MODULE 1

EXPLOSIVES AND INITIATING SYSTEMS:

Explosives are used in underground mines and quarries to break coal and other rocks. An explosive is
a solid or a liquid substance or a mixture of substances which change themselves instantaneously into a large
volume of gases at high temperature and pressure when a flame, heat or sudden shock (detonation) is applied
to it. The high pressure that is built up is capable of doing the work of breaking rock. Detonation is a process
of giving sufficiently violent shock to the explosive to bring about an almost instantaneous rearrangement of
atoms. The chemical energy in an explosive is released and converted suddenly into heat and mechanical
energy when heat, flame or detonation is applied and this conversion is due to a chemical reaction which is
essentially a process of oxidation. An explosive, by virtue of its constituents, contains enough oxygen
necessary for complete oxidation. A commercial explosive contains, apart from the explosive substance or
explosive mixture, the following materials:
1. Combustible matter such, as wood meal, fibre, sulphur, charcoal, etc.
2. Oxidising agents, such as sodium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate, etc.
3. Stabilizers such as magnesium and calcium carbonates.
4. Anti-setting agents to prevent caking of salts.
5. Sensitizers, like metallic powders.

Properties of an explosive:
1. Strength: This is a measure of the amount of energy released by an explosive during blasting and
hence its ability to do useful work. The relative strength or power of an explosive is given by the term weight
strength in the case of explosives manufactured by ICI India Limited and a few other explosive
manufacturers. The" weight strength, in the case of 1CI explosives, indicates the strength of any weight of
explosive compared with the same weight of Blasting Gelatine which is taken as standard because it is the
most powerful commercial explosive manufactured by –ICI. The weight strength of Blasting Gelatine is 100.
At present, Blasting Gelatine is not in the regular manufacturing range of 1CI India Limited.
The Ballistic mortar is calibrated initially with standard Blasting Gelatine and subsequently the
weight strengths of other explosives are determined with respect to the above calibration.
Indian Oxygen Ltd. and Indian Detonators Ltd. do not use the term weight strength to indicate the
relative strength of their explosives.
2. Velocity of detonation: It is the rate at which the detonation wave passes through a column
of explosive and this is of considerable importance as the shock energy of detonation increases rapidly
with this velocity. Most of the high explosives, permitted explosives and slurry explosives used in the mines
have a velocity of detonation ranging between 2500 and 5000 metres per second. For high explosives which
are used as boosters, the V.O.D. is high, e.g. O.C.G. - 6000 m/s; Primer - 7000 m/s.
It should be noted that the basic principle of detonation is-more intimate the contact between the
oxidizer and fuel, the higher is the V.O.D.
3. Density: The density is important when selecting an explosive for a particular use. With a
high density explosive the energy of the shot is concentrated — a desirable feature in tunnelling and
mining; operations in hard ground. On the other hand when the output of lump coal from mine is
important, it is advisable to use a low density explosive, which distributes the energy along the shothole.
4. Water resistance: Explosives differ widely in resistance to water and moisture penetration.
Some explosives deteriorate rapidly under wet conditions, but others are designed to stand water long
enough to enable the work to be done. When blasting is to be performed under wet conditions a gelatinous
or slurry explosive should be used. The higher the nitro-glycerine content of an explosive, the better its
water resistance properties
5. Sensitivity: An explosive is required to be insensitive to normal handling, shock and friction, but
must remain sufficiently sensitive to be satisfactorily detonated and capable of propagating satisfactorily,
cartridge to cartridge and even over short gaps such as may occur in practice.
6. Fume characteristics: Explosives which are to be used where ventilation is restricted must
produce a minimum of harmful gases in the products of detonation. Slurry explosives and AN based
explosive are preferable to the NG based ones.
7. Legal permission: Only permitted explosives of proper type should be used in underground coal
mines.
 Types of Explosives

