Automation in Construction 136 (2022) 104168

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Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

Review

Integrated structural health monitoring in bridge engineering

Zhiguo He a, b, Wentao Li a, c, Hadi Salehi d, Hao Zhang a, Haiyi Zhou a, Pengcheng Jiao a, b, *
a
Institute of Port, Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, Zhejiang, China
b
Engineering Research Center of Oceanic Sensing Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang University, Ministry of Education, China
c
Interdisciplinary Student Training Platform for Marine Areas, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, Zhejiang, China
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Integrated structural health monitoring (SHM) uses the mechanism analysis, monitoring technology and data
Structural health monitoring (SHM) analytics to diagnose the classification, location and significance of structural situations (e.g., sudden or cu­
Bridge engineering mulative damages) to ensure the functionality and operation of bridges. Integrated SHM systems have improved
the maintenance, management and decision-making of bridges by continuously monitoring and evaluating
working conditions. This review article discusses the current process and future trends of bridge monitoring
focusing on the cutting-edge SHM technologies, transmission and analytics methods of the sensing data, and
prediction and early-warning models. In particular, four extensively applied sensing technologies (i.e., fiber optic
sensors, piezoelectric sensors, global navigation satellite system and magnetostrictive sensors) are reviewed and
compared, the wireless data transmission approaches (i.e., ZigBee, Bluetooth, NB-IoT, Wi-Fi, LoRa) are discussed,
the artificial intelligence-based data processing methods are presented, and the performance prediction and early
warning systems are summarized. In the end, the challenges and future research avenues of the current inte­
grated SHM systems are discussed with respect to the characteristics of bridges.

1. Introduction structural surface defects and evaluating structural states [5]. However,
visual inspection is quite subjective relying more on the inspector’s own
With the continuous development of science and technology, bridge experience to make condition judgments, which is time-consuming,
construction has been developed rapidly during the last 30 years [1]. laborious and inadequate in accurately tracking changes the real-time
Since the 1970s, cable-stayed and suspension bridges have become the status of bridges [6].
mainstream in bridge engineering, mostly for the sea- or river-crossing Due to the rapid development of sensing technologies in recent years,
applications [2]. These large-scale bridges have dedicated great contri­ structural health monitoring (SHM) has been considered a promising
butions to the social and economic development, which, however, have technology solution for condition assessment of civil infrastructures
resulted in inevitably safety issues in bridge engineering such as mate­ [7,8]. SHM typically involves three main steps, namely, monitoring of
rial corrosion deterioration, structural damage and cracking, perfor­ structures with the information collected from sensors, extracting
mance degradation, functional failure, and other types of damages or damage features, and analyzing the damage features to evaluate the
diseases under the influence of load, environmental erosion and natural condition of the monitored structures [9]. Bridge SHM has obtained
disasters [3]. These damages or diseases not only affect the normal notable attention due to the rapid progress in the construction of large-
operation of the bridge but also reduce the safety reserve of the main scale bridges. Currently, more and more bridges are installed with real-
structural components of the bridges, which bring serious security risks time SHM systems [10]. Bridge condition assessment is to obtain the
to the bridge structures. In addition, bridge structures have been facing detection index data reflecting the technical condition through the
the threat of daily emergencies such as overloading, ship collision, existing mature and reliable inspection or detection technology, and
earthquake, etc. [4]. These emergencies are bound to cause damages to comprehensively analyze the obtained information through relevant
bridge structures and affect their functionality and safety, and therefore, algorithms, so as to make a reasonable assessment of the safety, dura­
it is necessary to measure the structural condition of bridges in real-time. bility and applicability of the bridge structures [11]. Regular evaluation
Traditionally, visual inspection plays an important role in detecting can master the structural technical state of bridges, and the evaluation

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pjiao@zju.edu.cn (P. Jiao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104168
Received 18 August 2021; Received in revised form 5 January 2022; Accepted 12 February 2022
Available online 23 February 2022
0926-5805/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. He et al. Automation in Construction 136 (2022) 104168

