Storm Drainage

Systems

CEU 322
August 2023

Continuing Education from the

American Society of Plumbing Engineers
education.aspe.org/RLE
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Storm Drainage Systems

Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other
materials may result in a wrong answer.

Storm Drainage Systems

Reprint from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 2 – Chapter 4
All rights reserved.

Stormwater systems convey rainwater from building roof drains, area drains, subsoil drains, and foundation drains to a point of discharge,
subsurface dispersal, or use. Clear-water waste had been considered acceptable to discharge to a stormwater system; however, recent
changes have resulted in restrictions, and designers should consult local codes concerning clear-water waste. Clear-water waste is water
discharged from expansion tanks, heating and cooling coils, condensate, sprinkler systems, drip or overflow pans, and similar devices.
The division between the design performed by the plumbing engineer vs. the civil engineer regarding a storm drainage system is typically
the building footprint. The plumbing engineer is usually responsible for the stormwater within the building footprint, including the roof
drainage, courtyard drainage, and subsoil building groundwater drainage. The exterior stormwater design is usually the responsibility of
the civil engineer. This includes the paved areas, parking lot, and building site.
The complete storm drainage system includes piping for both the building and the surrounding property. Building sites can be provided
with conveyance piping for draining paved areas, parking lots, vegetated areas, and all other areas where the stormwater could damage
a structure or present a health or safety hazard to the public.
The municipality or governing body regulates the stormwater system discharge. The discharge may be to a municipal sewer, combined
sewer, ground surface, subsurface, or water course. The flow from a stormwater system is designed for gravity flow to the point of
discharge. Where gravity flow is not possible, elevating the stormwater discharge by using a pump or ejector, onsite infiltration, or
stormwater harvesting may be considered.
Stormwater subsurface dispersal is controlled to protect groundwater quality and sometimes to enhance groundwater quantity and
aquifer recharge. Some jurisdictions allow depressed areas on the site where the stormwater is collected and remains until evaporation,
transpiration, or infiltration allows the stormwater to disperse into the environment. Extended dry detention ponds, retention ponds
(permanent water surface), and underground storage systems also are used to store rainfall and release the stormwater over a designated
period. These releases are required to replicate the hydrograph for the pre-construction site conditions. These types of systems and their
design parameters (retention volume, filtering, etc.) may differ from municipality to municipality based on local regulations, sewer
availability, green initiatives, etc.

CODES, STANDARDS, AND REGULATIONS

Stormwater system design is affected by numerous regulations, codes, and standards, and the plumbing engineer is part of a design
team that uses all of the applicable requirements to comply with site-specific conditions and rules. The U.S. government, through the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), has environmental protection laws that establish the requirements for groundwater and surface-
water protection. In Canada, provinces may have environmental laws regulating stormwater discharge. Environmental laws regulate
watersheds based on specific local conditions. Local ordinances and the design of the municipal sewer, as well as approved management
plans, also may impact a stormwater system design.
The model plumbing codes establish the minimum acceptable standards for the design and installation of stormwater systems. The
allowable discharge of stormwater is also regulated by local codes, ordinances, and laws. Local requirements will identify allowable
discharge locations, allowable size of storm sewer connections, and retention size and time. The local requirements must be obtained
from the jurisdiction. The tables and charts appearing in this chapter are used only to illustrate and augment the discussion and may not
be appropriate for actual design purposes in a specific location.
The Clean Water Act, implemented by the EPA, is applicable for construction sites and industrial locations. The EPA’s rules are enacted
through states and tribal territories, which oversee the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permitting authority.
Construction site owners are required to file for an NPDES permit prior to land disturbance. Industrial facility owners are required to
have an NPDES permit and maintain proper stormwater discharge throughout the life of the building. The NPDES permit specifies the
erosion control measures to be used during the construction phase to protect water quality by controlling pollutants before the stormwater
is discharged. The NPDES permit language also includes a requirement for a post-construction stormwater management plan, which
must address the control of overland runoff from the site and of stormwater within the stormwater conveyance and infiltration systems
(as these systems also provide a means for stormwater to exit the property). For more information on NPDES permits, contact the state
agency regulating the NPDES permit or visit epa.gov/npdes.

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MATERIALS
Stormwater system components include piping, fittings, bedding, backfill, supports and hangers, fixtures, and treatment devices. These
materials must be approved for use by the local jurisdiction.
While creating the material specifications, research and follow all manufacturer requirements and limitations. Exposed leaders or
downspouts should be capable of withstanding anticipated corrosion, weather, expansion, and contraction. Refer to PEDH Volume 4:
Plumbing Components and Equipment for more information on materials and joining methods. The plumbing code will indicate the
acceptable materials for storm piping systems inside the building.

SITE DRAINAGE AND INFILTRATION

The plumbing engineer’s involvement with stormwater management has been expanded to include the evaluation of the precipitation
and runoff from a site. Thus, to design stormwater management systems, the science of hydrology and the calculation of runoff for each
particular site are necessary considerations.
The hydrology of a storm event is the basis for all aspects of stormwater management system design, including sizing pipe and selecting
appropriate treatment devices and methods. Hydrology deals with the properties, distribution, and circulation of water, but the hydrology
of a storm event limits this study to a particular precipitation event and the fate of the water that falls during that event.
All methods used to determine volumes and peak flows use historical data. Such precipitation and frequency information can be
found on the Hydrometeorological Design Studies Center’s Precipitation Frequency Data Server website (hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds).
Rainfalls and snowstorms occur as a series of events that have characteristics including rainfall amount, intensity, and duration. To
design a stormwater system, a particular storm event must be chosen. This is known as the design storm. The plumbing codes specify the
design storm that the roof drainage system must be designed to accommodate. In the United States, the model plumbing codes identify the
design storm as a storm with a one-hour duration and a 100-year return period. This is also called a 100-year, one-hour rainfall rate. The
National Plumbing Code of Canada uses a different design storm depending on the area being drained. Local jurisdictions will identify
the design storm for the paved areas and yard. This design storm may differ from the rainfall rates in the plumbing code. The rainfall rate
is required to design the roof drainage system, as well as any infiltration and use systems.
For the purpose of system design, it’s necessary to specify the duration FIGURE 4-1
of a selected storm. For example, an intensity-duration-frequency curve Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve
for Madison, Wisconsin (see Figure 4-1) shows that a 10-year, 60-minute 10 250

storm has a rainfall intensity of 2 inches per hour (50 mm/hr), a 10-year, 9 Madison, Wisconsin 225
15-minute storm has a rainfall intensity of approximately 4 inches per 8 200
hour (102 mm/hr), and a 100-year, one-hour storm has a rainfall intensity
7 175
of 3 inches per hour (76 mm/hr).
Rainfall intensity i, in./hr

Rainfall Intensity, i, mm/hr

Different design storms are used for varying situations or purposes. 6 150

For instance, the Minnesota Urban Small Sites Best Management Practice 5 125
100 yr recurrence interval
Manual states that two- and 10-year storms are to be used for subdivision, 4 100
industrial, and commercial design. One- and two-year storms are to be 50
3 75
used to protect channels from sedimentation and erosion. Five- and 10

10-year events are to be used for adequate flow conveyance and minor 2 2 50

flooding considerations. The 100-year storm is to be used to consider 1 25

the impacts of major floods. 0 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
The Rational Method
Duration of storm (minutes)
Many jurisdictions accept the Rational Method for calculating peak flow
rates. The Rational Method was developed to identify peak flow for
pipe and culvert sizing. It translates peak intensity of rainfall directly into peak intensity of runoff. When using the Rational Method for
pipe sizing on small sites, the time of concentration should equal the duration of the storm, as those parameters create the highest peak
flow rate. For a small site, a rate in cubic feet per second (cfs) (or L/s) can be calculated once the intensity is entered into the Rational
Method formula.
The Rational Method is illustrated in Equation 4-1.
Equation 4-1
Q = 1.008 CIA [Q = 2.778 CIA]
where
Q = Runoff, cfs (L/s)
A = Drainage area, acres (1 acre = 43,560 ft2)
(1 hectare = 10,000 m2)
C = Runoff coefficient, dimensionless (see Table 4-1)
I = Rainfall intensity, in./hr (mm/hr)
(To convert cfs to gallons per minute [gpm], use a correction factor of 448.8 gpm/cfs.)