Explosives are grouped in two types depending upon the speed with which explosive effect is
produced:
1. Low explosives,
2. High explosives.
The terms "low explosives" and "high explosives" should not be confused with the terms "low density
explosives" and "high density explosives".
Gunpowder is a common example of a low explosive and ammonium nitrates, nitro-glycerine, T.N.T.,
special gelatine, slurry explosives, etc., are high explosives. When a low explosive is blasted the process of
oxidation of the constituent substances is propagated by rapid combustion from particle to particle through
the mass of the explosive and the effect of explosion is relatively low. A low explosive is fired by ignition or
a flame. High explosive always contains an ingredient which is explosive in itself, at least when sensitised by
proper means. A high explosive explodes when a violent shock is applied to it with the help of a
detonator;the process of oxidation does not proceed from particle to particle, but is instantaneous and the
constituents react with high velocity. High explosives therefore produce a shattering effect.
Gunpowder: This is the earliest known explosive and contains the following constituents (by weight,
approx.)
Charcoal 15%, Sulphur 10%, Potassium Nitrate 75%.
None of the constituents is explosive by itself. Gunpowder is cheap, stable, safe to handle and it does
not adversely affect the roof in' underground mines as its action has a heaving effect. It is easily
manufactured and is available from local supply contractors in many mining localities. It is, however, not
used on a large scale as it loses its explosive power when damp and it is not as strong as other high
explosives. Moreover, during blasting, it produces flame of long duration and the burning particles are liable
to remain in contact with the surrounding atmosphere for some time. For these reasons gunpowder is not
used in wet places and in underground coal mines. The explosive is fired by safety fuse.
Important constituents of high explosives which confer explosive properties on them are nitro-
glycerine, ammonium nitrate, collodion cotton and T.N.T.
Nitro-glycerine: it is an oily fluid with sp. gr. of 1.6 and freezing point at 13°C. It is insoluble in
water and is very sensitive to explosion by shock of any nature. The sensitivity to shock increases when
nitro-glycerine freezes. To render it suitable for industrial use, it must either be absorbed by some inert
material or be gelatinised. NG based explosives are available in 3 consistencies; gelatinous, semi-gelatinous
and powdery. All explosives containing NG have a highly shattering effect and they produce fumes which
cause headache after long exposure. Explosives containing NG are liable to freeze when the temperature falls
to 80C or less and are then more sensitive to detonation by friction and impact. To avoid this, a low freezing
agent, usually di-nitro-glycol which is itself as powerful an explosive as NG is used. Low freezing explosives
are designated by such prefix as "Polar", e.g. Polar Viking, Polar special gelatine, etc.
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3): It is a white hygroscopic salt, very soluble in water and is
comparatively very safe to handle. When it is detonated it is, however, a powerful explosive. Though
ammonium nitrate is more powerful than the low explosives it is not as powerful as N.G. and it is difficult to
detonate it by itself with the help of a detonator, but it can be detonated by a booster of high explosive. To
use ammonium nitrate as an explosive, it should be mixed with diesel oil, N.G. or T.N.T. Ammonium nitrate
is an interesting compound, in that it is a high explosive, an oxidising agent, and a cooling agent at one and
the same time. Prilled ammonium nitrate of fertiliser grade mixed with diesel oil is used for large dia. holes
in quarries.
Ammonium nitrate does not occur in nature and it is prepared by reacting ammonia gas with nitric
acid. When detonated by extreme shock NH4N03 decomposes according to the equation:
2NH4NO3 = 4H20 + O2 + 2N2 + 346 kcal/gm.
This property comes into play in the utilisation of NH4NO3 as an explosive.
Collodion cotton: A reaction between cellulose compounds and nitric acid yields collodion cotton, a
high explosive. To render it safe to handle it is gelatinised.
T N.T.: Reaction between nitric acid and benzene or toluene compounds yields Trinitrotoluene
(T.N.T.) which is highly explosive.
Most of the high explosives can be blasted with the help of detonators and are said to be cap sensitive.
A detonator has to be inserted into the explosive or kept in intimate contact with it. Such cap-sensitive
explosive can be blasted with the help of a detonating fuse like cordtex also if the latter is in close contact.
The detonating fuse itself needs to be detonated by a detonator. An explosive which is not cap-sensitive is
blasted by keeping it in close contact with a booster which itself needs to be initiated by a detonator or a
detonating fuse. A non cap-sensitive explosive is also known as "booster sensitive". An explosive used in
underground mines has to be cap-sensitive but the explosive used in quarries may be cap-sensitive or booster
sensitive.
AN-diesel explosives are not cap-sensitive and have to be blasted by keeping them in intimate contact
with an explosive (booster) which itself is detonated with the help of a detonator. Some of the slurry
explosives like energel, supergel and powerflo 1,2,3. are not cap-sensitive while most others are.
Explosives with NO base which have to be used in watery places should be of gelatinous or semi-
gelatinous consistency but not powdery and they should sink in water .i.e. they should have sp. gr. of more
than 1.0.
 Booster: For effective detonation of some slurry explosives and AN-FO mixture such as GN-1, use
of a high detonation-velocity booster is necessary. ICI India Ltd. manufactures a booster with the trade name
"Primex" which is a mixture of PF.TN and TNT. It is water resistant, has a velocity of detonation of 7,000
m/sec. weight strength as 82 and it can be detonated by a detonating fuse or, a detonator. The booster
manufactured by IDL Chemicals Ltd. is marketed by the trade name "Pentolite" which has a sp.gr. of 1.55 to
1.61- Compared with normal explosives boosters are quite costly. Prfmex is cast in cylindrical pellets
provided with two longitudinal holes for threading on to a down line of detonating fuse. For priming, a
detonating fuse is threaded through the two holes in the Primex pellet and a knot tied at the top. This
assembly is then inserted into a cartridge of slurry and its mouth re-tied by a wire. After lowering the primer
cartridge, other cartridges are freely dropped down the hole.
A cast booster is not a substitute for the explosive charge; it may be compared with a very powerful
detonator of large size and is preferred for deep large dia. blast-holes in opencast mines. During use a cast
booster is knotted to the detonating fuse for placement at the bottom of the blast-hole and additional boosters
are threaded in the same detonating fuse so that their positions coincide with the level of hard rock when the
fuse is in position in the blast-hole. After lowering the booster by the detonating fuse, AN-based site-mixed
or plant-mixed slurry is poured or pumped in the hole. As the slurry is pumped in, special ingredients are
added to it at intervals to cover the hard-rock portion.
Gelatinous NG-based explosives having high NG content like OCG or special gelatine can be used as
a booster or primer explosive. Pentolite boosters manufactured by IDL Chemicals Ltd. do not contain NG or
other headache - causing ingredients. They are equipped with 2 holes for easy initiation with detonating cord
or detonators. A PHTN based booster in a shot-hole occupies only 1 to 2% of the total explosive charge but
a high explosive like OCG, if used as a booster, occupies 15-20% of the total explosive charge.
AN-Fuel oil explosives (ANFO)
Ammonium nitrate, mixed with diesel oil, is used on a large scale for blasting in the quarries of coal
and metal mines. The most effective and oxygen-balanced explosive mixture is one with 5 to 6% of diesel oil
(by wt.) It has a sp. gr. of 0.8 to 1.0, wt. strength of 75-80 and velocity of detonation at 3500 m/sec. In the
dry season, 7 litres diesel for 100 kg of AN suffice but in wet season, the quantity should be increased to 9
litres. Diesel oil in excess of 8% tends to lower the sensitivity of ANFO to initiation. The mixture causes
irritation of the skin and the workers should, therefore, wear gum boots and rubber hand gloves. The mixing
should be done with wooden shovels avoiding contact with iron. The mixture is safe to handle and without
formation into cartridges can be mechanically loaded into blast-holes. Where ANFO consumption is heavy,
stationary ANFO mixer similar to the concrete mixer may be placed at a centrally selected site. In case of a
pneumatic ANFO loader, an electric detonator should not be used unless steps are taken to prevent premature
initiation due to static electricity.
As the mixture cannot be initiated in the normal way by a detonator it is necessary to prime it with a
small quantity of O.C.G. or a booster. It is a good practice to use high explosive primer cartridges at the top
as well as at the bottom of the hole and also for the deck charge. The AN-fuel oil explosives are difficult to
sink in water due to low density of AN, and should preferably not be used in watery holes. If however, AN-
fuel oil mixture has to be used in .watery holes it should be packed in polythene bags and forced down the
hole with the weight of a high explosive and the stemming above it. Holes of 62 mm dia. and above are
considered economic for use of AN-FO explosives.
An increase in blast-hole dia. beyond 300 mm decreases the sensitivity to initiation of ANFO
explosives. With above 4 percent water in ANFO, the velocity of detonation decreases sharply and the
mixture with 9 percent or more water cannot be detonated. When /using ANFO, it is essential to have
uniform mixing of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil. If the ammonium nitrate is not of adequate porous quality,
it may separate from fuel oil resulting in inferior performance.
AN-FO explosive cannot be initiated direct by No. 6 detonator. It can, however, be blasted by a
detonating fuse which needs no. 6 detonator for initiation. It may be initiated by no. 8 detonator which is not
much used in mining practice.
Slurry explosives
The slurry explosives are with jelly like consistency and are water gels. (The water-gel is a mixture of
an oxidiser and fuel sensitizer in an aqueous medium, thickened with a gum and gelled with cross linking
agent). In the case of permitted slurry, a coolant is added to reduce incendivity.
The first commercial slurry explosive developed by Dr. Melville Cook in U.S.A. in 1957 consisted of
TNT, AN and water in the ratio of 20:65:15. To this traces of chemicals for gelling and cross linking were
added to stabilise the homogeneity of the mixture. In subsequent years the manufacturers developed slurries
with AN as the main ingredient and using variety of sensitizers and fuels. The addition of metallic powder to
the slurry enables the explosives to reach very high strength. Some of the common ingredients are:
Oxidisers: ammonium, sodium or calcium nitrates.
Cross-linking agents: potassium or sodium dichromates, antimony or boron compounds
Gelling agents: starch
Fuel sensitisers: TNT, PETN, pentolite - (all explosives). aluminium, sugar, urea, paraffin, hexamine,
ethylene glycol, wood pulp - (all non-explosives)
The slurry explosive has a sp. gr. more than 1 and like ANFO can be poured directly into watery
holes. They are also available in the form of cartridges with plastic or polythene wrapper and some
(permitted type) can be used in underground coal mines. Such slurry explosives for use in underground coal
mines have to be cap-sensitive and approved by the DGMS, The slurry explosive is highly water resistant. In
the quarries holes of diameter 62 mm and above are economical for use of slurry, just as for ANFO, if it has
to be poured into blast hole.
 , The components required for ANFO and slurry explosives may be mixed at a plant away from the
blasting site or at the blasting site itself. In the case of PMS (plant mixed slurry) system, the explosive is
loaded into special tankers and from these tankers, the slurry is pumped directly into the blast-hole.
Where the volume of blasting is high enough to justify cost of transporting trucks, ICI has designed a
slurry pump truck which is capable of pumping Powerflo slurry directly into, the blast holes. The system has
been extensively tested in overburden strata in opencast coal mines as well as in hard iron ore formations
with very satisfactory performance. The slurry remains in intimate contact with the walls of blast holes and
this result, in effective utilisation of the explosive. Packaged explosive products are at least 15% less
effective than the corresponding bulk explosive products due to less perfect blast hole contact.
Unlike cartridged slurries, pumpable slurries can be tailored to have the appropriate density
depending on strata conditions. In the case of site mixed slurry system (SMS) only non-explosive ingredients
are stored at a warehouse and transported to the blasting site in a specially designed pump-truck.
In the semi-gelled condition, pumpable slurries can be stored for about 2 weeks in the truck without
any adverse effect on performance. The slurry is suitably gelled (cross linked) at the time of manufacture and
incorporation of an additional gelling (cross linking) agent at the time of loading into blast-holes can prevent
the possibility of explosive flowing into the cracks and fissures in the blast-hole.
In case of SMS system for blasting, one pump truck can charge nearly 25000 kgf in one shift. A small
team of 5-6 professionally trained persons can load 50,000-60,000 kgf of explosives into a large number of
blast holes in a single working shift.
The principal ingredients in I. D. L's permitted slurry explosives -are ammonium nitrate, water, sugar,
aluminium (as fuel sensitizer), sodium chloride, sodium nitrate and gum.
Slurry explosives will not explode accidentally if dropped, or from shovel impact, or even when
involved in a fire. They have low non-toxic fumes and do not cause headache. Exudation from an unstable
water-gel explosive is harmless since in most cases it is nothing but water containing some dissolved
inorganic salts. On the other hand NG exudation in NG-based explosives is hazardous; a spark or violent
shock can set it off. Non-cap-sensitive slurry explosives can be stored in a building which is not a licensed
explosives magazine, hut permitted slurry explosives have to be stored in a licensed magazine.
Shelf life of slurry explosives manufactured by most of the companies is usually one year. The best
performance of slurry explosives is obtained within four months from the date of manufacture.
The standard safety tests for slurry explosives are:
(1) Burning test,
(2) Friction and impact test (Torpedo test),
(3) Impact sensitivity by hammer fall test,
(4) Rifle bullet test,
(5) Sensitivity of flame head (fuse) test, etc.

