4.3.

2019

Chapter 10
Fikri Akçalı

Stability;
◦ is the natural tendency of an aircraft to return to its
former equilibrium or trimmed position (i.e. straight and
level flight) following a disturbance without any pilot
assistance.

There are two types of Stability;

1. Static
2. Dynamic

Stability is also related with the crew workload

since there is a strong relationship between
Stability and Controllability.
Controllability

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Controllability;
◦ is the ability of the pilot to change the position or
attitude of an aircraft using the control surfaces.

High stability makes it harder for the pilot to

control and manoeuvre an aircraft.

STABILITY ∝ 1/CONTROLLABILITY

About Lateral Axis

◦ Pitch Stability or Longitudinal Stability

About Longitudinal Axis

◦ Roll Stability or Lateral Stability

About Normal Axis

◦ Yaw Stability or Directional Stability

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Static Stability is the initial tendency that an

aircraft displays after being displaced from a
given equilibrium position.

Degrees of stability are categorised by how

quickly an aircraft tends to return to its
trimmed position following a disturbance.

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Dynamic Stability is teh movement of an aircraft w.r.t

time in response to its static stability following a
displacement from a given equilibrium position.

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Static Long. Stability is the a/c’s natural or inbuilt

tendency when disturbed in pitch, to return to its
former trimmed AoA without pilot input.

This stability is mainly provided by the tailplane.

Example on a Conventional Airplane:

1. Consider the effect of a gust that causes
an aircraft to pitch nose-up.
2. Due to its inertia, the aircraft
momentarily continues to follow its
original flight path. This makes the AoA
of the whole airplane higher w.r.t
original relative air flow.
3. The subsequent increase in the angle of
attack of the tailplane produces a small
aerodynamic force.

4. This force, multiplied by the

distance from the CG, produces a
strong restoring pitching moment
and pitches the aircraft back to its
former equilibrium position.

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The pitching moment is defined in a

Coefficient form (C
Cm).

Mathematical Representation:
◦ The Forces & Moments on an aircraft are balanced by a
download (LT) acting on the tailplane and the aircraft is
longitudinally trimmed.

◦ For this to occur, the angle of incidence of the tailplane

is less than that of the mainplane which is known as the
Longitudinal Dihedral Angle.
Angle

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The actual degree of longitudinal stability is determined by;

◦ Location of CG
◦ Location of CP
◦ Position of the Tailplane

Example:
◦ An aircraft is in steady level flight where the AoA of the Mainplane and Tailplane are
respectively +6° & -4°.

◦ Calculating the Net Moment:

◦Σ
Σ Moment =0

If this a/c is suddenly subjected to an upward gust its nose rises, but
at the same time due to its inertia, it momentarily continues to travel
along its original flight path and presents itself to the airflow at an
increased AoA.

Let’s assume that, the effective pitch change is 2 degrees up (Shown

by the grey area).
◦ ⇒ Wing Lift increases to 10 Units
◦ ⇒ Download acting on the tailplane reduces to 2 Units

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Degree of Longitudinal Stability Depends on:

1. Position of the CG
2. Position of the Wing’s CP
3. Tailplane Design
4. Wing Downwash

Variations in the position of the CG greatly affect the static longitudinal

stability of an aircraft.

Generally, the further forward the centre of gravity the greater the
stability.

However FW position is limited since Too High Stability reduces

Controllability

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Moving CG progressively aft continuously decreases the

degree of stability and the aircraf returns to trimmed
position LESS QUICKLY.

Eventually a position is reached where the aircraft has no

tendency to return to a trimmed condition following a
disturbance and remains in its disturbed position.

This is the aircraft’s Neutral Point,

Point and its CG position at
this point gives Neutral Stability.

Any movement aft of this point makes an aircraft

statically longitudinally unstable.
unstable

Most aircraft are designed to be statically
longitudinally stable, so the centre of gravity is
normally positioned ahead of the neutral point.