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Example 4-1 TABLE 4-1

Consider a 1.5-acre (0.607-hectare) site with a concrete or pavement cover (0.9 runoff Coefficients for Use with the Rational Method
coefficient) and a rainfall of 4 inches per hour (101.6 mm/hr). The equation would be:
Runoff
Q = 1.008 x 1.5 x 0.9 x 4 = 5.44 cfs Type of Surface or Land Use Coefficient (C
[Q = 2.778 x 0.607 x 0.9 x 101.6 mm/hr = 154.2 L/s] value)
To convert to gpm, multiply the cfs by 448.8: 5.44 x 448.8 = 2,443 gpm.
Roof: metal, gravel, asphalt, shingle,
The Rational Method provides a peak flow rate. Using it, the designer can size 0.90 – 0.95
fiberglass, mineral paper
a piping system that will safely carry the peak flow to a treatment device or a point
of dispersal or discharge. Individual Soil Covers
Forest 0.1 – 0.3
Runoff Patterns
Turf or meadow 0.1 – 0.4
The runoff coefficient, or C value, can be found in the applicable local code or design
manual. (See Table 4-1 for typical values.) Cultivated field 0.3 – 0.4
Figure 4-2 illustrates two hydrographs. One shows the runoff pattern prior to
Steep grassed area (2:1) 0.5 – 0.7
construction, and the other shows the runoff pattern after development on the same
site. It’s evident that the flow rate increases and decreases more quickly in areas that Bare earth 0.2 – 0.9
have been developed. It’s also evident in Figure 4-2 that peak flows are higher in a Gravel or macadam pavement 0.35 – 0.7
developed post-construction area than in pre-development conditions.
Increased stormwater flow rates affect the local environment in the following Concrete or asphalt pavement 0.8 – 0.9
ways: Composite Land Uses
• The frequency and severity of flooding increase because peak flows are higher
Flat residential, about 30% impervious 0.40
than before development.
• Nearby streams tend to flash flood because high flows occur quickly and Flat residential, about 60% impervious 0.55
affect stream levels. Sloping residential, about 50%
• Base flow is reduced because the infiltration of stormwater into shallow 0.65
impervious
aquifers that provide the dry period feed for small streams is reduced. Thus,
Flat commercial, about 90% impervious 0.80
streams that once flowed year-round may disappear.
• The banks of streams widen to handle the additional water volume.
FIGURE 4-2
Stormwater Quality Pre- and Post-Construction Hydrographs
Impervious areas such as roofs, parking lots, and roads accumulate
contaminants from vehicles, the atmosphere, and animals. Rainfall washes Post-Construction
these contaminants from the impervious surface and deposits them into the
groundwater, surface water, or soil unless a treatment device is used.
Flow Rate

Table 4-2 lists common urban contaminant levels in runoff. The runoff
Pre-Construction
in a specific geographical area is affected by building patterns, salt or sand
usage on roads and sidewalks, traffic, land use, building materials such as lead
flashings, galvanized roofs, or galvanized gutters and downspouts.
Typically, the number of bacteria in stormwater is lower than the number in Time
domestic wastewater. However, stormwater does contain pathogenic (disease-
causing) bacteria such as Shigella (which causes bacillary dysentery), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (which causes swimmer’s ear and skin
infections), and pathogenic E. coli. Viruses also can travel in stormwater runoff.

Estimating Time of Concentration and Rainfall Intensity

To help define the time of concentration for a site, the FAA (Federal Aviation Agency) has developed the following formula:
Equation 4-2
tc = [1.8 (1.1 – C)Lh1/2] / G(-1/3) [ tc = [3.26 (1.1 – C) Lh1/2] / G(1/3) ]
where
tc = Time of concentration, minutes
C = Runoff coefficient in the Rational Method formula
Lh = Hydraulic length, ft (m)
G = Slope along the hydraulic length, %
Note: Hydraulic length is the distance between the most distant point in the watershed and the
watershed outlet.
This formula was further simplified by Bruce Ferguson in his text Introduction to Stormwater:

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Equation 4-3 Table 4-2

tc = Lh1/2cg [ SI equation is the same ] Contaminant Concentrations in Urban
Stormwater
where
cg = Factor combining everything except hydraulic length Average
Contaminant
Concentrationa,b
Note: cg can be used for both IP and SI units, but the cg values in IP and
metric units will be different. Total suspended solids 80 mg/L
The resulting tc values should be the same. Total phosphorus 0.30 mg/L
These time of concentration equations are depicted in graph format in Figure 4-3. Total nitrogen 2.0 mg/L
Another way to estimate figures in the Rational Method equation is to use rainfall
Total organic carbon 12.7 mg/L
intensity-duration-frequency curves. For instance, Figure 4-1 shows the intensity-duration-
frequency curves for Madison, Wisconsin. Using a time of concentration of approximately Fecal coliform bacteria 3,600 MPN/100 mL
seven minutes and a 10-year storm, the rainfall intensity that would be used in the Rational
E. coli bacteria 1,450 MPN/100 mL
Method is approximately 5.5 inches per hour (140 mm/hr). If designing for the two-year
storm, the intensity would be about 4 inches per hour (102 mm/hr). Petroleum hydrocarbons 3.5 mg/L
Cadmium 2 µg/L
Other Resources for Calculating Runoff
Technical Release 55 (WinTR-55): Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds is a Copper 10 µg/L
computer program developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Lead 18 µg/L
Conservation Service was designed to provide a simplified procedure to calculate
stormwater runoff volume, peak flow, hydrographs, and storage volumes required for Zinc 140 µg/L
stormwater management structures. Chlorides (winter only) 230 mg/L
The Windows 10 version of the WinTR-55 computer model has specific limitations,
Insecticides 0.1–2.0 µg/L
including the following:
• Minimum area: 0.01 acre. The user should carefully examine results from sub-areas Herbicides 1–5.0 µg/L
less than 1 acre (0.4 hectares). a. Units: mg/L = milligrams/liter, µg/L = micrograms/liter, MPN =
• Maximum area: 25 square miles (6,500 hectares) most probable number
b. Concentration represents the mean or median storm
• Number of sub-watersheds: One to 10 concentration measured at typical sites and may be greater
• Time of concentration for any sub-area: 0.1 hour ≤ tc ≤ 10 hours during individual storms. Also note that mean or median runoff
• Number of reaches: Zero to 10 concentrations from stormwater hotspots are two to 10 times
higher than those shown here.
• Types of reaches: Channel or structure Source: Manual on the Design and Construction of Sanitary and
• Reach routing: Muskingum-Cunge Storm Sewers, American Society of Civil Engineers
• Structure routing: Storage-Indication
• Structure type: Pipe or weir
• Structure trial size: One to three
• Rainfall depth: Default or user-defined (0 to 50 inches [0 to 1270 mm])
• Rainfall distribution: RNCS Type I, IA, II, III, NM60, NM65, NM70, NM75, or user-defined
• Rainfall duration: 24 hours
• Dimensionless unit hydrograph: Standard FIGURE 4-3
peak rate factor of 484 or user-defined FAA Time of Concentration Factor cg
• Antecedent moister condition: Two (average)
Certain data requirements must be entered into
the WinTR-55 main window. These data include:
• Identification information (user, state,
county, project, and subtitle)
• Dimensionless unit hydrograph
• Storm data
• Rainfall distribution
• Sub-area data
cg Values (IP)

A user of WinTR-55 must be familiar with the entry

information. This program is written in conventional
inch-pound units only and does not include metric
input and output units. To download the software,
go to the Natural Resources Conservation Service
website: nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/
national/water/?cid=stelprdb1042901.