Emulsion Explosives
An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two liquids that do not dissolve in each other. In more technical
terms, an emulsion is described as a two-phase system in which an inner or dispersed phase is distributed in
an outer or continuous phase. Emulsions have, for many years, contributed to our daily lives in such products
as insecticides, photographic films and papers and cosmetics.
The unique feature of an emulsion explosive is that both the oxidizer and the fuel are liquids. The
unique properties of emulsion explosives are due to the minute size of the nitrate solution droplets and their
tight compaction within the continuous fuel phase.
The emulsion slurry contains AN solution at high temperature, combined with diesel oil, and an
emulsifier which is passed through a fast moving blender. The blender mixes the ingredients into pumpable
emulsion slurries with grease like consistency. The resultant emulsion slurry is now made up of microscopic
droplets of AN, surrounded by fuel oil film and artificially created air bubble known as micro spheres which
make the emulsions detonable. There is no sensitisation by aluminium or explosive sensitizer but by mere air
bubbles. Thus, there is maximum energy generation because of intimate contact of oxidiser and fuel. In small
diameter products, glass micro-balloons and perlites are used to maintain sensitisation by aeration.
Emulsion explosives depend entirely on the presence of voids for initiation and propagation. A
change in the amount of voids effects a change in density. It is convenient and useful to relate properties to
density and to consider voids as density adjusters.
Slurry explosives require thickeners and gelling agents to prevent segregation, to provide water
resistance and to control losses through cracks and fissures. Emulsion explosives cannot be gelled or cross
linked. They do not have the gel structure that characterises all slurry explosives. Velocity of detonation is a
good indicator of reaction efficiency and is very dependent on particle size:
Explosive Size Form VOD (km/sec)
ANFO 2.000 mm All solid 3.2
Slurry 0.200 mm Solid/liquid 3.3
Emulsion 0.001 mm Liquid 5.0-6.0
 Emulsion explosives are highly water resistant. They are more fluid than slurry explosives and
therefore create problems when loading a blast hole with fissures or cracks. They lack the strong cross-linked
gel that characterizes the TNT—sensitized slurry explosives.
Emulsion slurries are claimed to have lower ingredient cost, higher density, higher VOD and higher
energy conversion and resultant bore-hole pressure as compared to water gels/slurries. Therefore in low
diameter sector they are fast replacing slurries and water gels in USA. The emulsions are also claimed to be
sensitive even at smaller diameter holes, less than 25 mm. In addition, they are easily pumpable without
affecting their quality. Thus, emulsion, slurries are hoped to be the low-cost, less hazardous replacement of
NG based small diameter products.
Heavy ANFO
The latest development of 1980's had been the use of emulsion slurries mixed with different
proportion of ANFO to give water resistant and higher density mixtures which are named as Heavy ANFO or
HANFO. Thus, the emulsion to ANFO ratios can be from 20:80 to 50:50, depending on the severity of
watery conditions and need of stronger blast energy. One of the US manufacturers has successfully
developed Heavy ANFO, using NCN slurry with ANFO. Since the air spaces between AN prills are filled by
emulsion, Heavy ANFO gives the advantage of lower cost like ANFO with higher density, higher energy and
better water resistance than ANFO. The latest variation of this idea of HANFO is to provide colloidal or
emulsion concentrates which could be mixed with ANFO or AN. Thus the mixture can have bulk density
from 1.10 to 1.25 gm/cc (compared to ANFO 0.8 gm/cc) and bulk strength almost 45% more than ANFO.
The high energy ANFO through HANFO system or slurry concentrates system allows expansion of drilling
pattern, thereby reducing drilling costs.
Permitted explosives
All explosives create heat and some flame when fired. To avoid explosion of gas or coal dust in an
underground coal mine, it is essential that the heat and flame produced by an explosive should be incapable
of igniting the gas or coal dust. For this reason explosives for use in underground coal mines are approved by
the CMRS and DGMS after certain tests.
A permitted explosive is one which has been subjected to stringent test by the CMRS and found to be
incapable of igniting firedamp or coal dust when used in charges up to a specified weight. Each cartridge of
permitted explosive is contained in a wrapper clearly marked with the letter P.
The safety of "Permitted Explosive" depends primarily upon
(i) low temperature, and
(ii) Duration of flame produced, the flame lasting only 1/1,000th second.