The distance between the centre of gravity and
the neutral point is called the static margin.

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The position of the CP is a function of its AoA, and moves

toward the wing's leading edge with increasing AoA & vice
versa.

CP positioned behind
the CG has a stabilising
effect on the aircraft in
response to a pitch-up
disturbance.

Conversely, if the CP
moves ahead of the CG,
a nose-up moment is
applied to an aircraft in
response to a pitch-up
disturbance, and has a
destabilising effect.

The function of the tailplane is to provide a

force to counteract any out of-balance
moment.

The degree of Longitudinal Stability is

determined by the interaction between;
◦ the aircraft's CG,
◦ tailplane area,
◦ and tailplane position.

The tailplane's position relative to the
CG is of most importance, since it has
the greatest stabilizing effect on the
aircraft.
◦ the greater the moment arm, the greater the
stability.

If downwash from the wing acts on the

tailplane, it also affects the aircraft's
degree of stability, by affecting its AoA.

Furthermore, the tailplane is usually of

symmetrical section and the position of
its CP does not vary much in flight.

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Any disturbance in pitch alters the wing's angle of

attack and thus the amount of downwash from the
wing.

This also alters the angle of attack of the tailplane
(e.g. if the aircraft pitches nose-up, the downwash
angle increases and the effective angle of attack of
the tailplane decreases).

The aerodynamic force produced by the tailplane thus
decreases, as does the restoring moment.

To compensate for this, the CG is moved forward to
increase the moment arm.

Consider a graph of pitching moment plotted against AoA

(or coefficient of lift) with the elevator fixed in its neutral
position.

The graph shows that if the AoA
increases (e.g. due to a
disturbance) a nose-down (-)
pitching moment is created,
tending to rotate the aircraft back
to its original trimmed position.

Conversely, decreasing the AoA

creates a nose-up (+) pitching
moment.

Thus for an aircraft to be statically longitudinally
stable, the pitching moment must decrease with
increasing AoA (i.e. have a negative slope).

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The steepness of the slope of Pitching Moment curve determines

the aircraft's degree of stability.

Any aft movement of CG reduces the degree of static

longitudinal stability and produces a less negative slope.

The following conditions also influence the slope of the graph:

1. Stick-Fixed Static Longitudinal Stability
2. Stick-Free Static Longitudinal Stability

This involves the response of an a/c to a

disturbance in pitch if the flying control surfaces
are held in set position.

When the disturbance takes place, the a/c has a

natural tendency to return its former equilibrium
or trimmed position.

The amount of control deflection required to

maintain any new equilibrium position is a
measure of the a/c's stick-fixed static
longitudinal stability.

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This involves the response of an a/c to a

disturbance in pitch when the control surfaces
are free to find their own position depending on
the aerodynamic forces acting on them (i.e. with
manual flying controls the stick forces have been
reduced to zero by way of the trim tab system
prior to the disturbance).

This only applies to manual flying controls

because in power-operated flying control
systems, the surfaces are not free to float and
there is no difference between stick-fixed and
stick-free static longitudinal stability.

Stick Fixed:

To maintain a different flight attitude, an equal and
opposite moment from the elevators must be applied
◦ (e .g. to maintain a nose-up pitch the elevators must be
raised).

If the position of the CG is fixed, then the degree of
static longitudinal stability remains constant at any
deflection angle
◦ (i.e. constant slope)

But the change in pitching moment alters the
coefficient of lift at which equilibrium occurs.

Stick Free:

This is because the AoA of the mainplane has
increased and the tailplane produces a greater nose-
up moment due to the change in effective camber.

If the a/c is trimmed to maintain the new pitch
attitude (i.e. zero stick forces) and the elevators are
allowed to float free, any change in the aircraft's angle
of attack causes the control surfaces to move away
from their trimmed position in the direction of the
relative airflow.

