TeachingEnglish

Reflective practice
for language
teachers
Thomas S. C. Farrell
ISBN 978-1-915280-42-8

Published by the British Council, 2024

British Council
1 Redman Place
Stratford
London
E20 1JQ

www.teachingenglish.org.uk/publications-research

© Thomas S. C. Farrell

Citation:
Farrell, T. S. (2024). Reflective practice for language teachers.
British Council.
Contents

Introduction 04
1. Why reflect? 05
2. Where did reflective practice come from? 06
3. What is reflective practice? 09
4. Framework for reflecting on practice 11
5. Tools for reflective practice 17
6. Characteristics of reflective teachers 21
7. Final reflections 24
References 26
04 Reflective practice for language teachers

Introduction
I have spent the past 40+ years you can step back while you are reading
reflecting on reflective practice, and I the book and reflect on your own
am still learning about what it is for thoughts about what you are reading.
language teachers. In this book, I You can write your answer to these, or
summarise my current reflections on you can talk to a peer/colleague or a
reflective practice for language group of colleagues depending on how
teachers. I assume readers have no you are most comfortable in your
prior knowledge of reflective practice reflections, as you will read in the
and so I present the book in terms of chapters that follow. Of course, you may
why it is important to reflect, where skip any and all of these breaks if they
reflective practice came from, and what do not suit your personal approach to
it is. I also present a framework for reflective practice. Indeed, you can skip
reflecting on practice I designed any chapter and go direct to the
especially for language teachers to chapter that interests you most as this
engage in reflective practice, together book is for you. I know you are busy
with an example of an English as a teachers and I address this issue at the
foreign language (EFL) teacher’s end of the book after I outline and
reflection using this framework. I then discuss reflective practice in detail so
outline the various reflective tools that that you can decide what is best for you
teachers can make use of as well as the and your professional development.
characteristics of reflective teachers.
Throughout each chapter, I also provide
you with some Reflective breaks, so that Happy reflecting!
 Reflective practice for language teachers 05

Chapter 1

Why reflect?
joy when I enter a classroom, but I am also human
This chapter outlines some reasons because I know that I too ‘plateaued’ a few times and
why reflection is worthwhile. needed to step back and take stock about what I was
doing, how I was doing it and why, and what I should
do in the future. I was lucky, though, as I could take a
sabbatical and reflect, but many practising language
Why reflect? teachers do not have this luxury to step back during
a sabbatical to reflect, nor do they know how to
Remember the excitement you felt when you walked reflect, or what reflective tools and techniques are
into the classroom and saw your first set of language available for them to reflect, and so on.
students after your teacher education programme?
Sure, you may have been a bit frightened because
there was no longer a structured practicum Reflective break 1
experience where you were given some help with • Do you still feel excited as you enter each
your teaching. Now, you are amongst your students class?
as their teacher, so they depend on you to provide
opportunities for them to learn. This experience may • Do you think it is normal for teachers to
stay with you for your entire career, and you may plateau at some time during their careers?
even feel the same type of excitement when you • If yes, did your teacher education programme
enter your classroom each day. Indeed, many prepare you for this?
teachers of English as a second language (ESL) and
• Have you ever felt that you have plateaued at
English as a foreign language (EFL) remain
any time during your career?
enthusiastic through most of their careers; however,
there are times when some may begin to lose this • If yes, what did you do? How did you handle
enthusiasm as teaching no longer holds the initial this?
excitement it once did. As one well-qualified (BA, Cert
• Did you talk to colleagues about what you
TESL, MA) and very experienced college ESL teacher
were feeling?
in Canada said to me, ‘I feel like I’ve plateaued
professionally … gone a little stale’ (Farrell, 2014a). • Have you ever heard of reflective practice?
She said she was feeling the ‘teaching blues’ as she
• If yes, what does reflective practice mean
noted that she felt not fully engaged in her teaching,
to you?
and she worried that she was not providing full
opportunities for her students to learn as a result of • Where do you think reflective practice came
her own perceived ‘slump’. This is not an indication from, and why did it come about?
that this teacher does not care; far from it, it is a
declaration that she needs to reflect on what she is
doing, and perhaps many, if not all, teachers will
reach such a plateau at some time in their teaching
careers.
I still remember my first day as a teacher all those
years ago in Ireland and the joy (yes, and the fear) I
had when I first entered a classroom. I still retain that
06 Reflective practice for language teachers

Chapter 2

Where did
reflective practice
come from?
limit their ability to learn critically. He later extended
This chapter provides some this idea of routine decision-making to teaching, and
maintained that teachers can become slaves to
background to the interesting yet
routine decision-making if they do not engage in
complex concept of reflective reflection. When explaining such reflection, he first
practice. The chapter outlines and discussed what it is not, and for this, he asserted that
it is not just mulling over something or engaging in
discusses where reflective practice
what I would call ‘navel-gazing’. Instead, Dewey
came from to set the scene for maintained that reflection should be systematic and
what reflective practice is. intentional. Dewey (1933, p. 9) defined such
reflection as, ‘active, persistent, and careful
consideration of any belief or supposed form of
knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and
Origins of reflective the further consequences to which it leads.’

practice Reflective break 2

Humans have probably always reflected as they • Do you think that teachers should follow
walked the earth, and for over 2,000 years routine in their teaching? If yes, why? If no,
philosophers such as Socrates, who became famous why not?
for his adage, ‘the unexamined life is not worth living’,
• Are you aware of any routines in your
was just one of many who advocated that people
teaching? For example, do you start your
should reflect on their existence. In addition, the
classes the same way each day? Do you
concept of contemplation and its awareness-raising
end your classes the same way each day?
effects has long been a part of many great religions
and philosophical studies where we humans are
encouraged to practise mindfulness. As Dewey suggested, reflective practice is not just
thinking about what (may have) happened after class
In more modern times, perhaps the two most famous
on the way home on the bus; rather, he said it should
philosophers associated with the concept of
be intentional and so he developed a systemic
reflection are John Dewey (1933) and Donald Schön
approach to reflection that he called reflective
(1983), in that order. In fact, Dewey first discussed
inquiry. Reflective inquiry has five main phases of
reflection in terms of student learning (rather than for
reflection that teachers should follow, according to
teachers), as he suggested that routine thinking and
Dewey. These five phases are: suggestion,
decision-making by students in educational settings
 Reflective practice for language teachers 07

