ) 220,000,000 ha
a. Coastal 26,600,00 ha
(12% of the total)
b. Oceanic 193,400,00 ha
(88% of the total)
2. Shelf Area (depth 200m) 18,460,000 ha

(8% of the total)
3. Coral Reef Area 27,000 km2

(within the 10-20 fathoms where reef fisheries occur)
4. Coastline (length) 17,460 km
B. INLAND RESOURCES
1. Swamplands 338,393 ha
a. Freshwater 106,328 ha
b. Brackishwater 232,065 ha
2. Existing Fishpond 253,854 ha
a. Freshwater 14,531 ha
b. Brackishwater 239,323 ha
3. Other Inland Resources 250,000 ha
a. Lakes 200,000 ha
b. Rivers 31,000 ha
c. Reservoirs 19,000 ha
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239,323 hectares of brackishwater fishponds (functioning and abandoned) and

232,065 ha of swamplands make up the country's coastal and estuarine resources. Inland
rivers cover around 31,000 hectares, whereas freshwater lakes cover approximately 200,000
hectares. Freshwater fishponds cover 14,531 hectares, reservoirs cover 19,000 hectares, and
freshwater swamplands cover 106,328 hectares. The Philippines' ten largest lakes cover a
combined size of 189,048 hectares, with Laguna de Bay (89,076 hectares) accounting for
roughly half of that.
Table 3. Ten major lakes of the Philippines
Lake Location Area (ha)

Laguna de Bay Laguna and Rizal 89,076
Lake Lanao Lanao del Sur 34,000
Taal Lake Batangas 24,356
Lake Mainit Surigao del Norte-Agusan 17,430
Naujan Lake Oriental Mindoro 7,899
Lake Buluan South Cotabato 6,134
Lake Bato Camarines Sur 3,792
Lake Pagusi Agusan 2,534
Lake Labas South Cotabato 2,141
Lake Lumao Agusan 168
Figure 11. Naujan Lake, Oriental Mindoro (left) and Taal Lake, Batangas (right)
Lesson 2. Production system
Depending on the crop and use, there are various types of agricultural production
systems. Farmers' choice of feed or row crop is determined by the traditional, organic, or
conventional management practices accessible to them. Farmers earn from the production
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and management of corn, soybean, and tobacco crops. Crop production also involves the feed
and resource inputs needed to produce the crops needed to keep the dairy herd healthy and
contribute to the meat sector. Corn grain or silage, alfalfa hay and silage, soybean and
soybean meal are among the feeds grown. Farmers feed their animals food supplements or
minerals, as well as grass or hay for foraging. Equipment or machinery, tractor fuel, herbicides,
fertilizers, and packing materials are all examples of resource inputs in agricultural production.
Due to the availability of
specific natural resources and other
circumstances, numerous hybrid
crop production methods have
emerged. Mixed, subsistence, and
plantation farming are examples of
food crop production methods. Mixed
farming is an agricultural system in
which farmers cultivate crops and
rear livestock on the same piece of
land. Various crops with different
maturation times are cultivated at the
same time throughout the season
utilizing optimal methods and
adequate rainfall or irrigation. Figure 12. Mixed farming system
Subsistence farming allows farmers
to produce food on small plots of land using rudimentary farm gear. Farmers in this method
are considered poor since they do not use electricity, irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, or
improved crops, resulting in lower yield.
Plantation farming, also known as tree crop farming, is an agricultural farming style in
which farmers produce a single crop on a vast amount of land, such as cocoa, tea, coffee,
rubber, spices, or fruits such as coconut, avocado, and mangoes. The system necessitates
strong management and technical abilities, as well as a significant capital investment in
machinery, fertilizers, and other infrastructure. Farmers clean an area of forest land by cutting
and burning vegetation remnants to plant crops for three to five years in a shifting farming
technique. Due to a loss of fertility, the farmer abandons the land for a fallow time and relocates
to more fertile ground to cultivate. After years of restoring fertility, the procedure is repeated,
and former lands are cultivated. Nomadic and pastoral farming are the most prevalent
methods of feed production, and they are conducted on a local or commercial scale to cultivate
solely annual crops such cassava, vegetables, grains, and legumes without mixed or pastoral
farming.
Pastoral or pastoral farming avoids crops in favor of rearing livestock for dairy farming,
beef cattle, or wool production. Farmers feed their cattle using available feed resources on
fixed pasture pastures rather than traveling about as in nomadic farming. When overgrazing
damages natural fields, forcing farmers to acquire feed for the herd, this approach is costly
and unsustainable. Nomadic farming is related to pastoral farming in that herders move
livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, horses, and donkeys in search of water and adequate
grazing grounds.
Lowland irrigated farming, rainfed farming, and upland farming are the three major
agricultural systems. Rice and sugarcane are grown mostly in irrigated farm regions, whereas
coconut, corn, and cassava are grown in rainfed agricultural areas. Rice, coconuts, corn,
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sugarcane, bananas, pineapples, and mangoes are among the Philippines' most important
agricultural products.
In 2018, palay production reached 19.07 million metric tons, a 5.73 percentage point
increase above the previous year's record. Corn production increased by 4.93 percentage
points to 7.77 million metric tons in 2013, compared to 2012. Meanwhile, output levels of
coconut (14.73 million metric tons) and sugarcane (24.73 million metric tons) in 2018 were
7.17 and 6.31 percentage points lower than the previous year's records, respectively. Other
significant crops such as coffee, mango, garlic, cabbage, calamansi, and rubber also saw
reduced output levels in 2018. On the other side, onion production increased by 38.25
percentage points in 2018, as did cassava production by 22.48 percentage points, eggplant
production by 15.55 percentage points, pineapple production by 13.90 percentage points, and
mongo production by 13.28 percentage points. The percentage increases in banana, tobacco,
abaca, peanut, sweet potato, and tomato output varied from 1.00 to 8.46 percent.
Philippines agricultural products are exported to countries all over the world, including
the United States, Japan, Europe, and ASEAN countries (members of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations). Coconut oil and other coconut products, fruits and vegetables,
bananas, and prawns are all major export items (a type of shrimp). The Cavendish banana,
Cayenne pineapple, tuna, seaweed, and carrageenan are among the other products exported.
Exports of coconut products peaked at $989 million in 1995, but dropped to $569 million by
2000. Unmilled wheat and meslin, oilcake and other soybean wastes, malt and malt flour,
urea, flour, fish meals and pellets, soybeans, and whey are among the agricultural items
imported.
The agriculture industry has not gotten appropriate money for key programs or
projects, such as irrigation system construction. According to the World Bank, the Philippines
had only approximately 19.5 percent irrigated crop area in the mid-1990s, compared to 37.5
percent in China, 24.8 percent in Thailand, and 30.8 percent in Vietnam. With the Medium-
Term Agricultural Development Plan and the Agricultural Fisheries Modernization Act, the
government aimed to modernize the agriculture industry in the late 1990s..
Lesson 3. Small- hold farming and Agri- business
A smallholding is a type of farm that is not large enough to be considered a full-fledged

farm. Smallholdings are often farms with a combination of income crops and subsistence
farming that support a single family. Smallholdings may not be self-sufficient as a country gets
more prosperous, but they are appreciated mostly for the rural lifestyle they provide for their
owners, who do not often earn a living from the farm. Around the world, there are an estimated
500 million smallholder farms that support about two billion people. According to the Philippine
Statistics Authority's (PSA) 2016 Census of Agriculture, the Philippines has 5.56 million
farms/holdings totaling 7.19 million hectares. This means that the average size of a farm in
the Philippines is 1.29 hectares, with the majority comprising small-scale family farms. Even
more intriguing is the fact that 38 percent of the 5.56 million farms are less half a hectare in
size.
Agriculture-related operations that bring together farmers, processors, distributors, and
consumers in a system that produces, processes, transports, markets, and distributes
agricultural products are referred to as agribusiness.
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Acquiring farming technologies, training in more sophisticated farming techniques,