Slope G Along Hydraulic Length, %

Multiply
Another way to estimate figures in IP
thecg factors
Rationalby 1.811
Methodfor SIequation
cg factors.is to use rainfall intensity-duration
frequency curves. For instance, Figure 4-3 shows the intensity-duration-frequency curves for Madison
5 Read, Learn, Earn August 2023
Wisconsin. Using a time of concentration of approximately seven minutes and a 10-year storm, the rainfal
intensity that would be used in the Rational Method is approximately 5.5 inches per hour (140 mm/hr). I
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Storm Drainage Systems

Collection Systems FIGURE 4-4

It is possible for a person to get drawn into, entrapped by, or drown in Inlet Control Shown for a Pipe or Culvert
a stormwater collection system due to a vortex or high-velocity flow.
The designer can help eliminate high-velocity, high-volume safety HW
hazards by separating flow into inlets rather than concentrating flow
at the surface.
At the very start of any stormwater collection system is the inlet.
Inlets come in many shapes and sizes and are critical to a responsible FIGURE 4-5
stormwater system design. They come in many types, including Outlet Control Shown for a Pipe or Culvert
manhole grates, curb inlets, gutter inlets, combination inlets, and
multiple inlets. H
Some codes require inlet calculations, and several hydraulic issues HW
must be considered when designing inlets—not only the design of the
inlet itself, but also the surface condition where the piping is installed.
Inlet control occurs where water is backed up at the pipe or
culvert entrance. The submerged inlet behaves like an orifice, with
the increased head creating an increased pressure that increases the discharge rate. Figure 4-4 shows an illustration of inlet control.
Outlet control occurs where the pipe outlet is submerged due to ponding or a slow flow rate, which also affects the capacity of the
system. Figure 4-5 depicts one type of outlet control. Other conditions may exist that affect flow when an outlet is submerged.
The following equation to calculate the capacity of a catch basin or manhole-style inlet comes from Advanced Plumbing Technology
by Alfred Steele, PE.
Equation 4-4
Q = 2/3AC(2gh)1/2 [ SI equation is the same ]
where
Q = Inlet capacity, cfs (m3/sec)
2/3 = Factor to correct for assumed blockage of one-third of the inlet’s net open area
A = Net open area of the inlet, ft2 (m2)
C = Orifice coefficient, usually taken as 0.6
g = Constant (32.2 ft/sec/sec) (9.81 m/sec/sec)
h = Head, ft (m) on the inlet or the depth of water on top of the inlet (usually not more than 2 or 3 inches
[50 to 75 mm])
Manufacturers of manholes, catch basins, and curb inlets can provide the designer with more accurate information on the volume of
flow through inlets when the variable of water height above the inlet is known.

Conveyance
A stormwater system’s primary objective isn’t always to collect and convey stormwater quickly to a discharge point. In fact, today’s
stormwater systems have many objectives.
Some systems are designed to detain stormwater in a stormwater management system so the post-construction runoff hydrograph closely
resembles the pre-development hydrograph of the site. This is called peak shaving. The detention system may include a controlled-flow
roof drainage system, an underground piping system, land depressions, or subsurface gravel beds that are lined to prohibit infiltration.
Because such systems are meant to detain stormwater, the required slopes for the associated plumbing drainage piping aren’t required
for detention systems.
Many codes state that all horizontal drain piping shall be installed at a pitch that will produce a computed velocity of at least 1 foot
per second (fps) (0.305 m/sec) when flowing full. Piping designed to drain is required to be installed to produce the minimum velocity of
1 fps (0.305 m/sec). Piping systems designed to detain stormwater may be designed to create less than the 1-fps (0.305-m/sec) velocity.
Although most codes have no stated velocity maximums, manufacturers of pipe materials provide permitted maximum velocities.
The velocity of water from discharge points also is frequently controlled by environmental protection agencies.

Sizing Conveyance Piping

The designer may use the tables in ASPE’s Plumbing Engineering & Design Handbook of Tables, the ASPE Tables App, or a formula
such as Manning’s equation (Equation 4-5) to calculate flow velocity, and that information can be used to calculate the capacity of the
conveyance piping. The Manning equation can be used to calculate flow in gutters, round-bottom and square-bottom trenches, and open
channels, as well as in pipes flowing by gravity.
Equation 4-5
V = (1.486/n)(R2/3)(S1/2) [V = (1.00/n)(R2/3)(S1/2)]

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where
V = Velocity of flow, fps (m/sec)
n = Coefficient representing the roughness of the
pipe surface, degree of fouling, and pipe
diameter (See Table 4-3)
R = Hydraulic radius (flow area / wetted perimeter
of the flow area), ft (m)
S = Hydraulic slope of the flow surface, feet per foot
(m/m)
The quantity rate of flow is equal to the cross-sectional area of flow times the velocity of flow. This can be expressed as:
Equation 4-6
Q = AV [ SI equation is the same ]
where
Q = Quantity of rate of flow, cfs (m3/sec)
A = Cross-sectional area of flow, ft2 (m2)
V = Velocity of flow, fps (m/sec)
By substituting the value of V from Manning’s formula, one obtains the following:
Equation 4-7
Q = A(1.486/n)(R2/3)(S1/2) [ Q = A(1.00/n)(R2/3)(S1/2) ]
Once velocity and capacity are known, the following equations and methods are acceptable
for sizing conveyance piping: Bentley OpenFlows FlowMaster software, Manning’s equation
TABLE 4-3
for gravity flow, or Hazen-Williams equation for pressurized flow. Also, 1 cfs = 448.8 gpm. Typical Values for n
Typical n values used in the Manning Equation for storm piping are outlined in Table 4-3.
The capacity for storm piping is generally considered full flow (minimal air at the top of the Material n value
horizontal pipe). CPD storm, all sizes 0.0145

Piping Alignment UPC 0.0145

When a change in pipe diameter occurs at a manhole or catch basin, the alignment of the NSPC (NJ & MD) 0.015
incoming and outgoing pipes should be such that the crowns of the pipes, not the inverts, match.
This installation promotes smooth water flow and helps prevent backwater in the upstream 2015 IPC and newer 0.010
piping. Figure 4-6 illustrates this rule. Cast iron 0.013
Brass/copper 0.011
Detention
Detention systems are designed to modify the conveyance system to slow the rate of flow from Smooth steel 0.012
an area. Detention systems may be designed using piping systems, tanks, reservoirs or surface Corrugated metal 0.022
ponds, or paved areas. Several arrangements may be used for subsurface detention.
A detention system poses no risk to the groundwater, as the groundwater and the stormwater Glass 0.010
do not interact. Clay tile 0.014
Piping systems designed to detain stormwater may be installed with a slope of less than that
Brickwork 0.015
required for drainage piping. If the velocity is less than 1 fps (0.305 m/s), the system must have
access ports for cleaning or an equivalent method for removing solids. Downstream restrictions Asphalt 0.016
should occur in a manhole or be accessible. Masonry 0.025
Detention on parking lots by restricted piping systems or inlets should not allow ponding
of more than 6 inches (152 mm) and should not allow water to enter the building. The AHJ Finished concrete 0.013
may have more stringent requirements for detention. Unfinished concrete 0.014

Infiltration PVC 0.010

A subsurface infiltration system could look like a conventional gravity dispersal system (septic
system), or it may resemble a subsurface created wetland. Many options FIGURE 4-6
are available for these designs. Crown Alignments on Storm Sewer Piping

Considerations for Infiltration System Design

A soil and site evaluation should be performed by a person acceptable to the
Match
authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). No substances should be discharged crowns
into the infiltration system that would exceed groundwater standards.
Load rates should be based on Table 4-4. Total suspended solids (TSS)
must be treated to less than 35 milligrams per liter, or the suspended solids