results can guide the formulation of bridge maintenance countermea­ as resistance strain gauges, wired accelerometers, etc.) in measurement
sures. With the progress of the bridge maintenance management process accuracy, and to measure new structural characteristics, such as elec­
and wide application of sensing technologies, monitoring data are tromechanical impedance and guided waves [22]. In the health assess­
accumulated continuously, and thus, a large amount of data from ment of bridge structures, the displacement of bridge piers has always
diverse structures and complex sources are generated [12]. To effec­ been an important measurement index. Because the traditional
tively address the monitoring data in bridge SHM, the era of big data in displacement sensor cannot obtain the required reference point, it is
bridge safe operation and maintenance has come. Taking the monitoring difficult to directly measure the displacement of the bridge pier, espe­
data of the Xihoumen Bridge and Sutong Bridge as examples, the cially when the size of the bridge pier is large, the measurement becomes
average daily monitoring data are approximately 3 GB and 10GB, more difficult. [23]. The global navigation satellite system is one of the
respectively [12,13]. Due to a large amount of maintenance manage­ promising technologies for displacement sensing [24]. Table 1 compares
ment data, the existing bridge management and maintenance technol­ the major applications of the FOS, lead zirconate titanate (PZT) sensors,
ogies have been faced many limitations and challenges. Consequently, it global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-based dynamic monitoring,
is necessary to establish reasonable technologies and procedures to and MsS in SHM of the cable-stayed and suspension bridges [25,26].
analyze valuable information and provide important scientific refer­
ences for real-time early warning and operation state assessment for 2.1. Fiber Optic Sensors (FOS)
bridges. The improvement of data processing and computing algorithms
have provided more convenience for data analytics. Data analysis in­ Based on the sensing principle, FOS can be categorized into the types
cludes data preprocessing, data fusion, pattern recognition, data pro­ of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors, extrinsic Fabry-Perot interfero­
cessing and data visualization [14]. At present, data analysis has become metric (EFPI) sensors, and optical time-domain reflectometry (OTDR)
an indispensable part of SHM in bridge engineering [15]. sensors [28,29]. The most valid FOS technique that satisfies the effective
In order to ensure the operation and structural safety of large-scale monitoring requirements of bridge status is FBG, which has become a
bridges, it is vital to investigate the early warning methods on abnor­ reliable monitoring tool among all the FOS techniques in bridge SHM
mally dynamic response in the normal operation stage of large-scale [30]. Fig. 1(a) shows the information regarding the major applications
bridges [16]. This enables detecting the abnormality in the condition of the FOS in SHM of the cable-stayed and suspension bridges [31,32].
of bridges, taking reasonable traffic control measures, and organizing Liu and Jiang (2008) developed the SHM system for the first cable-
professional technicians to inspect, evaluate and repair the structures. stayed bridge across the Yangtze River in China [33]. Both the FBG-
The early warning of bridge structure can be divided into three aspects: based overloading vehicle recognition and remote real-time cable
structural damage early warning, which diagnoses and early warns force monitoring systems were successfully operated using the sensing
bridge structural parameters, real-time abnormal early warning, which technology in this study. Xu et al. (2016) used the Integrated Distributed
mainly includes the early warning of bridge temperature, wind speed, Fiber Optic Sensor (DFOS) to monitor a suspension bridge with a length
load and other real-time changing state variables, disaster early warn­ of 1108 m. The monitoring results showed that DFOS could achieve
ing, which mainly includes the early warning of flood, earthquake, ship high-density strain and temperature measurement on large bridges [34].
collision and other natural and man-made disasters early warning Chan et al. (2006) installed the FBG sensors on the hanger cable, rocker
[17–20]. The existing studies of bridge SHM in the literature have bearing, and truss girders of Hong Kong’s landmark Tsing Ma bridge
mainly focused on specific aspects such as the sensing technologies, or (TMB) [35]. The experimental results showed that the data monitored
data transmission and analysis methods. However, there is a lack of from the FBG sensor is very consistent with the monitoring results ob­
comprehensive research on the system of bridge SHM. To fill the tained by the original SHM system of the bridge, which proved the
research gap, this article summarizes the key technologies of integrated reliability of the FBG. Li et al. (2011) described the crafting procedures
SHM in bridge engineering with respect to four aspects, i.e., sensing, of the optic FBG sensors and the layout methods among the bridge stay
data transmission, data analysis and early warning systems. This review cables [36]. He et al. (2013) combined the optical FBG sensor and
article aims to address the following research questions: 1) what Brillouin optical time-domain analysis/reflection sensing technology,
monitoring technologies are mainly used in bridge SHM, 2) what wire­ and successfully applied it to the force monitoring of cables [37].
less transmitting methods are most suitable for bridge SHM, 3) what
processing methods enhanced by artificial intelligence are applied in 2.2. Piezoelectric sensors
bridge SHM, and 4) what early warning systems are widely used in early
structural diagnosis and condition warning of bridges. The rest of the Piezoelectric sensors are based on the sensing technology that uses
review article paper is: Section 2 summarizes four extensively applied piezoelectric transducers to measure the impedance of the main struc­
sensing technologies in bridge SHM. Section 3 presents the development tures. Commonly used piezoelectric transducers mainly include the PZT
of wireless sensing technology and compares the six commonly used and macro fiber composite (MFC) [25,39,43,44]. PZT is based on the
wireless transmission technologies in bridge SHM. Section 4 presented ceramic piezoelectric materials that are capable of detecting the changes
some artificial intelligence-based data processing methods and their in pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain, or force by converting
application in predicting and diagnosing the health of bridge structures. these changes into electrical charges or signals and vice versa [38,45].
Section 5 summarizes the application of early warning systems in bridge Impedance measurement applications for SHM have been applied in
SHM. Section 6 discusses the challenges and future trends of the inte­ different forms [38,45,46]. Fig. 1(b) highlights the sensing techniques in
grated SHM systems are discussed and prospected in bridge engineering. the research field of the PZT on the cable-stayed and suspension bridges
[38,39]. Maruccio et al. (2016) proposed a new method using a new type
2. Sensing technologies for SHM in bridges of piezoelectric textile to monitor the bridge deck and cable vibration
caused by the environment of a cable-stayed bridge in Italy [47]. In
Since the field of bridge SHM has significantly developed over the order to detect acoustic emission in civil engineering structures, Lu and
last several decades, this article mainly focuses on the state-of-the-art of Li (2008) developed a new cement-based piezoelectric composite sensor
the smart sensors in SHM installed on the cable-stayed and suspension system [48], and measured the piezoelectric performance and sensitivity
bridges. This section summarizes the recent development and applica­ of the cement-based piezoelectric composite sensor system. Song et al.
tions of smart sensing systems, including the fiber optic sensors (FOS), (2008) proposed the concept of smart aggregate and introduced the
piezoelectric sensors, vision-based displacement measurement systems, basic working principle of smart aggregate [49]. He used a variety of
and magnetostrictive sensors (MsS) [21]. The purpose of developing different types of concrete structures (concrete cylinders and concrete
these smart sensors is to solve the limitations of traditional sensors (such frames, etc.) composed of smart aggregates to conduct test experiments

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Table 1
Comparative study for different sensors used for health monitoring of structure [27].
Reference Sensors Type Material Main detected parameters Working principle

[29,30,33–37] FOS Optical Optic Fiber Multiple (strain, temperature, acceleration or Light refractivity
displacement, etc.)
[25,39,43,45–50] PZT Wired, electrical, Piezoceramic material Strain, corrosion, and acceleration Piezoelectric effect
Wireless
[23,24,40,41,51–53] GNSS Wireless, electrical GNSS Satellites Wind-speed, vibration, and acceleration Measure the distance between the satellite
and the receiver
[26,42,54–59] MsS Wired, wireless Magnetostrictive Strain and corrosion Detect guided waves in the ferromagnetic
material materials

Fig. 1. Common sensing technologies used in bridge SHM. (a) The major applications of the FOS in SHM of the cable-stayed and suspension bridges [31,32], (b)The
sensing techniques in the research field of the PZT on the cable-stayed and suspension bridges [38,39], (c) The GNSS-based monitoring systems process the ac­
celeration and displacement data of the cable-stayed and suspension bridges [40,41], and (d) The MsS can be broadly used for SHM in the cable-stayed and sus­
pension bridges [26,42].