creating stable supply chains, establishing transportation and agricultural infrastructure,
investing in research and development, and securing a reliable property rights regime are all
necessary steps in transforming agricultural farming into a thriving agribusiness-driven sector.
These operations have the potential to contribute not just to diversifying and enhancing
the value of agribusiness outputs, but also to the Philippine government's inclusive economic
and rural development objectives. As a result, the agriculture sector is well positioned to
contribute significantly to the Philippine economy's industrial development.
The Magna Carta for small farmers
The primary goal of Republic Act 7607 is to provide an equitable distribution of

advantages and opportunities by empowering small farmers. The law acknowledges the
government's responsibility for small farmers' welfare and development by assisting them in
achieving their socioeconomic goals. Small farmers, farm laborers, farmers' cooperatives, and
groups are encouraged to participate in the design, organization, management, and
implementation of agricultural programs and projects under the law.
The Philippine government is using innovative technologies and a dynamic monitoring
and assessment system to help small-scale farmers and fishermen boost their marketable
surpluses and gain access to markets.
The Philippine Rural Development Project, or PRDP, is a six-year, country-wide project
led by the Department of Agriculture and co-funded by the World Bank, the national
government, and local governments. The project, which started in 2014, intends to boost
incomes, productivity, and competitiveness by combining improved infrastructure, economic
activity, technology, and information.
Lesson 4. Need for balanced Agro- industrial growth in agricultural production
Because of its perceived negative externalities both for the environment (Barrett et al.,
2001) and for small farmers, agro-industry is often considered as the antithesis of sustainable
development (Reardon et al., 2009). Recalling the last few decades of the twentieth century,
Reardon, Barrett, and colleagues point out that deregulated globalization, lower tariff barriers
and transportation costs, price wars, and technological progress have all shaped agro-
industrialization, i.e., the trend toward vertical integration, the race for higher yields, the use of
intensive chemical inputs, and downward pressure on producer prices, among other things.
While the externalities from this wave of agro-industrialization are not always negative, when
they are, the price paid is often very high, both in terms of the environment (deforestation,
GHG emissions, biodiversity loss, soil depletion, and pollution of aquatic environments) and
in terms of equity (smallholders being excluded from the market or even from their own land if
traditional land rights are violated).
Technical improvement, on the other hand, allows for the development of crop varieties
that need less water, and worldwide export markets can assist with securing long-term
agricultural employment and avoiding land artificialization (Barrett et al., 2009). As a result,
the record is a bit of a mixed bag. In reality, the circumstances in which agro-industrialization
occurs are decisive: national regulations can provide a framework for preventing, reducing, or
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offsetting negative externalities insofar as its development is controlled – which is not always
the case in countries with insufficient technical, financial, or human resources. Finally,
increased demand for higher-quality, environmentally friendly products and more equitable
trading methods can improve environmental and social outcomes.
In other words, agro-industrialization that adheres to sustainable development
principles is conceivable provided small producers are included, the environment is respected,
and prices and quality remain competitive, even in the face of severe worldwide competition.
This issue of our journal will primarily focus on offering answers to these concerns, which are
critical to several of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (i.e., hunger,
poverty, employment and sustainable production and consumption methods).
Assessment
1. How would you relate the available resources in an area to the type crops, scale
(large/small), agricultural practices (fishing and farming practices) and production
system in that area? Give some examples.
2. How would agribusiness help small- hold farmers increase their income? Give some
examples.
3. Why is there a need for a balanced agro-industrial growth?
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UNIT V
Profile of the Filipino Farmer

Introduction
Agriculture is an important part of the Philippines' economic environment. It contributes

actively to national development, particularly in rural areas. Small-scale family farm holdings,
on the other hand, dominate the industry. The majority of farmers are poor, have no education,
are subject to physical and economic risks, and are financially stressed because they have no
savings or, worse, are in debt. The pressure on farming families to keep afloat is saddling
because agriculture is a dangerous financial and social endeavor.
Learning Outcomes

a. Evaluate the status of the Filipino Farmers
b. Identify the needs and aspirations of farmers
Lesson Proper
Lesson 1. Socio-cultural and economic status; needs and aspirations
Age of Worker
The age profile of agricultural workers has shifted slightly since 2008, with a higher
share of older workers and a lower proportion of younger workers. This is consistent with long-
term trends in farming: in a long-term longitudinal survey, the average age of farmers has risen
from 46 years in 1966 to 59 years in 1966. (Over time, the panel has replaced a number of
respondents who have retired from farming.) Farmers' aging is typical in developing countries,
because younger employees prefer non-farm jobs (Moya et al., 2015).
This shows that many subsequent generations have abandoned their family's farms in
search of greener pastures, excitement, and comfort in the city. Farmer-parents also appear
to do little, if anything, to persuade their children to stay on the farm. Of course, no parent
would wish for his children to have such a difficult and unrewarding existence. This trend will
become more pervasive as rural life becomes more unhappy and desperate. The Filipino
farmer faces extinction if this condition continues.
Table 4. Distribution of workers by age bracket, 2015 and 2008
Age Workers (%)

2015
15-24 18.8
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25-54 61.5
55-64 12.5
65< 7.1
Total 100.0
2008
15-24 20.6
25-54 60.8
55-64 11.5
65< 7.0
Total 100.0
Education of Worker
Among the basic sectors, agriculture has the least educated workforce. Approximately
one-third of agricultural laborers did not complete high school. Secondary school students
account for about 38% of the total. Agricultural employees, on the other hand, make up only
a quarter of the workforce. Farm laborers and their families confront a particular set of hurdles
when it comes to obtaining a high school diploma. Work is the most significant barrier between
adult farm laborers and formal schooling. Farm workers are paid below-poverty pay for doing
backbreaking work for lengthy periods of time. Survival may be more important to them than
going to school. Even if they had the time, energy, and financial resources to attend school,
educational institutions are typically located far from farm worker settlements, with few
transportation options.
Table 5. Distribution of workers by educational attainment, 2015 and 2008
Age Workers (%)

2015
Primary 33
Secondary 38
Tertiary undergraduate 26
Tertiary graduate 2
All workers 100
2008
Primary 35
Secondary 40
Tertiary undergraduate 23
Tertiary graduate 2
All workers 100
Lesson 3. Gender
Agriculture is a male‐dominated sector. It is said that heavy labor demands in

agriculture have kept women out of the fields, and they are only now becoming independent
farmers because new technologies make farming less physically demanding.
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Table 6. Distribution of workers by educational attainment, 2015 and 2008
Gender Workers (%)

Female 26
Male 74
Needs and Aspirations of Farmers
In comparison to the average worker, agricultural laborers are older, primarily male,
and have less education. According to the National Network of Agrarian Reform Advocates-
Network, seven out of ten farmers do not own their own land (NNARA Youth). On paper, there
are agrarian reforms that are only partially implemented. Farmers face an outdated way of
farming that employs a manual procedure or rents tools and equipment from landlords for a
large fee, in addition to not having their own land to till. Agricultural sugar workers are believed
to earn between P500 and P750 per week on average.
In terms of agricultural productivity and land reform, the Philippines has fallen behind
our Asian neighbors. We used to teach farming practices to the Thais. They are now well
ahead of us. Previously, they had not grown sugar. They are currently growing 4 million tons.
Only 2 million people are being added to the population.
Aspirations
Farmers' hopes for their

children are to be linked with the
Filipino culture, which is
characterized by youngsters
respecting parental authority
and valuing parental counsel
and decisions (Ray 2003;
Appadurai 2004). (Almirol 1982;
Jocano 1997; Palis 2002). As a
result, farmers' hopes for their
children to work in rice farming or
nonfarm jobs in cities or abroad
could have a significant impact Figure 13. Filipino Farmers
on the country's food security
and sufficiency.
With the real-life challenges of rice growing — physical, financial, and psychological –
most rice farmers did not want their children to follow in their footsteps. Rice cultivation is a
physically demanding work for them, but it is not financially lucrative. As a result, they largely
considered that rice cultivation had no future, as reported by Tafere and Woldehanna (2012)
and Verkaart et al (2018). '
Our country's famous folk song, "Planting rice is never pleasant," or Magtanim ay di
biro, vividly depicts the difficulties of rice planting. A farmer is seen bending all day long while
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planting rice; he or she is unable to sit, stand, or even relax for a short period of time. “My
waist and back are hurting, especially during and after transplanting the rice seedlings,” Aling
Tasya explained. I have to put up with these discomforts in order to feed my family.”
Assessment
1. How would the current age of majority of Filipino farmers affect the future of food
production in the country? Explain.
2. Does the level of education of the Filipino farmers affect their ability to improve their
farms’ production and profit? Explain.
3. As an agriculture student and a future agriculturist, how would you be able to help
farmers obtain their needs and achieve their aspirations.
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UNIT VI
Agriculture and Development