intellectualisation, guiding idea, reasoning and In fact, although not often recognised, Dewey’s
hypothesis testing. reflective inquiry as outlined above is the precursor
of the currently popular action research approach to
The first phase is called suggestion, where a
gathering data about teaching.
practitioner is faced with a puzzling situation or a
problematic issue in his or her teaching that needs
more reflection. In many cases, when teachers face Reflective break 3
problematic situations, the urge is to try to solve the
problem immediately. However, Dewey suggested The following is a short case study of a language
that teachers should hold off with any immediate teacher’s reflections. Read the case study and
attempts to find a solution and instead engage in try to explain how you would use Dewey’s
what he calls intellectualisation, the second phase of reflective five phases to solve the problem.
his reflective inquiry. Dewey maintained that we can • During several of her recent lessons with
have an initial emotional reaction to any problem we young learners of English as a foreign
encounter, and such a reaction can limit our ability to language, Dorothy noticed that some of her
solve the problem. Thus, he suggested we students were becoming a bit restless and
intellectualise the problem rather than ‘feel’ the the general noise levels of her classes were
problem. One way of doing this is to ask more increasing although she had a rule set from
probing questions about the problem; as he noted, a day one that students would have to face
question well asked is half the answer already. After consequences if they were too loud.
asking such deep questions, the practitioner is now Dorothy decided to tell her students to
poised to attempt to gather as much information work more quietly, especially when she put
about the problem as possible and thus enter into the them into groups, and although she was
third phase of reflective inquiry called guiding idea. successful for a few minutes, the noise
There are many different sources teachers can use to levels increased to even higher levels later
gather information, but I recommend they consider on. Indeed, some of the boys in the groups
Steven Brookfield’s (1995) idea of looking at a were becoming very difficult to control,
problem through different lenses: the teacher’s lens, even though she told them they would have
colleagues’ lenses, students’ lenses, and a literature to leave the room if they continued with
review lens. For example, teachers can gather their their disruption. Over the next week, things
own information about their practice by recording did not change and her students continued
their lessons, and/or writing a journal. They can also to be very noisy, so Dorothy became very
ask a colleague to observe them teach and get their frustrated.
opinion about the problem. They can also ask their
students’ opinions as students know more about their There was a lull for many years after Dewey’s
teachers than anyone else because they observe significant contribution of the concept of reflection
them each day teaching in their classroom. Finally, within education (and what some would suggest
teachers can read some of the research findings could be called revolutionary thoughts on the need
related to the problem at hand to see what others for both students and teachers to reflect on their
have done before. All of these will be further practices). This lasted until the 1980s with the
discussed in the chapters that follow. emergence of the work of Donald Schön (1983,
1987) whose PhD dissertation was focused on an
In such a manner, teachers can begin to make more
analysis of Dewey’s ‘Theory of Inquiry’. Although
informed decisions based on these multiple
Schön did not refer to Dewey much in his work, I
perspectives about the problem and enter Dewey’s
believe Dewey’s philosophical pragmatism and
fourth phase called reasoning, where the teacher
influence led him to take a more pragmatic (rather
attempts to come up with a tentative solution based
than theoretical) approach to reflective practice
on all the information gathered thus far. The
(which also attracted me to his work).
practitioner makes a tentative plan that he or she
does not know will work at that time when he or she Much of Schön’s initial work was within organisations
moves into the fifth and final phase called hypothesis in terms of how practitioners in those organisations
testing. After deciding the plan, the practitioner tests viewed their work, and especially the notion of
it by action and observation to see if it works; if it practitioner-generated intuitive practice. Schön
does not work, the practitioner attempts to generate (1983, 1987) was convinced that professionals ‘know’
different solutions and tests these in a similar manner. more than they can articulate and was interested in
08 Reflective practice for language teachers

getting them to articulate what they ‘know’ and ‘do’ may then lead to new meanings, further reframing,
by engaging in this process of reflection-in-action. As and plans for further action.’
Schön (1983, p. 50) observed, the ‘know-how is in the
action’. Thus, he suggested that practitioners become
more aware of what they do as they perform by Reflective break 4
observing their actions, or by reflecting-in-action. • Let us continue with Dorothy’s case
Thus, in a Deweyan sense, a temporal pause (where introduced in Reflective break 3 when she
the practitioner attempts to reshape what he or she is noticed that some of her students were
doing while he or she is doing it) may be necessary becoming a bit restless and the general
between reflection and action and when making any noise levels of her classes were increasing.
readjustments to an action. Perhaps this has led to one student
Dewey is widely acknowledged as the founder of the shouting out who normally would not. How
reflective practice movement in modern times, and do you think Dorothy would proceed
he considered reflective practice as intentional, through Schön’s sequence of moments
systematic inquiry that was disciplined and that would above as she attempted to reflect-in-action?
ultimately lead to change and professional growth for • Did you ever have a similar event occur in
teachers (reflection-on-action). Schön built on your classroom while you were teaching? If
Dewey’s work and added to this the idea of a yes, how did you handle it? Do you think
practitioner being able to reflect on his or her you went through a sequence of moments
intuitive knowledge while engaged in the action of while you reflected on what you would do?
teaching (or reflection-in-action).
Thus, Schön (1983) encouraged the practitioner to
continue to reflect during action in an attempt to
reshape what the practitioner was doing while he or
Conclusion
she was doing it. Such reflection involves a type of This chapter outlined and discussed where the
internal conversation in which the teacher ‘listens’ to concept of reflective practice originated and pointed
the situation’s backtalk that occurs in a sequence of to the two most influential scholars associated with its
moments. Such a sequence could be as follows: a popularity: Dewey and Schön. Their work is very
situation develops while a teacher is teaching that influential on my own work because of their
triggers spontaneous, routine responses that may not pragmatic approach to reflection, which can be very
work. For example, a student cannot answer an easy useful for teachers. In fact, all of my work on
question related to some language skill that he or she reflective practice is really standing on the shoulders
was able to answer during a previous class. The of these two giants (Farrell, 2019a); however, as you
teacher responds as he or she has always done, in a will read in subsequent chapters, I have added to and
routine manner, but nothing happens, and the further refined both their approaches to include a
student remains silent. The teacher may be surprised more holistic approach to reflection.
with this silence and may explain to the student that
he or she wonders why as the student already
answered this question in the previous class. The
teacher can then ask the student if anything is the
matter, and the student may still remain silent.
Regardless of how this actually transpires, the
teacher is surprised as the normal routine in action is
broken and so he or she must reflect within this
action, and this gives rise to on-the-spot
experimentation by the teacher. The student may or
may not explain why he or she is silent. The teacher
may take some measures (depending on the reaction
or nonreaction) to help solve the problem: ignore the
situation, empathise with the student, help the
student answer the question by modeling answers,
and so forth (from Farrell, 2012). As Clarke (1995, p.
245) explains, ‘this conversation between the
practitioner and the setting provides the data which
 Reflective practice for language teachers 09

Chapter 3

What is reflective
practice?
of its impact on the social, affective, moral, or political
This chapter outlines and discusses aspects related to practice. Unfortunately, the result
in many cases is that reflective practice has now
what I consider reflective practice
become a ritualised and mechanical intellectual
to be. exercise, reduced to a set of recipe-following
checklists that teachers follow as ‘evidence’ for
reflecting on their practice. Such a one-dimensional
approach has reduced reflection to a retrospective
What is reflective ‘post-mortem’ role (Freeman, 2016, p. 217). Indeed,

practice?
Akbari (2007) cautioned against this because, as he
noted, when reflection becomes a solely intellectual
exercise, reduced to a set of techniques, the inner
The legacies of both Dewey and Schön outlined in lives of teachers are overlooked. The main issue here
Chapter 2 are important because they moved the is that the teacher-as-person (the affective, emotive
concept of reflection far beyond everyday simple side) has been separated from the act of teaching
wonderings about a situation (i.e., navel-gazing) to a and the focus is on ‘reflection-as-repair’ (Freeman,
more rigorous form of evidence-based thinking 2016, p. 217) with the sole aim of improving
where teachers systematically investigate a problems in teaching.
perceived ‘problem’ in order to discover a solution.
Engaging in evidence-based reflective practice allows Thus, reflection as it is outlined in this book, suggests
teachers to articulate to themselves (and others) that it embraces not only gaining awareness of
what they do, how they do it, why they do it, and what teaching problems, but also self-awareness of the
the impact of one’s teaching is on student learning. teacher as a person in the act of teaching. Such
Such an evidenced-based approach as Richards and self-aware language teachers are more integrated
Lockhart (1994, p. 1) explain, encourages language teachers because they can understand who they are,
teachers to ‘collect data about their teaching, what they do and how and why they do it. As Akbari
examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and (2007, p. 202) noted, ‘any reflective practice which
teaching practices, and use the information obtained bypasses the self and its implications will not result in
as a basis for critical reflection about teaching’. More any meaningful change in the way teachers view their
recently, Mann and Walsh (2017) have also mission as educators and teachers.’
maintained that evidence-based reflective practice Unfortunately, within the field of teaching English to
can enable them to make more insightful analysis of speakers of other languages (TESOL) we are still
issues and thus gain a fuller sense of their own adopting a ‘fix-it’ approach where reflective practice
teaching. is operationalised as a retrospective exercise
That said, most evidence-based approaches to (reflection-on-action) after a lesson, mainly with the
reflective practice are confined to problem solving use of checklists of pre-determined reflective
within a classroom setting, where teachers are activities, and with the almost total exclusion of
encouraged to only focus their collection of data to considerations of the person who is doing the
‘fix’ teaching problems, but without any consideration reflection and the moral, social, and ethical
10 Reflective practice for language teachers

