BAKU HIGHER OIL SCHOOL

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

PROCESS ENGINEERING C
LABORATORY REPORT 1

NAME Aysu Zamanova

EXPERIMENT TITLE Methods of Flow
Measurements
GROUP NUMBER 19.1
DATE OF EXPERIMENT 10/2/2022
DATE OF SUBMISSION 24/2/2022
SUPERVISOR Gerenfil Ehmedova
Arzu Behbudova
Contents
Abstract:.........................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction:..................................................................................................................................................2
Theory:............................................................................................................................................................6
Experimental framework:.........................................................................................................................13
Equipment and gadgets:.......................................................................................................................13
Procedure:................................................................................................................................................17
1st experimentation: Orifice plate and measuring nozzle experiment:..................................18
2nd experimentation: Calibration of Rotameter:...........................................................................19
Results:.........................................................................................................................................................19
Experiment 1: Flow measurement through Measuring nozzle..................................................................20
Experiment 2: Flow measurement through Orifice meter.........................................................................22
Experiment 3: Flow measurement with rotameter....................................................................................23
Discussion:......................................................................................................................................................25
Conclusion:......................................................................................................................................................30
References:.....................................................................................................................................................31
Appendix A:.....................................................................................................................................................32
1st experiment: measuring nozzle:..............................................................................................................32
2nd experiment: orifice meter:.....................................................................................................................33
3rd experiment: Rotameter:........................................................................................................................35

1
Abstract:
Elucidated, and consequential understandings, concise data along with through
explanation of certain conceptions are indicated throughout this laboratory report whose
predominant purpose is to scrutinize various flow measurement devices, Rotameter, Orifice
meter, and Nozzle, namely, with each equipment possessing slightly as well as totally
different working principles. During the experimentation analysts were not only supposed to
develop enhancement regarding measured flow, but also the interrelation between head
losses and volumetric flow rates. Being similar to the preceding laboratory
experimentations, water was supplied by dint of hermetically sealed submerged pump of
HM 150 Base unit, whereas the paramount devices were constructed on HM 150.13 Unit.
Overall, this scrutiny was constructed through following 3 individual sections, with initially
measuring flow of water through Nozzle and Orifice plate, pursuing exact procedures.
Subsequent to allowing medium flow with the inlet as well outlet valves being open,
volumetric flow rate was measured from rotameter while head loss values were taken by
means of pressure head tubes with its pipes connected to the hoses. Regarding the last
device: Rotameter, head loss values were observed with filling 2l plastic cup as the
timespan was measured for each increment of flow rate, meanwhile, so as to determine the
variance between the calculated and theoretical flow rate for Orifice plate and Measuring
nozzle pressure drops were quantified to be able to compute the flowrate. During result
section, while certain calculations were conducted in terms of flow rate, additional graphs
were plotted to grasp the preeminent phenomenon visually. The relative errors for
measuring nozzle changed between 4.204% and 27.46%, however the highest error for
orifice plate was 38.85% and that of rotameter was 26.25%, with the smallest staying at
11.125%. Once the algebraic computations were done on result section, in discussion part,
predominant figures and concepts were elaborated on.

Introduction:
It cannot be disregarded that measuring flow rate of a medium, whether it possesses liquid
or gas properties, has been of a predominant importance since volumetric flow rate

2
corresponds to a preponderant role in quite a few processes. With the volumetric flow rate
being considered as the volume of a medium which passes through a certain cross-
sectional area per unit time, volumetric flow rate must be evaluated to ensure the smooth,
almost precise, and cost-effective flow of fluids. The main function principle of flow
measurements devices, such as Averaging pitot tube, V-cone flow element, Wedge flow
element, Flow nozzle, Orifice plates which includes concentric orifice, conditioning orifice,
and etc., relates to inferential calculations with the velocity of the fluid taken as a
determined value, this is due to that the cross-sectional area at a certain point of the device
stays constant, while the pressure drop leads to the indication of the velocity. Furthermore,
throughout industrial processes, such as production of certain products as chemicals, food,
base metals, pharmaceuticals, and other necessary commodities; as a consequence,
understanding working principle of aforementioned devices leads to comprehension main
procedures of flow measurements. However, with the conceptions of plant safety and
quality control, the standards are based on accurately measured flow rates and are
considered to be of utmost importance for cost-efficiencies. For example, regarding food
and beverage industry, and pharmaceuticals applications, dead legs besides minimization
of wastage highly depend on measurement of volumetric flow rate. (Control, 2001) Overall,
the conducted laboratory scrutiny is based on the combination of two crucial unit devices,
whilst HM 150.0, also called as Base Unit, is applied for water supply, subsequent unit, HM
150.13, however, carries Rotameter, six-tube pressure head device, and constructed
locations for Orifice plate besides Nozzle. Meanwhile Rotameter was used for fixing the
exact value of volumetric flow rates while observing the behavior of Pressures losses for
calibration purposes of Nozzle and Orifice plate, that of Rotameter was conducted through
measuring time for water flow through the outlet valve, with the calculated and empirical
data being compared for finalization of mathematical conception parts of report. Taking into
consideration that even a certain misunderstanding with regards to the main principles of
devices may lead to undesirable repercussions, safety issues have been acknowledged
and precautions have been undertaken so as to avert risks towards human health and
devices.

3
Through being categorized into several classifications with respect to the functioning
principles and various industrial applications, some examples of the widely acknowledged
types of flow meters can be introduced as:

1) Mass based flow meters which is as well called as inertial flow meter, to identify
medium’s mass flow. 2) Electromagnetic types are detected through the law of induction
discovered by Faraday, with the main part being electromagnetic coil. 3) Positive
displacement flow meters are denoted as the only type of flow measuring devices which
are able to directly evaluate the volume of the medium passing through area at a certain
time. 4) Ultrasonic flow meters are used to measure the volume flow through evaluating the
velocity of a medium, either liquid or gas, with ultrasound. 5) Obstruction type flow meters
are discovered to be able to measure flow rates with generating restrictions in the pre-
determined area of the device. 6) Inferential flow meters infer the medium through the
pipeline from certain properties, physical especially, which include types of equipment as
differential pressure, variable area rotameters.