Introduction
The Philippines faces numerous development obstacles, including the major

challenges of improving the rural poor's quality of life and boosting the country's food
production capability. The population has surpassed 85 million people and is rising at a 1.9
percent annual rate. Currently, 40% of households are poor, with much of the severe poverty
concentrated in the Visayas' rural districts. The country's natural resources are being strained
by its rising population.
Learning Outcomes

a. Explain the status of agriculture in rural areas
b. Discuss the goals and strategies to improve agriculture
c. Identify the organizations and institutions connected to agriculture
Lesson Proper
Lesson 1. Agriculture and rural poverty in developing countries and underdeveloped

countries
Agriculture is known as the developing world's backbone. It accounts for 30 to 60

percent of overall GDP and employs roughly 70 percent of the workforce. When compared to
other industries in developing countries, the agriculture business appears to employ a large
number of people. In other words, in most developing countries, agriculture is the primary
source of employment. This is because the farm owner frequently discovers that greater labor
is required in order to successfully develop the land and care for the cattle. However, work
prospects are expanding not only on farms, but also in agro processing, advertising, and
packaging. As a result, if the agricultural sector improves, it will benefit developing countries
by lowering unemployment.
Furthermore, the agriculture sector aids in the full utilization of underutilized land in
developing countries. The development of agricultural output resulted in the cultivation of a
large amount of formerly uncultivated land. Obviously, developing countries lack the financial
resources to develop undeveloped territory. It is a waste of resources to leave a large tract of
fertile land unplanted. As a result, emerging countries are particularly interested in foreign
investors' promise to develop agricultural land.
According to the “one-dollar-a-day threshold,” 1.2 billion people live in poverty in
developing countries. And 780 million of these people suffer from chronic hunger, which
indicates that their daily calorie intake is insufficient for them to live healthy and productive
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lives. Moreover, millions of people suffer from specific dietary deficiencies in one form or
another. The majority of the world's hungry dwell in countries classified as low-income and
food-deficit. They are mostly found in underdeveloped countries, with Africa accounting for
more than half of them. These countries do not produce enough food to meet domestic
demand, and they may not have enough foreign exchange to make up the difference by buying
food on the international market. This type of circumstance becomes more serious when they
are dealing with natural disasters that result in the loss of crops and livestock, as well as
exceptionally high food prices on the worldwide market. To properly feed people, agribusiness
must improve its conservation goals by diversifying the food chain and recovering ecosystems.
The agriculture sector can help to alleviate hunger by ensuring food security in
underdeveloped countries. In recent years, the progress toward food security appears to have
halted. The rate of agricultural production growth is slowing, world grain reserves are at historic
lows, and aid pledges to agricultural development are shrinking, all of which is driving up
demand for imported grain. This is obviously in contrast to the current scenario in emerging
countries, which is marked by population growth. The production of food is inextricably linked
to human life. All emerging countries are concerned about food security now and in the future.
A robust agricultural business is critical for ensuring a country's food security. Food security is
regarded as one of a country's most basic needs. Because hungry individuals cannot
contribute to the development of their country, no nation with a large number of hungry people
can prosper efficiently with a stable agricultural base. Food security helps to prevent
starvation, which is typically cited as one of the most important issues confronting small
developing countries.
Lesson 2. Development Goals and strategies
Agri-business and agri-processing should be the main drivers of agricultural

development. The following are some of the goals and strategies.
1. Soil Health Enhancement
Agricultural universities, research institutions, fertilizer firms, departments of

agriculture, and farmers' associations should all work to improve soil productivity by
addressing its physics, chemistry (macro and micronutrients), and microbiology at the same
time. It's time to pay attention to the dry farming areas.
2. Irrigation Water Supply Augmentation and Management:
Water is not a private property but a

public good and a social resource.
Privatization of its distribution carries risks
and may result in water battles in local
areas. Rainwater collecting and aquifer
recharging should be made mandatory to
improve supply. Existing wells and ponds
should be refurbished. Improved irrigation Figure 14. First prototype of the Solar-
practices, such as sprinkler and drip Powered Irrigation System (SPIS) in North
Cotabato
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irrigation, should be prioritized for demand management.

A water literacy campaign should be started, and legislation for sustainable
groundwater use and pollution prevention should be implemented. The development of
mangroves and other halophytic plants should be encouraged in coastal locations to enhance
seawater farming. Rain, river, ground, sea, and treated sewage water combined should
become the norm.
3. Credit and Insurance
Credit reform is the most important step toward increasing small farm productivity. By
worldwide standards, the disparity between deposit and lending interest rates is wide in the
Philippines. The financial delivery system must be made more efficient by controlling both
transaction and risk costs.
Crop insurance, as well as the pace and manner in which the debt recovery and
settlement procedure runs, would require significant improvements on the part of the
government. Given the reduction in agricultural profitability and farmers' misery, the
government should consider assisting the banking system in lowering the rate of interest on
crop loans.
In the event of multiple natural disasters, rescheduling and restructuring farmer loans will not
suffice. Governments must intervene to establish an Agriculture-Risk Fund to provide relief to
farmers in the event of multiple droughts, as well as floods and insect infestations.
4. Technology
Agricultural scientists should report novel variety and technology performance in terms
of net revenue per hectare rather than yield per hectare. A farming system orientation involving
crop-livestock integrated production systems to both research and resource usage is required
for this goal. Production and post-harvest technology should complement one other.
The addition of value to biomass will aid in the creation of skilled jobs in the non-farm
sector. Rice takes up the most land in the country, and there are chances to create additional
jobs and revenue by constructing rice bio-parks. Similarly, eco-boards made from cotton stalks
can be used to substitute plywood created from wood.
5. Market
Farming's economic viability as a way of life and a means of living will ultimately be
determined by prospects for secure and remunerative selling. Market reform should start with
production planning, so that each link in the cultivation-consumption-commerce chain gets the
attention it deserves.
Lesson 3. Organizations for Agriculture: functions, and institutional linkages
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FAO considers physical and economic access to food to be a basic human right, and
the organization's goal is based on the premise that hunger and malnutrition can be eliminated
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through national efforts and international cooperation. The FAO's mandate is to enhance
nutrition and living standards, as well as the production and distribution of food and agricultural
products, and to alleviate the situation of rural communities, as rural areas are home to 70%
of the world's poor and hungry. Their mission is to ensure that everyone has access to enough
high-quality food on a regular basis so that they can live active, healthy lifestyles. FAO has
194 member nations and works in over 130 countries throughout the world.
Department of Agriculture
The Department is the government body in charge of promoting agricultural growth by

establishing policy, making public investments, and providing support services to domestic
and export-oriented businesses.
The DA sees a Philippines that is food secure, with thriving farmers and fishermen. It
will give them and the private sector the tools they need to boost agricultural productivity and
profitability by incorporating sustainable, competitive, and resilient technology and practices.
As a result, its battle cry is "Masaganang Ani at Mataas na Kita!"
Department of Agrarian Reform
The Department of Agrarian Reform is the lead government agency in charge of

overseeing and implementing comprehensive and genuine agrarian reform that achieves
equitable land distribution, ownership, agricultural productivity, and tenure security for, of, and
with the land's tillers in order to improve their quality of life. The Department of Agriculture and
Rural Development (DAR) is in charge of implementing the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP) through Land Tenure Improvement (LTI), Agrarian Justice, and Coordinated
Delivery of Essential Support Services to client beneficiaries.
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
The Department is the primary agency in charge of the country's environment and
natural resources, specifically forest and grazing lands, mineral resources, including those in
reservation and watershed areas, and public domain lands, as well as the licensing and
regulation of all natural resources as may be provided by law.
Department of Science and Technology
Executive Order No. 128 mandates the Department to “provide central direction,
leadership and coordination of scientific and technological efforts and ensure that the results
therefrom are geared and utilized in areas of maximum economic and social benefits for the
people”. Formulating and adopting a comprehensive National Science and Technology Plan,
as well as monitoring and coordinating its funding and implementation; promoting, assisting,
and, where appropriate, conducting scientific and technological research and development in
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areas identified as critical to the country's development; and promoting indigenous technology
development and adaptation.
The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)