consequences of what they do. Farrell and Kennedy

(2019, p. 2) recently summarised this problem within
Conclusion
the field of TESOL when they said:
This chapter has pointed out that although I value
The teacher (or person-as-teacher) has been Dewey and Schön’s approaches to reflective practice
separated from the act of teaching, and the act of because both took a pragmatic, evidence-based
reflective practice has become ‘routinised’, as approach to reflection, I believe they are somewhat
teachers are encouraged to only answer limited in focus. Both approaches can be considered
retrospective questions about their practice (such as ends-based models because they are generated
as what happened, why did this happen, what by problems that must be solved regardless of when
comes next) in order to ‘improve’ their teaching. they occur (in-action or on-action). In other words,
In some instances, engaging in reflective practice there is no room for uncertainty. As many people
has become routinised, as teachers are provided know, life is full of uncertainty and sometimes we
with checklists of ritualised questions to answer encounter problems that cannot be easily solved, if
related to practice ‘working’ or ‘not working’. ever, and I believe that is fine as long as we keep
asking questions. In addition, it seems that the
I view the concept of reflective practice more
teacher who is reflecting is not really included in both
holistically in this book because I believe it can build
approaches; as if he or she is detached from the
on what both Dewey and Schön (and others) have
problem. I believe it is impossible to separate the
suggested and outlined in Chapter 2 by defining
teacher from the act of teaching. These constraints
reflection as multi-dimensional and including
prompted me to develop a more holistic approach to
reflection on the moral, ethical, spiritual, and
reflective practice for language teachers that is
aesthetic aspects of our practice. In other words, I do
outlined in Chapter 4.
not discard what both Dewey and Schön have
presented; rather, I add to this by encouraging
teachers to reflect on their philosophy, principles,
theory, practice and critically reflect beyond practice.
I call this approach ‘the framework for reflecting on
practice’ (Farrell, 2015) and I outline this holistic
approach in more detail in Chapter 4.

Reflective break 5
• Have you ever used checklists to reflect
on your practice?
• If yes, did they help you reflect?
• Do you think the teacher can be separated
from the act of reflection?
• What would be some problems of only
focusing on the classroom when
reflecting?
• Going back to the case of Dorothy in
Chapter 2 where she continued to
encounter problems with her students
shouting out and her classroom being very
noisy, do you think Dorothy herself may
have some personal issue with noise, and
thus she could benefit by reflecting on her
philosophy, principles and theory rather
than just on her practices?
• Read Chapter 4 for more details on all
these questions.
 Reflective practice for language teachers 11

Chapter 4

Framework for
reflecting on
practice
how these impact issues inside and beyond practice
This chapter outlines and discusses (Farrell, 2015). This evidence-based framework to
teacher reflection includes five interconnected
a framework for reflecting on
levels: philosophy, principles, theory, practice, and
practice for language teachers. I beyond practice. As I explain each stage, I also
also include an example of an EFL include an example of a real teacher, Francine (a
pseudonym), a female English as a foreign language
teacher reflecting at each stage of
(EFL) teacher, who has been teaching for four years.
the framework. After reading the
example of the teacher’s reflections
at each stage, you will be invited to Philosophy
write your own reflections. The first stage of the framework, philosophy,
examines the teacher-as-person because a teacher’s
basic philosophy has developed since birth. This
stage can be considered a ‘window to the roots of a

Framework teacher’s practice because a philosophy of practice

means each observable behavior has a reason that
guides it even if it is implicit’ (Farrell, 2019b, p. 84).
The holistic framework that I present in this chapter
By talking about past experiences that may have
is different from many other approaches to how
shaped their philosophy, teachers obtain self-
reflective practice has been operationalised both
knowledge by reflecting on their background (i.e.,
within and outside language teaching. This is
heritage, ethnicity, socioeconomic background,
because the framework not only focuses on the
family, and personal values) (Farrell, 2015). Teachers
intellectual, cognitive and meta-cognitive aspects of
can simply write an in-depth autobiography, about
practice that many of the other approaches focus
these early experience as they attempt to answer,
on, but it also explores the spiritual, moral and
‘Who am I?’. Philosophy includes the teacher in a
emotional non-cognitive aspects of reflection that
personal manner because teaching is
acknowledges the inner life of teachers so that
multidimensional and it matters who the teacher is.
language teachers can become more aware of their
philosophy, principles, theories, and practices, and
12 Reflective practice for language teachers

Reflective break 6 true by an individual, can be unconsciously held,

originate from a number of sources, and may or may
• Reflect on Francine’s philosophy: not converge with practice. To articulate beliefs,
Francine describes herself as a leader and teachers can use images, metaphors, or choose
someone who loves working with people. statements that best reflect their beliefs about
Francine said, ‘I don’t see teaching as I teaching and learning. When teachers reflect at this
want you to learn something, but rather I stage of reflective practice, they have an
want to help you learn something.’ opportunity to explore whether their values are
Francine does a lot of volunteer work in the transferable to practice.
community. She said that she is happy to
work with many underprivileged groups
‘even if it means working on a Friday night.’
Reflective break 7
Francine stated that her compassionate • Reflect on Francine’s principles:
nature was inspired by her family who are
Francine described herself metaphorically as a
all educators.
‘doctor’ who must ‘find the medicine to make
• Write your reflections on philosophy. The students proficient in English.’ Francine also
following questions may be of help: added that ‘doctors are not immune’ and require
checkups and medicine through various
• Why did you become a language
training, consulting with other colleagues, and
teacher?
learning from their students. Francine described
• Was teaching your first career choice her students as ‘patients’ who have ‘different
(see Francine above)? backgrounds, stories about learning English,
abilities, conditions, and learning styles’ which
• What is the meaning of teacher for
impact language learning. For learning English,
you?
Francine said that she takes a ‘rule-based’
• Do you think your upbringing (heritage, approach especially towards L2 speaking and
ethnicity, socioeconomic background, pronunciation. When Francine notices that her
family, and personal values) influenced students are struggling with a specific item of
you in any way(s) to become a teacher? pronunciation, she ‘sets aside a specific amount
• What memories do you have about of time and explains it because it’s processed
your school years and your approach completely differently.’ Although Francine
to learning? adapts a rule-based approach for L2 speaking,
she is ‘against the belief that you should talk like
• Do you think that your students are a native-speaker’ and encourages her students
your life, as Francine mentioned ‘not to lose their accent because it’s who they
above? are.’
• What will your legacy be as a teacher • Write your reflections on principles. The
when you retire? following questions may be of help:
• What are your beliefs about teaching

Principles
and learning English as a second or
foreign language?