While talking about rotameters, the volumetric flow rate is linearly proportional to the area;
therefore, it is known as the rotameters possesses equal increasing scales. Additionally,
although the common precision of this flow measuring devices is ±2%, regarding the scale
length and calibration this accuracy may fluctuate. The preeminent asset of rotameters is
that they are able to handle various corrosive liquids for instance oil, aqua regia, coolants,
tar, beverages, and so on. (Jith, 2019). Additionally, whereas low cost and pressure drop,
rangeability, availability for corrosive fluids, and being suitable for comparably small flow
rates are denoted as advantages of rotameters, detriments are considered as only being
able to be mounted vertically and limited to low temperature values. The rotameters have
been mentioned to be constructed from rugged stainless-steel materials, as well as
outward housing in the context of durability; nonetheless, the parts of rotameters are made
of materials which possesses no internal grain boundaries, thus ends up being transparent
for the float to be seen through.

In terms of orifice plates, since various types of orifice plates are considerably simple for
construction, they are denoted as cost-efficient as well as the calibration is effortlessly
feasible. 2 predominant types of the orifice flow meters were noted to be concentric and

4
eccentric, whilst the former types are widespread between engineering processes, the
latter types, which is also called as segmental, are utilized with mediums containing solid
particles. Subsequent to generating considerable pressure drop throughout the orifice,
evaluating volumetric flowrate through head losses are conducted with straightforward
procedure. However, with corrosive materials certain parts of the orifice plates may worn
out, with those flow measuring devices being prone to erosion and corrosion, which
eventually leads to imprecise evaluated data. Withal, in contrast to other foregoing
equipment, orifice plates are limited with the running of single phase and homogeneous
medium.

Flow nozzles are quite practical and precise while evaluating volumetric flow rate, since
they are compact in contrast with venturi meters, and are relatively cheaper, which
eventually may contribute to low-cost generation of industrial products. As discharge
coefficient relating to the quantity of mass flow rate of a fluid throughout a pre-determined
cross-sectional area, flow nozzles are preferred over orifice meters with the coefficient of
discharge standing at a greater value than the latter device when the mass flow rate of a
medium must be considerably higher. Notwithstanding with the forenamed upsides, the
pressure head for flow nozzles is rather low. Despite the predominant working procedures
following almost identical trends, the efficiency along with the price contentions for flow
nozzles stays between venturi meters and orifice plates. The issue that those three
foregoing devices being utilized mostly for the computations of flow rates of liquids where
some quantities are discharged into the atmosphere must be highly denoted. Although
pressure losses for flow nozzles are not considerably high, those constructed equipment
are tolerant towards high-pressure and high-steam medium flows, with suspended solids
are settled.

Consequently, comprehensive conceptions in terms of the working principles, required

mathematical as well algebraic equations regarding the calculations of experimental flow
measuring values, along with the all-embracing context for devices, unit, and equipment
utilized throughout this scrutiny are indicated by dint of elaborate explanations during the
theory and equipment framework section. The report subsequently continues with the
consequential algebraic computational methods besides visual description of experimental

5
as well empirical values through tabulated graphs. Afterwards, discussion section of this
report will shed light on certain anticipations from the experimentation, representations of
variations between the calculated and theoretical figures whose culprits will eventually be
analyzed in a highly detailed fashion. Following this, precise and concise summary of the
report recapitulates the preeminent parts and main purposes and objectives.

Theory:
The hypothetical apprehension of predominant principles of flow measuring devices which
manifests introduced detailed comprehension in terms of background of this laboratory
experimentation that is stemming from the utmost importance for measuring volumetric
quantity of a medium corresponds to preeminent role in engineering procedures.
Considering the predominance of aforementioned three flow measuring devices, working
principles, main crucial conceptual in the context of performance levels, besides working
conditions must be disclosed for superior understanding of exactness in measurement:

1) Orifice meters has been revealed as one of the conceptual devices utilized for
measurement of either the velocity of flowing fluid or the flow rate of that exact
media. The main purpose of orifice plates is achieved through generating a
restriction for flowing fluids, as a consequence the pressure values will experience a
drop due to the effect of the restricted conditions. The justification of gradating the
values of flowing medium’s average velocity relates to the measuring flow rate out
taking into consideration
that pressure drop is
correlated with velocity:

Through reaching the orifice of the

plate the pressure level rises
Figure 1. Orifice meter. (Solken,
slightly which is followed by a sudden decrease
2008)
while passing through orifice, thus continues
dropping until the medium reaches the point of vena contracta. This flow measurement
device has been constructed with a certain restriction so that the pressure figure reaches a
lower value at the downstream (outlet flow) in comparison with the values at upstream

6
(inlet flow), which eventually is led by the increment in the velocity values through the
reduced cross-sectional area of orifice. 4 predominant types of orifice plates are utilized in
industrial procedures: Square
Edge bore, Quadrant Edge
bore, Segmental bore, and
Eccentric bore, namely:

Figure 2. Orifice plate types.