The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) is the Philippine government's executive
department entrusted with enabling creative, competitive, job-generating, inclusive business,
and consumer empowerment. Through a comprehensive industrial growth strategy,
progressive and socially responsible trade liberalization and deregulation programs, and
policymaking designed to expand and diversify Philippine trade – both domestic and foreign –
it acts as a catalyst for increased private sector activity in order to accelerate and sustain
economic growth. Increased local and foreign direct investments, increased competitiveness,
innovativeness, and resilience of industries and services, improved access to finance,
production networks, and markets, increased productivity, efficiency, and resilience, and
ensuring consumer access to safe and quality goods and services are among DTI's
responsibilities.
Philippine Coconut Authority
The Philippine Coconut Authority is the only government organization tasked with fully
developing the business in accordance with the new vision of a united, globally competitive,
and efficient coconut industry. Implement and sustain a nationwide coconut planting and
replanting, fertilization and rehabilitation, and other farm productivity programs; and conduct
research and extension on farm productivity and process development for product quality and
diversification.
Bureau of Animal Industry
The bureau's mission was to keep ill animals out of the food supply. The Bureau was
established by Congress to promote cattle disease research, enforce animal import
prohibitions, and regulate interstate animal transportation. The Department of Agriculture-
Bureau of Animal Industry (DA-BAI) has established and spearheaded the Animal Relief and
Rehabilitation for the Philippines as the ongoing rehabilitation in the calamity-stricken districts
of the Visayas intensifies (ARRPh). The ARRPh brings together animal welfare organizations
and streamlines animal disaster response to avoid duplication of effort and to ensure that all
areas are covered.
Philippine Root Crop Research and Training Center
The Philippine Root Crop Research and Training Center (PhilRootcrops) is a

government-funded research, development, and training center for root and tuber crops such
as cassava, sweetpotato, taro, yam, yambean, arrowroot, and other rootcrops. PhilRoorcrops
is the primary agency of the National Rootcrop RDE, responsible for planning, implementing,
coordinating, monitoring, and evaluating research and development/extension initiatives in
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support of the root crop business. It was established on March 21, 1977 by Presidential Decree
1107. The Center for Research Excellence in Agriculture is located in the Visayas State
University (VSU) in Baybay City, Leyte.
International Rice Research Institute

The International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) is the world's leading research
organization dedicated to eliminating poverty
and hunger by advancing rice science,
increasing the health and welfare of rice
farmers and consumers, and safeguarding the
rice-growing environment for future
generations. The Ford and Rockefeller
foundations, with help from the Philippine
Figure 15. Distribution of carabaos by
government, formed IRRI in 1960 as an
SAAD Program
independent, nonprofit research and
educational center. The institute, which is located in Los Baos, Philippines, employs over
1,000 people in 17 rice-growing countries in Asia and Africa.
Lesson 5. Assessment of some development programs
Special Area for Agricultural Development (SAAD)
The Special Area for Agricultural Development (SAAD) is a locally funded program of
the Department of Agriculture (DA), intended to help alleviate poverty among the marginalized
sectors on agriculture and fishery. Coined after the Visayan word “saad” which means
promise, the SAAD Program is a breakthrough of former DA Secretary Emmanuel F. Piñol as
part of the thrust of President Rodrigo Duterte to increase food production and reduce poverty
in the Philippines. Through the SAAD program, a total of 30 priority provinces with high poverty
incidence rate among families have been given assistance in both agriculture and fisheries
since year 2017. Amid 2019, Piñol’s former administration was turned over to now DA
Secretary William D. Dar. Secretary Dar brought with him his New Thinking for Agriculture
geared towards a food-secure Philippines with prosperous farmers and fisherfolk. His
paradigms of “New Thinking” for Agriculture paved the way to continue and strengthen the
SAAD Program implementation in his leadership to realize his twin goals of increasing
productivity and making farmers and fishers prosperous or his term’s battlecry, “Masaganang
Ani at Mataas na Kita”.
The SAAD Program, headed by Director Myer G. Mula, aims to give agricultural
interventions on animals, crops, and fisheries (capture fishery and aquaculture) to identified
beneficiaries with the help of corresponding offices in the regional and provincial levels. The
SAAD Program is composed of four major components – 1) Program Management, 2) Social
Preparation, 3) Production and Livelihood Interventions, and 4) Marketing Assistance and
Enterprise Development.
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Success story
Until the Special Area for Agricultural Development (SAAD) Program intervened in May
2018, it appeared as if Ma. Cristina Plata and her family had no prospect of living a fruitful life.
Ma. Cristina, also known as "Tinay" by her family and friends, is one of the recipients of the
Department of Agriculture's (DA) SAAD-Region 8's FY 2018 Swine Production Project valued
Php 2,175,400.
Tinay, a 45-year-old housewife from Borongan City, Eastern Samar, lives in Brgy.
Bayobay. She is married to Mr. Domingo Plata, and they have eight children together. Her
husband is a farmer and an occasional construction worker, while she worked as a gardener
(casual employee) at the Office of the Provincial Agricultural Services (OPAS) in Borongan
City and as an on-call domestic helper. The couple earns an average of Php 5,000 per month
as a couple.
Tinay was given a gilt and eight bags of food worth Php 30,190 in July 2018. She also
participated in a three-day swine production and management workshop in Borongan City.
The gilt gave birth to 12 live piglets out of 16 births in November 2018 (1st cycle). She sold
them for Php 3,000 each, for a total of Php 36,000 in sales. The money was put towards her
children's schooling and her family's daily needs. In May of this year (2nd cycle), 13 piglets
were grown from 16 births and sold for Php 3,000 apiece, for a total of Php 39,000. This was
used to construct the comfort room in their home. Then, in November 2019, in the third cycle,
her sow gave birth to 14 piglets with no mortality. For a total of Php 27,000, nine (9) piglets
were sold at a price of Php 3,000 apiece. Some of the money was used to build their kitchen,
while others went toward rice production. Tinay has two gilts to keep the piglets coming and
five growing piglets as of March 2020. Tinay is doing well, according to Mr. Gary Gallenero,
SAAD Eastern Samar Area Coordinator, and the swine project is thriving. As a result, she was
named the SAAD's Model Farmer for the month of February 2020 throughout the province.
Tinay appreciates the skills and information she gained as a result of the training
activities and the help she received from the SAAD Provincial and Area Coordinators. Despite
the fact that Tinay was not the intended recipient of the project, she was grateful to her
colleague farmer (Mr. Julio Gerna) who stepped down due to financial concerns and family
considerations. She and her husband are overjoyed and grateful for the unexpected good
fortune. The pair hopes to expand their swine herd and open a sari-sari shop in the near future.
NEDA says SAAD contributes to Region 8’s decrease in poverty
Meylene C. Rosales, Regional Director of the National Economic Development Agency