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must be reduced by 80 percent prior to infiltration. Other treatment requirements for
runoff from parking lots or other contaminated areas prior to infiltration may be required TABLE 4-4
Design Infiltration Rates for Soil Textures
by the AHJ. Receiving Stormwater
The load rates as shown on Table 4-4 are suggested for infiltration, and it is
recommended to load at less than 5 inches per hour (127 mm/hr) for basins and trenches. Design Infiltration Rate
Soil Texturea Without Measurement,
This is a groundwater quality consideration. in./hr (mm/hr) b
Vertical setbacks to zones of seasonal soil saturation are 5 feet (1,524 mm) for
water from any source other than rooftops and 1 foot (305 mm) for rooftop runoff. Coarse sand or coarser 3.60 (91)
This restriction for rooftop runoff applies only to saturated-flow systems. It does not Loamy coarse sand 3.60 (91)
apply to subsurface drip irrigation or surface spray irrigation. The design also should
take hydraulic restrictions into account, even though there is no setback for quality, Sand 3.60 (91)
regardless of the source. Groundwater mounding, or the local rise of the water table Loamy sand 1.63 (41)
above its natural level, should be considered when designing an infiltration system
Sandy loam 0.50 (13)
more than 15 feet (4.6 m) wide.
A sand blanket consisting of engineered soils to treat stormwater may be added to Loam 0.24 (6.1)
an in-situ soil that doesn’t meet the vertical setback requirements. Also, the AHJ should Silt loam 0.13 (3.3)
be consulted for the established setback to wells.
The draindown time should be less than 24 hours for surface ponding and 72 hours Sandy clay loam 0.11 (2.8)
for subsurface drainage. Clay loam 0.03 (0.8)
Treatment Silty clay loam 0.04 (1.0)c
Catch basins, water quality ponds, bioretention facilities, manufactured filters, and even
Sandy clay 0.04 (1.0)
grass filter strips can provide stormwater treatment. The U.S. EPA provides a list of
best management practices and assigns treatment values to some common practices. Silty clay 0.07 (1.8)
Other treatment performance may be documented by manufacturers. The AHJ also may Clay 0.07 (1.8)
have a list of approved products and/or manufacturers that they would consider suitable
a. Use the sandy loam design infiltration rate for fine sand, loamy fine
when treatment is required. sand, very fine sand, and loamy fine sand soil textures.
b. Infiltration rates represent the lowest value for each textural class
Accessibility and Maintenance presented in Table 2 of Rawls, 1998.
c. Infiltration rate is an average based on Rawls, 1982, and Clapp and
When a stormwater detention system becomes filled with silt or groundwater Hornberger, 1978.
contamination occurs when an infiltration system fails, the system requires maintenance
and/or repair. Designers must plan for that eventuality. All devices and safeguards that are discussed in this chapter must be maintained
in good working order.
As velocity decreases or the contaminant load increases, more cleanouts or accessibility ports (e.g., manholes) should be included in
the design to ease maintenance.

Vector Control
Vector control is an important issue that is related to maintenance. A vector is an organism, such as an insect, that transmits a pathogen,
fungus, virus, etc. The most dangerous vector related to stormwater is currently the mosquito.
In 1998, the California Department of Public Health Vector-Borne Disease Section conducted a study to learn whether stormwater
practices supported vector populations. The results proved that mosquitoes use the standing water in stormwater devices as homes. It was
evident that requiring stormwater devices allowed many species to greatly expand their range and increase their numbers. Even small
breeding areas combine to make big problems.
The two types of mosquitoes are the permanent water species and the flood water species. The former lays eggs in quiet water, and
the latter lays eggs on damp soil where the next flooding event will allow a hatch. The research done in California shows that the Aedes,
Culex, and Anopheles mosquitoes are most often associated with stormwater devices.
Plumbing designs can be modified to reduce mosquito breeding sites. First, draindown times should be reduced to less than 72 hours.
A current proposal for infiltration devices is a maximum draindown time of 24 hours. Secondly, subsurface system inlets can be sealed
or screened to prevent mosquito entry. A third way to prevent surface standing water is to fill the area with rock to eliminate the mosquito
habitat.

INTERIOR BUILDING DRAINAGE SYSTEM DESIGN

The design of interior building stormwater drainage systems shall be based on the plumbing code and sound engineering judgment.
Special local conditions, building and site characteristics, and code requirements may necessitate a unique design. The plumbing engineer
should also review the design considerations in the ASPE Research Foundation paper, “Storm Drainage System Research Project.” The
paper identifies the errors in the size of roof drainage systems required by the plumbing codes for the previous 80 years. The new sizing
method requires a rational analysis to size the roof drain and piping systems. Primary drainage is based on a 100-year, 60-minute storm,
and emergency overflow is based on a 10-year, five-minute storm. Meanwhile, the National Standard Plumbing Code (NSPC) (New
Jersey and Maryland) calls for primary drainage based on a 100-year, 60-minute storm and emergency overflow based on a 10-year,
15-minute storm.
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General Design Criteria FIGURE 4-7

The following items should be considered when establishing the stormwater Clear-Water Waste Branches for
Connection to Storm System
system. Source: Reprinted by permission from The Illustrated National Plumbing Code Design Manual
• Rainfall rate, snow depth, freezing conditions, snowmelt, frost line, (Ballanco & Shumann, 1987)
and other conditions usually can be found in National Weather
Service (NWS) or National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) publications or plumbing codes. Some jurisdictions will
provide code amendments to supplement the code requirements for
local conditions.
• The building’s construction, including roof type, drainage slope
patterns, vertical wall heights, parapet heights, scupper sizes and
locations, emergency drainage systems, pipe space allocations in
the ceiling space, and wall and chase locations must be determined.
• Minimum pipe size and slope, overflow requirements, extent of The minimum pitch is 1/8 in.
overflow pipe and discharge requirements, and method of connection per foot (10.4 mm per m).
to the public sewer are all code-related items. If such requirements are
not available, use good engineering practices as outlined
in this chapter. Methods of detention are usually code- FIGURE 4-8
mandated requirements. Several available methods, such as Typical Roof Drain and Roof Leader
controlled-flow roof drainage, siphonic roof drainage, rain Source: Reprinted by permission from Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual
(Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute, 1976), with modifications
gardens, green roofs, detention basins, infiltration basins,
and infiltration trenches could be used.
• Site conditions, including geographical location, proximity
to surface water, topography, elevation, soil, groundwater
table, location and pipe material of the public storm sewer,
location of existing manholes, and location of other utilities
within the site, must be determined.
• The local requirements must be consulted to determine the
rainfall rate that is applicable for the design area. If the code
does not specify or if a longer rainfall period is permitted,
the design should be for a 100-year, one-hour storm for
the building roof and site unless other factors are involved
that require greater protection from flooding.
• Expansion and improper anchoring of the vertical pipe
have caused roof drains to be pushed above the roof
deck, destroying the integrity of the roof waterproofing
by tearing the flashing and the waterproofing membrane.
This problem can be more apparent in high-rise buildings
and buildings where the exposed leader is subject to cold
rainwater or melting snow and ice that enters piping at the
ambient temperature of the building. An expansion joint at
the roof drain or an offset horizontal section of the branch
line should be considered to accommodate the movement
of the leader without affecting the roof drain.
• The horizontal section of the storm pipe and the roof
drain body should be insulated with a vapor barrier to control condensation. Low-temperature liquid flow in the piping causes
condensation to form on the outside of the piping, possibly causing stain damage on ceilings or, where exposed, drip marks on
the flooring. In warm climates, this condensation usually extends 15 feet (4.6 meters) from the roof drain. Past this distance, the
water is no longer cold enough to cause condensation.
• Locating the vertical leaders within the building has several advantages: convenience, safety, appearance, and freeze protection.
However, in warm climates, it’s possible to install storm leaders on the exterior of the building, lowering installation costs and
saving valuable floor space.
• The piping layout must be coordinated with other design team disciplines that are affected, such as the architect to provide chase
locations at proper columns for vertical leaders (also known as conductors or downspouts) and the structural engineer for average
and maximum rain depths on the roof, pipe supports, structure penetrations, and footing depths. Other utilities, such as ductwork
and conduit runs, also may be affected.
• If interior drains from lower roofs, clear-water wastes, or area-way drains are connected to the storm system inside the building,
the drains should be connected at least 10 pipe diameters downstream of the last offset fitting to avoid the effects of hydraulic
jump. When such piping is tied to a leader, an upright wye should be utilized if possible.

