Monday September 13 − Lecture 1 : Review : Vectors in R2 and R3 .

(Refers to
section 4.1 and parts of 4.2 in your text)

Objectives:

1. Define vectors in Rn and in particular in R 2 and R3 .

2. Define scalars, coordinates, components.
3. Represent vectors in R 2 and R 3 as directed line segments.
4. Add, subtract, scalar multiply, dot product Rn .
5. Add, subtract, scalar multiply vectors when represented by directed line segments.
6. Recognize collinear, parallel vectors.
7. Define a linear combination of vectors, norm of a vector, midpoint of two points
or vectors in R2 and R3.
8. Give the standard basis of vectors for R3 .
9. Define and recognize orthogonal vectors in Rn.
10. Apply the four dot-product properties.
11. Given a vector a in Rn, find its unit vector in the direction of a
12. Find the angle between two vectors in R n.

1.1 Vectors − The elements, x = (x1, x2), of the Cartesian plane R2 are familiar and
usually referred to as ordered pairs, or coordinates of the plane.

• In this course we will begin referring to these as members of a larger family of

mathematical objects called vectors.
• Observe how we represent vectors by a letter in boldface, while scalars are
simply expressed in italics.

1.1.1 Definition − Let Rn = {(x1, x2 , ..., xn) : x1, x2, ..., xn ∈ R}. We say that x is an
n-tuple of real numbers and we call x a vector. The xi's are called the entries,
coordinates or components of the vector. To distinguish vectors from scalars, we
represent vectors in boldface.

• If we write x is a vector in R5 , we mean x = (x1, x2 , x3, x4, x5) where x1, x2, x3 , x4
and x5 are real numbers.

• It is also common practice, whenever it useful to do so, to refer to a vector in R2

and R3 as a point. Hence to say, "let (−1, 2, 0) be a point in R3" means the same
thing as saying "let (−1, 2, 0) be a vector in R3".
 • Occasionally we may refer to R2 as the xy-plane and denote an arbitrary vector in
R2 by (x, y). Whenever we find it useful we might refer to R3 as “3-space” or the
xyz-space and denote an arbitrary vector in R 3 by (x, y, z) instead of (x1, x2 , x 3).

1.1.2 Remark − We usually write vectors in the form x = (x1, x2, ..., xn) as above. But
we could also write x as a column,

or as a diagonal if we wanted to.

• The important thing is that the order of the components is respected.

• If a vector is written vertically, we will specify that it is a "column vector"
• If the vector is written horizontally we often specify this by saying it is a "row
vector".
• The author of your text uses the notation [x1, x2 , x3, …, xn]T to represent vectors.
We will not be using this notation on the course.

1.2 Operations with vectors in R n.

Operation What we start with : What we get :

2 vectors x and y in Rn : 1 vector x + y in Rn :

Addition x = (x1, x2, ..., xn) x+y
and y = ( y1, y2, ..., yn). = (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, ..., xn + yn)

1 vector x in Rn:
Scalar x = (x1, x2, ..., xn) and 1 vector cx in Rn :
multiplication one number c in R cx = (cx1, cx2 , ..., cxn).
(called a scalar)

1 number <x, y> in R :

2 vectors x and y in Rn : < x, y >
x = (x1, x2, ..., xn) = x1y1 + x2 y2 + ,...,+ xn yn.
Dot product
and Other notation for dot-product:
y = ( y1, y2, ...,yn). x ⋅ y = < x, y >
 1.2.1 Examples − If x = (2, 1, 7) and y = (3, − 9, 0)

1. verify that < x , y> = x ⋅ y = −3.

2. verify that 3 x + 2y = (12, −15, 21).
3. verify that 3 x − y = (3, −12, 21).

1.2.2 Equality of vectors: Two vectors a = (a1 , a2, a3) and b = (b1, b2, b3) are said to
be equal vectors if and only if their corresponding entries are equal, that is, a1 = b1,
a2 = b2 and a3 = b3.

1.2.3 Definition − Two vectors a and b are said to be collinear if one vector is a
scalar multiple of the other. Essentially this means that their directed line segments
both lie on the same line and going through the origin.

1.2.4 Definition − Linear combinations of vectors are sums of scalar multiples of

vectors.

Example − Witness (2, 3) = 2(1, 0) + 3(0, 1).. So is a linear combination of the two
vectors (1, 0) and (0, 1). More generally for any vector (a, b),

(a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1)..

So every vector in R2 is a linear combination of ((1, 0) and (0, 1).

1.3 Vectors in R2 and R3 as directed line segments.

1.3.1 Definition − We often represent a vector x = (x1, x2) by a directed line segment
starting at (0, 0) ending at (x1, x2) with an arrow at (x1, x2). Similarly, vectors in R3
can also be represented by a directed line segment. (This is of course impossible for
vectors in R4, R5 and so on.)

Graphic representation of vector addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication for

vectors in R2 and R3 − We illustrate in class useful graphic representations of

• vector addition,
• vector subtraction
• scalar multiplication.

These representations are very useful and quite important when trying to visualize
operations of vectors in 2-space and 3-space.

1.3.2 Important comments on notation − Let x = (2, 1, 7) and y = (3, − 9, 0) be

two vectors in R3 . Some authors use a slightly different notation for such vectors.
 • Some may say, let A(2, 1, 7) and B(3, − 9, 0) be two points in R 3 so that they
can later speak of the “points” A and B.

• They will express the vector (2, 1, 7) as OA “with a bar on top” (where the O
denotes the origin).