The second stage, principles, encompasses a • What metaphor or maxim do you use for
teacher’s reflections of assumptions, beliefs, and your role as a teacher?
conceptions about teaching and learning – • Has your use of this metaphor or maxim
reflection-on-practice. According to Farrell (2015), changed over time since you became a
assumptions are ideas that we accept as being true language teacher?
despite a lack of evidence. Although assumptions
are somewhat difficult to articulate, they can be • If yes, what differences have you
described as having intuitions about what makes noticed?
‘good’ or ‘bad’ teaching. To access assumptions, • What experiences have led to the
teachers can reflect on teacher maxims as these change you noticed?
guide instructional decisions (i.e., maxim of
• If no changes have occurred in your
empowerment – give learners the control). In
metaphor usage, what experiences
contrast to assumptions, beliefs are accepted to be
 Reflective practice for language teachers 13

have resulted in this confirmation is required to cover the syllabus, but has the
of your original metaphor usage? freedom to design activities to present the
material.
• What metaphor or maxim do you use
for the role of your students in your • Write your reflection on theory. The
classes? following questions may be of help:

• Has your use of this metaphor or • Do you ever go into a lesson without
maxim changed over time since you planning? If yes, how do you decide
became a language teacher? what to teach that lesson?

• If yes, what differences have you • Do you follow a syllabus set by someone
noticed? else?

• What experiences have led to the • If you plan lessons, how do you plan?
change you noticed? • How do you plan and sequence
• If no changes have occurred in activities?
your metaphor usage, what • How do you plan your method and
experiences have resulted in this approach to teaching a particular
confirmation of your original lesson?
metaphor usage?
• When planning lessons, do you ever
begin by considering the content that
you will be teaching first?

Theory • When planning lessons, do you ever

begin by considering the methods and
The third stage requires teachers to reflect on activities that you will be teaching first?
theories that underlie their practice, whether those • When planning lessons, do you ever
are based on hunches, teacher training, books, begin by deciding on the desired
journals, etc., to see how they translate in the learning outcomes first?
classroom. A theory is ‘something we use to give
understanding and attempts to answer the question

Practice
“why?” in order to increase knowledge of practice
and realign thoughts regarding this’ (Farrell, 2015, p.
67). At this stage, the teacher focuses on how they
plan their lessons, more specifically, their planning The fourth stage, practice, is what constitutes the tip
(i.e., backwards, forwards, or central planning) and of the iceberg and examines observable actions while
choice of activities, techniques, and methods. By teaching. This stage is strongly connected to the first
reflecting on theory, one is able to label what three stages, as development of awareness of the
happens in the classroom and understand how it convergence or divergence between belief and
influences the role of both the teacher and students practice is the start of ‘a process of reducing the
during a lesson. discrepancy between what we do and what we think
we do’ (Knezedivc, 2001, p. 10). The convergence of
beliefs and practice can be impacted by situational
Reflective break 8 constraints, experience, changes in beliefs preceding
• Reflect on Francine’s theory: changes in practice, incompatible propositions,
conflicting beliefs and tensions between core and
Francine said that she does not plan the same peripheral beliefs. Classroom observations can be
way that she did when she began to teach due to used to compare what a teacher says they do and
factors like resources, and colleagues. Francine what they actually do while teaching using category
said that she ‘must make decisions based on instruments, or audio and video recordings (see
what I have available, not precisely according to below). This stage of practice can bring to light the
the beliefs I have adopted from theory’ and that reasons for convergence or divergence by helping
‘many factors affect trying to apply certain teachers draw connections between their philosophy,
practices to class.’ All lessons, topics, vocabulary, principles, theory, and practice to develop the ability
and grammar structures are predetermined on a to reflect during a lesson (reflection- in-action), after a
course syllabus given by the institution. Francine lesson (reflection-on-action) and reflect prior to
teaching (reflection-for-action).
14 Reflective practice for language teachers

Reflective break 9 • Write your reflections on your practice. The

following questions may be of help (you may
• Reflect on Francine’s practice:
also need to record some of your lessons and
For the practice stage of reflection, three
Chapter 3 can give you more ideas about this
lessons (all online with Zoom because of
tool for reflection):
Covid-19), all three hours in length were
observed. Table 1 summarises some of • Do you start your classes the same way
Francine’s observed practices. each day?

• Francine was observed to have diverged • Do you end your classes the same way
from her original lesson plans and activities each day?
(that she shared prior to each of the lessons
• Do you stand/sit in the same place
observed) in each of the three lessons
each class?
observed. However, in all instances, this
divergence was because of some • Do you call on the same students to
unanticipated issues with online lessons answer questions?
that she had not or could not plan for, • Are the students required to raise their
especially when related to providing hands and wait to be nominated before
feedback and correcting errors, which were asking or answering a question, or can
observed in most of the lessons. In addition, they shout out and participate more
it was also observed that in all three spontaneously in your classes?
lessons, Francine did not use any drilling
techniques, although she stated that one of • What level of formality operates within
her principles is that a rule-based approach your class?
is most effective for language learning. • How and when are students expected to
Francine said that she plans for a specific interact with other students?
time for feedback in all her classes,
especially with lower levels. Indeed, • Can students move around the room
Francine said that she does not think that whenever they want?
this online environment provides them with • If a student needs help with something, when
the same interaction as face-to-face classes and how does the student approach you?
and therefore feedback will take more time.
The online environment also takes away her • To what extent are your students free to
ability to do feedback on the whiteboard, so challenge what you say?
she said that she must resort to making
Observed Lesson Lesson Lesson
recasts, such as repeating the question,
Practices 1 2 3
repeating the word, changing intonation
and the like, until her students better Follows lesson N N N
understand any oral mistakes. Additionally, plans
in all three lessons, Francine diverged from
her lesson plan in terms of timing due to Language taught N N N
feedback. As she said, ‘Virtual is so slow.’ through repetitive
Despite Francine’s best efforts, however, drills
some classroom management issues were Gave feedback to O O O
observed and one incident in particular, students
when she encountered a student who was
disruptive and making inappropriate Correct errors O O O
comments. However, she did not take much Clearly states O O O
action at that time because this was a new instructions
platform for her teaching (Zoom) and as
such, she said she was a bit unsure how to Classroom N O O
handle the issue. However, after that management
particular lesson, Francine noted that had problems
this occurred in her regular classroom (i.e., Key: O=Observed; N=Not observed
not online) she would have handled the
Table 1 Summary of Francine’s Observed
situation much differently.
Practices
 Reflective practice for language teachers 15

Beyond practice career comes with ‘great responsibility that

affects the lives of students’.
The final phase, beyond practice or critical reflection,
• Write your reflections beyond practice. The
explores the moral, political, emotional, ethical, and
following questions may be of help:
social issues that impact teachers’ practice both
inside and outside the classroom. These issues are • What are your viewpoints about power
not examined much in TESOL; however, teachers deal relations in your classroom and where do
with them on a daily basis. In fact, ‘TESOL classrooms they originate from?
are embedded in, and reflect important institutional,
• Does your school or office of education
societal, and global discourses in subtle and nuanced
have policies in place to help differently-
ways’ (Rich and Troudi, 2006, p. 616). All teachers
abled students? If so, have you been
hold beliefs about their work, students, subject
informed of these policies and your place
matter, and roles and responsibilities; however, this
within them as an English language
stage of reflection helps teachers understand the
teacher?
deeply rooted power dynamics in education and
question beliefs which may have been externally • Have you ever been concerned about
imposed (Farrell, 2015). With the knowledge gained job security? If so, what prompted this
from this stage, teachers can ‘contribute to social concern? What actions did you take to
change for the betterment of students, colleagues, try to protect your job, or not?
community, and society at large’ (Farrell, 2015, p. 86),
• Do you have any conflicts between your
as well as reflect well beyond classroom teaching
personal morals and anything in your
practice (i.e., on textbook, syllabus, curriculum,
work context: students, colleagues,
working conditions). This type of reflection helps
materials, administrators?
transform teachers’ practices in a way that responds
to the needs of students and society.