A cooling agent like sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium fluoride, etc. is an essential
constituent of a permitted explosive and the main constituents are NG (only in some explosives), ammonium
nitrate, sodium chloride and in non-slurry type permitted explosives, absorbing materials.
Permitted explosives are categorised in the following groups and the group to which a cartridge of
explosive belongs is printed on the wrapper of the cartridge.
Group:
P1 — Unsheathed explosives, such as Ajax G, Viking G and slurry explosives like Godyne.
P2 — Sheathed explosives.
P3 — Equivalent sheathed explosives (Eq. S) e.g. Unisax G, permadyne.
P4 — Explosives approved for special purposes, such as for delay firing, firing in ripping, etc;
hitherto known as ultra-safe explosives. These are not produced in India. British examples are; carribel,
Nobel's explosive 1235.
P5 — Off-the-solid explosives (for solid blasting) e.g. Soligex, slurry explosive Pentadyne.
Sheathed explosives (P2 group) and P4 explosives are not manufactured in India and are not used in
our mines. The cartridge of a sheathed explosive is coated with a sheath of NaHCO3 along its length (but not
at ends). As a result of blasting, NaHC03 decomposes forming an extinctive blanket of CO2 and H2O round
the explosive which is thus rendered safer.
In equivalent sheathed explosives an inert material like mixture of Ammonium chloride and Soda
nitrate is incorporated directly and uniformly throughout the composition of the explosive so that the
explosion products render the explosives as safe as the sheathed explosives.
Explosives used in opencast mines are sometimes referred to as suitable for column charge, bottom
charge, base charge, primer or booster. A column charge explosive is not cap-sensitive and it occupies nearly
80% of the column of explosives in a blast hole. Below it is the base charge (also called bottom charge,
primer or booster) which is more powerful than the column charge. A primer and a booster charge is always
cap-sensitive but a base charge may be cap-sensitive or non-cap-sensitive, depending upon the manufacturer.
Regarding the use of explosives the following guidelines should be noted.
1. Only permitted explosives approved by D.G.M.S. should be used in underground coal
mines. Such explosives are always cap-sensitive.
2. Non-permitted explosives can be used in underground metalliferous mines and in the quarry
mines of coal as well as metals and also for other surface applications.
3. In watery places, gelatinous and semi-gelatinous explosives should be used. But NG
based powdery explosives are not recommended for blasting at watery places.
4. Slurry explosives are water-resistant and they can be used in watery holes but AN based slurry
explosives with a specific gravity of one or less should not be used in watery holes.
5. Only explosives with a high velocity of detonation over 2500 ' m/s, should be used for blasting
 in hard rocks.
Non-cap-sensitive explosives should be blasted with the help of detonating fuse.
The liquid oxygen explosives are used in opencast mines and are described later.
TABLE 1
Explosives and fuses of various manufacturers
Explosives, detonators and fuses manufactured by some leading companies for mining are listed
below. Explosives and detonators, fuses, etc, used for seismic blasting are not included. Figure in bracket
shows diameter, in mm. CS—Cap-sensitive, WS—weight strength relative to Blasting Gelatine as 100.
Permitted explosives are for underground coal mines; they are 32 mm diameter and cap-sensitive. A
permitted explosive, if not permitted for solid blasting, can be used for cut faces andJn depillaring.