(NEDA) VIII, stated in her report that the Special Area for Agricultural Development (SAAD)
Program contributed to the reduction of poverty in the Eastern Visayas Region (Region 8).
From 32.95 percent in 2015 to 23.99 percent in 2018, the percentage of families living in
poverty has decreased by 8.96 percent. In the meantime, the population's poverty rate fell by
10.36%, from 41.22 percent in 2015 to 30.86 percent in 2018. The study was presented at the
Summit Hotel at the Philippine Statistics Authority's VIII Conference on 2018 Poverty Statistics
for Region VIII.
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Agrarian reform and rural development
Agrarian reform is one of the most important government initiatives aimed at promoting
rural development and improving the social conditions of farmers. The first attempts to
ameliorate the unstable land tenure situation occurred in 1954. The Agricultural Land Reform
Code was passed in 1963. 236 municipalities were designated as land reform regions under
this law, benefiting 72,201 farmers primarily through the lease-hold system. In October 1972,
however, Presidential Decree No. 27
was signed, declaring the entire country
a land reform zone.
The implementation of this broad
program was fraught with technological
and administrative challenges. One of
the most significant challenges was a
lack of qualified personnel with
experience in identifying, planning, and Figure 16. Women agrarian reform
monitoring the various program parts. beneficiaries (ARB) in Agusan del Sur province
This was the time when the FAO's help engaged in food processing as livelihood
was most needed. Between 1970 and enterprise in agrarian reform communities
1974, the FAO supported the then
Ministry of Agrarian Reform (now the DAR) through three small-scale projects: Agrarian
Reform Research and Evaluation, Agrarian Reform Education, and Assistance to the Agrarian
Reform Program. They mentioned training and research as areas where further help is
needed. During the mid-1970s and early 1980s, the two-phase Expanded Assistance to
Agrarian Reform Program was undertaken. After that, a project to build an integrated planning
and management model for coordinating various agrarian reform and rural development
operations, including the identification and preparation of land-based income-generating
projects, was implemented. To some extent, this project was able to build a core of national
and regional specialists with the confidence and expertise to teach other professionals at the
local government level in the planning, preparation, and implementation of development
projects.
The Agrarian Reform Community (ARC) method was developed by the DAR in 1993
to expand and deepen its support and assistance to agrarian reform beneficiaries. An ARC is
a functional geographic description of a community of beneficiaries in a contiguous area of at
least 2 000 hectares where the majority of CARP-covered lands has been transferred. The
ARC strategy called for a spatial focus to maximize the allocation and delivery of support
services supplied by the DAR and other partners, such as NGOs, foreign donor organizations,
and the FAO.
The ARC concept increased donor attention to CARP and made it easier to build
effective programs. In 2000, the DAR tracked 2 634 recipient groups throughout 1 250 ARCs.
These farmer organizations were the subject of 16 foreign-assisted projects totaling more than
US$600 million in support services.
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Kalikasan
On May 3, 1993, President Fidel
V. Ramos established a national IPM
program. The government's commitment
to food security included a program
known as KASAKALIKASAN (bounty
from the farm and environment). The
initiative drew on findings from FAO-
funded studies and experimental
projects. With this initiative, the
Philippines became one of the first
countries to establish a season-long
Farmers Field School (FFS)-based
training program, not just for rice but also
for maize, fruits, and vegetables. FFS Figure 17. Hands-on practicum for farmers on
provided small farmers with hands-on IPM
expertise in agroecosystem analysis as
well as the tools they needed to implement IPM in their own fields. FFS also served as a
natural springboard for innovation, addressing a wide range of crop management challenges,
from insect balance to plant health, soils to water management, and weed management to
varietal selection.
KASAKALIKASAN has trained over 200,000 farmers in 6,000 Farmer Field Schools
across 68 provinces and three cities around the country. There are 512 IPM rice, maize,
vegetable, coconut, and mango specialists in the program. The program employs 2,650
trainers from local government and nongovernmental organizations on the ground.
Since the initial FAO-assisted IPM Farmer Field School experiment in Antique in 1992
and the first IPM Specialist Training Course in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya in 1993,
KASAKALIKASAN has evolved and matured. It is now a self-sustaining US$3 million annual
program entirely sponsored by national government funds.
The program has developed and increased its pool of international-quality IPM trainers
who provide technical assistance and IPM training in countries such as Thailand, Lao People's
Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh, as well as Ghana and Kenya in
Africa. As part of its ambition for regional collaboration in sustainable development, the
Philippines has taken the lead in developing the ASEAN IPM Knowledge Network. In IPM-
implementing countries, the introduction of electronic communications encouraged the flow of
knowledge and information.
Assessment
Case Study
Identify an agricultural program conducted in your barangay/town/municipality. Explain

the purpose of the program, benefits the farmers received and the problems associated with
the program. Furthermore, explain your recommendations for future agriculture programs
needed in your community. The parts of the case study should include an introduction,
objectives, methodology, discussion, conclusion, and references.
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UNIT VII
Where do we go from here? — Directions

for growth
Introduction
Agriculture faces numerous challenges in the twenty-first century, including the need
to produce more food and fiber to feed a growing population with a shrinking rural labor force,
more feedstocks for a potentially huge bioenergy market, contribute to overall development in
many agriculture-dependent developing countries, adopt more efficient and sustainable
production methods, and adapt to climate change.
Learning Outcomes

a. Determine the current situation of agriculture that may lead to economic and
environmental deterioration
b. Discuss the goals and strategies to improve agriculture
c. Identify the organizations and institutions connected to agriculture
Lesson Proper
Lesson 1. An elevated increase in demographics will boost demand for food
The human population is increasing. The world population is anticipated to reach 11.2
billion people by 2100. That number may underestimate true fertility rates; in other situations,
the population might reach 16.5 billion. Even under a moderate economic growth scenario,
population expansion will increase food consumption by nearly 50% relative to agricultural
output in 2013.
Meanwhile, due to changing demographics, the global diet is altering as well. A
growing demand for high-value animal protein is being driven by urbanization and rising
earnings, in addition to natural population expansion.
The rate of urbanization is increasing. Between now and 2050, global urbanization
could result in a net addition of 2.4 billion people to cities. Improvements in infrastructure, such
as cold chains, which allow for the sale of perishable goods, are stimulated by urbanization.
As part of a broader dietary change, it also tends to improve incomes, raising demand for
processed foods as well as animal-source meals. In 2030, annual per capita meat
consumption is expected to increase to 45.3 kilograms, up from 36.4 kilograms in 1997-1992.
Richer diets, however, have drawbacks, particularly when it comes to meat consumption. In
wealthy countries, a scarcity of fresh meals, as well as a reliance on fast foods (many of which
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are meat-based) and processed foods, has resulted in a rise in childhood obesity and a
staggering number of individuals suffering from chronic diseases such as diabetes,
hypertension, and heart disease. Indeed, chronic disease accounts for nearly half of the
world's disease burden, generating a double burden when combined with infectious diseases,
which continue to be the leading cause of illness in developing nations.
The environmental consequences of increased meat production are also significant:
Livestock production accounts for approximately a quarter of all global water use in agriculture
and contributes for over 18 percent of all human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. The
environmental impact is unsustainable in the long run.
More people imply higher demand, which in turn implies higher output. According to the UN
Food and Agriculture Organization, farmers will need to produce 70% more food by 2050.
(FAO). And this food will have to be tailored to the demands of an expanding urban population,
which is a factor that affects the entire agricultural value chain.
Agricultural investments and innovations are increasing productivity, but yield growth
has stalled to levels that are unacceptably low. The topic of who will farm is also urgent. The
rural population is declining even as food needs and demand rise. Rural populations are also
quickly aging, which has significant consequences for the workforce, production patterns, land
tenure, social structure within rural communities, and overall economic development.
Lesson 2. Current uses of natural resources are highly stressed
Farmland around the world is becoming increasingly unfit for production: According to
certain measurements, 25% of the farmland is already extremely degraded, while the
remaining 44% is moderately or slightly degraded. More than 40% of the world's rural
population lives in water-scarce areas, putting a strain on water resources. Although land has
long been recognized as a finite resource, in the past, deteriorated farmland was simply
replaced by cultivating new, unused land. Such lands are becoming increasingly uncommon,
and what is left frequently cannot be cultivated sustainably. Smaller farms, poorer production
per person, and increased landlessness have all contributed to rural poverty.
Agriculture is a key driver of farmland degradation, as well as an indirect victim of it,
with many agricultural factors contributing to the process in various ways. Overcutting of
vegetation (clearing for agriculture), as well as poorly timed fallow periods, crop rotations, and
livestock overgrazing, all contribute to soil erosion. The use of unbalanced fertilizers to restore
yield has resulted in nutritional imbalances. Agricultural concerns are responsible for over 80%
of worldwide deforestation. While clearing vegetation for farming does not directly cause soil
degradation and is required for land clearance, it does so indirectly by depleting water
resources. This final point is worth mentioning: Despite the fact that irrigation systems have
increased efficiency, expanding populations pose a serious threat to water security and
shortage. Irrigation water management is estimated to require $1 trillion in investment through
2050 in poor countries alone.
All of these problems are the result of inadequate planning and forethought. Poverty
causes farmers to remove trees, cultivate steep slopes without conservation, overgraze
rangelands, and apply fertilizer in an imbalanced manner. Soil conservation and food
management will require an estimated $160 billion investment.
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Climate change is reducing productivity in agriculture
Climate change is a fact, and it is wreaking havoc on the planet. According to a 2014
assessment by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, man-made greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions have reached historic highs (IPCC). Agriculture is a major source of
greenhouse gases. Agriculture, forestry, and other land use-related greenhouse gas
emissions have roughly doubled in the last 50 years. Agriculture is the source of the most
methane and nitrous oxide emissions in the world. By 2050, forecasts indicate that the trend
will continue.
In agriculture, there is clearly a decrease in productivity. Climate change is causing an
increase in precipitation unpredictability as well as a rise in the frequency of droughts and
floods, all of which lower crop yields. Although greater temperatures can help crops develop,
studies have shown that when daytime temperatures exceed a particular level, crop yields
drop dramatically (FAO, 2016e).
Every facet of food production will be impacted by climate change. Increased
precipitation unpredictability, as well as increased droughts and floods, are likely to diminish
yields. Climate change will exacerbate long-term environmental issues like groundwater
depletion and soil deterioration, which will have an impact on food and agriculture production
systems.
Food insecurity will rise dramatically if no attempts are made to adapt to climate
change: the influence of climate change on global food security will be seen not only in terms
of food supply, but also in terms of food quality, access, and usage.
Lesson 3. Food waste is a massive market inefficiency and an environmental threat
Between 33 percent and 50 percent of all food produced in the world is never
consumed, resulting in a waste of more than $1 trillion. To put it in context, food waste in the
United States accounts for 1.3 percent of total GDP. Food waste is an example of a significant
market inefficiency that does not exist in other businesses. Meanwhile, every night, 800 million
people go to bed hungry. Each of them could be nourished on less than a fourth of the food
that is thrown out in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Europe each year.
Food demand in the West can drive up the price of food grown for export in developing
nations, as well as displace crops needed to sustain native populations, because we have a
globalized food supply system. Furthermore, hunger is not merely a problem that occurs
“somewhere else” — over 1 million individuals in the UK used a food bank last year, while 40
million Americans live in food poverty. Food waste is also harmful to the environment. To
produce food that is ultimately thrown away, it takes a land mass the size of China - land that
has been deforested, species that have been driven to extinction, indigenous populations that
have been relocated, soil that has been damaged. Furthermore, food that is never consumed
accounts for 25% of all freshwater consumption worldwide.
Not only are all of the resources used to produce the uneaten food squandered (land,
water, labor, energy, manufacturing, and packaging), but when food waste is dumped in
landfills, it decomposes without oxygen and produces methane, which is 23 times more
dangerous than carbon dioxide.
47