(Solken, 2008)

1. The most preferred type of orifice meters are square edged bores, as the bore and
the bevel are donated to be the standardized concepts for restricting and limiting
the edge thickness of the plate.
2. Quadrant edge bores are the orifices whose inlet edges are constructed as round
shapes. In contrast to the square edge bores, the plates are counterbored.
3. These types of plates can be utilized with segmental opening which can be located
at either to the top or to the bottom of the pipe. The industries preferring this type
are steel, water conditioning, and paper industries.
4. Unlike concentric bores, eccentrically bores orifice plates possesses off-center
orifice as can be observed from picture. They can be used for heavy as well light
chemicals.
2) Overall, the paramount principles of nozzle flow meters rely on the throttling
principles relating to the fluid mechanics. (Bragg, 1960)However, the measuring
nozzles lies between the venturi tubes and orifice plates in terms of evaluating
flowrate as this device as well produces pressure drops by dint of the presence of
constriction in pre-determined cross-sectional area. However, the main difference

7
 between measuring nozzles and orifice plates is that nozzles can be constructed for
the objectives of controlling speed as well flow rate, while the bore of an orifice
exists as a form of a hole. Nozzles are able to handle materials and fluid flow
streams which are known to be non-viscous, erosive, and high velocity, in the
meantime solid particles are effortlessly suspended by means of measuring nozzles.
(Grace, 1951) For conditions with high temperature and pressure, nozzles are
preferred over orifice meters due to their tolerance to extreme circumstances, which
plays a preeminent role in the applications of electricity generation. Nevertheless,
regarding construction and locating costs of measuring devices, nozzle meters
require considerably high price for removal of corresponding parts as well
construction of such devices are pricier and costly in contrast to the orifice plates
which are relatively smoother and cheaper to establish. Nozzle meters are highly
utilized in a variety of
manufacturing and
industrialized processes
such as for functioning of
steam and gas turbines, jet
engines; however, for
removal of the air through
condensers, nozzles are
efficiently used. (J., 1964)
Figure 3. Rotameter structure.
3) Rotameter is one of the widely utilized
(Boyer-Ahmad, 2020)
variable area flow measuring devices
which possesses rather simple functioning whereby the flowing medium (gasses or
liquids) passes along a tapered pipe, or tubes, whose essential part is called a
“float”. Whenever the rotameters are utilized for either the calibration processes of
additional devices such as in
this case orifice meters, and measuring
nozzles, or for measuring the volumetric flow rates of flowing mediums through the
pipelines, which are enabled by the presence of float inside the rotameter body, the
float rises to a certain point that is called as the reading point since the combined

8
 effects of the velocity heads and buoyancy forces of the fluids allows the float to
reach a certain point. The fluctuated movement of the float inside the body which is
in correlation to the annular area located among the float and tube walls together
with the flow rate of the fluid. Whenever the force exerted through the medium
equalizes with the weight of the float inside the rotameter, the float balances and
stabilizes indicating the flow rate on the outer part of rotameter. (E., Shipley R.,
1951)

The operating theory and working principles of flow meters/pressure meters highly
depend on the Bernoulli’s principle. Due to the presence of constriction region of
cross-sectional area, the pressure discrepancy is observed along the suction and
discharge parts of induced flow meters, in this case measuring nozzles and orifice
plates, which eventually triggers the rise of the average velocity of a medium.
Afterwards, with the help of the pressure head drops in the measurement devices
the flow rate of the flowing substances can be determined through the usage of
algebraic equations. From the total energy balance equation along the system with
considering the loss of energy, Bernoulli’s equation can be figured out:

2 2
P 1∗m u1 ∗m P2∗m u2 ∗m
+ +mg h1= + +mg h2 + Eloss (1)
ρ 2 ρ 2
Bernoulli’s equation thus: Original Bernoulli’s equation ignores the losses in the
energy, thus the losses in pressure heads will not be denoted here:

2 2
P1 u 1 P2 u 2
+ + h1= + +h 2( 2)
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
Where:
o P1and P2 are static pressures with respect to the subsequent points 1 and 2, measured
in Pascal ( N /m2 ¿.
o ρ is the density of the fluid, measured in (kg /m3).
o h1 and h2 are heights of the fluid with respect to a chosen datum state, measured in
meters, (m).
o u1and u1 are velocities of fluids at points 1 and 2, respectively, measured in (m/s ).

9
Considering that the heights are on the same level throughout the orifice and nozzle meters,
the notations h1 and h2 will be taken as equal, thus will be eliminated, furthermore, through
the continuity equations:
Q= A∗u (3)
A1 u1= A2 u2 (4)
2
o A∧u are area∧velocity , measured∈ m ∧m , respectively .
s
Preeminent equation for incompressible fluid can be figured out as:

2 2
2∗g∗( P1 −P 2 )
u2 −u1 = (5)
γ

( )
2
2 A2 2∗g
u2 ∗ 1− = ∗∆ P ( 6 )
A1 2
γ

u2=
1
∗
√ 2g
∗∆ P=
1
∗
2∗g
∗∆ P(7)
√
√ A 22 γ √ 1−β 4
γ
1− 2
A1

For circular cross-sectional area, ratio of the diameters is specified as:

d2
β= (8)
d1

2 A2
β= ( 9)
A1

Therefore, during the ideal situations, the flowrate of a medium can be computed through
this equation:

√
A2 2∗g
Q=u 2∗A2= ∗ ∗∆ P(10)
√ 1−β 4
γ

Taking in the consideration that laminar flow is rarely observed throughout everyday life,
utilizing equation 10 for real situations rather than hypothetical ones would not be regarded
as a peculiar expression since the foregoing algebraic statement has been derived
considering the laminar flow. However, for such conveniences a notation known as

10
discharge coefficient (C d) which always possess a value smaller than one can be
introduced to the equation:

√
A2∗C d 2∗g
Q=u 2∗A2= ∗ ∗∆ P(11)
√ 1−β 4
γ

For gaining more simplified version of the above equation, certain notations can be used as
a complete constant, which includes kinetic energy, discharge coefficient, cross-sectional
area, frictional energy losses, densities, as well as expansion and flow coefficients:

Q=a∗ε∗A d∗
√ 2∗g
ρ
=K∗√ ∆ P (12)

Where:

a is known as the flow coefficient , with no dimension .

ε is denoted as the expansion coefficient , dimensionless , which is equal ¿ 1 for liquids .

The coefficient K mostly depends on the operating circumstances as well as flow meters,
L
thus those values are presented by the manufacturers, whose units are noted as .
h∗√ mbar
Furthermore, the pressure drop required for the equation for flow rate can be computed
through the noted pressure head losses:

∆ P=ρ∗g∗∆ h(13)

∆ h=h1 −h2 (14)

However, additional equation for computing the flow rate in terms of rotameters can be
denoted as:

V
Q= (15)
t

Where

3
m
Q isthe volumetric flow rate ,∈
s

11
 3
V isthe volume of the medium,∈m

t is the timemeasured for filling 2 liters of cup ,∈seconds .