Reflective break 10
• Reflect on Francine’s beyond practice:
Reflecting on reflections
Francine explored how she perceives power Francine explored what has shaped her
dynamics of society related to her life as a professionally, including her socioeconomic
language teacher. She stated that ‘societal background, ethnicity, family and personal values,
pressure is one of the most important aspects and how all of these have influenced and impacted on
when considering a career as a teacher.’ how she got to where she is now. In other words,
Francine noted that a unique challenge of being reflecting with the framework allowed Francine to
an English teacher is where the perception of become more aware of her philosophy and what has
identify is at stake and that speaking English shaped her as a person. As Palmer (1998, p. 3) asks,
means ‘leaving behind your roots’. She also ‘Who is the self that teaches?’ Parker continues,
mentioned that some people in her home ‘Good teaching requires self-knowledge.’
country ‘reject English at all costs’ and even Francine then moved on to explore her principles,
recalled a moment at a local café where she was which are closely linked to her philosophy, as
treated differently for speaking English. Although teaching and learning beliefs are also shaped by an
Francine said that she recognises that ‘we are individual’s background. Indeed, the divergence
becoming a globalised society that requires its between Francine’s stated principles of the
citizens to be bilingual,’ she always tells her effectiveness of rule-based approaches and her
students that learning English is not synonymous actual classroom practices that were observed can
with loss of identity. By looking at power be traced back to her own second language
dynamics at a sociocultural level, Francine education experiences where she was taught
realised that ‘teachers are never the product of a prescriptive English grammar mainly through drilling
single idea, institution, or experience, we are and a rule-based approach, and as a result, she may
moulded by our social background’ and that this have believed that it is important to do the same in
16 Reflective practice for language teachers

her own English language teaching. However, during

and after the practice stage, Francine began to
Conclusion
recognise that these methods and approaches
This chapter outlined and discussed a five-stage
related to prescriptive grammar teaching were not
framework for language teachers to reflect on their
conducive to a positive language learning
work. The stages covered were philosophy,
environment for her and her learners.
principles, theory, practice and beyond practice
For Francine, for the most part, her lesson plans and critical reflection. In addition, the chapter detailed the
delivery strategies are dependent on a reflections of one EFL teacher, Francine, as she
predetermined course syllabus created by the journeyed through each stage of the framework and
institution where she works, and she has no real then how I interpreted these reflections. Of course,
influence on how these are determined. This may these reflections can be articulated orally to oneself
account for her divergence from each of the lesson or others, and/or in writing (such as in a teaching
plans she presented before the observed lessons as journal), and/or online. Chapter 5 provides more
she reflected on her students’ struggles to achieve details about how language teachers can reflect
academic outcomes based on materials and lesson using the framework.
plans that were developed by others who do not
know her students.
During the final stage, Francine reflected on the
socio-political aspects of teaching English as a
foreign language and said that she recognises that
teachers are influenced day to day by society and so
in order to create a safe environment, she said that
she does not discuss sensitive topics.

Reflective break 11
• The purpose of encouraging teachers to
reflect on their practice is not to look for
best practice; rather it is to get a holistic
view of oneself as a TESOL professional.
From the above analysis of Francine’s
reflections, read through your own
reflections on your philosophy, principles,
theory, practice and beyond practice
critical reflection and if you can see
patterns emerge, try to interpret your
reflections.
 Reflective practice for language teachers 17

Chapter 5

Tools for reflective

practice
teaching situation with a peer, and/or with a peer
This chapter outlines and discusses coach. The idea of collaborating in all three of these
various tools that language arrangements is (among other benefits), to not only
reflect on current teaching practices, but also to
teachers can use to engage in expand, refine, and possibly build new teaching skills,
reflective practice. The chapter first as peers help each other develop. For example, when
discusses how teachers can reflect teachers reflect with a critical friend, they collaborate
to encourage each other to reflect through
and then outlines various tools to discussions, questioning, and even challenging, while
aid their reflections. at the same time, providing support for each other.
Team teaching is also a type of critical friendship
arrangement whereby two or more teachers
How to reflect cooperate as equals as they take responsibility for
planning, teaching, and evaluating a series of classes
Language teachers can engage in self-reflection, or even a whole course. Team teaching arrangements
peer reflection, and group reflection, as well as in can promote recognition and appreciation of
online communities of reflective practice. alternative methods and techniques of teaching and
evaluating lessons.
Although similar in many ways to both critical
Self-reflection friendship and team teaching, the aim of peer
coaching is for one teacher to help another improve
Language teachers can engage in self-reflection to some aspect of practice that the coach may be an
become more aware of who they are as teachers: expert in. In a peer coaching arrangement, there is
their philosophy, principles, theory, practice and no evaluation, no supervising, just a professional
critically reflect beyond the classroom (see the collaboration in which one teacher wants another
framework presented in Chapter 4). When self- peer to observe his/her class in order to obtain
reflecting, teachers may want to consider their feedback on one specific aspect of teaching or
personal biases in what they ‘see’ and what they ‘want learning. As such, the ‘coach’ provides feedback on
to see’. Language teachers can engage in more an area of his or her expertise, and then gives
objective self-reflection if they document their specific suggestions that the teacher may or may not
reflection in all of these stages. This will provide them follow.
with the data that will give them more insight into
making informed decisions about their teaching.
Group-reflection
Peer-reflection Language teachers can also reflect with a group of
three or more teachers. Teachers from a school (or
Another way to get more of an outside perspective is teachers from different schools) can come together
to reflect with the help of a peer. Reflecting with a in such groups to improve their teaching and their
peer can be done with a critical friend, in a team- students’ learning. This means that the group is seen
18 Reflective practice for language teachers

as a place where all participants can openly discuss • When arranging a team-teaching situation,
and experiment as they discover who they are both teachers of the team take equal
personally and professionally. When language responsibility for every stage of the teaching
teachers come together in a group, they can foster process and trust each other throughout.
more of a sharing attitude with each other and can Then, as equal partners, find a teacher that
help each other to articulate their thoughts about you can create materials with, teach
their work so that they can all grow professionally simultaneously in the classroom, and later
together. A teacher group provides an opportunity evaluate as you reflect together.
for language teachers to help each other face and
overcome dilemmas related to practice in a • A peer-coaching arrangement takes place so
supportive environment. Once a group of teachers that the observed teacher can develop new
decide that they want to form a teacher development knowledge and skills that the coach
group they must then figure out how they want to possesses. Try to find a teacher at your
operate in terms of members, roles, topic setting and school that has expertise in a particular area
general rules of the group (see Farrell, 2014b). of teaching or curriculum and request to
enter a peer-coaching relationship with this
person in order to reflect on your practice.

Online reflection • Form a teacher group and after deciding the

roles of each member (e.g., leader/facilitator,
Language teachers can also engage in discussion in minutes scribe, monitor to keep the group on
online reflective communities. Such online track), decide on a topic to focus on. All
communities are said to provide teachers with participants can brainstorm a topic together
supportive and collaborative reflective discussions in and then identify specific questions to
which they can share teaching techniques and explore at the first meeting. Assign a task
explore new ways of teaching, as well as pursue their each week to every member in order to focus
individual interests related to their own professional the discussion of each meeting (e.g., bring in
development through communication modes such as a reading text of interest on theory or
blogs, chats, forums, and online discussions. Blogs, practice of a specific aspect of language
chats, forums, and online discussions are easy to set teaching to share with the group).
up by language teachers with little expertise in
• Have you ever used blogs, chats, forums,
technology and are a way for teachers to express
and/or online discussions to aid your
and share their thoughts, emotions, opinions, and
reflective practice?
reflections online with other professionals. Language
teachers can also use podcasts as a means to • Do you think teachers can create a sense of
engage in personal reflections and/or they can community when reading one another’s
collaboratively share (with or without co- podcasters) online reflections?
these reflections with a worldwide audience.
• Have you ever recorded a podcast and
shared it with colleagues? If not, what kind of
Reflective break 12 podcast would you want to record and share?