ICI India Ltd. Explosives

Unless mentioned otherwise, the explosives are NG based.
Special gelatine of 90%, 80% and 60% designation, (25, 50), CS.
Gomia gelatine 50% (75, 83, 125, 175), CS.
Opencast gelignite (75, 83, 125, 175, 200), CS.
Hectorite (25, 32), CS.
Primex (23, 37. 50, 63), cast booster, CS.
GN /1 {83, 125, 175, 200), AN-based, non-CS.
Powerflo-1 (125, 175, 200), AN-based, slurry, non-CS.
Bulk slurry (100 mm and above), AN-based, non-CS.
Emulsion explosives
Powergel-C (83, 125, 175, 200), booster, CS. Powergel-3 (83, 125, 175, 200), base charge; non-CS.
Powergel-2 (83, 125, 175, 200), base/column charge; non-CS. Powergel-1 (83, 125, 175, 200), column
charge, non-CS
Powergel-F (83, 125, 175, 200), column charge in fire areas, non-CS. Bulk emulsion (100 mm and
above) AN-based, non-CS.
Permitted explosives
Ajax-G (P1); deg. 1
gassy. Unisax-G (P3); all
gassy
Powergel P 101 (for coal, undercut faces) permitted for Deg. 1 gassy mine; emulsion explosive, CS.
Alphagex (PI); deg. 1 gassy
Permigex (P3); all gassy
Soligex (P5); all gassy; solid blasting
Solimax (P5); deg. 1 gassy; solid blasting.
Uniring for longhole blasting in blasting gallery technique.
Viking-G (PI); deg. 1 gassy
Detonators
These are in No. 6 and 8 strengths. Plain detonators are for use with safety fuse. Following are
electric detonators:
Instantaneous (aluminium); for U/G coal mines these are of copper. Long delay (aluminium; delay
numbers 0-10; delay interval 300 ms. Short delay (aluminium or copper); delay numbers 0-10; delay interval
25 ms. Carrick-non-incendive short delay (copper); delay numbers 0-6; delay interval 35ms. These are used
along with P-5 explosives
Safety fuses
Blue sump, OCPS, blue plastic (all with burning speed 100-120 sec/m); Ailsa with burning speed
120-145 sec/m;
Detonating fuse (initiation by No. 6 detonator)
Cordtex and Cordflex for commerical explosives.
Ringcord (for blasting gallery method in U/G coal mines); used in conjunction with Uniring.
Delay detonator-relays - delay interval 17 ms.

