A Hypoplastic Constitutive Model For Debris Materials
A Hypoplastic Constitutive Model For Debris Materials
A Hypoplastic Constitutive Model For Debris Materials
DOI 10.1007/s11440-016-0494-0
RESEARCH PAPER
Received: 7 April 2016 / Accepted: 5 September 2016 / Published online: 19 September 2016
Ó The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Debris flow is a very common and destructive combining the static and dynamic parts is used to simulate
natural hazard in mountainous regions. Pore water pressure two annular shear tests. The predicted residual strength in
is the major triggering factor in the initiation of debris flow. the quasi-static stage combined with the stresses in the
Excessive pore water pressure is also observed during the flowing stage agrees well with the experimental data. The
runout and deposition of debris flow. Debris materials are non-quadratic dependence between the stresses and the
normally treated as solid particle–viscous fluid mixture in shear rate in the slow shear stage for the relatively dense
the constitutive modeling. A suitable constitutive model specimens is captured.
which can capture the solid-like and fluid-like behavior of
solid–fluid mixture should have the capability to describe Keywords Constitutive modeling Debris flows
the developing of pore water pressure (or effective stresses) Granular-fluid flows Hypoplastic model
in the initiation stage and determine the residual effective
stresses exactly. In this paper, a constitutive model of
debris materials is developed based on a framework where 1 Introduction
a static portion for the frictional behavior and a dynamic
portion for the viscous behavior are combined. The fric- Debris flow is a very common natural hazard in the
tional behavior is described by a hypoplastic model with mountainous areas of many countries. It represents the
critical state for granular materials. The model perfor- gravity-driven flow of a mixture of various sizes of sedi-
mance is demonstrated by simulating undrained simple ment, water and air, down a steep slope, often initiated by
shear tests of saturated sand, which are particularly relevant heavy rainfall and landslides [17]. The highest velocity of
for the initiation of debris flows. The partial and full liq- debris flows can be more than 30 m/s; however, typical
uefaction of saturated granular material under undrained velocities are less than 10 m/s [24]. The fast debris flows
condition is reproduced by the hypoplastic model. The may cause significant erosion, while increasing the sedi-
viscous behavior is described by the tensor form of a ment charge and destructive potential. Such mass flows
modified Bagnold’s theory for solid–fluid suspension, in cause serious casualties and property losses in many
which the drag force of the interstitial fluid and the parti- countries around the world. The initiation mechanisms of
cle collisions are considered. The complete model by debris flow and the predicted possible velocity are essential
information for the design of protective measures. Numer-
ical analysis plays an important role to obtain this infor-
& Wei Wu mation, where a competent constitutive model for debris
wei.wu@boku.ac.at materials is required. The main factors influencing the ini-
1 tiation of debris flow are, among others, the topography,
Institut für Geotechnik, Universität für Bodenkultur,
Feistmantelstrasse 4, 1180 Vienna, Austria material parameters, water and the initial stress state in the
2 affected slope [22]. Earth slopes with inclinations ranging
Fachgebiet für Strömungsdynamik FB Maschinenbau,
Technische Universität Darmstadt, Otto-Berndt-Strasse 2, from 26 to 45 have been generally identified as most
64287 Darmstadt, Germany prone to debris flow initiation [40]. The common solid
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volume fraction of debris materials, defined as the ratio It may be the suitable choice for the description of solid-like
between the solid volume and the total volume of a repre- behavior of debris materials.
sentative volume element, varies between about 30 and In this paper, a framework which consists of a static
65 %. The water from heavy rainfall or snow melting makes portion for the frictional behavior and a dynamic portion
the unconsolidated superficial deposit on a steep hillside for the viscous behavior is introduced at first. Bagnold’s
saturated, thereby leading to a reduced shear strength due to constitutive model for a gravity-free suspension [1] is
the decreasing of matric suction, and further triggering a chosen as the dynamic portion in the framework. Then, the
landslide. Such an upland landslide may develop into a applicability of a specific hypoplastic model in the
hillside debris flow when the water in the sliding mass description of granular-fluid flows is studied by using this
cannot be discharged quickly and therefore gives rise to model to simulate the undrained simple shear test of sat-
excessive pore water pressure. In this case, based on the urated granular materials as shown in Fig. 1, which is in
principles of soil mechanics, the effective stresses between analogy to the initiation of a debris flow. The dynamic
solid particles will decrease to cause the reduction or model, which is modified by fitting Bagnold’s experimental
complete loss of shear strength. Upon initiation of debris data and taking a parameter termed critical solid volume
flow, debris material shows fluid-like behavior. As con- fraction into account [15], is combined with the hypoplastic
cluded by Iverson [19], debris flow can be mobilized by portion to obtain a new complete constitutive model for
three processes: (i) widespread Coulomb failure along a debris flows. The performance of the proposed model is
rupture surface within a saturated soil or sediment mass, (ii) demonstrated by some element tests in which the new
partial or complete liquefaction of a sliding mass due to model is used to simulate two annular shear tests with
high pore-fluid pressure and (iii) conversion of landslide different materials and apparatus.