For example, an increase in AoA attack causes
the elevators to float upward, thus reducing the
lift force (upload) acting on the tailplane and
reducing the aircraft's static longitudinal stability
compared to the stick fixed condition.

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In steady straight-and-level flight, each CL corresponds to

a different Airspeed in the a/c’s trimmed or equilibrium
position.

Hence an a/c with Stick Position Stability requires moving
the control column forward to reduce the AoA and trim at a
higher airspeed and vice versa

i.e. With increasing airspeed, an increasing forward
stick force must be applied to maintain Steady
straight-and-level flight.

Conversely an a/c with stick position Instability, moving the
control column aft trims the aircraft at a higher airspeed
and vice versa.

In manually controlled aircraft amount of control stick forces depend on:

Basic stick force stability, where the force is independent of airspeed

The trim tab position, which is airspeed dependant

With increasing EAS less and less

nose-up tab is required and if the
aircraft is correctly trimmed,

(i.e. if positive stick force
stability exists) a push force
will be required to maintain a
new attitude with increasing
airspeed and vice-versa.

If the position of the CG is varied while maintaining the same

trim airspeed, its actual position affects stick force stability.
◦ an aft movement of the CG reduces the negative slope of the graph, and
thus reduces the degree of stick force stability. i.e. Smaller stick forces are
required to displace the aircraft from trim.

How small?

JAR 25.173 gives the required minimum gradient for stick force
is required for an aircraft to be certified, with the following rules
being applied;

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Pull force applied to maintain airspeeds below the trim speed and vice versa.

The airspeed must return to within 10% of the original trim speed during climb,
approach and landing & must return to within 7.5% during the cruise.

The average gradient of the stable slope of the stick force versus speed curve may
not be less than 1lb for each 6kt.

CG LIMIT!

The degree of static longitudinal stability

must also be such that a stable slope exists
between 85% and 115% of the airspeed at
which the aircraft is trimmed with:
◦ Flaps retracted
◦ Undercarriage retracted
◦ Maximum take-off weight
◦ 75% of maximum continuous power (piston), or
maximum power or thrust (jet)

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Whenever an aircraft is manoeuvring, acceleration forces act on it

◦ (e.g. if the aircraft is pulling out of a dive, its flight path will be curved and
the resultant pitching velocity provides aerodynamic damping in pitch due
to the downward movement of the tailplane).

This acts with the inbuilt static longitudinal stability of the
aircraft and tends to resist this motion.

The tailplane provides the largest contribution toward damping
in pitch , although other aircraft components such as the wings
do assist.

A graph of stick force versus load factor illustrates the
manoeuvring stability of an aircraft.

The gradient of the graph should be positive

◦ (i.e. with increasing load factor the stick force must also increase).

This gradient must not be excessively high or the aircraft would be

difficult and tiring to manoeuvre. Conversely, it should not be too
low or the stick forces would be too light and the aircraft could be
over-stressed.

The manoeuvring stick force gradient, or stick force per g for a

transport category aircraft is approximately 9 Ib/g.

Aircraft with high static longitudinal stability possess high

manoeuvre stability
◦ (i.e. low controllability) and also have a high stick force gradient.

Any aft movement of the CG reduces
the stick force gradient and the
longitudinal static stability of the
aircraft.

With increasing altitude, the manoeuvre

stick force stability decreases. This is
because as the density of the air
decreases, the TAS increases, and the
amount of pitch damping decreases.

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If the control forces are too low, pilot can

overstress the aircraft. Devices can be added
to the control system to modify or tailor the
stick force stability to desired levels:
◦ Down-
Down-Spring:

◦ Bob-
Bob-Weight:

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Two types exist, with one form of oscillation

being more serious than the other.

For each type, consider an aircraft initially in
steady straight and level flight at a constant
airspeed:
◦ Long Period Oscillatins (Phugoid)

20 to 100 sec.