to prove the reliability of smart aggregates. Sun et al. (2008) combined studied the deployment of the SHM system for the Aizhai Suspension
piezoelectric ceramic sensors and ultrasonic methods to form a new non- Bridge that consisted of three large spans [24]. The finite element
destructive monitoring method [50]. This method can be used to model-based updating method that combined the substructure method
monitor the dynamic elastic constant of concrete bridges and structural with the response surface model updating approach was proposed to
damage such as cracks. reconstruct the actual working state of the suspension bridge in the early
safety warning and comprehensive assessment subsystem. Kaloop and
2.3. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Hu (2016) used a GPS-based bridge structural health monitoring pro­
gram to conduct condition assessment and parameter identification of
The purpose of developing intelligent monitoring technology is to Yonghe Bridge [40]. Meng et al. (2018) introduced the GeoSHM demo
improve monitoring accuracy and reduce monitoring costs. The biggest project and presented the GeoSHM data strategy that were able to
advantage of GNSS is its high measurement accuracy, which can obtain analyze the averaged features every 10mins [41]. This system was
millimeter-level precision measurements. GNSS can not only monitor implemented on the Forth Road Bridge, the suspension bridge that
static displacement, but also has high accuracy in dynamic measure­ connects Edinburgh and the Northern part of Scotland, with the aim of
ment. [23,24,51,52]. Fig. 1(c) outlines the main approach that the providing the real-time monitoring based on the GeoSHM.
GNSS-based monitoring systems process the acceleration and displace­
ment data of the cable-stayed and suspension bridges [40,41]. Tsakiri 2.4. Magnetostrictive Sensors (MsS)
et al. (2005) took the cable-stayed bridge in the Strait of Evripos in
Greece as the research object, formed a multi-sensor system with ac­ Ferromagnetic materials are mechanically deformed when they are
celerometers and ground measuring devices, and evaluated the influ­ placed in a magnetic field, which is called the magnetostrictive effect
ence of soil on the change of bridge structure [53]. Sheng and Qu (2016) [26,54,55]. Kwun and Bartels (1998) developed MsS. It is a non-

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destructive testing method that can generate and detect guided waves in Therefore, they are also often embedded in concrete to monitor the
ferromagnetic materials during testing without direct contact with the health state of bridges [64–66]. The wireless transmitter is embedded in
monitored object [56]. Fig. 1(d) demonstrates the MsS that can be the structure along with the sensor, and it is used to transmit the bridge
broadly used for SHM in the cable-stayed and suspension bridges signal and the environment signal. The embedded piezoelectric sensors
[26,42]. Bouchilloux et al. (1999) developed the stress sensors based on are typically more accurate and comprehensive than the surface-
the electro-mechanical properties of the highly elastic limit steel [57]. mounted sensors in monitoring the internal damages for those large-
The accuracy of the MsS was within 3%, which was affected by the scale bridges [64].
perturbation of temperature. The difference between 10 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C
was found as 6%. Kwun et al. (2001) installed the MsS to generate and 3.1.2. Application of WSN in bridge SHM
detect guided waves electromagnetically in the material testing [24]. With the increasing popularity of wireless sensing technology, more
The MsS instrument contained two transmitters and two receivers to wireless sensors are used for the purpose of bridge health monitoring.
enable the directionality control of the generated and detected guided Lynch et al. (2005) deployed the 14 wireless sensor nodes on the
wave signals. Singh et al. (2004) investigated the sensitivity and accu­ Geumdang Bridge in South Korea to monitor the impact of vehicle ve­
racy of the direct magnetic property measurements with respect to the locity and overloaded trucks on the bridge [67]. However, one of the
corrosion [58]. The authors estimated the thermal dependence of the challenges is how to implement the large-scale wireless sensor nodes
structural steel’s magnetic properties and quantitatively correlated the because of the single-hop communication architecture. Kim et al. (2007)
results to the corrosion. Krause et al. (2002) developed the system uti­ and Pakzad et al. (2008) deployed the 64 sensor nodes on the Golden
lizing superconducting quantum interference device sensors with the Gate Bridge, which constituted the sensor network with 46 hop points
unsurpassed sensitivity, where ruptures of steel in prestressed tendons [68,69]. Jang et al. (2010) and Rice et al. (2010) jointly deployed a total
could be detected by measurement of the magnetic stray field [59]. of 70 Imote2 sensor nodes on the Jindo Bridge in South Korea. The
sensor nodes were single-hop communication network architecture, and
2.5. Conclusion therefore, the system was not suitable for large structures. In addition,
when the wireless sensor is in low power consumption mode, it takes
Intelligent sensing technology can accurately obtain the status in­ about 5 min to make it work normally and become a real-time moni­
formation of the monitored object and is an indispensable part of SHM. toring state. Therefore, the system cannot capture monitoring data in
At present, a variety of smart sensing technologies have been success­ real-time in the event of an emergency, such as an earthquake or
fully applied to the monitoring of engineering structures. There are tsunami [32,70]. Kurata et al. (2011,2013) reported the development of
mainly four types of sensing technologies widely used in SHM: fiber a large-scale wireless SHM system for long-span bridges, which con­
optic sensors, piezoelectric sensors, global navigation satellite system sisted of 28 wireless sensor nodes to collect data from over 80 channels
and magnetostrictive sensors. The noted sensing technologies have their [71,72]. The whole monitoring system was self-powered by solar panels,
own advantages and disadvantages and different application scenarios. as shown in Fig. 2. Yang et al. (2019) developed the tunable electro­
magnetic energy harvesting system for harnessing energy from the low-
3. Data transmission for SHM in bridges frequency vibration (i.e., <10 Hz) of bridges, and the system was inte­
grated with the wireless fatigue crack detection sensors, as shown in
Wireless sensing networks (WSN)-based SHM in bridges consists of Fig. 3. The field tests on Yeongjong Bridge show that a peak voltage of
the hardware and software systems [60]. The hardware system usually 2.27 V and a root mean square voltage of 0.21 V can be generated at a
comprises of the wireless sensor, data acquisition and transmission frequency of 3.05 Hz and a root mean square acceleration of 0.18 m/s2
modules, and the software system typically includes the data analysis [73].
and early warning system [22]. This section mainly focuses on the
composition and installation of the wireless sensors, data acquisition 3.2. Data acquisition for WSN
and wireless transmission in the hardware system.
Data acquisition refers to the process of capturing and storing
3.1. Wireless sensors different types of monitoring data from various sensors installed on the
monitored equipment [74]. Classifying based on the types of the
3.1.1. Installation of wireless sensors in WSN collected data, data acquisition in WSN includes data logging and
Wireless sensors consist of five units, including the sensor, ADC/ decentralized data aggregation [75]. Data logging refers to sending all
DCA, storage, central processor, and wireless communication [61]. the obtained sensing data directly to the base station, in which the time
Installation of the wireless sensors in bridge SHM can be categorized into of data acquisition can be checked. Because all the data need to be
the following two types: (1) surface-mounted wireless sensors, (2) in­ transmitted, the transmission scale and energy consumption of this
ternal embedded sensors [62]. For the existing bridges, the wireless method are relatively large [76]. Decentralized data aggregation refers
sensors and their corresponding transmitters were mounted on the to the process that the onboard computing capabilities are used in the
structure surfaces [63]. At present, some wireless sensors, such as ac­ sensor nodes to process the sensing data, and then send the processed
celerometers, anemometers or temperature sensor, which are used to data to the base station [77]. Because this method filters out some
monitor environmental parameters in the SHM system, are usually garbage data, the transmission scale and energy consumption are
installed directly on the bridge’s surface. These surface-mounted wire­ reduced. However, the time of data acquisition is omitted in this method
less sensors are usually used in conjunction with transmitters to transmit [75]. The functional block diagram of the wireless data acquisition
monitoring data to the base station [62]. For example, when the external system is shown in Fig. 4. The system is suitable for monitoring slow-
environment changes, the wireless sensor system can monitor the changing parameters, such as bridge cracks, stress and strain, etc. This
bridge’s static and dynamic responses, transmit the monitoring data to system collected data from thousands of remote sensors on the struc­
the server through wireless transmission, and the server processes and tures, and proposed the data to an unlimited number of users [78].
analyzes the data [60]. For the bridges under construction, the sensors Francesco et al. (2011) summarized the WSN architecture based on the
and their corresponding transmitters can be integrated into the internal mobile elements while introducing mobile features into the WSN. The
structure before the completion of the bridge construction to eliminate mobile elements (i.e., nodes and sinks) made the architecture simpler
the severe impacts on the integrity of the bridges [63]. Some intelligent and reduced the cost of the WSN. In addition, the mobile elements
sensors (e.g., piezoelectric and OFS) are light in weight and small in accessed the nodes in the network and collected data directly through
volume, which have little impact on the performance of bridges. the single-hop transfers, which reduced the contention, conflict and data