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• Clear-water wastes should be properly trapped and vented (see Figure 4-7). Traps must be the same size as the horizontal drain to
which they are connected and should be provided with at least 4-inch (102-mm) deep-seal P-traps. The discharge or clear-water
waste may be restricted by EPA requirements or state NPDES regulations. The local code also may have additional restrictions
for clear-water wastes.
• When connecting a drain from a lower level to a stack, recall that excessive pressure may exist in the leader. If a backwater valve
is used, it can cause the areas affected to not drain effectively, and a buildup of water may occur. Horizontal piping of clear-water
wastes and vents should be sized as a sanitary drainage branch. (See Figure 4-8.)
• To keep the number of leaders to a minimum, combine flows from more than one roof drain, clear-water wastes, or any combination
thereof. The plumbing engineer must include the additional flows when calculating the leader size. This method is especially
beneficial in keeping the costs of high-rise buildings contained.
• If leaders are to be located at building columns, the column footing design must be coordinated with the structural engineer to
take into consideration the leader location. The base elbow should be a long sweep bend to help alleviate any excess pressures
in the downstream pipe, and the elbow should be properly supported. The elbow may rest directly on the column footing, which
acts as a support (refer to Figure 4-8). Changes in direction may need to be restrained (in addition to supported) based on both
code requirements and good engineering practice.
• A riser clamp should be provided at each floor line to support the leader. Also, a cleanout must be provided at the base of all stacks.
• If blockage occurs in the drainage system and backs up in the vertical leader, the piping system may be subject to a head pressure
greater than the joining system is designed to withstand. To prevent joint failure, pressure pipe may be considered for the piping
system.
• At the lower floors, recognize that exterior leaders may be damaged, such as those in parking or truck-loading areas. These leaders
should be protected by metal or concrete guards or bollards or be recessed in the wall and constructed of a ferrous alloy pipe such
as cast iron to 5 feet (1.5 meters) above the paving or loading platforms.
• If an offset is 45 degrees or less, the leader can be sized as a vertical pipe. If the offset is greater than 45 degrees, the pipe must be
sized as a horizontal pipe. To avoid stoppages, the leader cannot be reduced in size in the direction of flow throughout its length.
For example, an 8-inch (200-mm) horizontal line must tie to an 8-inch (200-mm) vertical leader, even if the sizing table would
allow for a smaller size for the vertical leader. Vertical leaders should be tied to the horizontal main with single wye fittings.
Double wye fittings should be avoided.
• In 2015, the International Plumbing Code (IPC) allowed an approximate 50 percent increase in allowable flows in horizontal
pipes. Earlier IPC versions and the current Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) and NSPC are based on the Manning formula, with
the pipes running 100 percent full with n values of 0.0145 or greater (rusty cast iron pipe). The new higher volume values are
based on PVC pipe and n = 0.010. The plumbing engineer needs to evaluate the code he is required to follow and should adjust
the maximum flow capacities of the pipe based on the piping material being specified. (See Table 4-3.)
Roof Drainage

Coordination
The building roof transfers the combined weight of live and dead loads, with the proper additional safety factor, to the supporting structure.
Live loads include snow, rain, wind, and water on the roof. Dead loads include all mechanical and electrical equipment and the roof deck.
Locating the roof drains should be a cooperative effort among the architect, structural engineer, and plumbing engineer. The architect
is familiar with the building construction, parapets, walls, chase locations, available headroom for pipe runs, roof construction, and
waterproofing membrane. The structural engineer is familiar with the structural support layout, roof slopes, column orientation, footing
sizes and depths, and maximum allowable roof loading. The plumbing engineer can provide information concerning the maximum roof
area per drain, wall and column furring-out requirements, headroom requirements, ceiling space requirements, minimum footing depths,
maximum ponding around secondary (emergency) drains, and the possible benefits of ponding. The plumbing engineer also should ensure
that the drains are located in the low points of the roof to limit deflection, which could cause ponding and shifting of the roof low point,
and to minimize the horizontal piping runs.

Drain Location
Drain locations must be coordinated with the architectural design of the building. The roof structure must be able to support the weight of
ponded water. The roofing material, roof structure, and the thickness of roof insulation must be designed in accordance with the building
codes, which may require the installation of two drains to serve each roof area.

Adjacent Surfaces
Roof drains also receive rainwater from other roof areas such as penthouses that discharge onto the roof area being calculated and from
the adjacent vertical walls. Some plumbing codes require 50 percent of two adjacent vertical wall areas to be added to the horizontal roof
area. Other plumbing codes use complex formulas for various wall configurations.
Rain seldom falls in a totally vertical direction. Depending on wind conditions, the angle of rainfall could be as much as 60 degrees
to the vertical or more. Wind, particularly with high-rise buildings, can blow rain off a vertical wall and away from building surfaces.

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Roof Drain Design

Standard roof drains have three basic parts: a strainer, a flashing ring with a gravel stop, and a drain body or sump. Strainers may be
coated with cast iron, have a polyethylene dome for use where leaves and debris may accumulate, or be flat for sunroofs, area-ways,
helipads, and parking decks.
When selecting the type of roof drain to use, the designer must know the roof construction and thickness. For instance, the roof may
be flat or pitched, be used to retain water for cooling purposes, have a sprinkler system for cooling purposes, be used as a terrace or as a
parking deck with heavy traffic, or be used to retain rainwater to limit effluent into the storm sewer system.
Roof drains, other than for flat decks, should have dome strainers that typically extend a minimum of 4 inches (100 mm) above the roof
surface immediately adjacent to the drain. Low-profile roof drains may have a dome with a lower height. Strainers for roof drains must
have available inlet areas not less than 1.5 times the area of the leader that serves the drain. Dome-type strainers are required to prevent
the entrance of leaves, debris, birds, and small animals. The dome strainer also helps the flow characteristics of the roof drain. Flat-deck
strainers, for use on sun decks, promenades, and parking garages where regular maintenance may be expected, must have available inlet
areas not less than two times the area of the leader that serves the drain. Heel-proof strainers may be required if the roof is subject to
pedestrian traffic. This will require larger grates to compensate for the smaller drainage holes in the strainers.
The flashing ring is used to attach the roof waterproofing membrane to the drain body to maintain the watertight integrity of the roof.
An underdeck clamp should be utilized to secure the drain to the metal or wood decking. Poured concrete roofs do not require these
clamps (although they help secure the drain in place), but drain receivers should be used on drains for concrete roofs. Drains that may
receive sand and grit should be provided with sediment buckets.

Selection of Roof Drains

Roofs are generally designed in most areas of the United States for a live load of 20 pounds per square foot (1.0 kPa). Since water
weighs 62.4 pounds per cubic foot (999 kg/m3), this equals a ponding live load of 3.85 inches (98 mm). Most overflow roof drains with
exterior dams have a dam height of 2 inches (51 mm). Thus, unless the building is in a northern climate where snow loads are heavier
or the owner is permitting the structural engineer to design for a heftier roof load, the plumbing engineer is limited to about 3.85 inches
(98 mm) of ponding with the primary drains plugged.
According to the IPC, roofs shall be designed for the maximum possible depth of water that will pond thereon as determined by the
relative levels of the roof deck and overflow weirs, scuppers, edges, or serviceable drains in combination with the deflected structural
elements. In determining the maximum possible depth of water, all primary roof drainage means shall be assumed to be blocked. The
maximum possible depth of water on the roof shall include the height of the water required above the inlet of the secondary roof drainage
means to achieve the required flow rate of the secondary means to accommodate the design rainfall rate as required by code.
Based on the ASPE Research Foundation paper, “Storm Drainage System Research Project,” the 2015 edition of the IPC, Section
1105.2, was modified and now requires the plumbing designer to select the drain size based on its required capacity (flow rate) and the
allowable head (ponding) that occurs at the roof drain. The allowable flow rate needs to be based on the maximum allowable design
ponding. Most roof drain manufacturers have produced this information for primary drains, and a few have provided it for overflow drains.

Secondary Roof Drainage Systems

Secondary or emergency roof drainage must be provided where the roof’s perimeter construction extends above the roof in such a manner
that water will be entrapped in case the primary drain is blocked or allows buildup beyond the structural dead-load design. The design,
size, and placement of secondary roof drains are mandated by the building code and the plumbing code. Secondary roof drains are also
required by ASCE/SEI 7: Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures, which regulates structural
loading. A secondary roof drainage system can consist of either scuppers through the sides of the building or separate roof drains installed
at a higher elevation than the primary roof drain. If scuppers are utilized, they should be placed ½ inch (13 mm) above the maximum
designated head or 2½ inches (64 mm) above the minimum roof level. The structural engineer must be advised that scuppers will be
installed to be able to accommodate for the additional weight of the water.
Roof drain manufacturers can provide overflow drains with either internal or external overflow dams. Internal dams will restrict flow
and are not recommended. External overflow dams are normally 2 inches (51 mm) high and larger in diameter than the strainer (normally
same diameter as the roof drain flashing ring). Only a few roof drain manufacturers provide capacity-ponding data.
The building codes require secondary drainage systems to be designed based on the assumption that the entire primary drainage
system is clogged. Additionally, if a rainfall heavier than the design rainfall occurs, the two systems should work together to carry the
increased load.
Unless specifically allowed by the code, the secondary drain piping system must be designed similarly to the primary drainage system
and piped separately from the primary system as mandated by the building code and plumbing code. The plumbing code may require
discharge to a separate disposal point from the primary system. The secondary drain discharge may be required to be above grade in a
conspicuous area to alert building occupants or maintenance personnel. Some plumbing codes allow the secondary system to discharge
directly into the main drainage system adjacent to the primary drain or to connect separately to the main house drain before or after it
leaves the building. When the secondary system connects into the primary, the code may require the combined piping to be sized for a
higher rainfall intensity.