The variance between the figures for experimental and empirical data can be evaluated
from the equation:

Variance∈ percentage=¿ Calculated figure−measured figure∨ ¿ ∗100 % (16)¿

Calculated figure

The head loss equation in a system from Darcy equation:

f ∗L 2
∗v
D
hl = (17)
2g

Where,

hl is thehead loss ,∈meters .

f is the Darcy friction factor .

L
is theratio of length of pipe ¿ theinside diameter of pipe .
D

m
v is the fluid velocity ,∈ .
s

12
Experimental framework:
Throughout the experimental technique section of this report, preeminent information in
terms of the used and applied equipment, gadgets, along with the crucial parts of flow
measuring devices will be denoted, in the meantime, sequential procedure of scrutiny for
individual experimentations as calibration of rotameter and evaluation of flowrate through
orifice plate and measuring nozzle will be accurately described.

Equipment and gadgets:

The laboratory experimentation has been conducted through the help of units named as
HM 150.13 which carries the utmost predominant apparatus that is as well named as
Methods of flow measurement, whose learning purposes are donated as grasping the main
principles of flow measurement through devices; orifice plate, measuring nozzle, rotameter,
and although was not referred in this case as a flow measurement device separately,
venturi nozzle and pitot tubes which are utilized for evaluating total pressure at a pre-
determined point, namely. By means of the usage of HM 150.13 understanding various
methods of flow measurement of a particular system and applying theoretical background
into practice has been authorized and enabled for investigators. Furthermore, alongside
with the main apparatus of the experimentation, an additional module has been utilized as
a base unit, which is HM 150 whose predominant objective is to provide a various
experimental fundamental for scrutiny in the basis of fluid mechanics through consisting of
exhaustive range of practical apparatus, as well to allow the usage of basic equipment for
separate experiments such as supplying water through hermetically sealed pumps.
Moreover, the parts as measuring tank level indicator and flow control valves, the
volumetric flow rate can be figured out in addition to acting as a collection tank for dripping
water. It must be mentioned that while serving the beforementioned purposes, HM 150 also
support various units and equipment for sheltered and secure positioning of experimental
devices.

13
1. For evaluation of pressure drops of the medium passing through flow
measuring devices (orifice plate, measuring nozzle, and rotameter) vertically
located six-tube water gauge was utilized.
Figure
2. In order 4. HM 150.13
to mount device taken
those apparatus by Aysu
to pressure Zamanova
measuring at Baku
tubes, portable
Higher Oil School university laboratory.
sections of tubes were used.
3. Pipes made out of the silicon material, also called as hoses, are utilized for
connection of the flow measuring devices with the pressure evaluating tubes,
meanwhile the tubes are positioned to indicate upstream and downstream
pressure heads.
4. For generating pressure head of the medium, water (the medium itself) is
supplied through the submersible pump of unit HM 150.

5. As aforementioned, the float is made out of a stainless steel is considered as a

main part of a rotameter, which is spinning and floating due to the flowing
medium,
6. Suction and discharge pressure of the rotameter is evaluated through the
hosses attached to the pressure head tubes.
7. The control valve serves the main purpose
14 of aiding the controlling of medium
flowing through the pipelines.
8. The venturi nozzle consisting individual 6 measuring points for changing the
Additional information about the
parts of the utilized devices can
be introduced through simply
describing the main specifications
of flow meters:

1. Rotameter:

With referring to the Archimedes

rule as well buoyancy of the
medium, in this case is water,
general information about the structure and principles of rotameter can be grasped while
scanning the figure demonstrated. (R., 2001) As the line of the rotameter is constructed as
a vertical with a plastic taper in a downward direction, as soon as the medium flowing
throughout the pipelines reaches rotameter, the main element of rotameter, which is float,
starts spinning and moving upwards in the same direction as the stream. Through the
alteration of flowrate of the
substance, within the conduit the Figure 5. Structure of Rotameter. (box,
2008)
metallic float reaches a certain point as
the weight of this float equals the buoyancy force from the water, which eventually
indicates the flowrate level of the fluid inside the rotameter, where investigators can
effortlessly read data form the tapered pipe.

15
 2. Orifice meter.

Figure 6. Measuring Nozzle structure.

(Moses, 2020)

As the fluid inside the pipelines passes through the orifice plates, the constriction and the
expansion of the area Figure 5. Orifice flow meter inside the flow measuring
device leads to the structure. (Ashlin, 2020) fluctuation of the
pressure level of medium, which initially
stemmed from the changed of the velocities of substances considering that Bernoulli’s
equation and relation between the Pressure and the Velocity since as the volumetric flow
rate, the main purpose to be figured out, stays constant throughout the system, as the
cross-section area either expands or constricts through the sharp edge orifices, the
velocity changes, due to the equation 3 indicated on the theory section, ends up with the
deviations in the pressure levels. Therefore, pressure drops are then utilized in the
calculations of flowrate.

3. Measuring Nozzle.

The medium whose flowrate must

be evaluated enters the minimum
area of the measuring nozzle which
is called the throat. Similar to the

16
structure of the orifice plate, as the medium enters the suction point of the measuring
nozzle the pressure is comparably higher than that of at the discharge section when due to
the converging part of the cross-sectional area, thus as soon as the medium leaves the
throat section the pressure drop is maintained with the increase in the velocity of the
substance. The differential pressure device/sensor which is indicated in the figure 6,
evaluates the pressure head drops of the fluid, which can be also used for calibration
processes.

Procedure:
In order to elaborate more on the overall procedure of the conducted laboratory
experimentation, procedure section as a part of equipment details will indicate the
sequential charts, in the meantime, while the rotameter calibration process is discussed
individually, that of orifice plate and measuring nozzle must be discussed throughout the
same illustration considering their nearly identical structure and exact procedures.