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Fig. 2. Components of the wireless monitoring systems. (a) Narada assembly with the solar energy harvester [71,72]. (b) Narada server, solar panel, and antenna
anchored to the top of the north concrete tower. (c) Installations of the climate sensors (vane and anemometer shown) and solar panel at one of the bridge
hangers [71,72].

Fig. 3. The tunable electromagnetic energy harvesting system for harnessing energy from the low-frequency vibration (i.e., <10 Hz) of bridges. The device is like a
nonlinear spring, which can not only generate energy but also integrate with wireless sensors to monitor the fatigue cracks on the bridge. (a) 3D design of the
proposed energy harvester [73]. (b) configuration of the proposed energy harvester [73].

loss [79]. Imote2 is an advanced intelligent sensor platform that is recent years. WSN in bridges offer have several advantages. First of all,
widely used today [80]. Linderman et al. (2013) used Imote2 wireless they can eliminate the connecting cables and significantly reduce the
sensors to obtain a large amount of data in real-time and perform total system costs [84]. Secondly, wireless nodes are small in size, so
wireless collection and transmission functions [76]. Herranen et al. they can be installed in positions that are difficult for the cable
(2014) developed the system to acquire and process the acceleration deployment. Thirdly, WSN can use different wireless transmission
data from the array of MEMS sensors for SHM in bridges [81]. methods to meet different transmission distance requirements and
realize the multi-node transmission, such that to improve the efficiency
3.3. Wireless transmission in bridge SHM of wireless transmission [84,85]. Common wireless transmission
methods used in bridge SHM systems include the ZigBee, Bluetooth,
Most of the bridge SHM systems have been designed using wired narrow-band Internet of things (NB-IoT), Wi-Fi, Long Range Radio
transmission systems (e.g., FOS [82,83]) to generate monitoring infor­ (LoRa), Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), etc. [86,87].
mation, which has the disadvantages of high cost, considerable size, and Fig. 5 shows the studies on the application of different wireless
poor flexibility [31]. WSN is the research hotspot for bridge SHM in transmission methods in bridge SHM. ZigBee protocol is found as one of

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Fig. 4. The functional block diagram of the wireless data acquisition system. (a) Power management unit. (b) Sensor unit. (c) Processing and communication unit.

Fig. 5. Studies on the utilization of the wireless transmission technologies of Bluetooth, ZigBee, LoRa, Wi-Fi, NB-IoT and RFID in bridge SHM.

the technologies with significant research attention since it meets the separate network card to operate which has relatively poor networking
requirements of low cost, low energy consumption, and high fault capability [91]. RFID is a new technology that has been gradually
tolerance [88,89]. ZigBee devices typically allow batteries to last up to applied in the field of wireless communication in the past 10 years. From
years using the primary cells without charging [88]. ZigBee uses the the perspective of power supply status, RFID can be divided into two
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation in mixed mesh, categories: “active” and “passive”; from the perspective of operating
star, and peer-to-peer topologies to deliver reliable data services with a frequency, it can be divided into low frequency (125KHz ~ 135KHz),
transmission range of up to 100 m [89]. Therefore, ZigBee has been high frequency (13.56 MHz), Microwave (2.45GHz, 5.8GHz) [91,92],
considered as a leading candidate in WSNs for bridge SHM systems. On etc. LoRa and NB-IoT technologies have gradually emerged in bridge
the contrary, the studies on Wi-Fi and Bluetooth wireless transmission SHM in the last 5 years [87]. LoRa and NB-IoT are two of the most
methods have been slowly decreasing in recent years. Bluetooth tech­ promising low-power network communication technologies for wide
nology can realize short-distance wireless communication, where the areas, which meet the long-distance and low-power requirements of
transmission distance is not suitable for outdoor long-distance trans­ wireless transmission in bridge SHM. The maximum transmission dis­
portation (i.e., usually within 10 m) [90]. Wi-Fi technology requires a tance can reach more than 10 km, which provides the convenience for