• What are the advantages and disadvantages

of engaging in self-reflection?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages
of reflecting with a peer? What to reflect with
• What are the advantages and disadvantages
of reflecting with a group of teachers? When language teachers have decided how they
want to reflect on each of the five stages of the
• Have you ever reflected with a critical friend framework outlined in Chapter 4, they can then
where you have complementary skills and consider what reflective tools would be useful for
collaborated to reflect on each other’s them. Some of these tools include teaching journals,
practice? Try to find such a critical friend classroom observations, critical incident analysis,
that you trust to help you reflect on your and/or teaching portfolios to mention but a few.
practice. Perhaps this friend can take you
through the framework outlined in
Chapter 4.
 Reflective practice for language teachers 19

Teaching journals teacher himself/herself. Teachers can also place

several recorders around the room. Video recordings
can later be viewed alone or with other teachers.
Writing a teaching journal provides teachers with a
Using available technology, teachers can then
record of various aspects of their practice. This
transcribe the parts of the lesson they are interested
writing allows teachers to comment on various
in reflecting on in more detail such as the impact of
classroom events because they can step back for a
their verbal instructions in their classes, the type and
moment and this helps them further reflect on their
frequency of teacher questions, and/or how tasks are
work. Writing has a built-in reflective mechanism:
set up in their classes and so on.
teachers must stop to think about what to write, then
write while at the same time viewing their thoughts as In order to carry out peer observations, Richards and
they appear in front of them. In other words, teachers Lockhart (1994) maintain that when peers get
can ‘freeze’ their reflections so that they can reflect together to take turns at teaching and observing,
deliberately on them later. By writing regularly about they should incorporate pre-, during- and post-
their work, teachers can systematically accumulate observation discussions. Before each observation,
lots of different information about their beliefs, the teachers meet to discuss the aim of the
assumptions, values and classroom practices that on observation and to assign the observer a goal for the
later review, interpretation, and reflection can assist observation and a task to accomplish.
them in gaining a deeper understanding of their work.
The teachers also agree on observation procedures
This deeper understanding can lead to a clarification
or instruments (quantitative, qualitative, or both) to
of thoughts related to beliefs and practices,
be used during this session and arrange a schedule
awareness of teaching style, and is a way of
for the observations. During the observation, the
triggering insights about oneself as a teacher.
observer then visits the teacher’s class and
Of course, teachers can also vent their frustrations completes the observation using the procedures that
and problems in their journals and set goals both partners had agreed on and in the post-
attempting to solve the problems by asking observation discussion, the observer reports on the
themselves questions about their practices information that he or she collected.
(Farrell, 2013).
Teachers can write alone or can collaborate with
others while writing their journals. When collaborating Critical incident analysis
with others, the journal can be a record of a teacher’s
teaching experiences for others to read. In addition, While classroom observations give teachers a wide
the internet offers more scope for teachers to share lens through which to reflect on their practices,
their teaching journals on a wider scale with chats, critical incident analysis can help teachers focus in on
forums and blogs (see above). specific and important events that happen while we
are teaching. These events are called critical
incidents because they were not planned or even

Classroom observations anticipated by the teacher, but they are clearly

remembered after class. For example, a teacher can
make a sudden change in the lesson plan during a
Classrooms are such busy places that teachers
class because they perceive that the lesson may be
cannot hope to know what is going on all the time.
going better than anticipated, so the teacher decides
However, by engaging in classroom observation,
to continue with an activity until the end of the lesson
language teachers can develop more of an
because of the overall positive effect of the increased
awareness of the principles and decision making that
student response to the activity.
inspires their teaching. A teacher can carry out
classroom observation alone, with a peer, and/or with Conversely, something may happen in a lesson that
a group of teachers (see above for more on these). can be problematic or puzzles the teacher into doing
something he or she would not normally do, such as
When teachers ‘observe’ their own teaching, they
abandoning a particular activity or disciplining a
need to use equipment such as an audio recorder
student (e.g., see the critical incident Dorothy
and/or a video recorder. A recorder (video and
reported on in Chapter 2). By recalling, describing,
audio) can be placed in a strategic place in the
and analysing such incidents, teachers can begin to
classroom in order to capture as much as possible of
explore their deeper held assumptions about
what is occurring during the class. A microphone can
effective teaching practices.
be placed on the teacher’s desk, and/or on the
20 Reflective practice for language teachers

Teaching portfolios own voice strange? What other things did you
notice?
A teaching portfolio is an album (much like a photo
• Record (audio and/or video) your classroom
album) of many different aspects of a teacher’s work.
lesson(s). Listen to, and/or watch the
It tells the story of the teacher’s efforts, skills, abilities,
recording. Transcribe the recording or parts
achievements, and contributions to students,
of the recording depending on the part of the
colleagues, institutions, academic disciplines, and/or
class you are interested in reflecting on.
community. Teaching portfolios can provide teachers
Analyse and interpret these.
with opportunities to plan their own professional
development journey. The analogy of a traveler on a • Ask your critical friend to observe you teach
journey is applicable to preparing teaching portfolios. (you can also observe your friend teaching).
Just as travellers must decide their point of Make a new list of what you or your critical
departure, the course they will take, and their friend noticed during the classroom
destination, a professional teaching portfolio observations.
encourages teachers to think about their starting
• Identify a significant event that has occurred
point, direction, and goals for the coming year(s).
recently when you were teaching in your
A teaching portfolio might include lesson plans, classroom. Why was this incident significant
anecdotal records, student projects, class for you? Write a detailed description of what
newsletters, videos, annual evaluations, and letters of happened. Analyse why the incident
recommendation. A teaching portfolio is not a happened – what is your interpretation of this
onetime snapshot of where the teacher is at present; incident?
rather, it is an evolving collection of carefully selected
• Compile your teaching portfolio by including
professional experiences, thoughts, and goals. Any
examples from the three main areas/sections
teaching portfolio, regardless of the specific purpose
of a teaching portfolio outlined above
for creating it, should always include items that
(knowledge of subject matter; how you plan,
document a teacher’s knowledge of the subject
deliver, and assess instruction; and your
matter (as seen in units of instruction and
sense of professionalism).
descriptions of courses), methods of instruction
(lesson plans, samples of students’ work and
evaluations, classroom observation reports), and
professionalism (current resume, copies of degrees,
certificates, awards). Conclusion
Teaching portfolios can provide teachers with
opportunities for self-reflection and collaboration with This chapter outlined how language teachers can
colleagues. engage in self-reflection, peer reflection, group
reflections, as well as in online reflections that can
combine many of these as well. In addition, the
Reflective break 13 chapter discussed how language teachers can use
• What is your understanding of teacher reflective tools to aid them in their reflections such as
writing as reflective practice? teaching journals, classroom observations, critical
incident analysis, and/or teaching portfolios. Again,
• Do you like to write about your teaching? If any of these tools can be used by itself or in
yes, why? If no, why not? combination with other tools such as when teachers
• Have you ever recorded (audio or video) may want to write about their classroom observation
your classroom teaching? If yes, what was experiences in online platforms such as blogs, chats
your feeling? Did you find listening to your or forums to share them with peers and or groups of
other language teachers.
Chapter 6 next discusses various characteristics of
reflective language teachers.
 Reflective practice for language teachers 21