17
1st experimentation: Orifice plate and measuring nozzle experiment:

1) Initially, the hermetically sealed pump is switched on for the water supply
throughout the system, however, it was made sure that outlet valve was open
in order to prevent the blow up inside the system.

2) Afterwards, the hoses were sequentially connected to the pressure tubes

for inlet and outlet pressures be evaluated of the media flowing through
measuring nozzle. While fixing the flowrate value of the water in the rotameter
at a certain point, the flow rate was controlled as the float reached the pre-
determined points, 150 l/h, 250 l/h, 350 l/h, 450 l/h, and 550 l/h.

3) Furthermore, the static pressure head levels on the 6-tube gauge

measurement devices, the inlet and outlet pressure have been noted down for
further evaluation of pressure drop throughout the system.

4) Subsequent to the experimentation by means of the measuring nozzle, the

hosses were taken off, thus connected to the upstream and downstream
points of the orifice plate for the exact measurement procedures being
followed.

Chart 1. 1st experimentation: Orifice plate and

measuring nozzle experiment.

18
2nd experimentation: Calibration of Rotameter:

1) After the scrutiny with the orifice plate and measuring nozzle, the tubes
which were connected to the Rotameters upstream and downstream points
had been referred for evaluation of static pressure heads.

2) Following the initial step, the medium supplied through the base unit HM
150 was intorduced with 150 l/h flowrate initially, as the buoyancy forceof the
fluid reaching the same value as the neight of the float on the foregoing
section of Rotameter.

3) The time span for filing a cup with 2l volume with draining water through the
outlet valve of the systemwas figured out by means of a stopwatch as
thevalues of pressure heads being taken from the tube gaugues, which will
then be used for experimental calculations of the volumetric flow rate.

4) The idential procedure were conducted for 5 more times with the flowrate
values staying at 250, 350, 450, 550, and 650 l/h, with the timespan
decreasing for each flowrate. Ultimately, the pump was switched off as well
the electricity current was taken off from the socket.

Chart 2. 2nd experimentation: Calibration of

Rotameter.

Results:
The result section of laboratory report describes the main algebraic computations referred
for finding the required conceptions, which in this case is the volumetric flow rate of a
medium passing through orifice plate and measuring nozzle with the theoretical value
taken from the rotameter itself. However, the calibration process is necessitated for
Rotameter, additional experimentation has been conducted. Henceforward, the variances
between the measured and empirical figures in terms of flowrate will be calculated.
Moreover, certain graphs are demanded for visual representation of interconnection
between the experimental versus hypothetical data, head loss values, comparison graphs

19
for individual devices, relationship among errors and flowrates, and other crucial
illustrations will be plotted.

Experiment 1: Flow measurement through Measuring nozzle.

Temperature of the water has been denoted to stay at relatively room temperature with 20
kg
degrees Celsius, whose density must stay at 998 3 . And the K constant containing
m
L
aforementioned constant concepts in it, is 293 . Through the formulas given on
h∗ √m∗ ¯
¿¿
the theory section, the volumetric flow rate can be computed subsequent to the
calculations of pressure drop from pressure head losses obtained. All other calculations
are shown in Appendix A.

∆ h=h1 −h2=147 mm−140 mm=7 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.007 m∗10 =0.685 mbar
s

L
Qexperimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=231
h∗√ m∗¯¿∗√ 0.685 mbar=191.19 l/hour ¿

№ Head loss (∆ h) in mm Calculate Flow Variance in

d flowrate displayed percentage
h1 h2 ∆h in l/hour flowrate
Table 1. Computations for Measuring nozzle measurements.
in l/hour
1 147 140 7 191.19 150 27.46
2 151 140 11 239.729 250 4.204
3 171 142 29 389.219 350 11.205
4 188 139 49 505.937 450 12.4304
5 195 125 70 604.717 550 9.949
|Calculated figure−measured figure| |191.19−150|
Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=27.46 %
Calculated figure 150

20
 Flowrates versus Pressure head losses
700

Flowrates in l/hour 600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Head losses in mm

Displayed flowrates Calculated flowrates

Graph 1. Relationship between head losses and flow rates.

Interrelationship between calculated, displayed

flowrates and relative errors
Calculated flowrates in l/hour

700 30
600 25
500

Variance in %
20
400
15
300
10
200
100 5

0 0
1 2 3 4 5

Displayed flowrates in l/hour

Displayed flowrate Calculated flowrate Varience

Graph 2. Relationship between calculated, displayed

flowrates, and variance.

21
Experiment 2: Flow measurement through Orifice meter.
While the calculation procedure as well as the required values for plotting the graphs and
completing the tables follows the exact trend, the only difference between orifice meter and
measuring nozzle for the algebraic computation part of the laboratory is K values.
L
The k value for measuring nozzle is 231 .
h∗√ m∗¯¿ ¿
Table 2. Computations for Orifice plate measurements.

№ Head loss (∆ h) in mm Calculate Flow Variance in

d flowrate displayed percentage
h1 h2 ∆h in l/hour in l/hour
1 157 156 1 91.723 150 38.85
2 165 160 5 204.995 250 18.002
3 175 160 15 355.123 350 1.464
4 185 160 25 458.43 450 1.873
5 191 155 36 550.107 550 0.0195

22
 Flowrates versus Pressure head losses
600

500

Flowrates in l/hour
400

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Head losses

Displayed flowrates Calculated flowrates

Graph 4. Relationship between calculated, displayed

flowrates, and variance.

Interrelationship between calculated, displayed

Calculated flowrates in l/hour

flowrates and relative errors

600 45
40
500
35

Varience in %
400 30
25
300
20
200 15
10
100
5
0 0
1 2 3 4 5

Displayed flowrates in l/hour

Displayed flowrate Calculated flowrate Varience

Graph 3. Relationship between head losses and flow rates.