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wireless data transmission in bridges [94]. The comparison of the five the health status of the bridges, which can mainly be divided into the
wireless transmission methods is shown in Table 2. steps of data preprocessing, data fusion, pattern recognition, data pro­
Harms et al. (2009,2010) developed an intelligent wireless moni­ cessing and data visualization [102]. This section discusses the common
toring platform. Wireless sensor nodes can monitor environmental and methods of these five parts and their application in bridge health
structural changes such as temperature and abnormal vibration. The monitoring.
ZigBee connection transmitted the data monitored by wireless sensors to
the base station. The base station transmits the data to multiple desti­ 4.1. Data preprocessing
nations for analysis and perception through the Global System for Mo­
bile Communications (GSM)/General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) link Data preprocessing of bridge SHM is to extract the effective data
provided by the cellular phone infrastructure [95,96]. Chae et al. (2011) hidden by the noise and other factors, such that to provide the basis for
developed the prototype of WSN systems for SHM of the suspension further data analysis [103]. The main function of data preprocessing is
bridge. Sensor devices such as accelerometers, strain gauges and ZigBee to extract the data sources related to the monitoring target based on the
modules were combined to implement the u-Nodes. A total of 45 u- mining requirements, check the legality of the data under the mechan­
Nodes were installed in the Yongjong Grand Bridge and ZigBee was used ical constraints of bridges, and generate the next waiting core data for
for short-distance communications among the sensors and Code Division analysis [104]. Data preprocessing consists of three parts: noise filtering,
Multiple Access (CDMA) for long-distance wireless communications data classification, and data evaluation [105–107]. The noise filtering
between the remote locations. In particular, the data collected by the u- module filters the environmental noise from a large number of data
Nodes were transmitted to u-Gateway via ZigBee modules and the u- attributes, and extracts the attributes that have important impacts on the
Gateway sent out the data to the server through CDMA [97]. Zou et al. target output (i.e., reduce the dimensionality of the original data), such
(2014) developed the compressive sensing (CS)-based framework for that to improve the data quality [105]. The data classification module is
data loss recovery in the wireless smart sensor platform—Imote2. The based on the different storage environments and working conditions of
function of the CS framework is that it can retrieve data that was acci­ the in-service bridge operation process, and the generated data are
dentally lost during transmission. This framework can greatly improve divided into different categories for subsequent processing and analysis
the efficiency and reliability of data transmission [98]. Strangfeld et al. [106]. The data evaluation module is to extract the core records that are
(2019) embedded passive RFID-based sensors into the concrete for long- referenced for structural state recognition based on the tasks of data
term moisture monitoring for more than 1000 days. Experimental re­ preprocessing in different data classifications [107]. For the trends and
sults showed that embedded passive RFID sensors are very suitable for outliers that are easy to identify and frequently appearing, supervised
long-term SHM in civil engineering [99]. Ji et al. (2019) designed the machine learning (ML) methods are used to detect and provide corre­
intelligent bridge SHM system using ZigBee WSN. Based on the 3G sponding labels to build the classification datasets. Tang et al. (2019)
wireless transmission and ZigBee technologies, the proposed system proposed the anomaly detection method based on the convolutional
served as the wireless monitoring platform with multi-level network neural network (CNN) data preprocessing stage [108]. After visualizing
architectures composed of the data acquisition nodes, central nodes the original time series data, they designed and trained the CNN model
(gateway) and remote servers. The efficiency of the wireless trans­ for data anomaly classification, and learned the description and repre­
mission was critically improved [100]. sentation of the anomalous features through the convolutions. Huang
et al. (2020) proposed a preprocessing method for bridge delay SHM
3.4. Conclusion data based on canonical correlation analysis (CCA) [109]. The author
used whether the canonical correlation coefficient is zero as the criterion
Wireless transmission has excellent advantages over wired trans­ for noise and abnormality in data preprocessing, and defined two sta­
mission. Wireless sensor nodes do not impose to deploy cables, which tistics to detect potential abnormal data, and derived two corresponding
significantly reduces the system’s total cost. In particular, the popularity indicators from locating the source of abnormal data. Dang et al. (2020)
of wireless transmission methods such as ZigBee enables the bridge expanded the four main deep learning (DL) algorithms: multi-layer
health monitoring system to achieve wireless data transmission with low perceptron, long-short-term memory network, and CNN [110]. After
cost, low energy consumption, and high fault tolerance, which signifi­ verifying the three structural examples, it was found that the 2D CNN
cantly improves data transmission efficiency. model provided the best recognition results for the complex time series
data preprocessing in bridge SHM.
4. Data processing in bridge SHM
4.2. Data fusion
Data processing refers to using the appropriate statistical analysis
methods to analyze (i.e., summarize, understand and digest) a large Data fusion usually refers to using the multi-channel or multi-sensor
amount of sensing data in bridges [101]. Data processing is particularly datasets at the same time to obtain more accurate analysis results
the process of studying and generalizing the monitoring data to obtain [102,111]. The common theories of data fusion include the Bayesian
theory, D–S evidence theory, Kalman filter theory, etc. [112]. The
Table 2 Bayesian theory provides expressions for the probability of the hy­
Comparison of the five wireless transmission methods in bridge SHM [87–94]. pothesis being true given certain prior knowledge or observations [113].
Wireless Transmission Network Transmission Power Bayesian estimation is the common algorithm for multi-sensor infor­
transmission distance delay speed waste mation fusion, and its information is described as the probability dis­
method tribution that helps make better decisions on bridges. Ntotsios et al.
ZigBee 10–100 m <1 s 250kbps Low (2008) presented the bridge SHM system based on the vibration mea­
LoRa >10 km TBD 0.3–50kbps Very surements collected from the network of acceleration sensors [114].
low Based on time-domain Bayesian reasoning, Sun et al. (2015) proposed a
Wi-Fi <50 m <1 s 5G: 1–500 M Very
regularization method, which uses heterogeneous data fusion to realize
high
NB-IoT >10 km 6–10 s 160–250 kbps Very the simulation of the traffic guidance nodes of the truss bridge [115].
low Huang et al. (2019) used the Bayesian fusion to integrate the compressed
Bluetooth 10 m <1 s 1M High local recognition results transmitted by the sensor nodes and obtained
RFID <10 m < 500 ms < 200 kbps Very reliable global estimations [116]. The D–S evidence theory has widely
low
been used in bridge detection and diagnosis, especially for multi-sensor