• They will express the directed line segment going from A to B as AB “with a
bar on top” . So the vector AB (with overbar) is the vector

• The vector x – y = (−1, 9, 7) is the directed line segment going from y to x, or

equivalently from B to A, and so is represented by

1.4 Norm or length of a vector

1.4.1 Definition − For a vector x in R3, the length of x, denoted by || x || (or norm of
x) is the number

In R2 the norm is the familiar distance formula between two points.

1.4.2 Properties of the norm in R3.

It can be shown that the norm on R3 satisfies 3 conditions:

1. For every vector x, || x || ≥ 0. Furthermore || x || = 0 iff x = 0. (Positive definite

property)

2. || αx || = |α| || x || for all scalars α, and x in V. (Homogeneous property)

3. || x + y || ≤ || x || + || y || for all x, y in V. (Triangle inequality property)

 1.4.3 Definition − If a is any non-zero vector in R3, then the vector

has norm equal to 1 and is in the direction of a. Why? The vector

a / || a || is called the unit vector in the direction of a.

• Note that if b is a vector which points in the same direction as a then

This is true since if b and a point in the same direction then they both have the
same unit vector, i.e., a / || a || = b / || b || .

1.4.4 Definition − The distance between two points a and b in R3 (i.e., the length of
the line segment joining a to b) is defined as the length of the vector b − a, i.e., the
norm || b − a ||.

1.5 Angles between vectors

1.5.1 Definition − Given any two vectors a and b in Rn, we define the angle θ
between a and b as being the number θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, we obtain by solving for

1.5.2 Example − Find the angle between the vectors (3, −1, 2) and (4, 3, −1).

cos θ = < (3, −1, 2), (4, 3, −1) > / [|| (3, −1, 2) || || 4, 3, −1) || ]

= 7/ (√14 √26)

≈ 0.3669

From cos θ = 0.3669 we get θ = 68.5 degrees or 1.2 radians.

1.6 Examples of problems where these concepts are applied.

1.6.1 Definition − The midpoint m of two points x and y in R2 or R3 is the middle

point of the line segment joining the two points.

Use directed line segments representation to see that it can be found by the expression

Also note that the above expression simplifies to the expression:

m = (1/2)(x + y)

For many it is easier to remember in this form since we can see it as ‘’the average’’ of
the two vectors.

For example if x = (1, 2, 3) and y = (0, 4, 1) the midpoint of x and y is

Another example: If A = (1, 2, 3) and B = (0, 4, 1) find the midpoint of the line
segment joining (1/2)AB and BA.

The line segment joining (1/2)AB and BA has midpoint

m = (1/2)[(1/2)(B – A) + (A – B)]

= (1/4)(B – A) + (1/2) (A – B)

= (1/4)B – (1/2) B + – (1/4)A + (1/2)A

= – (1/4)B + (1/4)A

= (1/4)(A – B).

= (1/4)(1, –2, 2)
1.6.2 The following 4 properties of dot products can be shown to hold true:

1) The < a, a > ≥ 0 for any a in Rn . Equality holds if and only if a = 0. (Hence if a
is not 0, < a, a > is not 0)
2) For all a, b in Rn , < b, a > = < a, b > (Commutativity)
3) For all a, b , c in Rn , < c + b, a > = < c, a > + < b, a >. (Left hand distribution)
4) For all b, a in V and α in R, < αb, a > = α < b, a >. (Left hand association)

If a and b are vectors in R3 such that || a || = 1, || b || = 4 and < a, b > = –2 use the
definition of the norm and any of the properties of dot products to show that

|| –3a + b || = √27.

Hint: Start with

|| –3a + b ||2 = < –3a + b, –3a + b >

= < –3a , –3a + b > + < b, –3a + b >

= –3< a , –3a + b > + < b, –3a + b>

= –3<–3a + b , a > + < –3a + b, b >

= –3[ <–3a , a > + < b , a >] + [<–3a, b > + < b, b >]

= …

1.6.3 Two vectors a and b in R n are orthogonal if < a, b > = 0. We sometimes write

a⊥b

to say that a and b are orthogonal, particularly when we are referring to vectors in R2
or R3 . Find x such that (2, 3, 4) and (1, 2, x) are orthogonal in R3.

Solution: If the vectors are to be orthogonal we must have

< (2, 3, 4), (1, 2, x) > = 2 + 6 + 4x = 0, or x = −2. .

(Remark: Looking at the formula for the angle between vectors see why, for vectors
in R2 and R3 , orthogonal can be replaced with perpendicular. )
1.6.4 Use the formula for angles between vectors to show that, Then for any vectors a
and b in Rn
| < a, b > | ≤ || a || || b ||.

(This expression is called the Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality.)

Solution:

________________________________

Optional material.

Proof of the angle between two vectors in R 3 formula

• Consider two vectors a = (a1, a2) and b = (b1, b2) in R2 .

• Let θ denote the smallest angle that can be formed between the directed line
segments of a and b when these are joined together at the origin. Thus 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
• Then representing the vectors a = (a1, a2), b = (b1, b2) and b − a = (b1 − a1, b 2 −
a2) as directed line segments we see that these lines segments together form a
triangle.
• The length of the sides are given by || a ||, || b || and || b − a ||. Let θ denote the
angle between the directed line segments of a and b.
• When we apply the Cosine Law c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos θ to the triangle we get

|| b − a ||2 = || a ||2 + || b ||2 − 2|| a || || b || cos θ.

• When we isolate cos θ, we get

 So

This allows us to find the angle between two vectors a and b, as long as 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Recommended exercises: §4.1 : 1, 4, 7, 14, 21, 22, 24 a) c) §4.2 : 1, 3, 8