Chapter 6

Characteristics of
reflective teachers
being right all the time and that we should question
This chapter outlines and discusses our thinking and doubts in a kind of self-observation
in order to gain more insight into our actions,
various characteristics of reflective thoughts and learning, or as Dewey (ibid, p. 136)
teachers, such as necessary suggested, to ‘admit that a belief to which we have
reflective dispositions, the different once committed ourselves is wrong.’ To be
responsible is to carefully consider an action’s
levels of reflection that teachers consequences, especially as it impacts our students
can engage in, as well as their personally, intellectually, and socially. Reflective
purposes for engaging in reflective language teachers consider the consequences of
whatever actions they adopt in their classrooms as a
practice. result of reflecting on and changing their beliefs,
which can be very difficult for many teachers. To be
wholehearted is to be able to overcome fears and
uncertainties to critically evaluate themselves so they
Reflective dispositions may make meaningful change. Reflective language
teachers will maintain a wholehearted attitude as they
reflect throughout their careers.
In order for any deep and meaningful reflection to
take place, Dewey (1933) maintained that teachers
would need to possess a particular disposition when
Reflective break 14
they engage in reflective practice. For example,
Dewey suggested that teachers who want to be • Examine Dewey’s three characteristics and
considered as reflective practitioners must possess see what degree of each you possess.
three characteristics (or attitudes). As Dewey noted, • Open-minded (a desire to listen to more
knowledge of the approaches, methods, means and sides than one)
tools of reflective practice are not enough by
themselves because as he said, ‘there must be the • Responsible (careful consideration of the
desire, the will, to employ them. This is an affair of consequences of actions)
personal disposition’ (ibid, p. 30). Thus, reflective • Wholehearted (seek every opportunity to
teachers must be open-minded, responsible and learn)
wholehearted in their everyday reflections.
• What levels of these characteristics do you
To be open-minded is to have the desire to listen to possess as a teacher now?
more than one side of an issue and to give attention
to alternative views. For example, how we interpret • Which of these characteristics do you need
our findings from reflecting on the framework to develop as you continue as a teacher?
presented in Chapter 4 will be important, as our • Can you think of other desirable
underlying principles may challenge our practice, or characteristics a reflective practitioner
our practice may challenge our underlying principles. should possess?
Open-mindedness suggests that we need to ‘let go’ of
22 Reflective practice for language teachers

Reflection levels (see above, Dewey 1933). An example of such

reflection is as follows:

Once you have gone through the framework for I am trying to improve the way I evaluate my own
reflecting on practice and decided on the reflective teaching and whether my approach to teaching
tools (see above) that suit you best, you now must grammar provides opportunities for students to
consider the level or dimension of reflection you want really learn what I am teaching or am I blocking
to engage in. Teachers can reflect at three different their learning. What are they really learning in my
and hierarchical levels: descriptive, conceptual, and classes anyway? Is this useful for their future lives
critical (Hatton and Smith, 1995). using English? I am planning to get a critical friend
to work with me in the next grammar lesson and
Descriptive reflection is considered the basic level or
observe and challenge me about my practice and
state of reflection in the classroom. When teachers
its impact on my students’ learning and overall
reflect at this level, they focus their reflections on
development. After all, I am here for them.
their observable teaching behaviours and practices
within the classroom and describe these procedures When examining each of the above examples of the
without any analysis (i.e., what I do). An example of levels of reflection, we can see that the teacher
such reflection is as follows: begins with descriptive reflection by giving an
account of the procedures of the lesson with no
Today I started class by telling the students that
justifications for using these procedures. Then the
we would be continuing from the previous lesson
teacher begins to ask why she is teaching in the way
about verb tenses. I then told them to open their
she is from her perspective at first, and then makes
books on page 23 and we proceeded to complete
an attempt to seek justifications for her actions in
all the exercises during the lesson.
relation to her students’ learning of grammar. The
Conceptual reflection occurs when teachers focus teacher then begins to critically reflect on the whole
their reflections on the theory behind their classroom process of teaching grammar and its impact on her
practices (i.e., why I do what I do). They not only students’ lives. Although she is now more aware of
describe their beliefs and practices, but they begin to what she is trying to do, she is still not sure so she will
question these, as well as seek to justify their get help from a critical friend, and they will work
teaching practices. At this level of reflection, teachers together to critically reflect on practice.
can also look into alternative practices (depending on
Thus, it may be possible for teachers to reflect on
their students’ needs) they might prefer to use based
different levels simultaneously, depending on the
on their descriptions and analysis of their reasons for
topic of reflection. New teachers (and teachers new
doing what they are doing. The teacher’s attitude is
to the reflective process) may find themselves
mindful and responsible (see above, Dewey 1933). An
reflecting at the descriptive level a lot because they
example of such reflection is as follows:
may not have enough time or space to reflect at the
When I was teaching verb tenses, I had a feeling other levels, and because they are just developing
that some students may not have been sure about their schemata of teaching from experiencing
exactly what we were doing. I am not sure if it was classrooms for the first time.
because I was leading the class and writing on the
whiteboard, and I did not give them a chance to
practise these tenses with me. I also wonder if I
explained the rules correctly and the function of
Reflective purpose
verb tenses. Now I wonder if I really understand Another characteristic of reflective language
these myself, so I think I must look up some of teachers is that they have a sense of purpose for
these verb tenses and why we use them. engaging in reflective practice. I outline some main
The third level of reflection, called critical reflection, purposes for language teachers to engage in
encourages teachers to justify the work they do and reflective purpose (adapted from Farrell, 2015). That
reflect within the broader context of society and as is to help language teachers to develop their
such, they focus on the moral, ethical, and socio- individual theories of teaching so that they can
political issues associated with their practices. become generators of their own knowledge rather
Critically reflecting beyond practice enables the than consumers of others’ (experts’) knowledge. For
teacher to be even more open-minded that too many decades, language teachers have been told
they may be wrong in their approaches and methods what to do by others outside the profession of
 Reflective practice for language teachers 23

teaching English to speakers of other teachers

(TESOL). Engaging in evidence-based reflective Reflective break 15
practice as presented in this book will generate local
• What is your purpose for engaging in
knowledge of teaching based on the teacher’s own
reflective practice?
experiences. The information generated from this will
help the teacher provide more opportunities for his
or her students to learn more effectively than if an
outside expert were to advise. At a basic level,
engaging in reflective practice allows teachers to
Conclusion
reflect at the descriptive and conceptual levels (see This chapter outlines some characteristics of
above) which can result in allowing for any correction reflective teachers that include discussion of three
of distortions and errors in philosophy, principles different levels of reflection that teachers can engage
and/or theory related to actual classroom practices. in, as well as three different reflective dispositions of
In this manner, language teachers will be able to reflective teachers, and some purposes associated
better recognise and discontinue practices not in with engaging in reflective practice. After one
best interests of their students’ learning. In addition, conference many years ago, a participant asked me
when language teachers generate their own how you would recognise a reflective practitioner if
descriptive and conceptual theories and knowledge you saw one. What a wonderful question, I thought,
of their practice, they can then advance theories of and I am still wondering how to answer this. That said,
TESOL at a more critical level of reflection that can I would suggest that a reflective practitioner has a
impact the professional, social, and political levels of particular disposition that has all three attitudes
our practice. When language teachers engage in outlined above, reflects at all three levels and has a
such reflections, they can thus enhance their self- real sense of purpose while reflecting.
esteem and self-confidence through reflective
practice and develop the resourcefulness and
resilience required to face future challenges in their
careers.
24 Reflective practice for language teachers

Chapter 7

Final reflections

Final reflections Reflective break 16

The goal of reflective practice is to create awareness
• After reading this book, do you think you are
by observing and refining practice on an ongoing
a reflective practitioner? If yes, how do you
basis rather than to address specific problems (this is
know? If no, why not?
an aspect of action research which is subsumed
under reflective practice). However, most language • Do you think it is worthwhile to reflect on your
teachers are already very busy teaching day to day, practice even if you do not discover new
and may conclude that they do not have time for this. teaching or assessment methods and just
Indeed, time is often considered one of the main gain a better understanding of what you are
impediments to engaging in reflective teaching. doing now?