translational energy to internal vibrational energy. In these
processes, the development of high pore water pressure is
likely the most significant triggering factor. In addition, 2 The framework of constitutive modeling
experimental observation [18] shows that an almost con- for debris materials
stant excess pore water pressure persists during the runout
and depositing of debris flows. Thus, a suitable constitutive As stated in the preceding section, debris materials show
model which can capture the solid-like behavior before solid-like behavior before failure and fluid-like behavior
failure and the fluid-like behavior after failure should has after failure. This particular phenomenon cannot be mod-
the capability to describe the developing of pore water eled only within the framework of statics or dynamics. An
pressure (or effective stresses) in the initiation stage and applicable model may need to combine a static and a
determine the residual effective stresses exactly. Some dynamic portion and make the transition from solid-like to
important material parameters such as solid volume fraction fluid-like behavior turns out as an outcome [42].
(or void ratio in soil mechanics) and the internal friction In our former work [15], based on the velocity analysis
coefficient need to be taken into account. Actually, debris of dry sand flow [4, 26] and the force balance of an inclined
materials are normally simplified as solid spherical parti- plane supporting a uniform layer of sand–water mixture
cle–viscous fluid mixture and treated as a fluid continuum beneath a uniform layer of pure water [34], a framework
with microstructural effect in the constitutive modeling for the constitutive model of debris materials was devel-
[10, 11]. In most conventional models, constitutive equa- oped as the following form,
tions for the static and dynamic regimes are formulated and
applied separately, such as the models for the solid-like
behaviors of granular materials [8, 27, 41, 43] and that for
the fluid-like behaviors [1, 6, 21]. Although some models
for granular-fluid flows have taken the stress state of the
quasi-static stage into account, the employed theories for
the static regime, such as Mohr–Coulomb criterion [34] and
extended von Mises yield criterion [32], still fail to deter-
mine the changing of pore water pressure from the defor-
mation directly. Hypoplasticity was proposed as an
alternative to plasticity for the description of solid-like
behavior of granular materials [41, 43]. The distinctive
features of hypoplasticity are its simple formulation and
capacity to capture some salient features of granular
materials, such as non-linearity, dilatancy and yielding [42]. Fig. 1 Schematic of undrained simple shear tests
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Thus, the framework (1) will be reduced to the follow- granular flows. As pointed out in the preceding section,
ing form in the case of free surface dry granular flow. debris materials are saturated solid–fluid mixtures which
P ¼ P0 þ P i ð10aÞ will be partially or fully liquefied in the initiation of debris
flows. The normal stress P0 is the effective stress and
T ¼ T0 þ Ti : ð10bÞ obtained by subtracting the excess pore water pressure
As stated in the literature [26], the relation (6) predicts a from the total normal stress in this case. A proper theory is
steady uniform flow only when the slope h is equal to the required to capture the partial or complete liquefaction, and
angle ai . However, experimental results [3] show that such further determine the residual strength P0 and T0 . As
steady flow can be obtained not only at a single slope but introduced before, hypoplasticity may be the suit-
over a slope range. This experimental observation can be able choice for the description of solid-like behavior of
predicted by the reduced framework (10) [25, 31]. debris materials. In the following section, we study the
According to force balance when a steady uniform flow capability of a specific hypoplastic model for capturing the
is obtained in the free surface dry granular flow, we have main properties of debris materials in the quasi-static stage.
P0 þ Pi ¼ qs Cghcosh ð11aÞ
P0 tan/ þ Pi tanai ¼ qs Cghsinh ð11bÞ 3 The applicability of hypoplastic models
for debris materials
where g is the gravity acceleration; h is the depth along the
y axis which is normal to the flow bed. Then we get the
Hypoplastic constitutive equations are based on nonlinear
stress ratio
tensorial functions with the major advantages of simple
P0 tan/ þ Pi tanai formulation and few parameters. Two hypoplastic models,
¼ tanh: ð12Þ
P0 þ Pi the one developed by Wu et al. [41] and the one by Gudehus
[13], are compared in the selection of the static portion for
Let us assume that ai is greater than the residual friction
the framework (1). In the more recent models by Gudehus
angle /, which is consistent with the experimental
[13], mainly the stiffness is modified by the two factors, fb
observations of dry granular flows [30]. The normal
and fe , which take into account the influence of stress state
stress Pi is zero in the critical state of triggering the flow
and density, respectively. In modeling debris flow, how-
since the flow velocity is almost null at that time point.