AoA nearly Constant Airspeed Changes

Easy to Control
◦ Short Period Oscillations

1 to 2 sec.

AoA Changes, Airspeed Constant

Difficult to Control

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The directional static stability of an aircraft is

its natural or inbuilt tendency to recover from
a disturbance in yaw, and is mainly provided
by the fin.

Consider a gust of wind that causes the aircraft to

yaw to the left.
◦ The yaw angle (ψ) is the displacement of the aircraft centre-
line from some reference azimuth. (Positive to the right)
◦ The sideslip angle (β) is the displacement aircraft centre-
line from the relative airflow.(Positive the right)

The sideslip gives the
symmetrical fin an AoA equal
to the sideslip angle.

This produces an aerodynamic
force and a strong restoring
moment and yaws the aircraft
back to its original
equilibrium.

This type of stability is also referred to as

weather-
weather-cock stability.

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Static directional stability can be shown

graphically by plotting a graph of yawing
moment coefficient (Cn) versus the sideslip
angle, where the yawing moment coefficient
is:

Fin Sweepback => Reducing the Aspect ratio,

stalling AoA increases & CP moves rearward.

Dorsal Fin =>Increases the surface area Aft
of the CG & reduces the effective AoA.

Ventral Fin => Positive Effect on directional
static stability.

Fitting Strakes => Stops Cross-Flow around
the fuselage that may stall the fin due to the
resulting disturbed airflow.

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Effect of low AR:

Effect of Dorsal Fin:

Effect of Strake:

The degree of stability provided by the fin depends on the

◦ Position of the a/c CG
◦ Position of the fin’s CP
◦ Area and angle of attack of the fin

Contribution of other components:

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It is the inbuilt tendency to recover from a disturbance in roll.

A disturbance in roll causes one wing to rise and in this attitude,

the lift force no longer opposes the weight.

The resultant of Lift and Weight causes the aircraft to sideslip in

the direction of the dropped wing.

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As in the case of Directional stability, a/c’s

inbuilt design features produce a restoring
moment.

This is defined as the rolling coefficient (CL)
in the following formula:

◦ Wing Dihedral
◦ Wing Sweepback
◦ High Wing and Low Centre of Gravity
◦ High Keel and Low CG

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As the a/c sideslips, the dihedral of the wing

places lower wing at an increased AoA, whilst
the upper wing has a reduced AoA.

While the a/c sideslips, lower wing presents more

of its span to the airflow than the upperwing.

Also the Effective chord of the lower wing
decreases while upper wing’s increase => AR of
the lower wing increases => More Lift.

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As the a/c sideslips, higher wing acts similar manner to

the dihedral wing, with the lower wing producing more lift
than the upper wing.

Overall Lift moves toward the wing-tip on the lower wing.

The Lower the CG, the greater the amount of stability is so
large that even anhedral wings are fitted.

This form of recovery is known as the pendulous effect.

During the sideslip, a/c’s side surfces (fuselage

and fin) are perpendicular to the relative airflow
=> Large area above CG produces a restoring
moment and the a/c rolls back.

The lower the CG, the greater the degree of
lateral stability.

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If the aircraft is subjected to a positive

sideslip angle, it is laterally stable if a
negative rolling moment is applied.

High-lift devices and

Power
◦ Have a destabilising effect on static stability by
reducing the dihedral effect.

Both Power and Flap deflection causes CP to
move inboard.

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There arre two main combinations of these

types of stability;
◦ Spiral Instability,
◦ Oscillatory instability

The lateral stability of an aircraft depends on the forces that tend to return it to a wings-level condition
following a wing drop.

If an aircraft has a large fin, as the wing drops, a sideslip component acts on the keel surface (including the fin)
tending to yaw the aircraft in the direction of the lower wing.

If the aircraft's directional stability is greater than its roll stability the a/c tries to align itself into the sideslip.

This causes the higher outer wing to accelerate and produce more lift than the lower inner wing.