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
Food waste is a big contributor to the destruction of our world in every way: Food
waste, behind China and the United States, would be the third-largest producer of greenhouse
gases.
Lesson 4. Outcome: poverty and hunger
The problem of food scarcity has arisen as a result of these global changes. Global
poverty and famine have resulted, with 700 million people remaining extremely poor, 800
million experiencing chronic hunger, and 2 billion suffering from micronutrient deficiencies.
One-third of the 800 million people reside in rural areas in developing countries, according to
the World Bank. The vast majority also live in nations where political upheavals and violent
wars wreak havoc on the social safety nets that are supposed to protect them.
Several options exist to fight these trends. In the last half-century, the food and
agriculture industries have achieved significant progress. Since 1960, the Green Revolution
has tripled global agricultural production, and the industry has become increasingly
international. Tapping those tendencies, as well as combating income inequality, will be
necessary to eradicate world poverty and famine. It will be vital to develop growth strategies
that cover not only agriculture but also job creation and income diversification.
But one thing is certain. It will not be business as usual. According to a report by the Food and
Agriculture Organization, additional investments needed to end hunger by that year would cost
$265 billion per year globally.
Lesson 5. Improving agriculture with new technologies
With advances in technology, such as sensors, devices, machinery, and information

technology, modern farms and agricultural enterprises will operate differently. Robots,
temperature and moisture sensors, aerial photographs, and GPS technology, to name a few,
will all play a role in the future of agriculture. Businesses will be more profitable, efficient, safer,
and environmentally friendly as a result of these advancements. Water, fertilizers, and
pesticides will no longer have to be applied across entire fields in modern agriculture. Instead,
growers will utilize the bare minimum, if not altogether eliminating them from the supply chain.
They will be able to grow crops in arid locations and will be able to grow food with ample and
clean resources such as the sun and seas.
Hydroponics
The method of growing plants without soil using mineral fertilizer solutions in a water solvent
is known as hydroponics, which is a subset of hydroculture. Sundrop, an Australian firm, has
invented a seawater hydroponics technology that combines sun, desalination, and agricultural
to grow vegetables in any climate. This system is environmentally friendly, as it does not use
fossil fuels and instead draws its energy from the sun. It also does not require land. Solar
power, electricity generation, freshwater production, and hydroponics are all integrated into its
technologies. As a result, the amount of food produced is comparable to that produced using
48

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
traditional methods. Sundrop can create a seawater greenhouse—a combination of sun,

desalination, and agriculture—to grow veggies anywhere on the planet using hydroponics.
Figure 18. The pilot Sundrop Farm in South

Australia currently grows high-quality
produce from Southern Ocean seawater
and sunlight.
Desert agriculture and seawater farming
Oceans cover the majority of the planet's surface. The Earth's surviving landmass
makes up about 29% of the total surface area. One-third of the remaining 29 percent is made
up of various deserts. To address the global food issue, the world's deserts and seas must be
transformed into food production facilities, a task that will require the combined brainpower of
the world's best brains, universities, and research centers.
Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah
University for Science and
Technology (KAUST) is at the
forefront of desert agriculture
research. The Desert Agriculture
Initiative at KAUST aims to
address a broader range of severe
difficulties that agriculture poses in
a desert setting. Both biotic and
abiotic variables are being studied
at KAUST. Genome engineering
technologies to manipulate
biological systems and plant
growth and development; growth
regulators to improve plants or Figure 19. The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV
their response to adverse M600), mounted with a hyperspectral camera, in
conditions; and plant hormones to mid-flight above a field experiment to measure the
shape shoot and root architecture salt stress responses of 200 accessions of wild
based on nutrient availability are all tomato S. pimpinellifolium at KAUST Halo Lab.
49

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
important areas of biotic research. KAUST is also aiming to develop stress-tolerant crops by
determining whether better disease resistance, stress tolerance, and yield are influenced by
somatic memory and whether chromatin variables can influence future stress tolerance.
Sustainable packaging: bioplastics

Bioplastics have been in use for over two decades. However, they have yet to deliver
on the promise of providing the same packaging functionality as plastic while also returning
100 percent to nature with no negative consequences. TIPA, on the other hand, seeks to
change that.
TIPA was established in
order to develop practical plastic
packaging alternatives. Its goal is to
develop a compostable, recyclable
package that functions similarly to a
fruit or vegetable, decomposing
quickly and leaving no hazardous
residue when thrown. TIPA is
developing advanced flexible plastic
packaging that integrates
seamlessly into current food
manufacturing processes, provides
consumers and brands with the Figure 20. TIPA’s bioplastic
same durability and shelf life as
ordinary plastics, but can be returned to nature after use, much like an orange peel does in
the food waste stream.
Vertical and urban farming

Vertical farming is one
solution for supplying high-quality
vegetables in a sustainable manner.
Vertical farming is the practice of
producing food in difficult
circumstances where sufficient land
is lacking by growing food in
vertically stacked layers. It uses soil,
hydroponic, or aeroponic growth
methods and is associated with
urban farming. While increasing
yield, the procedure utilizes 95
percent less water, less fertilizer and
nutritional supplements, and no
pesticides. Figure 21. Vertical Farm in Laguna, Philippines.
Governments have also taken steps
to promote this technology. In the Netherlands, these growing techniques have sparked a
boom in indoor growing. Despite comprising fewer than 1% of the country's cropland,
greenhouses currently produce 35% of the country's veggies.
50