23
 Table 3. Computations for Rotameter measurements. Experiment 3: Flow
measurement with
rotameter.
With the attempts of the experiment being 6, the last part of the experimentation was
conducted utilizing Rotameter, where the cup with 2 l volume filled while using the
stopwatch for measuring the timespan. Thus, the values for volumetric flow rate is
determined through using the volume of the cup as well as timespan:
∆ h=h1 −h2=180 mm−84 mm=96 mm

0.0565 l
∗3600 s
V 2 s l
Q= = = =203.4
t 35.40 h h

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |203.4−150|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=26.25 %
Calculated figure 203.4

№ Head loss (∆ h) in mm Measuring Flow Calculate Variance in

time in displayed d flowrate percentage
h1 h2 ∆h seconds in l/hour in l/hour
1 180 84 96 35.4 150 203.4 26.25
2 181 83 98 22.45 250 320.71 22.05
3 175 70 105 16.75 350 429.85 18.58
4 169 47 122 14.22 450 506.33 11.125
5 163 30 133 11.26 550 639.43 13.99
6 157 16 141 9.6 650 750 13.33

24
 Head losses versus Displayed flowrates
160
140
Head losses in mm

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Displayed flowrates in l/hour

Graph 5. Head losses versus displayed flowrates.

25
 Interrelationship between calculated, displayed
flowrates and relative errors
800 30
Calculated flow rates in l/hour 700
25
600
20

Varience in %
500

400 15

300
10
200
5
100

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6

Displayed flowrates in l/hour

Displayed flowrates Calculated flowrates Varience

Graph 6. Relationship between calculated, displayed

Discussion: flowrates, and variance.

The ultimate objective of this experimentation was to grasp the predominant aspects of
flow measurement through the usage of 3 different devices; measuring nozzle, orifice plate,
and rotameter, namely; however, through analyzing the relationship between pressure
drops while the medium was passing through the pipelines, the investigators achieved
quite enormous comprehension with regards to the law of Bernoulli as well as the
interrelationships between the pressure head drops and flowrates of fluids. Throughout the
investigation of laboratory scrutiny relying on the flow measurement, mathematical
computations and theoretical background were required for understanding the algebraic
relationship of the head losses, flow rates, and variances between experimental and
empirical values. Overall, this experimentation consists of three individual sections,
throughout which three foregoing equipment were utilized, throughout which observations
of pressure head losses by dint of the six-tube gauge measurement device as well as the
experimental volumetric flow rate from rotameter. Although the experimentation procedure
for 2 initial scrutiny (for measuring nozzle and orifice plate) were conducted with the
identical trends, the aftermost experimentation additional gadgets were taken advantage of

26
such as stop-watch along with 2 liters cup, with the main purpose of calculating the
theoretical values for the experiment of rotameter. Furthermore, the observation of
upstream and downstream pressure head values authorizes to figure the pressure drops
values out, by means of which solely for the measuring nozzle and orifice plate were
computed. The aftermost experimentation not only dealt with the concept of calculations of
volumetric flow rates passing through the aforementioned apparatus, but also managed the
calibration process of rotameter, taking into consideration that the displayed flowrate
values on the rotameter scale may have not indicated the measurements with utmost
preciseness; therefore, the configuration of rotameter as for providing the sample with a
range after the relative error, also called as the variance, was feasible. Prior to the
algebraic calculations of pressure drops, volumetric flow rates, as well as the discernible
discrepancies between theoretical and experimental figures, the graphs indicating the
visual representations of the interrelationships between several concepts such as
volumetric flowrate values displayed on the outer part of rotameter, calculated flowrates, as
well the computed relative errors were plotted through using Microsoft Excel, which would
eventually lead to more sophisticated understanding of the phenomenon itself. Meanwhile,
throughout the discussion section of this report, the main idea behind the “Various Methods
of Flow Measurement” experimentation, expected concepts for the phenomena, probable
conceptualizations which could be regarded as culprits of obtained discrepancies,
contemplations of the achieved values as well as the discussion of the previously plotted
graphs will be elaborated on for more precise and better description and enhancement of
the scrutiny.

Talking about the assumptions as well the expectations from the experiment, initially the
existence of the correlation between the pressure head losses and volumetric flow rate has
been anticipated, considering that due to the equation of head loss the head loss is
dependent on the velocity to the power of 2 of the fluid, which is clearly related to the
flowrate of fluid, thus the expectation of this relationship is the volumetric flow to be square
root dependence with the pressure drop. Furthermore, equation 12 directly indicates the
direct dependence with the coefficient playing a dominant role in the relationship, with
those remarkable points considered, for the identical flow measuring equipment, the higher
discrepancies between the upstream and downstream head values of the fluid, the higher

27
volumetric flowrate must be. This phenomena is undeniably noticed and signified in table1,
table2, and table3 where as the pressure drop increases, the flowrate also reaches higher
values for each increment of the head losses. This can be explained and cleared with
regard to the flow conditions, as the flowrate is risen, which means the increments in the
velocity values, the swirls inside the orifice plate and pipelines, leading to a more
inconsistent and unstable flow, as a consequence it may even end up with changing the
condition of medium flow form laminar flow to transient, and even more to turbulent flow.
The presence of turbulence inside the system can be denoted as the ultimate incitement
changing pressure head values between the upstream and downstream sides of pipelines,
or additional devices.