IDL Chemicals Ltd. Explosives

Unless otherwise mentioned, the explosives are AN-based, slurry type.
Aquadyne (83, 125, 175, 200), booster, CS.
Toeblast (83, 125, 175, 200), booster, CS.
Encrgel (83, 125, 175, 200), column charge, non-CS.
Supergel (83, 125, 175, 200), base charge, non-CS.
Aquagel-200 (83, 125, 175, 200), column charge, non-CS.
Aquablast (83, 125, 175, 200), as booster, CS.
Sunerdyne (25, 40, 50), CS.
Pentolite (45, 50, 75), cast booster, with PETN/TNT, CS.
Permitted explosives
Godyne (PI), deg. 1 gassy; Permadyne (P3), deg. 2 gassy
Pentadyne (P5), deg. I and 2, gassy; solid blasting
Emulsion explosives
Emulgel (83. 125, 175, 200), non-CS. Emulprime (83, 125, 175, 200) as booster, CS. Emultoe (83,
125, 175, 200) as booster, CS. Supermix-100; pumpable; non-CS. Emulking-100; pumpable: non-CS.
Emulking-200; pumpable; non-CS.
Detonators: No. 6 type; electric
Instantaneous (aluminium); for U/G coal mines, these are of copper.Short delay (aluminium); delay Nos. 0-
10, delay interval 25-75 ms. Long delay (aluminium); delay nos. 0-10; delay interval half sec.
Coal delay (copper); for solid blasting in deg. 1 and 2 gassy U/G Coal Mines;
delay nos. 0-6, delay interval 25 ms.
Special ordinary detonators (aluminium); used with' safety fuse and are of no. 8 strength.
Raydet- Non-electric initiating system; 3 mm plastic tubes with inside explosive coating; no. 8
strength detonator needed; delay nos. 1-15.
Safety fuse- yellow colour.
Detonating fuses. For commercial explosives;
D-Cord I, coreload of PETN 6 gms/m; yellow;
D-Cord II, coreload of PETN 10 gms/m;
orange.
Detonating relays or delay detonator relays — delay interval 17 and 25 ms.

Karnataka Explosives Ltd.

The explosives are marked by the prefix "Kel". They are watergel slurries in cartridge form and
based on monomethylaniine nitrate, an organic chemical sensitizer.
Explosives
Kelvex-100 and Kelvex-200 (25-50), CS.
Kelvex-P (50), as booster; its charge should be 4-5% of the total ANFO charge; CS.
Kelvex-700 (83, 125, 200), as booster for opencast blasting where blast-hole temperature is high. In
coal Held fire areas, successfully tried in blast-holes where filled up water recorded 93°C. temperature; CS.
Kelvan-extra, Kelvex-extra, Kelvex-500 (83,125,200), column charge; non-CS.
Kelvex-800, kelvex-600, (83, 125, 200), as primer/booster, CS.
Permitted explosives
Kelvex-310, (PI) deg. 1 gassy
Kelvex-330, (P3), deg. 1
gassy
K.elvex-5, (P5); solid blasting in all degree gassy mines.
Emulsion explosives
Kelem-800; booster, CS.
Kelbase; column charge, non-CS.
Kelcolem; column charge, non-CS.

IBP Co. Ltd.,

Explosives are AN based slurry type, marked by the prefix INDO.
Explosives
Indomix (83), CS but a booster for initiation is preferred.
hidomite - 60 (25-50), CS.
Indomite - 80 (25), CS. Indogel - 210 (83-200), non CS. Indogel - 230 (83-200), non CS. Indogel -
250 (83-200), non CS. Indoboost (83-125), as booster, CS. Indoprime (83-200), as booster, CS.
Indoboost (H.E.) (83, 125, 200), as booster, CS. ' Indogel - 270 (83, 125, 200) non-CS.
Permitted explosives
Indocoal-1; deg. 1, gassy.
Indocoal-1 (HD); deg. 1 gassy.
Indecoal-3; deg. 1 and 2
gassy.
lndocoa!-3 HD; deg. 1 and 2 gassy.
lndocoa!-5; solid blasting; now under field trials;

Indo Gulf Explosives Ltd.

All explosives are AN-based, slurry type.
Explosives
NCN-4QO
NCN-500 (83, 125, 175, 200), column charge, non-CS.
NCN-600
AVI Prime (83, 125, 175, 200) primer/booster, CS.
IGEL Prime (83, 125, 175, 200), CS.
AVI boost (83, 125, 175, 200), CS.
Detamite - 60
Dclamite - 80
Permitted explosives
Detacoal-I, deg. 1 gassy. detacoat-HI, all degree gassy. Detacoal-V, all degree gassy.
Detonating fuse - Avicord-H (D.F.) and Avimex (CB). Coreload of PETN per metre length, 10 gm.
Noble Explochem Ltd.
Explosives are NG-based and cap sensitive. They are marked by the prefix Noble.
Explosives
Noble gel 90 (25, 32), WS-88
Noble gel 80 (25, 32, 50), WS-78
Noble gel 60 (25, 32, 50), WS-78
 Permitted explosives
Noble Coal 1; deg. 1 gassy, WS-60
Noble Coal 3; deg. 2 gassy WS-48
Noble Coal 5; solid blasting, WS-38.
Noble blast 1; powder; deg. 1 gassy, WS-60.

Premier Explosives Ltd.,

Explosives are AN-based, slurry type as well as emulsion type, Non-permitted type are designated as
Dynex
explosives:
Dynex - C (83, 125, 175, 200), as booster, CS.
Dynex - 3 (as above), as primer, CS.
Dynex - 5 (as above), column charge, non-CS.
Dynex - 1 S (as above), column charge, non-
CS. Dynex-2 (as above); column charge, non-
CS. Dynex-C (25, 50), CS.
Dynex-3 (25, 50), CS.
Dynex-C PP (in Packs), plaster shooting, CS.
Permitteds
Colex-1; deg. 1 gassy
Colex-3; deg. 2 gassy;
Colex-5; solid blasting;
Detonators:
Premier detonator; plain No, 8, for safety fuse.
Premier (aluminium), electric; instantaneous No. 8 strength.
Premier (copper) electric, instantaneous No..6 strength.
Premier coal delay; delay interval 25 ms,
Premier Relay; for use with detonating fuse, delay interval 17 ms—50 ms.
Detonating fuse:
Dynacord-6 with PETN coreload 6 gm/m.
Dynacord-10 with PETN coreload 10
g/m.