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Controlled-Flow Storm Drainage Systems FIGURE 4-9

Controlled-flow systems collect rainwater on the roof and release the Example of a Controlled-Flow Drain
Source: Reprinted by permission from the Jay R. Smith catalog
flow slowly to the drainage system. These systems can provide significant
installation savings because they require smaller roof drains, smaller-diameter
piping, and smaller-diameter storm sewers. These systems also help alleviate
flooding in overtaxed public storm sewers or drainage canals during heavy
rainfalls. The impact on the sewage treatment plant for a combined storm/
sanitary sewer (where allowed) is considerably lessened using controlled-
flow roof drainage systems.
Controlled-flow systems should not be used if the roof is used for
functions precluding water storage, such as a sundeck or a parking level, or
if not allowed by the local jurisdiction. Holding water on the roof increases
structural costs and may require a different roof-covering material.
Rainwater will pond on the roof. The flow-control device should be
installed on the drain so the rainwater discharge rate does not exceed the rate
calculated to discharge into the site system. A typical controlled-flow roof
drain is illustrated in Figure 4-9.
The roof design for controlled-flow roof drainage should be based on a
minimum 30-pounds-per-square-foot (1.436 kPa) loading to provide a safety
factor above the 15.6 pounds per square foot (0.747 kPa) represented by the
3-inch (76-mm) design depth of water. The roof should be level, and 45-degree
cants should be installed at any wall or parapet. The flashing should extend
at least 6 inches (152 mm) above the roof level. Doors opening onto the roof
must be provided with a curb at least 4 inches (102 mm) high. Flow-control
devices should be protected by strainers, and in no case should the roof surface
in the vicinity of the drain be recessed to create a reservoir.
Roof drain manufacturers have done much research on the engineering
criteria and parameters regarding the head of water on the roof for the weir
design in controlled-flow roof drains, and they have established suggested
design procedures with flow capacities and charts. The plumbing codes
require the controlled-flow system to discharge all the water from a design
storm within 24 hours.

Siphonic Roof Drainage Systems

A siphonic roof drainage system is an engineered roof drainage system designed to prime full of water and operate in full-bore flow
conditions, siphoning the water off the roof. It consists of siphonic roof drains with air baffles complying with ASME A112.6.9: Siphonic
Roof Drains that connect to horizontal and vertical piping that is designed to prime completely full of water and depressurize at the upper
region of the system. The air baffles in the drains prevent the ingestion of air at the ponding-level height of the siphonic roof drain. The
driving hydraulic head of the system becomes the full height of the roof above the point of discharge, not the upstream depth of water
ahead of the drain.
The design team should carefully evaluate the advantages and challenges of siphonic roof drainage systems to satisfy the project’s
needs. This should be carefully considered and coordinated from early design stages. Ideal siphonic drainage system applications are large,
flat, rectangular roofs including those typical of airports, factories, warehouses, supermarkets, and stadiums. Buildings that minimize
available space above ceilings are also prime candidates.
Siphonic roof drainage systems have inherently higher flow capacities and velocities that can be taken advantage of by designers in
several ways:
• Smaller pipe diameters can be used.
• Piping can be installed flat; minimal pitch is required to induce flow.
• Coordination of piping with other building elements is easier.
• Fewer storm leaders are required.
• The designer has more flexibility in the placement of stacks and discharge locations.
• Siphonic systems are self-cleaning through vacuum or siphonic action and high velocities.
• Siphonic roof drains can be used for controlled-flow roof drainage.
• Siphonic systems offer possible Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) points.
However, the design team should also consider the following challenges when design siphonic roof drainage systems:
• Piping must be installed with minimal deviation from the shop drawings. Per ASPE 45: Siphonic Roof Drainage, piping 4 inches
(100 mm) and smaller shall be fabricated to be within 4 inches (102 mm) of the length specified on the designer’s drawings, while
pipe 8 inches (200 mm) and larger shall be within 8 inches (203 mm).

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• Design and construction administration budgets and schedules should account for siphonic software implementation, shop drawing
review, and field installation verification.
• Many plumbing contractors in the United States, especially those in more rural areas, are unfamiliar with the construction of
siphonic systems, which carries a greater risk of improper installation. Plumbing engineers should include contractor qualification
requirements for these systems in their specifications and, if possible, help verify these during the project bid phase.
• As rainfall intensifies, siphonic systems reach plug flow, and velocity increases. During this short priming stage, noise is
approximately 3 to 5 percent more than a gravity system. This is less of a concern when using certain piping materials such as
cast iron or insulated pipe above grade due to their sound-dampening effects. Sufficient rainfall is needed to achieve full-bore
flow in a siphonic roof drainage system. During full-bore flow, the siphonic system is quieter than a gravity system as the piping
system does not contain air.
• Any future modification of the storm system will require revised calculations.
• To achieve the required minimum velocity of 3 fps (0.914 m/s) in horizontal piping, at least 23 gpm (1.45 L/s) inflow is needed
per roof drain.
Local building and plumbing code requirements for pipe
FIGURE 4-10
cleanouts and prohibitions on reductions in pipe size in the Primary Siphonic Roof Drain
direction of flow do not apply to siphonic roof drainage. Pipe and Image courtesy of Mifab HydroMax
drain sizing methodologies prescribed in state plumbing codes
do not apply to pipe sizing in siphonic roof drainage systems.
Siphonic roof drains (see Figures 4-10 and 4-11) contain an air
baffle that inhibits the admission of air, promoting full-bore flow,
which subsequently allows and sustains negative atmospheric
pressure in the drainage piping as the water accelerates down the
vertical downpipe, achieving higher flow volumes and velocities.
The resulting flow, termed siphonic action, benefits from the
installation of horizontal piping on a flat level, serving multiple
roof drains. This is a space-saving advantage for buildings where
the traditional slope from gravity drainage piping is problematic. FIGURE 4-11
Siphonic roof drains must be tested and listed to the siphonic Overflow Siphonic Roof Drain
Image courtesy of Mifab HydroMax
roof drains standard (ASME A112.6.9). The test to this standard
obtains the single resistance value (K factor friction loss) for the
roof drain to be used in the hydraulic calculation and the flow
performance graphs showing the relationship between the water
depth at the roof drain and gpm (cfs) (L/s) flow. All drains will
have different single resistance K factors and flow performance.
The design should state the drain manufacturer and model used
in the design calculations.
When using siphonic roof drainage, the drainage lines from
roofs of different runoff coefficients should be kept on separate
siphonic roof drainage systems down to the siphon break.
The hydraulic design, hydraulic requirements, and balance
in a siphonic roof drain system are achieved by employing
engineering calculations to ensure that the piping system fills
(primes) automatically with moderate to heavy rainfall and meets all of the requirements of ASPE 45. In practice, a software program is
employed to calculate all of the hydraulics to achieve ASPE 45 compliance. Siphonic roof drainage design is allowed as an engineered
storm drainage system by the plumbing codes. In most cases it is advisable to consult the AHJ to see if a siphonic drainage system is
acceptable and also to determine if additional documentation and calculations are required to be filed for such systems.
The key hydraulic parameters to be achieved to comply with ASPE 45 follow:
• The roof drains are to achieve 100 percent of target flow. This will result in a small pressure reserve remaining. An allowable
pressure reserve of 3 feet of water column (ft wc) (0.914 m wc / 8.95 kPa) is generally acceptable.
• The out-of-balance pressure (reserve pressure) between roof drains should be 1.509 ft wc (0.460 m wc / 4.50 kPa).
• The minimum pressure shall not be lower than 90 percent atmospheric pressure and should be evaluated to ensure that cavitation
is prevented.
• The minimum velocity in horizontal piping shall be at least 3 fps (0.914 m/s).
• The minimum stack velocity shall be at least 7.2 fps (2.194 m/s).
• The system priming time must attain the design flow within the duration of the design storm event.
Scuppers
With many big-box retail outlets, data centers, factories, warehouses, aircraft hangars, etc., the goal is to keep all of the storm piping
outside of the building where leaks will not cause problems with the expensive equipment and merchandise stored inside. As discussed
earlier, scuppers are also used where the primary storm drain drainage is located indoors and the emergency overflow drainage is located