First and foremost, with regards to the computed evaluations, for the initial experimentation
where the measuring nozzle was utilized, the computed volumetric flowrates were
manifested on the table 1. While the highest discernible discrepancy was obtained for the
initial assessment, 2nd trial showed almost identical values with the flowrates following the
matching trend in the 1st graph plotted; nevertheless, the subsequent relative errors
possess congruent figures as the later tendencies of the disparities stays similar. Totally,
those individual 5 distinctions fluctuate between 27.46 %∧4.204 %, with the latter relative
error contributing the secondary assessment. The conclusive conception for the pressure
drops of the medium in both measuring nozzle and orifice plate can be ascribed to the
changing flow areas of the devices, as the divergence and convergence parts indeed acted
as a contribution to the restriction to fluid flow with the velocity values oscillating. Those
cross-sectional area were taken advantage of for igniting the head loss values increments
while aside playing the role as flow restriction, thus with the fluctuated velocity figures this
phenomenon can be directly interrelated to the Bernoulli’s as well as to the continuity
equations. Apart from the initial and secondary assessments of the flowrate values, orifice
plate indicated comparably more accurate and precise figures in comparison with
measuring nozzles, bearing in mind that pressure drop values for latter apparatus were
higher. Nonetheless, due to the circumstances form the real-life situations, both the
presence of restricted cross-sectional area and the relatively smaller length of the pipeline,
which counteracts of the formation of certain type of the medium flow, may lead to such
anomalies when discussing the distinctions of orifice plate and measuring nozzle flow

28
results. Considering the places location of the orifice plate as well as measuring nozzles,
the flowing medium, in this case is water, must flow through the certain lengths of the
pipelines which eventually the friction forces between the walls of the pipelines and water
along with the friction effects between the layers of the fluid, thus lead to the greater
pressure losses. However, in terms of the rotameter, the main restriction for the flow of the
medium is not related to the structure of the cross-sectional area, but the existence of the
float inside the rotameter since it indeed played as a considerable barrier for the flow.

Regarding the elaborations on the obtained variances from the computational analysis
through the usage of achieved pressure head values, the K constants for measuring nozzle
and orifice plate, as well time and volume for rotameter, in order to indicate those variances
both the tables mentioned previously, as well as graphs (graph 2, graph 4, graph 6) were
plotted individually for each assessment with different equipment. Overall, both the highest
and lowest relative errors were observed while measuring the flow rate of medium with
orifice plate, while the highest variance corresponded to 38.85%, the lowest one for the
ultimate trial was 0.0195%. However, the relative error values for rotameter were 26.25%,
22.05%, 18.58%, 11.125%, 13.99%, and 13.33% from the table 3. Therefore, while the
experimentation can be considered as a sufficient for the last 2 trials of orifice plate, certain
undeniable distinctions arrived for the initial scrutinies; meanwhile, for both rotameter and
measuring nozzle variances between empirical and experimental figures did not surpass
28%. Additionally, while comparing the graphs plotted, from the 3rd and 4th ones,
approximately the identical trends were observed for both displayed and calculated
flowrates.

Once the indicated trends, plotted graphs, and obtained calculations were discussed and
examined, the most probable culprits and aspects will be remarked and donated in order to
elaborate on the generated discrepancies:

1. Initially, taking into consideration that pressure drops, calculated from the head
losses, plays the utmost importance on the calculations of the flow measurements,
the presence of the bubbles eventually hinders the six-tube gauge measurement
device to indicate more precise figures. Additionally, due to the increments on the
volumetric flowrates for each trial, which means increasing velocity of the medium,

29
 the flow turned out to be shakier, which makes nearly unfeasible to achieve exact
pressure head values.
2. Additionally, as each device, measuring nozzle, orifice plate, and rotameter also
possess device limitations, and some parts may be degraded as a consequence of
overusing, thus along with the factors stemmed from humanly factors such as
parallax, dealing with the change of the places of points due to the investigator’s
point of view, misleads the investigators to misread the values.
3. Additional to the air bubbles, the water may leak out of the hoses which are flexible
for enabling alterations of the devices, thus may affect evaluations.
4. Considering that the K constant and also the density of the medium were taken with
a certain reference, as for the former concept depending on the devices, and the
latter depending on the temperatures, however, none of the correction factors for
density and K constant values were made, eventually leading to small but important
discrepancies.
5. Apart from the bubbles inside the hoses and tubes, the accumulations sourcing
through debris may cause the corrosion inside the pipelines and devices, thus may
hinder the flow of the fluid.

After the potential culprits have been mentioned, the factors can be indicated which may
contribute to the advancement of the process as recommendations:

1. So as to alleviate the generated discrepancies due to the corrosion, accumulation of

the materials, leakage of the water from the flexible hoses, presence of the bubbles
inside the pipelines, the devices must constantly be checked up.
2. With the utilization of the state-of-art apparatus, the limitations of the devices can be
figured out and hindered.
3. However, so as to prevent the undesirable consequences due to the misreading of
the points, magnifying glasses can be utilized.
4. For creating easier passages for the medium flows, the contaminated sections must
be found and clearly washed up.

30
Conclusion:
To sum up, the predominant objective of the conducted laboratory experimentation was to
evaluate the volumetric flow rate of a medium through the usage of 3 individual devices;
measuring nozzle, orifice plate, and rotameter, as a consequence, the relationship between
the pressure head losses and volumetric flow rates was elaborately discussed as well. This
experimentation was carried out by dint of the apparatus systems called HM 150.13, and
HM 150, which is the base unit of certain devices since it is used for water supply through
the hermetically sealed. The initial part of the experimentation mainly focused on the
measuring nozzle, where the pressure head losses were noted down and volumetric
flowrates were fixed through rotameter; in the meantime, procedure for trials of orifice plate
obviously followed the identical steps as measuring nozzle, since the pressure losses
stemmed from the altered structure of cross-sectional areas. Nonetheless, the ultimate
section of experiment was the calibration of rotameter with the usage of stopwatch and a
laboratory cup with the volume of 2 liters. Once the main theory, procedure, and
preeminent devices were discussed, head losses, flowrates, and relative errors were
computed to be formed inside the table, in addition to plotted graphs indicating
relationships of aforementioned concepts. The discrepancies for measuring nozzle varied
between 4.204% and 27.46%, while that of orifice plate were 38.85% and 0.0195% and for
rotameter: between 11.125% and 26.25%. Ultimately, in the discussion section, probable
aspects causing those discrepancies, recommendations, plotted graphs and tables were
addressed in a detailed way.