Apex Explosives (P) Ltd.,

Explosives are with prefix Apex.
Explosives
Apex gel 90, (25, 50, 83, 125, 200), AN-based slurry as booster, CS.
Apex gel 80, (83, 125, 200), AN slurry, base charge, non-CS.
Apex gel 70, (83, 125, 200), AN slurry, column charge, non-CS.
Apex 80 (83, 125, 200), dry blasting agent, column charge, non-CS.
Pentex (50), cast booster, PETN & TNT-50-.50; CS.
Apex Emulite (45, 62), emulsified cast explosive with PETN; CS.
Detonating fuse, core load of PETN, 10 gm/m, Post Box red colour.

Maharashtra Explosives Ltd.

Explosives carry a prefix Mex; all are AN-based slurry explosives.
Explosives.
Mexboost (83, 125, 175, 200), as primer/booster, CS.
Mexprime (as above), as booster/bottom charge, for plaster shooting: CS
Mexprime XX (as above), as booster/bottom charge; CS.
Mexblast (25, 175, 200); base charge, non CS.
Mexan I (83, 125, 175, 200), column charge, non CS.
Mexan II (as above); column charge; non CS. Mexcol (as above); column charge, non CS.
Mexpro (83 and above), column charge, non CS.
Mexgel (25, 32), CS.
Mexgel HI (25, 50); CS.
Permitteds
Mexperm-1, deg. I
gassy Mexperm-3 deg. I
gassy
Mexperm-5 deg. I and II gassy; solid b1astmg,_CS.
Detonating fuse - Mexcord 11, coreload 10 g/m; pink.

Tamtlnadu Industrial Explosives Ltd.

All explosives carry the prefix Tel. Excepting the Slurries, which are AN based, all are NG based.
Explosives
Telgex ID (75, 83, 125), WS 78, primer, CS.
Telpow LD (75, 83, 125), WS-60 primer, CS.
Telgex-90 (25, 32, 50), WS-90. CS.
Telgex-80 (25, 32, 50), WS-78, CS.
Telgex-80 (IR) (25, 32, 50), WS-78, CS.
Telgel (83, 125, 200), AN based slurry, WS 55% and 60% as column charge, non CS.
Telbase (83, 125, 200} AN based slurry, WS 65%and 70%as base charge; non CS.
Permitteds
Telperma-1 WS-60, deg, 1 gassy
Telperma-5 WS-35, solid blasting
Telperma 3, Telmine 1 and Telmine 3 are other permitted explosives
Detonators:
Ordinary reinforced - used with- safety fuse.
Instantaneous (aluminium); also of copper for deg. 1 and 2 gassy U/G coal.
Millisecond delay, delay interval 25 ms.
Half Sec. delay; delay interval 500 ms.
Copper delay; delay/interval 25 ms; solid blasting in U/G coal mines,
Detonating fuse:
Tel cord II (10 g/m coreload) sky blue.
Tel cord I (6gm/m)
Tel cord III (20 g/m coreload) sky blue.

Rajasthan Explosives & Chemicals Ltd.

All explosives except booster are AN based slurries, and have the prefix Raj.
Explosives
Rajbase (83, 125), column charge, non CS.
RAjcol (83, 125), column charge non CS.
Rajblast (75, 83, 125, 175, 200). primer and plaster shooting; CS.
Rajdyne (25, 40, 50); CS.
Rajmix, pourable slurry; non-CS.
Rajolite, cast booster, CS.
Detonators - Instantaneous elec. No. 8 strength, (aluminium).
Detonating fuse - Red, coreload 10 gms/m.

Sri Krishna Explosives & Accesories. Co.

All explosives are AN based slurries.
Explosives:
Maruti blast (25, 50), base charge, CS.
Maruti-boost/Maruti prime (83, 125, 200}, primer, CS.
Maruti coiumn/Marutibase, (100, 150, 225), column charge, non-C S.
Marutiplast (pouch of 250 gms), plaster shooting, CS.

Orient Explosives (P) Ltd.

All explosives are AN-based slurries.
Explosives:
Ore boost, (83, 125, 175, 200), base charge, CS.
Orion-80, (83, 125, 175, 200), column charge, non CS.
Ore gel I & Ore gel II (83, 125, 175, 200), column charge, non CS.
Ore blast (25), CS.

Navbharat Explosives Co. (P) Ltd.

All the explosives are AN-based slurries. They have the prefix Bharat.
Explosives:
Bharat column and Bharat base (83,125,175 and 200), column charge, non CS.
Bharatblast (25), CS.
Bharatprime and Bharat-toe, (83, 125, 175 and 200), primer charge, Non CS.

Navbharat Fuse Co. (P) Ltd.