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data fusion, which has become the basic and important fusion algorithm 4.4. Data analysis
in bridge SHM [117]. Liu et al. (2008) used the Bayesian theory and
D–S evidence theory to establish the evaluation index of the structural Bridge monitoring data are found with the characteristics of large
damage identification effects, and analyzed the feasibility from the quantity, wide variety and strong timeliness [135]. Most of the existing
reinforced concrete slab test [118]. Bao et al. (2012) presented the bridge maintenance management technologies, however, cannot effec­
structural damage detection method based on D–S evidence theory. The tively analyze and process such complex data in bridge engineering
authors employed the D–S evidence theory to identify the damage [136]. In the big data era, scholars have been actively exploring big data
location on the 20-bay rigid truss structure [119]. Grande et al. (2016) analysis methods to realize the feature extraction and pattern recogni­
presented the multi-stage data fusion approach based on D–S evidence tion in bridge SHM. Chen et al. (2014) introduced the types and char­
theory to detect the damage in the structural systems (i.e., fixed-end acteristics of bridge big data and pointed out that the development
beams) [120]. The Kalman filter theory is the algorithm that uses the direction of bridge maintenance management technology was related to
linear system state equation to estimate the optimal system state the big data analysis method [137]. Li et al. (2015) summarized the
through the system input and output observation data [121]. For latest research progresses on analyzing and mining of the SHM data in
nonlinear systems, however, the extended Kalman filter (EKF), un­ bridges, including the monitoring data processing based on compressed
scented Kalman filter (UKF), or particle filter (PF) should be used instead sensing theory, recognition of vehicle load distribution, real-time cable
of the Kalman filter [122]. Cho et al. (2016) proposed the displacement force recognition of stay cables, safety assessment of cable-stayed
estimation approach using the Kalman filter-based data fusion to pro­ bridges under the coupling effect, etc. [138]. Those results depended
vide the practical means for displacement measurement [123]. Xu et al. on the foundation of subsequent analyzing and mining of the bridge
(2017) used practical data fusion methods to improve the accuracy of SHM data. Ma et al. (2017) studied the fatigue performance of the steel
the Global Positioning System (GPS) [124]. They compared the nu­ box girders in the long-span Xihoumen Bridge by combining and
merical simulation results with the field test results of the Humber screening the massive data obtained from the monitoring system [188].
Bridge displacement in England to determine the reliability of the Jeong et al. (2016) proposed the bridge monitoring data management
method. The comparison result showed that after data fusion, the method based on the Not Only SQL (NoSQL) database system to process
normalized root means square deviation of GPS measurement is reduced the time series data and unstructured bridge information model data
from 3.17% to 2.37%. [139]. Roshandeh et al. (2014) proposed the hierarchical big data and
cloud computing methods, and constructed the real-time decision-
4.3. Pattern recognition making framework for bridge data management [140]. Alampelli et al.
(2016) introduced the big data analysis framework that combined the
Pattern recognition has become one of the most important tools for multiple function-related data to transform the data into operable in­
data processing in bridge SHM [125]. Pattern recognition algorithms formation to enhance the risk decision-making ability [141].
include supervised learning and unsupervised learning. Supervised
learning can be divided into classification and regression, where the 4.5. Data visualization
classification methods are primarily used for damage detection, load
effect analysis, load pattern recognition, and structural retrofitting Data visualization has been developed to present the data analysis
assessment, and the regression methods are for describing the correla­ results in bridge SHM [11]. The main objective of data visualization is to
tion relationships between the dependent and independent variables clearly and effectively display the monitoring information in a graphical
and are mainly applied for load effect analysis in bridge SHM [126]. The way [142]. One of the issues of big data visualization is the difficulty of
primary difference between the classification and regression methods is visualizing high-dimensional data due to the diversity of the data [143].
that the former predicts the discrete labels while the latter predicts the Parallel coordinate plot (PCP) is the commonly used method to visualize
continuous values [11]. Artificial neural network (ANN) and support the high-dimensional multivariate data [144]. PCP projects n-dimen­
vector machine (SVM) are the most popular techniques employed to sional data into the two-dimensional space through the n-parallel co­
perform data analysis in SHM in the past decades [122]. Bandara et al. ordinate axes. Each data point is represented as the line segment in PCP,
(2014) proposed the damage detection method based on the frequency and thus, the original high-dimensional datasets can be represented in
response function data [127]. The authors adopted the ANN method and the geometric systems [145]. With the functionality of pattern recog­
used the damage pattern identified by the algorithm to locate and nition, PCP can present the correlation between data [146]. However,
quantify the actual damages, and thus, effectively considered the un­ PCP requires a large level of display space, and it is difficult to intuitively
certainty of the measurement data. Khuc et al. (2018) presented the express the associations between the multiple different dimensions,
structural identification framework using the computer vision-based which may cause problems for users in practical applications [147]. Lou
measurements for bridge SHM [128]. Li et al. (2018) proposed the et al. (2021) proposed a new type of PCP introduced by unsupervised
data-driven approach using the support vector regression (SVR) algo­ feature selection, which can be used to rank the importance of attributes
rithm to model the vortex-induced vibration (VIV) response of the through attribute-based local protection capabilities to improve the
bridge decks in the time domain [129]. Unsupervised learning mainly visualization performance of PCP [148]. When long-term data recording
refers to clustering–the analogous to classification without the need for is required, time series is an effective data visualization method. Time
labeled data. Clustering has obtained more attention and exhibited the series is a set of random variables sorted by time. It is usually the result
potential to substitute classification algorithms in different SHM appli­ of observing a certain potential process at a given sampling rate in an
cations [130]. The common clustering methods are fuzzy clustering, K- equal interval of time. The results of the time series usually conform to
means clustering, etc. [131,132]. Alamdari et al. (2017) used the the law of the development of things; but the time series only shows the
improved K-means clustering method to monitor the damage of the jack relationship between time and the measured data. If a combined time
arch of the Sydney Harbour Bridge and the failure of the failure [133]. series is used or the time series is combined with other models, the data
The authors adopted the modification of K-means to isolate the outliers visualization results will be better [149]. Delgado et al. (2018) proposed
in the clustering process to exclude the negative influence. Yu et al. a building information modeling (BIM) method that can dynamically
(2013) dealt with the vibration-based damage detection in the truss visualize sensor data in time series and test it on a newly built bridge in
bridge model and suggested the fuzzy clustering-based method to the UK [150].
measure the frequency response function (FRF) data [134].