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
Vertical farming, on the other hand, requires affordable electricity to be cost effective.
Governments can help these farms grow by providing power subsidies or other fiscal
incentives. Countries with a highly educated population, cheap energy prices, and a
government ready to participate in public-private partnerships will eventually emerge as
leaders in this field.
Nanotechnology and precision agriculture
The Green Revolution of the twentieth century was fueled by the indiscriminate
application of pesticides and artificial fertilizers, resulting in a loss of soil biodiversity and an
increase in pathogen and insect resistance.
Precision agriculture, fueled by nanotechnology, will be the new revolution.
Nanoparticles will be given to plants, as well as improved biosensors for precision farming, as
part of this progression. Conventional fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides that have been
nanoencapsulated will release nutrients and agrochemicals slowly and steadily, resulting in
correct dosage to the plants. Among the benefits of nanotechnology precision farming are:
• Roughly 60 percent of applied fertilizers are lost to the environment, causing pollution
• Nanofertilizers helps in the slow, sustained release of agrochemicals, resulting in
precise dosages
• Greater plant protection and treatment of diseases
• Biosensors can detect pesticides in crops, leading to more-informed decisions
Suggested Reading
Clerq, Matthieu, Anshu V. and Alvaro B. 2018. Agriculture 4.0: The Future of Farming
Technology. World Government Summit. Oliver Wyman. Retrieved from
https://www.worldgovernmentsummit.org/api/publications/document?id=95df8ac4-e97c-
6578-b2f8-ff0000a7ddb6
Assessment
Term Paper
Explain how the COVID 19 pandemic has damaged the agricultural sector in the
Philippines. Moreover, explain how it affected the future/prospects of agriculture in the
Philippines. Discuss the approaches to mitigate the problems encountered in agriculture
caused by the pandemic. The parts of the term paper should include an introduction,
objective/s, methodology, discussion, conclusion, and references.
51

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
REFERENCES
1. Bautista, Karen. 2018. Who will feed the farmers?. Rappler. Retrieved from
https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2013/01/14/896590/filipino-farmer-endangered-
species
2. Briones, Roehlano. 2017. Characterization of Agricultural Workers in the Philippines.

Retrieved from https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsdps1731.pdf
3. Clarke, Brian. 2000. Agro-industries, water resources and public. Centre for
Environmental Health Engineering (CEHE) University of Surrey. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations England health. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/tempref/GI/Reserved/FTP_FaoRne/morelinks/Publications/English
/agro1/Chapter-2.pdf
4. CK-12 Foundation. 2020. 17.9 Agriculture and Human Population Growth. FlexBook®
Platform. Retrieved from https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-
science-flexbook-2.0/section/17.9/primary/lesson/agriculture-and-human-population-
growth-hs-es
5. Clerq, Matthieu, Anshu V. and Alvaro B. 2018. Agriculture 4.0: The Future of Farming
Technology. World Government Summit. Oliver Wyman. Retrieved from
https://www.worldgovernmentsummit.org/api/publications/document?id=95df8ac4-
e97c-6578-b2f8-ff0000a7ddb6
6. DA-SAAD. ND. Program components. Retrieved from http://saad.da.gov.ph/
7. Djurfeldt, G. 2016. Family and capitalist farming: Conceptual and historical

perspectives. In G. Djurfeldt, & S. Sircar (Eds.), Structural transformation and agrarian
change in India Routledge. Retrieved from
https://portal.research.lu.se/ws/files/13828647/Family_and_capitalist_farming
_conceptual_and_historical_perspectives.pdf
8. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2020. FAO in the Philippines.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/philippines/our-partners/en/
9. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2011. Philippines and FAO
Achievements and success stories. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-at015e.pdf
10. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2009. Global Agriculture
Towards 2050. High-level Expert Forum. How to feed the world in 2050. Retrienved
from
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/Issues_papers/HLEF2050_Global_
Agriculture.pdf
11. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ND. AGRICULTURE.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/ae946e/ae946e03.htm#TopOfPage
52

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
12. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . ND. Country Profile.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/w6928e/w6928e04.htm
13. Johnson, A. W. 2000. The Evolution of Human Societies, 15-16. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrarian_society#:~:text=An%20agrarian%20society%2
C%20or%20agricultural,total%20production%20is%20in%20agriculture.
14. Lem, Claudia. 2006. The Philippine Sustainable Seed and Agriculture Development
Project. The Philippine Sustainable Seed and Agriculture (PSSA) Project. Retrieved
from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310606812_The_Philippine_Sustainable_S
eed_and_Agriculture_Development_Project [accessed Jun 27 2020].
15. Magdoff, Fred. 2015. A Rational Agriculture Is Incompatible with Capitalism. Monthly
Review. Retrieved July 2, 2020. https://monthlyreview.org/2015/03/01/a-rational-
agriculture-is-incompatible-with-capitalism/
16. Montgomery, D. 2008. Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. Berkeley and Los Angeles,
California: University of California Press; Retrieved from
http://www.foodsystemprimer.org/food-production/history-of-agriculture/
17. Nations Encyclopedia. ND. Philippines – Agriculture. Retrieved from

https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Philippines-
AGRICULTURE.html#ixzz6QMr1EMpm
18. Obispo, Karl. 2014. An Overview of Philippine Agriculture. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/KarlLouisseObispo/7-overview-of-philippine-agriculture
19. OECD. 1998. Agriculture and the environment : issues and policies. Paris, OECD
(OPUB OECD FOOD 1C:8). Retrieved from.
https://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/amtthews/FoodPolicy/LectureTopics/Environment/
Frameset19.htm
20. Palis, Florencia. 2020. Aging Filipino Rice Farmers and Their Aspirations for Their
Children. Philippine Journal of Science. 149 (2): 351-361. Retrieved from
http://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph/images/pdf/pjs_pdf/vol149no2/aging_filipino_rice_far
mers_.pdf
21. PHILFIDA. ND. PHILFIDA ENGAGES IN BT COTTON PRODUCTION. Retrieved July

3, 2020. http://www.philfida.da.gov.ph/index.php/archived-articles/14-philfida-
engages-in-bt-cotton-production
22. Philippine Statistics Authority. 2019. Agricultural Indicators System (AIS). Retrieved
from. https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/ais_output_prod_2019.pdf
23. Ronald E. Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library
of Congress, 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/60.htm
53

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
24. SEARCA. 2018. 2nd Small and Family Farmers | New and Beginning Farmers National
Conference. Retrieved from https://www.searca.org/events/conferences/2nd-small-
and-family-farmers-new-and-beginning-farmers-national-conference
25. van der Warf, Hayo and Petit, Jean. 2002. Evaluation of the environmental impact of
agriculture at the farm level: a comparison and analysis of 12 indicator-based methods.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 93 (1–3): 131–145. doi:10.1016/S0167-
8809(01)00354-1. Retrieved
from.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture
54

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
COURSE GUIDE
Course: Introduction to Agriculture Semester: 1st School Year: 2021-2022

Class Schedule: MW (1:30-4:30 pm) Instructor: Rina C. Alde
Course Description
Overview of Agriculture with emphasis on Philippine Agriculture
SCHEDULE TOPIC
Validation of Student Registration
General orientation ( ESSU VMGO, Quality Policy, Class room policies,
Grading system, Course content and requirements)
I. Growth and development of Agriculture

Week 1-2
a. Brief historical development of World Agriculture and Philippine
Agriculture
b. Agriculture as an Economic factor in capitalist and non-
capitalist societies
c. Agriculture as an industry, a science and a profession
II. Introduction to Agriculture and the Ecosystems
Week 3-4 a. Agriculture and the Environment
b. Agriculture and Society
III. Analysis of Food production and population Growth in
Developed and Developing Countries
Week 5-6 IV. Overview of Philippine Agriculture
a. Resources
b. Production System
c. Small- hold farming and Agri- business
d. Need for balanced Agro- industrial growth in Agricultural
Week 7 -8
production Profile of the Filipino Farmer
e. Socio- cultural and economic status; needs and aspiration
Week 9 Midterm Examination
V. Profile of the Filipino Farmer
Week 10-11
A. Socio- cultural and economic status; needs and aspiration
VI. Agriculture and Development
Week 12-13 A. Agriculture and rural poverty in developing countries and
underdeveloped countries
B. Development Goals and strategies
Week 14-15 C. Organizations for Agriculture: functions, models of operations
and institutional linkages
D. Assessment of some development programs
Week 16-18
VII. Where do we go here? Directions for Growth
Week 19 Final Examination
Course Requirements
• Assessments and major examinations
55
ESSU-ACAD-501.b|Version 4
Effectivity Date: June 10, 2021
lOMoARcPSD|35990803
Course Learning Outcomes Grading System