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outdoors using scuppers. Scuppers are basically relief openings that are cut in vertical perimeter/parapet walls that allow the stormwater
to exit the roof into a collector head.
IPC Section 1106.5 calls for scupper openings not being less than 4 inches (102 mm) in height and having a width that is equal to or
greater than the circumference of a roof drain (vertical riser) for the same roof area. This should be used with extreme caution as it may
overload the roof with excessive ponding in the area of the scupper.
The preferred method for sizing the scupper is found in SMACNA Architectural Sheetmetal Appendix A-7 or the 2015 IPC and
Commentary. Both references site the Francis formula (also see Figure 4-12 and Table 4-5):
Equation 4-8
Q = 2.996 ( L – 0.2H ) H1.5 [Q = 5.813E-05 ( L – 0.2H ) H1.5]
where
Q = Flow rate, gpm (L/s)
W = Width of the scupper opening, inches (mm)
D = Depth of the water (about 6 feet/2 meters) behind the scupper opening, inches (mm)
Note: Constants 2.996 and 5.813E-05 were developed from the original constant 3.33 based on
conventional normal measurements—inches and millimeters from feet.

Downspouts from scupper collector boxes are sized in a conventional manner.

Rainfall Rates
FIGURE 4-12
The rainfall rate for roof drain sizing must be established by the plumbing Scupper and Collector Box
code, AHJ, or the Hydrometeorological Design Studies Center’s
Precipitation Frequency Data Server (hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/
index.html). Using available tables, a designer can select a precipitation
frequency value for a 10- or 100-year return period with durations of
five, 15, and 60 minutes.
The selection of the duration and frequency of a storm for the
site as a whole was discussed earlier in this chapter. If the local code
provides this information, first establish the closest city and determine
the rainfall intensity in inches (mm) per hour. Then go to the code chart
and use this figure for sizing purposes. If exact figures are not found,
either mathematically interpolate between the figures shown or refer to
recommendations by the local code official.

Interior Pipe Sizing and Layout Criteria TABLE 4-5

Interior storm drainage systems are designed Scupper Capacity, gpm (L/s)
utilizing architectural and engineering design
information. The following points should be Depth of Length of Scupper Opening (L), in. (mm)
considered: Water (D), 6.0 12.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 36.0 48.0
• The contributing area of each roof drain in. (mm) (152.4) (304.8) (457.2) (609.6) (762.0) (914.4) (1219.2)
shall be calculated and noted. 17.4 35.4 53.3 71.3 89.3
• Roof drains and vertical pipes are sized 1.0 (25.4) (1.10) (2.23) (3.36) (4.50) (5.63)
107 (6.77) 143 (9.04)
as indicated in code requirements,
depending on the maximum runoff 2.0 (50.8) 47.5 98.3
149 (9.41) 200 (12.6) 251 (15.8) 302 (19.0) 403 (25.4)
(2.99) (6.20)
flow rate of the contributing roof area.
Manufacturers provide sizing and flow 3.0 (76.2) 84.1
177 (11.2) 271 (17.1) 364 (23.0) 458 (28.9) 551 (34.8) 738 (46.6)
rate information for their products. (5.30)
• Where there is an adjacent vertical wall, 1,131
4.0 (101.6) 125 (7.86) 268 (16.9) 412 (26.0) 556 (35.1) 700 (44.2) 844 (53.2)
the drain size is based on the horizontal (71.4)
collection area plus a percentage (often
50 percent) of the two adjacent vertical
wall areas. The vertical wall area is referred to as sidewall flow. The local code must be consulted to determine the number of
vertical walls to be considered.
• The size of the horizontal main is based on the accumulated flow of the drains and leaders upstream as indicated in the plumbing
code. A minimum 2-fps (0.610 m/s) velocity should be maintained to properly scour the pipe of grit, sand, and debris. The sizes
of gutters and storm drain pipe are listed in Tables 4-6, 4-7, and 4-8. When sizing tables are included in the code, the designer
must use the code tables for sizing.

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TABLE 4-6
Size of Vertical Leader
Diameter of Leader, in. (mm) Cross-Sectional Area, in.2 (cm2) Water Contact Area, in.2 (cm2) Maximum Discharge Capacity, gpm (L/s)a
2 (50.8) 3.14 (20.3) 6.28 (40.5) 30 (1.9)
2 × 2 (50.8 × 50.8) 4.00 (25.8) 8.00 (51.6) 30 (1.9)
1½ × 2½ (38.1 × 63.5) 3.75 (24.2) 8.00 (51.6) 30 (1.9)
2½ (63.5) 4.91 (31.7) 7.85 (50.6) 54 (3.4)
2½ × 2½ (63.5 × 63.5) 6.25 (40.3) 9.00 (58.1) 54 (3.4)
3 (76.2) 7.07 (45.6) 9.42 (60.8) 92 (5.8)
2 × 4 (50.8 × 101.6) 8.00 (51.6) 12.00 (77.4) 92 (5.8)
2½ × 3 (63.5 × 76.2) 7.50 (48.4) 11.00 (71.0) 92 (5.8)
4 (101.6) 12.57 (81.1) 12.57 (81.1) 192 (12.1)
3 × 4¼ (76.2 × 109.0) 12.75 (82.3) 14.50 (93.6) 192 (12.1)
3½ × 4 (88.9 × 101.6) 14.00 (90.3) 14.00 (90.3) 192 (12.1)
5 (127) 19.63 (126.7) 15.07 (97.2) 360 (22.7)
4 × 5 (101.6 × 127) 20.00 (129.0) 18.00 (116.1) 360 (22.7)
4½ × 4½ (114.3 × 114.3) 20.25 (130.6) 18.00 (116.1) 360 (22.7)
6 (152.4) 28.27 (182.4) 18.85 (121.6) 563 (35.5)
5 × 6 (127 × 152.4) 30.00 (193.5) 22.00 (141.9) 563 (35.5)
5½ × 5½ (139.7 × 139.7) 30.25 (195.2) 22.00 (141.9) 563 (35.5)
8 (203.2) 50.27 (324.3) 25.14 (162.2) 1,208 (76.2)
6 × 8 (152.4 × 203.2) 48.00 (309.7) 28.00 (180.6) 1,208 (76.2)
a. With approximately 1¾-in. (45-mm) head of water at the drain

• In cases where both gravity flows from drains and sump pumps are
discharging in the same main, the size of the main downstream of the TABLE 4-7
Size of Horizontal Gutter
sump pump is based on the accumulated flow of the gravity drains
upstream plus the discharge capacity of any sump pumps upstream. Diameter of Gutter, in. Slope, in./ft (%) Capacity, gpm (L/s)
• The pipe size of the sump pump discharge is based on the capacity 1½ × 2½ ¼ (2.0) 26 (1.6)
of the pump, but is normally the same as the discharge pipe size of
1½ × 2½ ½ (4.00) 40 (2.5)
the pump. For duplex pumps operating simultaneously, the combined
discharge capacity should be used. The discharge pipe should connect 4 1/8 (1.0) 39 (2.5)
to the horizontal storm main at least 10 pipe diameters downstream 2¼ × 3 ¼ (2.0) 55 (3.5)
of the base of any stack, as high pressure can exist in this zone due
2¼ × 3 ½ (4.0) 87 (5.5)
to hydraulic jump.
• When a separate secondary system is required, the size of the building 5 1/8 (1.0) 74 (4.7)
storm drain is based on the accumulated flow from the drain leaders 4 × 2½ ¼ (2.0) 106 (6.7)
upstream. The method used to dispose of the overflow drain discharge
3 × 3½ ½ (4.0) 156 (9.8)
must meet local plumbing code requirements. Local codes may not
allow open discharge onto the street, especially in northern climates; 6 1/8 (1.0) 110 (6.9)
therefore, it may be necessary to tie the secondary system into the 3×5 ¼ (2.0) 157 (9.9)
public storm sewer separately from the primary drainage system. Both
3×5 ½ (4.0) 225 (14.2)
may be routed to the same manhole, but with separate inlets. The local
plumbing code will dictate the size. Many areas of the U.S. require 8 1/16 (0.5) 172 (10.8)
the secondary drainage system to discharge above grade to indicate 8 1/8 (1.0) 247 (15.6)
that the secondary system is operating and service is necessary on
4½ × 6 ¼ (2.0) 348 (21.9)
the primary system.
• Horizontal piping must be supported properly, with bell holes 4½ × 6 ½ (4.0) 494 (31.1)
provided for underground bell-and-spigot piping. Cleanouts should 10 1/16 (0.5) 331 (20.9)
be provided at any change in direction exceeding 45 degrees and at
10 1/8 (1.0) 472 (29.7)
any change in pipe size and to meet any applicable plumbing code
requirements for distances between cleanouts. The cleanouts should 5×8 ¼ (2.0) 651 (41.0)
4 × 10 ½ (4.0) 1,055 (66.5)
15 Read, Learn, Earn August 2023
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Storm Drainage Systems