As such, teachers should be aware of and control • Do you think it is reasonable to expect
aspects of time as they reflect. Practising teachers language teachers consistently to engage in
are very busy in their daily teaching and other related reflection?
duties, and the amount of time any one teacher is • If yes, how often should teachers engage in
willing to invest in his or her professional self- reflection? If no, why not?
development will naturally vary. Therefore, each
teacher (and, hopefully, the administration) will need • What benefits would you expect from
to commit to whatever reflective project they engaging in reflective practice?
become involved with in terms of time availability and • How can teachers overcome challenges
make this explicit at the start of the reflective related to time pressures when engaging in
process. Teachers (individually, pairs, groups) should reflective practice?
consider how long they want to reflect. It is important
to consider this for two reasons. When considering • Abdal-Haqq (1996) outlines five essential
this aspect of time, teachers should remember that types of time that institutions can generate
critical reflection on one’s teaching takes time, so the for language teachers for their reflections.
reflective period should be correspondingly long How can you negotiate any of these with your
rather than short; however, it is really up to each institution to support your reflections?
teacher to decide how much time they want to • Freed up time: using teaching assistants,
devote to their overall professional development. college interns, parents, and
Reflective practice offers teachers a way to articulate administrators to cover classes; regularly
those aspects of practice that make up part of that scheduled early release days.
knowledge base in teaching, by helping them better • Restructured or rescheduled time:
understand what they know, and do. As Zwozdiak- lengthening school day on four days, with
Myers (2012, p. 3) has pointed out, reflective practice early release on day five.
is central to a teacher’s development because it
helps teachers ‘to analyse and evaluate what is • Better-used time: using regular staff or
happening’ in their classes so that they can not only district meetings for planning and
improve the quality of their teaching, but also provide professional growth rather than for
better opportunities for their students to learn. informational or administrative purposes.
 Reflective practice for language teachers 25

• Common time: scheduling or common Reflective break 17

planning periods for colleagues having
similar assignments. • Here is my final reflection for you:

• Purchased time: establishing a • One day a young girl was watching her
substitute bank of 30–40 days per year, mother cooking a roast of beef. Just
which teachers can tap when they before the mother put the roast in the
participate in committee work or pot, she cut a slice off the end. The
professional development activities. ever-observant daughter asked her
mother why she had done that, and the
• What other challenges do teachers face mother responded that her
when engaging in reflective practice as it is grandmother had always done it. Later
outlined in this book? that same afternoon, the mother was
curious, so she called her mother and
asked her the same question. Her
Reflective practice as it is presented in this book is mother, the child’s grandmother, said
more than a method for teachers to explore their that in her day she had to trim the roasts
teaching; in fact, it becomes a way of life for teachers because they were usually too big for a
throughout their teaching careers as they regular pot.
continuously strive to become the best teacher they
can be for their students. As Oberg and Blades (1990, • I have told the above story many times, at
p. 179) have maintained, the potential of being many different conferences, in many
reflective ‘lies not in the theory it allows us to develop different countries, and each time I ask the
(about practice or reflection) but the evolution of audience the same question: ‘Are we cutting
ourselves as a teacher. Its focus is life; we continually the slice off in our classrooms without
return to our place of origin, but it is not the place we knowing it? In other words, are we following
left.’ routine in the way we teach our classes
without really knowing this?’

Happy reflecting!
26 Reflective practice for language teachers

References
Abdal-Haqq, I. (1996). Making time for teacher Farrell, T. S. C. and Kennedy, B. (2019). A Reflective
professional development. ERIC Digest. Washington, Practice Framework for TESOL Teachers: One
DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Teacher’s Reflective Journey. Reflective Practice, 20,
Education. 1, 1–12.
Akbari, R. (2007). Reflections on reflection: A critical Freeman, D. (2016). Educating Second Language
appraisal of reflective practices in L2 teacher Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
education. System, 35, 2, 192–207.
Hatton, N. and Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher
Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a Critically education: Towards definition and implementation.
Reflective Teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11, 1, 33–49.
Clarke, A. (1995). Professional development in Knezedivc, B. (2001). Action research. IATEFL Teacher
practicum settings: reflective practice under scrutiny. Development SIG Newsletter, 1, 10–12.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 11, 243–261.
Mann, S. and Walsh, S. (2017). Reflective Practice in
Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think. Madison, WI: English Language Teaching: Research-Based
University of Wisconsin Press. Principles and Practices. New York: Routledge.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2012). Reflecting on reflective Oberg, A. and Blades, C. (1990). The spoken and the
practice: (re)visiting Dewey and Schon. TESOL unspoken: the story of an educator.
Journal, 3, 7–16. Phenomonology+Pedagogy, 8, 161–180.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2013). Reflective Writing for Language Palmer, P. J. (1998). The Courage to Teach. San
Teachers. London, UK: Equinox. Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2014a). ‘I feel like I’ve plateaued … Rich, S. and Troudi, S. (2006). Hard Times: Arab TESOL
gone a little stale.’ Mid-career reflections in a teacher Students’ Experiences of Racialization and Othering in
reflection group. Reflective Practice, 15, 4, 504–517 the United Kingdom. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 3, 615–627.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2014b). Reflective Practice in ESL Richards, J. C. and Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective
Teacher Development Groups: From Practices to Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. New York:
Principles. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Cambridge University Press.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2015). Promoting Teacher Reflection Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How
in Second Language Education: A Framework for Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books.
TESOL Professionals. New York: Routledge.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective
Farrell, T. S. C. (2019a). Standing on the Shoulders of Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Giants: Interpreting Reflective Practice in TESOL.
Zwozdiak-Myers, P. (2012). The Teacher’s Reflective
IJLTR, 7, 3, 1–14.
Practice Handbook. Becoming an Extended
Farrell, T. S. C. (2019b). Reflective Practice in ELT. Professional through Capturing Evidence-Informed
London, UK: Equinox Practice. London and New York: Routledge.
About the British Council
We support peace and prosperity by building connections,
understanding and trust between people in the UK and countries
worldwide. We work directly with individuals to help them gain the
skills, confidence and connections to transform their lives and shape
a better world in partnership with the UK. We support them to build
networks and explore creative ideas, to learn English, to get a
high-quality education and to gain internationally recognised
qualifications. We work with governments and our partners in the
education, English language and cultural sectors, in the UK and
globally. Working together, we make a bigger difference, creating
benefit for millions of people all over the world. We work with people
in over 200 countries and territories and are on the ground in more
than 100 countries. Founded in 1934, we are a UK charity governed
by Royal Charter and a UK public body.

www.britishcouncil.org

ISBN 978-1-915280-42-8

© text: Thomas S. C. Farrell, 2024, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International
Licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

© photographs: Mat Wright

The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international organisation for cultural relations and educational opportunities.