CLO1. Broaden students’ perspective on
agriculture and its vital role in There will be 2 rating periods:
advancing farmer’s progress and Mid-Term and Finals.
national development in capitalist
and non-capitalists societies. The grades for each rating period shall
CLO2. Develop students sense of awareness be computed as:
about rural poverty and their
commitment to agricultural 60% -Assessments/
development geared towards the Requirements
economic and social uplift of the rural 40% -Major Examination
poor. 100% - Grade for the corresponding
rating period
Average grade = (Mid-term Grade +Final

Grade)/2
References
1. Bautista, Karen. 2018. Who will feed the farmers?. Rappler. Retrieved from
https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2013/01/14/896590/filipino-farmer-endangered-
species
2. Briones, Roehlano. 2017. Characterization of Agricultural Workers in the Philippines.
Retrieved from
https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsdps1731.pdf
3. Clarke, Brian. 2000. Agro-industries, water resources and public. Centre for
Environmental Health Engineering (CEHE) University of Surrey. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations England health. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/tempref/GI/Reserved/FTP_FaoRne/morelinks/Publications/Engli
sh/agro1/Chapter-2.pdf
4. CK-12 Foundation. 2020. 17.9 Agriculture and Human Population Growth.
FlexBook® Platform. Retrieved from https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-
school-earth-science-flexbook-2.0/section/17.9/primary/lesson/agriculture-and-
human-population-growth-hs-es
5. Clerq, Matthieu, Anshu V. and Alvaro B. 2018. Agriculture 4.0: The Future of
Farming Technology. World Government Summit. Oliver Wyman. Retrieved from
https://www.worldgovernmentsummit.org/api/publications/document?id=95df8ac4-
e97c-6578-b2f8-ff0000a7ddb6
6. DA-SAAD. ND. Program components. Retrieved from http://saad.da.gov.ph/
7. Djurfeldt, G. 2016. Family and capitalist farming: Conceptual and historical
perspectives. In G. Djurfeldt, & S. Sircar (Eds.), Structural transformation and
agrarian change in India Routledge. Retrieved from
https://portal.research.lu.se/ws/files/13828647/Family_and_capitalist_farming
_conceptual_and_historical_perspectives.pdf
8. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2020. FAO in the
Philippines. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/philippines/our-partners/en/
ESSU-ACAD-501.b|Version 4 56

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
9. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2011. Philippines and FAO
Achievements and success stories. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-
at015e.pdf
10. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2009. Global Agriculture
Towards 2050. High-level Expert Forum. How to feed the world in 2050. Retrienved
from
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/Issues_papers/HLEF2050_Globa
l_Agriculture.pdf
11. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ND. AGRICULTURE.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/ae946e/ae946e03.htm#TopOfPage
12. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . ND. Country Profile.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/w6928e/w6928e04.htm
13. Johnson, A. W. 2000. The Evolution of Human Societies, 15-16. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrarian_society#:~:text=An%20agrarian%20society%
2C%20or%20agricultural,total%20production%20is%20in%20agriculture.
14. Lem, Claudia. 2006. The Philippine Sustainable Seed and Agriculture Development
Project. The Philippine Sustainable Seed and Agriculture (PSSA) Project. Retrieved
from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310606812_The_Philippine_Sustainable
_Seed_and_Agriculture_Development_Project [accessed Jun 27 2020].
15. Magdoff, Fred. 2015. A Rational Agriculture Is Incompatible with Capitalism. Monthly
Review. Retrieved July 2, 2020. https://monthlyreview.org/2015/03/01/a-rational-
agriculture-is-incompatible-with-capitalism/
16. Montgomery, D. 2008. Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. Berkeley and Los Angeles,
California: University of California Press; Retrieved from
http://www.foodsystemprimer.org/food-production/history-of-agriculture/
17. Nations Encyclopedia. ND. Philippines – Agriculture. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Philippines-
AGRICULTURE.html#ixzz6QMr1EMpm
18. Obispo, Karl. 2014. An Overview of Philippine Agriculture. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/KarlLouisseObispo/7-overview-of-philippine-agriculture
19. OECD. 1998. Agriculture and the environment : issues and policies. Paris, OECD
(OPUB OECD FOOD 1C:8). Retrieved from.
https://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/amtthews/FoodPolicy/LectureTopics/Environme
nt/Frameset19.htm
20. Palis, Florencia. 2020. Aging Filipino Rice Farmers and Their Aspirations for Their
Children. Philippine Journal of Science. 149 (2): 351-361. Retrieved from
http://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph/images/pdf/pjs_pdf/vol149no2/aging_filipino_rice_f
armers_.pdf
21. PHILFIDA. ND. PHILFIDA ENGAGES IN BT COTTON PRODUCTION. Retrieved
July 3, 2020. http://www.philfida.da.gov.ph/index.php/archived-articles/14-philfida-
engages-in-bt-cotton-production
22. Philippine Statistics Authority. 2019. Agricultural Indicators System (AIS). Retrieved
from. https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/ais_output_prod_2019.pdf
23. Ronald E. Dolan, ed. Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library
of Congress, 1991. http://countrystudies.us/philippines/60.htm
ESSU-ACAD-501.b|Version 4
Effectivity Date: June 10, 2021 57

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
24. SEARCA. 2018. 2nd Small and Family Farmers | New and Beginning Farmers
National Conference. Retrieved from
https://www.searca.org/events/conferences/2nd-small-and-family-farmers-new-
and-beginning-farmers-national-conference
25. van der Warf, Hayo and Petit, Jean. 2002. Evaluation of the environmental impact
of agriculture at the farm level: a comparison and analysis of 12 indicator-based
methods. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 93 (1–3): 131–145.
doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00354-1. Retrieved
from.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture
Consultation Schedule: 10:30 -1:30pm/F
Prepared by: Approved:
RINA C. ALDE DR. JUDITH A. ELJERA

Instructor Program Head
ESSU-ACAD-501.b|Version 4 58

lOMoARcPSD|35990803
Quality Policy
We commit to provide quality instruction, research,
extension and production grounded on excellence,
integrity and accountability as we move towards
exceeding stakeholders’ satisfaction in compliance with
relevant requirements and well-defined continual
improvement measures.

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Introduction to Agriculture Handout

agriculture (Eastern Samar State University)

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Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

This Instructional Material is for Eastern Samar State University, College of

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This course discusses the overview of agriculture with emphasis on Philippine

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Unit I. Growth and development of Agriculture 6

Unit II. Introduction to Agriculture and the Ecosystems 16

Unit IV. Overview of Philippine Agriculture 25

Unit V. Profile of the Filipino Farmer 32

Unit VI. Agriculture and Development 36

Unit VII. Where do we go here? Directions for Growth 46

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• Use this module with care.

If this module is lost and found, please return to:

EASTERN SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY

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After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Lesson 1. Brief historical development of World agriculture and Philippine Agriculture

Paleoanthropologists believe the oldest

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Lesson 2. Philippine Agriculture

Many anthropologists disagree about

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Central Asia around 30,000 years ago.

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Lesson 3. Agriculture as an Economic factor in capitalist and non- capitalist societies

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Figure 5. Non-capitalist type of farming

Lesson 4. Agriculture as an industry, a science and a profession

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Agricultural science is a vast multidisciplinary field of biology that comprises the

Five (5) main branches of Horticulture

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11. Plant ecologist

12. Plant Geneticist

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13. Plant Pathologist

14. Plant Physiologist

15. Soil conservationist

16. Soil Scientist

18. Agricultural researcher

20. Agricultural Instructor

DISCUSSION. Briefly discuss the following.

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2. Explain how agriculture began in the Philippines.

3. Differentiate the goals of a capitalist agriculture and non-capitalist agriculture.

4. Identify an agro-industry found in your town/province/country. Explain how they

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Introduction to Agriculture and the

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Lesson 1. Agriculture and the Environment