ever, the strength is very important and the stiffness is not
Thus, from (11) and (12), we obtain
important. Moreover, his model makes use of the expo-
P0 ¼ qs Cghcosh1 ð13Þ nential functions for the dependence of critical void ratio
and minimum void ratio on pressure. For each function the
and parameters reduce from 3 to 2. However, there are only few
tanh1 ¼ tan/ ð14Þ data in the literature for the exponential functions. There-
fore, in this paper, we will embark on the model proposed
where h1 is the critical inclination for the granular material by Wu et al. [41] which is the first hypoplastic model with
start flowing. With the increasing of inclination, another critical state to verify that, by employing an appropriate
critical state will be reached. In this state, the component of hypoplastic model as the static portion, the combined model
gravity perpendicular to the flowing bed is totally based on the framework (1) can fulfill an entire and quan-
supported by Pi since the flow velocity is large enough at titative description of stress state for debris materials from
this inclination. From (12), we get quasi-static stage to fast flow stage.
tanh2 ¼ tanai ð15Þ It is worth mentioning that the hypoplastic model with
critical state is just one of the choices for describing the
where h2 is the maximum inclination for equation (12) initiation of debris flows. Recently some improved models
holds. It indicates that the framework (10), in which the have been available, e.g. [12, 23, 35], which are developed
stresses are divided into a static portion generated by from some widely used versions of hypoplastic model
prolonged contact of particles and a dynamic portion pro- [28, 37] and aim to improve the dependence of stiffness on
duced in particle collisions, can predict steady uniform pressure and density. However, the capability of these
flows over a slope range h 2 ½/; ai . By taking the effect of models for capturing the phenomenon of liquefaction and
the interstitial fluid into account, a constitutive model the stability in the cases of large deformation or low con-
developed within the complete framework (1) can describe fining pressure still need to be verified. A more concise
not only dry granular flows but also granular-fluid flows. hypoplastic model with the former mentioned capability
In the above analysis, the simple formula for the initial and stability can be employed to determine the stress state
value of P0 , (13), is only applicable for free surface dry in the quasi-static stage of debris materials.
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The hypoplastic model with critical state is an substituting the corresponded stress and strain rate of the
improvement of a basic hypoplastic model for sand two stress states into the model (16). Therefore, the material
developed by Wu and Bauer [43] as constants are determined as functions of the well-
trðTh DÞTh established parameters in soil mechanics, the initial
Th ¼ c1 ðtrTh ÞD þ c2 tangent modulus Ei , the initial Poisson ratio ti , the friction
trTh
ð16Þ angle /0 and the dilatancy angle w. It should be pointed out
Th 2 Th 2
þ c3 þ c4 kDk that these parameters are related to a specific confining
trTh trTh pressure, all the sets of material constants used in this paper
where ci ði ¼ 1; . . .; 4Þ are dimensionless material are obtained with a confining pressure Th ð3; 3Þ ¼ 100 kPa.
parameters; Th and D denote the stress tensor and the In addition, the deviatoric loading in the initial hydrostatic
strain rate tensor, respectively; Th is the deviatoric stress state is considered to be zero, i. e. the initial Poisson ratio
tensor expressed by ti ¼ 0.
By taking the effect of void ratio and stress level into
1
Th ¼ Th ðtrTh Þ1; ð17Þ account, the model (16) was slightly modified to the fol-
3 lowing form [41].
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k D k¼ trðD2 Þ stands for the Euclidean norm and 1 is trðTh DÞTh
Th ¼ c1 ðtrTh ÞD þ c2
unit tensor. The Jaumann stress rate tensor
Th in (16) is trTh
defined by ð21Þ
Th 2
Th 2
þ c3 þ c4 k D k Ie ;
Th ¼ T_ h þ Th W WTh ð18Þ trTh trTh
where
where T_ h is the stress rate tensor (material time derivative
of Th ); W denotes the spin tensor. The hypoplastic model Ie ¼ ða 1ÞDc þ 1 ð22Þ
(16) possesses simple mathematical formulation and
contains only four material parameters, c1 c4 . The is a factor called density function. a is a material parameter
specific determination process of c1 c4 can be obtained related to the stress level and
in the literatures [5, 41, 43]. Two stress states, the initial ecrt e
Dc ¼ ð23Þ
hydrostatic and the state at failure, are chosen for the ecrt emin
identification of c1 c4 based on a triaxial test with is the modified relative density; e is the void ratio; emin and
constant confining pressure, i. e. T_ h ð2; 2Þ ¼ T_ h ð3; 3Þ ¼ 0. ecrt are the minimum and the critical void ratio,