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4.6. Summary structures can be divided into three aspects: early warning of structural
damages, early warning of real-time abnormality, and early warning of
Data processing can help people efficiently extract and analyze a disasters [17–20].
large amount of monitoring data, thereby improving the efficiency and
accuracy of the bridge SHM. This chapter summarizes and outlines the
important links of data processing from five aspects: data preprocessing, 5.1. Early warning of structural damages
data fusion, pattern recognition, data analysis and data visualization, as
well as some commonly used processing methods in each link. This Early warning of structure damages focuses on the impact of various
section also explains how various methods are applied in bridge SHM factors on bridges [204]. Studies have been conducted on the identifi­
with many examples. cation, interdisciplinary techniques in structure damage early warning,
such as the applied mathematical theories and signal processing
5. Early warning systems in bridge SHM methods [152,153]. The early warning of structural bridge damages
mainly includes the indicators of bridge settlement, durability, strain,
Bridge early warning systems are important to bridge SHM. At pre­ girder deflection, etc. [152,154–158]. Biondi et al. (2020) used the
sent, bridge early warning systems mainly aim at observing the state spaceborne synthetic aperture radar technology to accurately locate the
changes of bridge structures [151]. Early warning systems of bridge damaged components of the bridge [159]. Fig. 6(a) shows the moni­
toring and actual situations in the bridge. Gan et al. (2009) proposed an

Fig. 6. Classifications and examples of the early warning systems in bridge SHM. (a) use the spaceborne synthetic aperture radar technology to accurately locate the
damaged components of the bridge [159]. (b) track and simulate the changes of the structural performance over time [154]. (c) online monitoring system for
detecting abnormal train vibration response [162,166]. (d) calculation method of ship-bridge collision warning [173]. (e) a hybrid early warning system scheme for
earthquake early warning [174].

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on-site monitoring and early warning system that can monitor the and is integrated with the Internet of Things and communication tech­
durability of concrete structures and was successfully applied in the nologies. The common disasters causing damages to bridges are earth­
Hangzhou Bay Bridge [155]. Based on the electrochemical principles quake, ship collision, flood, etc. [168,172]. Li et al. (2011) proposed the
and assistant optical fiber technology, the corrosion of the concrete recognition method based on the Euclidean distance, which compared
reinforcement was monitored to obtain the in-situ durability of the the changing rate of the seismic response data with the preset threshold
concrete structures and carry out the early diagnosis and early warning. calculated from the normal response data [169]. The bridge health
Liu et al. (2016) proposed the long-term trend assessment and dynamic monitoring system successfully identified the structural response under
early warning method based on the long-term monitoring data in the the excitations of the Wenchuan earthquake in 2008. Madaloni et al.
Nanjing No.3 Yangtze River Bridge [156]. The authors established the (2016) proposed to use this information in a semi-active control strategy
two-level dynamic early warning lines (i.e., yellow and red) of the mid- framework based on magnetorheological (MR) damper applications
span deflection of the bridge, and tested the applicability and rationality [170]. In order to obtain the best seismic response of the bridge, the
of the early warning line setting method through two examples in 2008. author changed the behavior of the MR damper according to the peak
Guo et al. (2019) used the Kohonen NN and long-short-term memory NN ground acceleration estimated by the earthquake early warning system,
for the health state evaluation of bridges [152]. The authors used the and carried out experimental verification in the bridge. Yang et al.
new data as input into the Kohonen NN and compared the clustering (2013) developed the ship-bridge collision early warning calculation
results with the results obtained from the normal data. Lin et al. (2018) method, which was used in the Chongqing vessel traffic services (VTS)
proposed an integrated framework for closed-loop management of [174]. The results showed that this method accurately predicted the
structural safety [154]. The framework is based on multi-source data risks of ship-bridge collision. Fig. 6(e) shows the real ship-bridge anti-
integration, which can track and simulate changes in structural perfor­ collision experiments. Duan et al. (2011) developed the early warning
mance over time, and verify the effectiveness of the framework by model for the ship collision accident by using the bridge acceleration
comparing the difference between experimental results and digital and monitoring data and Euclidean distance as the early warning index
analog results as shown in Fig. 6(b). Miao et al. (2015) studied the early [168]. When ship collisions occurred, the Euclidean distance of the
warning and identification method of bridge damage based on the three- monitoring data exceeded the threshold, which indicated that the bridge
dimensional dynamic girder deflection data [157]. Deng et al. (2009) was in the abnormal operating state, and the alarm was issued imme­
studied the damage early warning of the expansion joints in the long- diately. This method had strong practicability and objectivity since it
span bridge based on the monitoring data of the beam end displace­ directly used the measured data of the bridge, and the comparative data
ments [158]. are obtained from the bridge under a normal operation. Ren et al. (2013)
considered the defects of the existing ship traffic management system
5.2. Early warning of real-time abnormality and passive anti-collision device in the application of the inland river
navigation bridge anti-collision, and designed the anti-collision active
Due to the complex structures, huge volume, undetectable local early warning system [171]. Wu et al. (2012) proposed the method to
damages and environmental factors of the bridges, it is difficult to deduce the generalized confluence curve of the basin based on the his­
realize the structural damage early warning based on the dynamic pa­ torical water mark of the bridge piers [172]. The authors predicted the
rameters [160]. Therefore, bridge early warning method based on the peak discharges of the bridge sections and arrival time of the flood peak
real-time monitoring data are still in development. Real-time abnormal at the same time. Nestovito et al. (2016) proposed the dissipative MR
early warning mainly includes monitoring the bridge load, wind speed, damper-based adaptive control algorithms based on the predicted
acceleration and other bridge signals, and temperature and other envi­ seismic peak acceleration [173]. The effectiveness and robustness of the
ronmental signals [153,161–166]. Sun et al. (2018) demonstrated the double concave friction pendulum system with smart-passive MR
function of the early warning system by monitoring the deck surface dampers driven by the early seismic warning information were
temperature and wind velocity of the Jiangyin Bridge [161]. The demonstrated. Fig. 6(d) shows the hybrid early warning system scheme.
warning thresholds were set as 0 ◦ C and 55 ◦ C for the low and high
temperatures, respectively. When the wind velocity exceeded 10 m/s, 6. Challenges and future trends of integrated SHM systems in
warning information was delivered to the road users via the bridge bridge engineering
boards, including the current vehicle speed and careful driving logo.
Ding et al. (2015,2017) used the principal component analysis (PCA) 6.1. Challenges of integrated SHM systems
method to establish the high-speed railway bridge traffic safety early
warning system, and used the wavelet packet decomposition and in­ Bridge SHM has become one of the most important subjects in bridge
terval estimation theory to develop the online monitoring system to engineering. However, certain challenges need to be addressed in the
detect the abnormal train-induced vibration responses [162,166]. Fig. 6 SHM of large-scale bridges, which can be discussed with respect to five
(c) shows the reported monitoring results and early warning systems. Ge considerations. First of all, the technology challenge is the difficulty
et al. (2020) proposed a full bridge traffic load monitoring method, between the evaluation results obtained using the technical means and
which is based on the improvement of the you only look once-version 3 the real state of the bridge. Secondly, the environment challenge is the
(YOLO-v3) CNN model, which can accurately identify the traffic load difficulty in balancing the influence of the external environmental
distribution of the entire bridge deck in real-time and make reasonable conditions on the bridge construction and maintenance. Thirdly, the
warnings [163]. Skibniewski et al. (2014) and Wang et al. (2019), economy challenge is the difficulty in balancing the relationship be­
respectively, developed the web-based system that combined GPS, WSN tween the economic benefits and social contribution. Fourthly, the
and sensing cables based on the time domain reflection to display the safety challenge is the difficulty in finding the influence of the extreme
bridge scouring information in real-time [164,165]. surroundings and three-dimensional air-water foundation conditions on
the bridge safety mechanism. Fifthly, the security challenge is the dif­
5.3. Early warning of disaster ficulty in preventing data leakage and other network security issues.
Fig. 7 demonstrates the five challenges in bridge SHM.
Early warning of disasters is of significance to bridge early warning, In particular, 1) the technology challenge refers to many technical
which aims to provide early warning before disasters, remind the bridge problems in bridge SHM, which results in the difficulty to obtain the real
maintenance management personnel to prepare, and thus, reduce the state of bridges. In the current bridge SHM systems, the conventions
loss and impact of disaster [167]. Therefore, disaster early warning experience is typically used to preselect certain points in bridges for
widely relies on various professional disaster monitoring equipment, sensors, while few studies have been conducted on the number and