TABLE 4-8
Size of Storm Drain Pipea
Maximum Permitted Flow Rate, gpm (L/s)
Nominal Pipe Size,
Horizontal Drain Based on Pitchd
in. (mm)b Vertical Drainc
1/16 in./ft (0.5%) 1/8 in./ft (1.0%) ¼ in./ft (2.0%) ½ in./ft (4.0%)
2 (50) 34 (2.1) 15 (0.9) 22 (1.4) 31 (2.0) 44 (2.8)
3 (75) 87 (5.5) 39 (2.5) 55 (3.5) 79 (5.0) 111 (7.0)
4 (100) 180 (11.3) 81 (5.1) 115 (7.2) 163 (10.3) 231 (14.6)
5 (125) 311 (19.6) 117 (7.4) 165 (10.4) 234 (14.7) 331 (20.9)
6 (150) 538 (33.9) 243 (15.3) 344 (21.7) 487 (30.7) 689 (43.4)
8 (200) 1,117 (70.4) 505 (31.8) 714 (45.0) 1,010 (63.6) 1,429 (90.0)
10 (250) 2,050 (129.2) 927 (58.4) 1,311 (82.6) 1,855 (116.9) 2,623 (165.2)
12 (300) 3,272 (206.1) 1,480 (93.2) 2,093 (131.9) 2,960 (186.5) 4,187 (263.9)
15 (375) 5,543 (349.2) 2,508 (158.0) 3,546 (223.4) 5,016 (316.0) 7,093 (446.9)
a. Flow capacities match “Storm Drainage System Research Project,” Table A, and flow capacities for the 2015 IPC and later versions.
b. Nominal sizes are based on ASTM D2665 or equivalent, smooth wall pipes, and associated inside diameters based on nominal diameter. Plastic pipe is not available in 5-inch (125-mm) and
15-inch (375-mm) sizes. Use 14-inch (350-mm) and 16-inch (400-mm) for sizes over 12 inches (300 mm).
c. Vertical drain capacity based on Equation 1-3 in Chapter 1 with an r = 1/3.
d. Horizontal drain capacity based on the Manning formula and n = 0.010.
Note: To convert roof square feet into gpm, use the following formula:
Q = A/(96/I)
where: Q = gpm; A = Area being drained (square feet); I = Rainfall intensity (in./hr)
Multiply gpm by 0.063 to convert to L/s.

be extended up to grade, to the floor above, or out to the wall face with a wall plate. Locating cleanout plugs above ceilings may
damage the ceiling when the pipe must be cleaned.
• Avoid running horizontal piping above the ceilings of high-value equipment rooms (IT, medical imaging, etc.), kitchens, operating
rooms and sterile areas, and food-preparation areas. A pipe rupture above one of these areas could cause major damage and
contamination. If pipe must be routed above these areas, consider leak-containment measures, such as sheet metal drain troughs,
double-containment pipe, or extra-heavy-duty pipe couplings—some health departments may even require these measures. Piping
under building slabs should be avoided if feasible, as pipe leaks could erode the fill below the slab and cause the slab to crack.
• If the storm drainage system receives continuous or intermittent flow from sump pumps, air-conditioning units, or similar devices,
the flow should be added to the drainage system, either on the roof if the discharge is onto the roof or in the piping if the discharge
ties directly into the drainage system.
Engineered Sizing of Roof Drainage Piping Systems
The sizing of the piping system must be based on the design storm. The sizing is based on the projected roof area discharging to the roof
drain. The manufacturer of the roof drain provides the flow capacity through the roof drain based on the ponding. The plumbing engineer
should select the roof drain after consulting the structural engineer about allowable ponding depths. Once the maximum allowable ponding
depth at the roof drain for the design storm is established, the roof drain can be selected. Remember that more than one roof drain can
be installed in the roof low spot. The ponding depth is used to determine the flow capacity through the roof drain.
The 2015 IPC requires the sizing of the piping system to be based on gallons per minute (flow) rather than square footage (area), and the
ponding depth is used to determine the flow capacity through the roof drain. If following this code, the plumbing engineer must calculate
the height of the water ponding in the top of the drain for the design storm and then use the manufacturer’s published roof drain flow rate.
Tables 4-6, 4-7, and 4-8 are based on the flow rate through the roof drain. For horizontal drains, the sizing is also based on the pitch
of the drain pipe.
Tables 4-6 and 4-7 are used for sizing vertical leaders and gutters. Table 4-8 is used for sizing storm drainage pipe. The flow rate
through the roof drain cannot exceed the flow rate values in the tables for the given gutter or pipe size.
After layout and sizing, the designer should review the proposed system to determine if revisions to the layout would improve the
system from the standpoint of ease of installation, cost of materials, and/or coordination with other trades.

16 Read, Learn, Earn August 2023

 READ, LEARN, EARN: Storm Drainage Systems

ASPE Read, Learn, Earn Continuing Education

In order to receive CEU credit, please complete the below quiz online. If you score 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have earned
0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD or CPDT recertification or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to
determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.)

Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through August 31, 2024.

Thank you to Nicholas Hipp, CPD, for authoring this month’s quiz.

Storm Drainage Systems (CEU 322)

1. Stormwater contains which pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria? 7. Which of the following is considered a live roof load?
a. Shigella a. Wind
b. Legionella b. Mechanical equipment
c. Avian influenza c. Electrical equipment
d. All of the above d. People

2. Some systems are designed to detain stormwater in a stormwater 8. Which of the following is considered a dead roof load?
management system so the post-construction runoff hydrograph closely a. Mechanical equipment
resembles the pre-development hydrograph of the site. This is called ___. b. People
a. Retention method c. Snow
b. Detention method d. Water
c. Peak shaving
d. None of the above 9. The building codes require secondary drainage systems to be designed
based on what assumption?
3. Piping designed to drain is required to be installed to produce the a. There are no scuppers on the building
minimum velocity of? b. All of the secondary roof drains are clogged
a. 2 fps c. System shall be sized two times greater than the primary
b. 1 fps d. That the entire primary drainage system is clogged
c. 5 fps
d. 8 fps 10. Per ASPE 45: Siphonic Roof Drainage, piping 4 inches (100 mm) and
smaller shall be fabricated to be within how many inches of the shop
4. What is a vector in stormwater systems? drawing?
a. A segment of piping a. 12 inches
b. An organism b. 4 inches
c. An area of retention c. 8 inches
d. None of the above d. 32 inches

5. What typically causes vertical piping to push roof drains above the roof 11. Flow rate increases and peak rain fall flows are higher in which areas?
deck? a. Developed areas
a. Soil heaving b. Undeveloped areas
b. Atmospheric pressure c. Impervious areas
c. Expansion and improper anchoring d. Superficial areas
d. Building settling
12. Siphonic systems are self-cleaning through what process?
6. In warm climates, the plumbing designer should consider insulating a. Turbidity
the horizontal piping from a roof drain for a minimum of how many feet? b. High velocities
a. 5 ft c. Pressure
b. 10 ft d. None of the above
c. 15 ft
d. The entire length

17 Read, Learn, Earn August 2023