And then, the following parameters are introduced: respectively. The effect of void ratio and stress level on
the stress ratio, R ¼ Th ð1; 1Þ=Th ð3; 3Þ; the behavior of granular materials is taken into account in
the model (21) by using the following expressions,
the initial tangent modulus,
ecrt ¼ p1 þ p2 expðp3 j trTh jÞ; ð24Þ
Ei ¼ ½ðT_ h ð1; 1Þ T_ h ð3; 3ÞÞ=Dð1; 1ÞR¼1 ;
and
the initial Poisson ratio, ti ¼ ½Dð3; 3Þ=Dð1; 1ÞR¼1 ;
a ¼ q1 þ q2 expðq3 j trTh jÞ ð25Þ
the failure stress ratio, Rf ¼ ½Th ð1; 1Þ=Th ð3; 3Þmax ;
the failure Poisson ratio, tf ¼ ½Dð3; 3Þ=Dð1; 1ÞR¼Rf : where pi ði ¼ 1; . . .; 3Þ and qi ði ¼ 1; . . .; 3Þ are material
parameters and can be determined by fitting the experi-
The failure stress ratio Rf and the failure Poisson ratio tf mental data of drained triaxial tests under different con-
are related to the friction angle /0 and the dilatancy angle fining pressure; j j denotes absolute value. It is shown that
w, respectively, through the following relations [43]: the model (21) is applicable to both initially and fully
developed plastic deformation of granular materials with
1 þ sin/0
Rf ¼ ð19Þ drained or undrained conditions [41, 43]. It will reduce to
1 sin/0
the original one (16) when the void ratio e is equal to the
and critical value ecrt from (22) and (23). It means, for same
material, same constants c1 c4 will be obtained for the
1 þ tanw
tf ¼ : ð20Þ original and extended models in the case of e ¼ eecrt . Thus,
2
the material constants emerging in the model (21) can be
Taking the four material constants c1 c4 as unknowns, a determined by the same way as done for (16). The dila-
system of four linear equations can be obtained by tancy angle w is equal to zero since there is no volume
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Table 3 Parameters for the static portion in the simulation of dry granular flows
c1 c2 c3 c4 emin p1 p2 p3 q1 q2 q3
[–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [kPa1 ] [–] [–] [kPa1 ]
50 746:55 746:55 1855.13 0.563 0.65 0.55 -0.11 1.0 -0.24 -0.013
Table 4 Parameters for the dynamic portion in the simulation of dry selected for the element tests. The loads applied by the
granular flows
upper disk range from 100 to 1500 N/m2 which is normal to
d C1 Cc qs l tanai the flow surface. By checking the measured normal stress
½mm [–] [–] ½kg/m3 ½Pa s [–] for 1:0 mm beads, we assume that the initial confining
pressure of an element at the upper surface of the specimen
1.0 0.64 0.62 1095 1:83 105 0:40 0:51
has a value around 500 N/m2 . The exact value of C1 was
not reported in the literature [33] and here is assumed equal
5.1 Dry granular materials
to 0.64 which is a typical value for monosized spheres
[2, 16]. Thus, the corresponding minimum void ratio
The experimental data of dry granular materials sheared in
a annular shear cell were reported by Savage and Sayed 1 C1
emin ¼ ð34Þ
[33]. The data for 1:0 mm spherical polystyrene beads are C1
Fig. 7 Element test results for the dry granular flow with different grain linear concentration: a shear rate versus normal stress, b shear rate vs
shear stress. The experimental data are indicated by various symbols. The dashed lines denote the normal stresses while the solid lines for the
shear stresses
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Table 5 Stress state in quasi-static stage calculated by hypoplastic Table 7 Parameters for the dynamic portion in the simulation of
model granular-fluid flows
Solid volume fraction, C [–] 0.461 0.483 0.504 0.524 d C1 Cc qs l tanai
Initial void ratio, e [–] 1.17 1.07 0.98 0.91 ½mm [–] [–] ½kg/m3 ½Pa s [–]
P0 ½Pa 0 0 0 81
1.85 0.61 0.52 2780 1:0 103 0.59
T0 ½Pa 0 0 0 36
Table 6 Parameters for the static portion in the simulation of granular-fluid flows
c1 c2 c3 c4 emin p1 p2 p3 q1 q2 q3
[–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [kPa1 ] [–] [–] [kPa1 ]
50 511:31 511:31 680.53 0.64 0.65 0.55 -0.11 1.0 -0.12 -0.013
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Acta Geotechnica (2016) 11:1217–1229 1227
Fig. 8 Element test results for the granular-water flows with different solid volume fraction: a shear rate versus normal stress, b shear rate vs
shear stress. The experimental data are indicated by various symbols. The solid lines denote the shear stresses and the dashed lines are the normal
stresses
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Table 8 Stress state in quasi-static stage calculated by hypoplastic Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
model Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
Solid volume fraction, C [–] 0.49 0.51 use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give
Initial void ratio, e [–] 1.04 0.96 appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a
P0 ½Pa 0 173 link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were
made.
T0 ½Pa 0 102
is chosen as the static portion of the new model for debris References
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