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Fig. 7. Five challenges in bridge SHM. The technology challenge refers to many technical problems in bridge SHM. The environment challenge refers to the influence
of the external environmental conditions on the bridge construction and maintenance. The economy challenge refers to the relationship between the high cost of
building cross-sea bridges and the future economic returns. The safety challenge refers to the problems that are easy to cause dangers in bridges. The security
challenge refers to the data leakage and some network security problems in bridges.

location of those sensors. In addition, traditional data analysis methods Scholars have made a comparative analysis of the regional air traffic
usually use a small portion of data for analysis. When addressing large pattern before and after the construction of the cross-sea bridges in
amounts of datasets, the analytical performance is often limited. The Japan, and proved with models that after the bridges, the reduction of
thresholds of early warning index are generally given based on design traffic barriers and the new potential of opening greatly changed the
specifications or model calculation, which may dissatisfy the bridge local air traffic pattern and pose a threat to the airports in most sur­
response in practice, e.g., abnormal changes may be submerged in the rounding areas [178]. It is worth noting that the maintenance of the
safe threshold range for bridges due to underestimation of the thresh­ bridges is a considerable expenditure. 4) The safety challenge refers to
olds. 2) The environment challenge refers to the influence of the external the problems that are easy to cause dangers in bridges. Most of the
environmental conditions on the bridge construction and maintenance. bridges are built between bays and straits. The bad natural conditions of
Note that cross-sea bridges are usually affected by the climate, hydrol­ typhoon, tide or fog typically make it difficult to drive on the bridges.
ogy, geology and other environmental factors [175]. Different temper­ Studies have established the analysis models for common vehicles under
atures and wind speeds have different effects, and thus, these basic the action of wind when driving on bridges. However, it is still difficult
physical quantities are the data that must be monitored in bridge SHM. to accurately judge the driving situations based on the specific envi­
The humidity in the air and ions in the sea water generally cause ronments of bridges. It is also a challenge for bridges to resist the natural
corrosion to the steel bars in bridges. Comparing with the non- disasters such as typhoon, super wave and earthquake. The early
destructive monitoring methods, the traditional observation technolo­ warning systems are inadequate in predicting water traffic accidents and
gies are still the majority for SHM of corroded bridge structures. The serious natural disasters, since the SHM systems mainly focus on bridges,
accuracy of the sensing measurement is easily affected by the sur­ rather than the damage caused by the extreme conditions. 5) The se­
rounding environment. For example, the traditional strain sensors may curity challenge refers to the data leakage and some network security
encounter interference due to the surrounding environment such as problems in bridges. Bridge monitoring data are generally confidential,
electromagnetic effects [27]. 3) The economy challenge refers to the which is not only related to the security of the bridges, but also plays an
relationship between the high cost of building cross-sea bridges and the important role in the economic, political and military aspects of the
future economic returns. Usually, the costs of building cross-sea bridges society. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the information security of
are up to tens of billions of US dollars, which are expected to bring in data in all aspects, including the collection and analysis of the bridge
social convenience and wealth in the long run. However, it is typically data in the early stage, and the transmission and prediction of the bridge
difficult to achieve financial balance for the bridges in the short term. In status in the later stage.
addition, it is necessary to take into account the impacts of the bridge
construction on other industries. Studies have shown that bridge con­
6.2. Future trends of integrated SHM systems
struction resulted in financial issues such as aviation, ferry, etc. [176].
For example, the biggest negative effect of the bridge construction in
Considering the technical challenges in bridge SHM, first of all, high-
Japan is the severe impact on the maritime shipping industry [177].
precision and low-power sensing technologies are one of the main

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research trends in the future. For example, the vibrating-wire sensor has characteristics of the bridge, this article discusses the current challenges
been widely used in engineering structures monitoring due to its high of integrating SHM systems and future research approaches.
accuracy and small size. Miśkiewicz et al. (2017, 2017, 2017, 2020) used
vibrating-wire sensors to monitor fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) com­
Declaration of Competing Interest
posite footbridge, deep-water container terminal, and road embankment
[179–182]. The monitoring systems of these engineering structures
None.
provide an effective reference for the development of bridge monitoring.
The data analysis algorithms need to be improved to obtain optimal
indicators for bridge monitoring. Secondly, the early warning thresholds Acknowledgements
should be dynamic, which can be modified with respect to the real-time
situations of bridges, i.e., bridges should be reassessed to obtain new This study is supported in part by the Key Research and Development
early warning indicator thresholds based on the changes of the state. Plan of Zhejiang, China (2021C03180). PJ acknowledges the Startup
Thirdly, the sensor layout should be optimized through field investiga­ Fund of the Hundred Talent Program at the Zhejiang University, China.
tion and bridge structure analysis. Considering the environmental
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