This, in turn, sets up a rolling moment toward the inner wing, increasing the angle of bank and resulting in
further sideslip.

When this occurs, the aircraft exhibits spiral instability.

If left unchecked, this condition leads to a steep spiral dive.

This tendency may be minimised by reducing the total fin area, which effectively reduces the aircraft‘s
directional stability and its tendency to yaw in the direction of the dropped wing.

Lateral stability is consequently more effective than directional stability, and the aircraft becomes more spirally
stable.

Another method of minimising spiral instability is to increase the dihedral effect, although this leads to greater
oscillatory instability.

Spiral instability is normally considered less objectionable than oscillatory instability, so most aircraft are
designed to be spirally unstable.

With this characteristic, when the aircraft is yawed, either by the prolonged application of rudder or asymmetric
power, a rolling moment in the direction of yaw occurs and the aircraft quickly enters a spiral dive.

This can occur when flying at low airspeeds under asymmetric power conditions, when excessive yaw due to too
much power is coupled with insufficient rudder control to balance it, and may quickly place an aircraft in a
dangerous attitude.

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Oscillatory instability is more serious than spiral instability and is commonly found
to a varying degree in combinations of high wing loading and sweepback,
particularly at low indicated airspeeds and high altitude.

It is characterised by a combined rolling and yawing movement, or wallowing
motion.

The aircraft continually yaws and rolls from side to side until corrective action or
natural damping takes place.

The main forms of oscillatory instability are
◦ Dutch roll, where roll predominates yaw, and
◦ Snaking, where yaw predominates roll.

Depending on the design of the aircraft, both of these conditions may result. The
oscillation may not damp out without some form of assistance.

The resulting motion can be simply unpleasant, but in some cases may lead to the
total loss of the aircraft, particularly when flying under instrument conditions.

The main factors determining the degree of oscillatory instability are the:
◦ Amount of dihedral
◦ Amount of sweepback
◦ Keel surface area (including the fin and rudder)

In transport category aircraft, the most common form of oscillatory instability is
Dutch roll.

Consider an aircraft with sweepback where the directional stability is

less than its lateral stability.
stability.
1. If the aircraft is yawed to the right, the left wing advances
(sideslip) and generates more lift, whilst the right wing slows
down and produces less lift.
2. The result of the imbalance in lift is to roll the aircraft in the
direction of the initial yaw.
3. The lift generated by the left wing will be further increased by
becoming less sweptback, as it offers a greater span to the
airflow.
4. The right wing becomes more sweptback, decreasing the effective
span exposed to the airflow.
5. This effect is similar to that of dihedral.
6. The advancing wing also produces greater drag due to the larger
areas exposed to the airflow, which causes the aircraft to yaw in
the opposite direction (i.e. to the left).
7. This results in the right wing producing more lift than the left
wing, reversing the direction of the roll.
8. The final result is an undulating, or corkscrew motion, where the
rolling and yawing oscillations have the same frequency, but are
out of phase with each other.

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Yaw damper systems detect infinitesimal yaw variations

from the desired flight path.

Variations are sensed by the rate gyros, and the system

corrects for them by mechanically deflecting the rudder by
an amount proportional to the rate of yaw (i.e. applying
maximum rudder deflection when the rate of yaw is
maximum).

By using this method, it is possible to stop the Dutch roll

before the effects are felt.

Most transport category aircraft have yaw damper systems,
which operate continuously, and in their basic operation
act independently of the autopilot system.

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Diagram shows that the total drag curve or thrust required

curve.

The speeds slower than VMD are known as on the back of

the drag curve or the back of the thrust required curve.

The problem with flying at speeds slower than VMD is that

the aeroplane is speed-unstable.

Deploying the flaps and lowering the

undercarriage (landing configuration) help to
delay the onset of speed instability by increasing
profile drag, thus reducing the minimum drag
speed.

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