References:
31
Ashlin, 2020. AutomationForum.Co. [В Интернете]
Available at: https://automationforum.co/what-is-orifice-meter-and-what-is-the-use-of-orifice-meter/
[Дата обращения: 13 02 2022].

box, I. t., 2008. Operating Principle of Variable Area Flow Meters. [В Интернете]
Available at: https://www.instrumentationtoolbox.com/2017/02/operating-principle-of-variable-area.html
[Дата обращения: 13 02 2022].

Boyer-Ahmad, 2020. Chemical Engineering World. [В Интернете]

Available at: https://chemicalengineeringworld.com/orifice-meter-structure-and-working/

Bragg, S. L., 1960. Effect of compressibility on the discharge coefficient of orifices and convergent nozzles.
SAGE Journals, Том 1, p. 35.

Control, C. F., 2001. Bürkert Fluid Control Systems. ENVIROPRO.

E., Shipley R., 1951. Discharge coefficients of small-diameter orifices and flow nozzles. Experimental Biology
and Medicine.

Grace, H. P., 1951. Discharge coefficients of small-diameter orifices and flow nozzles. Mechanical Engineers,
p. 639.

J., K. L., 1964. Effect of compressibility on the discharge coefficient of orifices and convergent nozzles.
Mechanical Engineering, pp. 49-53.

Jith, S., 2019. Construction of Electromagnetic flowmeter. Automation.

Moses, O., 2020. Instrumentation Tools. [В Интернете]

Available at: https://instrumentationtools.com/flow-nozzle-principle/
[Дата обращения: 13 02 2022].

R., F., 2001. The rotameter and the waterwheel. Der Anaesthesist volume , pp. 701-708.

Solken, W., 2008. Orifice Plates. Explore the World of Piping.

32
Appendix A:
1st experiment: measuring nozzle:
2:

∆ h=h1 −h2=151 mm−140 mm=11mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.011m∗10 =1.077 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=231
h∗ √m∗¯
¿∗√ 1.077 mbar=239.729 l/ hour ¿

¿ |239.729−250|
Variance∈ percentage=¿ Calculated figure−measured figure∨ ∗100 %= ∗10
Calculated figure 250

3:

∆ h=h1 −h2=171 mm−142mm=29 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.029 m∗10 =2.839 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=231
h∗ √m∗¯
¿∗√ 2.839 mbar=389.219 l/ hour ¿

¿ |389.219−350|
Variance∈ percentage=¿ Calculated figure−measured figure∨ ∗100 %= ∗10
Calculated figure 350

4:

∆ h=h1 −h2=188 mm−139 mm=49 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.049 m∗10 =4.797 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=231
h∗ √ m∗¿∗√ 4.797 mbar=505.937 l / hour ¿
¯

33
 ¿ |505.937−450|
Variance∈ percentage=¿ Calculated figure−measured figure∨ ∗100 %= ∗1
Calculated figure 450

5:

∆ h=h1 −h2=195 mm−125 mm=70 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.07 m∗10 =6.853 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=231
h∗ √m∗¯
¿∗√ 6.853 mbar=604.717 l/ hour ¿

¿ |604.717−550|
Variance∈ percentage=¿ Calculated figure−measured figure∨ ∗100 %= ∗10
Calculated figure 550

2nd experiment: orifice meter:

1:

∆ h=h1 −h2=157 mm−156 mm=1 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.001 m∗10 =0.098 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=293
h∗√ m∗¯
¿∗ √0.098 mbar=91.723l / hour ¿

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |91.723−150|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=38.85 %
Calculated figure 150

2:

∆ h=h1 −h2=165 mm−160 mm=5 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.005 m∗10 =0.4895 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=293
h∗√ m∗¿∗ √0.4895 mbar=204.995l / hour ¿
¯

34
 |Calculated figure−measured figure| |204.995−250|
Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=18.002 %
Calculated figure 250

3:

∆ h=h1 −h2=175 mm−160 mm=15 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.015 m∗10 =1.469 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=293
h∗√ m∗¯
¿∗ √1.469 mbar=355.123 l/ hour ¿

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |355.123−350|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=1.464 %
Calculated figure 350

4:

∆ h=h1 −h2=185 mm−160 mm=25 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.025 m∗10 =2.448 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=293
h∗√ m∗¯
¿∗ √ 2.448 mbar=458.43 l / hour ¿

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |458.43−450|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=1.873 %
Calculated figure 450

5:

∆ h=h1 −h2=191 mm−155 mm=36 mm

998 kg
3
∗9.81 m
m −2
∆ P=ρg ∆ h= 2
∗0.036 m∗10 =3.525 mbar
s

L
Q experimental =K orifice∗√ ∆ P=293
h∗√ m∗¯
¿∗ √3.525 mbar=550.107 l/ hour ¿

35
 |Calculated figure−measured figure| |550.107−550|
Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=0.0195 %
Calculated figure 550

3rd experiment: Rotameter:

2:

∆ h=h1 −h2=1 81 mm−83 mm=9 8 mm

V 2 l l
Q= = =320.71
t 22.45 s h

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |320.71−250|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=22.05 %
Calculated figure 320.71

3:

∆ h=h1 −h2=1 75 mm−70 mm=105 mm

V 2 l l
Q= = =429.85
t 16.75 s h

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |429.85−350|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=18.58 %
Calculated figure 429.85

4:

∆ h=h1 −h2=1 69 mm−47 mm=122 mm

V 2 l l
Q= = =506.33
t 14.22 s h

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |506.33−450|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=11.125 %
Calculated figure 506.33

5:

∆ h=h1 −h2=1 63 mm−30 mm=133 mm

V 2 l l
Q= = =639.43
t 11.26 s h

36
 |Calculated figure−measured figure| |639.43−550|
Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=13.99 %
Calculated figure 639.43

6:

∆ h=h1 −h2=1 57 mm−16 mm=141 mm

V 2 l l
Q= = =750
t 9.6 s h

|Calculated figure−measured figure| |750−650|

Variance∈ percentage= ∗100 %= ∗100 %=13.33 %
Calculated figure 750

37