Tutorial 3 Solutions

MATH 239 Winter 2024

Week of January 29

T-3-1. For each of the following sets of compositions, obtain a rational function formula for the
generating series of that set (with respect to size).
Let the generating series for the sets below be A(x), B(x),..., E(x), respectively.

(a) Let A be the set of compositions of length congruent to 1 (modulo 3).

Solution.
– Parts of any size: P = {1, 2, 3, ..} has generating series x/(1 − x).
– The length is k = 3j + 1 for some j ∈ N, so that A = ∞ 3j+1 .
S
j=0 P
– Therefore, by the Sum and Product Lemmas,
∞  3j+1 ∞  3j
X x x X x
A(x) = =
1−x 1−x 1−x
j=0 j=0
x 1 x(1 − x)2
= · =
1 − x 1 − x3 /(1 − x)3 (1 − x)3 − x3
2
x − 2x + x 3
= .
1 − 3x + 3x2 − 2x3
□
(b) Let B be the set of compositions of even length, with each part being at most 3.
Solution.
– Parts of size at most 3: P = {1, 2, 3} has generating series x + x2 + x3 .
– The length is even: k = 2j for some j ∈ N, so that B = ∞ 2j
S
j=0 P .
– Therefore, by the Sum and Product Lemmas,
∞
X
2j 1
B(x) = x + x2 + x3 =
1 − (x + x2 + x3 )2
j=0
1
= .
1− x2 − 2x3 − 3x4 − 2x5 − x6
□
(b) Let C be the set of compositions whose first two parts add up to at least 100 and with at least 100
parts.
Solution.

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MATH 239 Winter 2024 Tutorial 3 Solutions

• Let us split each composition (c1 , . . . , ck ) into three pieces:

– (c1 , c2 ) ∈ C1 = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ N>0 , a + b ≥ 100};
– (c3 , . . . , c100 ) ∈ N98
>0 ;
– (c101 , . . . , ck ) ∈ N∗>0 .
This shows that C = C1 × N98 ∗
>0 × N>0 .
1 1−x
Now, ΦN∗>0 (x) = x
1− 1−x = 1−2x either by the String Lemma or because we saw this as
the generating series for all compositions in class.
 98
x
By the Product Lemma, ΦN98 >0
(x) = 1−x .
It remains to consider C1 . Let us write C1a for the set of (c1 , c2 ) ∈ C1 with c1 = a.
Then C1a = {a} × {b ∈ N : b ≥ min{100 − a, 1}}.
For a < 100, we have ΦC1a (x) = xa · ∞ b a 100−a /(1 − x) = x100 /(1 − x).
P
b=100−a x = x x
For a ≥ 100, we have ΦC1a (x) = xa · ∞ b a a+1 /(1 − x).
P
b=1 x = x x/(1 − x) = x
So by the Sum Lemma,
∞
X X
ΦC1 (x) = ΦC1a (x) = 99x100 /(1 − x) + xa+1 /(1 − x)
a=1 a≥100
99(1 − x)x100 + x101
= 99x100 /(1 − x) + x101 /(1 − x)2 =
(1 − x)2
99x100 − 98x101
=
(1 − x)2
(1−x)x98 (99x100 −98x101 )
and so finally, C(x) = (1−x)100 (1−2x)
. □
(d) Let D be the set of compositions of odd length, with each part being at least 2.
Solution.
– Parts of size at least 2: P = {2, 3, 4, ...} has generating series x2 /(1 − x).
– The length is odd: k = 2j + 1 for some j ∈ N, so that D = ∞ 2j+1 .
S
j=0 P
– Therefore, by the Sum and Product Lemmas,
∞  2j+1 ∞  2j
X x2 x2 X x2
D(x) = =
1−x 1−x 1−x
j=0 j=0
x2 1 x2 (1 − x)
= · =
1 − x 1 − x4 /(1 − x)2 (1 − x)2 − x4
x2 − x3
= .
1 − 2x + x2 − x4
□
(e) Let E be the set of compositions γ = (c1 , c2 , ..., ck ), of any length, in which each part ci is
congruent to i (modulo 2). So c1 is odd, c2 is even, c3 is odd, and so on. (Note that the empty
composition ε = () is in the set E.)
Solution.
– Even parts: P = {2, 4, 6, ...} has generating series x2 /(1 − x2 ).

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 MATH 239 Winter 2024 Tutorial 3 Solutions

– Odd parts: Q = {1, 3, 5, ...} has generating series x/(1 − x2 ).

– If the length is even k = 2j, then the set of compositions in E of length k is (Q × P )j .
– If the length is odd k = 2j + 1, then the set of compositions in E of length k is
(Q × P )j × Q.
– It follows that the set E is
   
∞
[ ∞
[
E =  (Q × P )j  ∪  (Q × P )j × Q
j=0 j=0

– Therefore, by the Sum and Product Lemmas,

∞  j ∞  j
X x3 X x3 x
E(x) = 2 2
+ 2 2
(1 − x ) (1 − x ) 1 − x2
j=0 j=0
∞  j
x3
 X
x
= 1+
1 − x2 (1 − x2 )2
j=0
1+x− x2 1 (1 + x − x2 )(1 − x2 )
= · =
1 − x2 1 − x3 /(1 − x2 )2 (1 − x2 )2 − x3
2 3
1 + x − 2x − x + x 4 x
= 2 3 4
= 1+ .
1 − 2x − x + x 1 − 2x − x3 + x4
2

Theorem 4.8 will allow us to calculate that

E(x) = 1+x+2x3 +x4 +3x5 +4x6 +5x7 +10x8 +11x9 +21x10 +27x11 +43x12 +64x13 +· · ·

As a “reality check” here are the 11 compositions of weight 9 in the set E:

(9) (7, 2) (5, 4) (3, 6)

(1, 8) (3, 2, 1, 2, 1) (1, 2, 3, 2, 1) (1, 2, 1, 2, 3)
(1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2) (1, 4, 1, 2, 1) (1, 2, 1, 4, 1)

T-3-2. Calculate [xn ](1 + x)−2 (1 − 2x)−2 . Give the simplest expression you can find.
Solution. The only useful technology we have at present is the Binomial Series expansion, so
let’s use it.
∞   ! ∞  

1 1 X i+1 X j+1
2
· 2
= (−x)i  (2x)j 
(1 + x) (1 − 2x) 1 1
i=0 j=0
∞ X
X ∞
= (i + 1)(j + 1)(−1)i 2j xi+j
i=0 j=0
∞ k
!
X X
k i k−i
= x (−1) (i + 1)(k − i + 1)2 .
k=0 i=0

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MATH 239 Winter 2024 Tutorial 3 Solutions

It follows that for all n ∈ N,

n
1 X
[xn ] = (−1)i (i + 1)(n − i + 1)2n−i .
(1 + x)2 (1 − 2x)2
i=0

That is good enough for now. (Theorems 4.12 and 4.14 will give a much better answer later
on.) □