All products carry the prefix Nova. The explosives are AN-based slurries
Explosives:
Novaprime (85, 125, 175 and 200), base charge,
CS. Novaboost (as above), base charge, CS.
Novacolumn (as above), column charge, non-CS.
Novabase (as above), column charge, non-CS.
Novapower (as above), base charge, non-CS.
Novamite (75, 83, 125, 175), column charge, CS (no. 8 del.).
Novadyne (25), CS.
Permitteds
Novcoal 1 Deg. I gassy.
Novacoal II deg. 2 gassy.
Novacoal V solid blasting.
Pentolite booster
Novalite 20, CS
Novalite 250, CS
Detonating fuse
Novacord 1 (coreload 6 gm/m),
Novacord II (10 gm/m) and Novatwin

SUA. Explosives and Accessories Ltd. (Previously known as MACWIN Explosives)

All explosives carry the prefix MAC. They are AN-based slurries.
Explosives
Macwin LD (83, 125), as booster, CS
Macwinex NCS-I (83, 125), column charge, non-CS.
Macwinex NCS-II (83, 125), column charge, non-CS.
Macwinex base (83, 125), CS.
Macwinex SD (25mm)
Macpentolite cast booster, CS,
Detonating fuse
Macord I, 10 gm/m coreload, blue
Macord 5gm/m white

Ordnance Factory, Bhandara

Permitted explosives
Prakash, PI, deg.I gassy.
Prachand, PI, deg. 1 gassy
Pragalbh. P3, deg. 2 gassy
Prachar, P5, solid blasting

Narendra & Co.

Explosives
AN-based slurry explosives, 25 mm dia. cartridges
Gunpowder F.O.V.F.
Safety (use for wet location.
Namonitegel slurry explosive, 83, 125, 200mm dia cartridges
Namodyne, booster charge, 25, 83, 125, 200mm dia.

A few other explosive manufacturers not listed above "are:

Orissa Explosives (P) Ltd;
Bharat Explosives Ltd;
Chamundi Explosives (P) Ltd;
Commercial Explosives (India)
Ltd.; Deejay Dynamix Explosives
(P) Ltd; Deccan Explosives, Pune;
Hyderabad Explosives (P) Ltd;
Salvo Explosives & Chemicals Ltd;
M/s Trishuf Explosives Ltd;
Ideal Industrial Explosives (P) Ltd;
Eastern Explosives"and Chemicals Ltd;
Anil Chemicals Ltd.
 DETONATORS AND ACCESSORIES

High explosives are initiated by detonators or detonating fuses. A detonator is a small copper or
aluminium tube containing essentially a small auxiliary charge of special explosive. A chemical reaction
initiated by a flame or electric current in the special explosive can build up very rapidly into an explosion of
sufficient intensity to project a detonation wave throughout a high explosion enclosing the detonator.
Detonators are of the following types:
1. Plain detonators. These are fired by safety fuses, the spark or "spit" from the fuse causing
the detonator to explode; these are sometimes called "ordinary" detonators.
2. Ordinary electric detonators: These are fired by passage of electric current through the
detonator. They are further subdivided as:—
(a) Low tension detonators, and
(b) High tension detonators (not generally used in mining).
Ordinary electric detonators are of instantaneous type, i.e. without any delay element. They are of
copper or aluminium tubes.
3. Delay detonators: These are essentially low tension electric detonators with a delay element, the
object in their use being to phase the firing of shots, so that time and effort are saved in charging and firing
several successive rounds of shots. These are subdivided as:—
(a) Half second or long delay detonators, and
(b) Milli-second delay detonators (also known as short delay detonators)
A plain detonator, i.e. non-electric, consists simply of an aluminium tube 6 mm dia. 37 to 50 mm
long, filled 1/3 with A.S.A. composition and penta-erythritol tetra-nitrate (P.E.T.N). The A.S.A. composition
consists of a mixture of lead azide (A), lead styphnate (S) and a little aluminium powder (A). The A.S.A.
composition initiates the base charge of P.E.T.N. which is a much more powerful explosive.
No. 6 detonator is suitable for normal requirements of mining work. No. 8 detonator is more-powerful
than No. 6 but is not generally used.
In an ordinary electric detonator, i.e. non-delay type or instantaneous type, the priming charge and
base charge are the same as for plain detonator, but they are tired, not by ignition of a safety fuse, but by
passing electric current through a fuse head. The current ignites a flashing composition in the fuse head,
which in turn, initiates the priming charge (Fig. 8.2)
The resistance of low tension detonators with a 45 m long shotfiring cable is about 7 ohms. Current
required for ignition of the fusehead is 0.5 amps so that a single detonator can be blasted with minimum
voltage of 3.5 V. The circuit continuity of a L.T. detonator can be tested by a galvanometer and simultaneous
shotfiring of a number of detonators with series connections is possible.
Delay Detonators
In appearance and composition, this is like the L.T. detonator. The L.T. detonator described above is
of instantaneous type; the moment voltage is applied to it, the detonator explodes and along with it the
enclosing explosive. A delay detonator has a delay element introduced between the fusehead and the priming
charge, (Fig. 8.2). The delay element consists of a copper or brass sleeve filled with a special composition
which burns at a specified rate and the delay is obtained by varying the length of the sleeve containing the
special composition.
Delay detonators of some manufacturers have antistatic sleeve over the fusehead as a protection
against static electricity hazard.

The delay detonators and non-delay detonators are distinguished by the colours of lead wires. The
delay period is marked on a tag attached to the wires. Moreover the delay number-is stamped on the bottom
of tube.
In underground coal mines aluminium detonators are not permitted but only copper detonators should
be used.
Permission from the D.G.M.S. is required before using delay detonators in underground coal mines.
Delay detonators and non-- delay detonators should not be kept in the same box.
 Advantages of Delay Detonators
(1) Reduced consumption of explosive as blasting is more efficient due to availability of a free face
for each row or round of shots e.g. blasting due to No. 1 delay detonator gives a free face for
the blasting effect of shots fired by No. 2 detonator.
(2) Increased fragmentation and ease of loading the rock or coal. Broken rocks from successive
shots collide in air, thereby increasing the fragmentation.
(3) Considerable time is saved in that the whole round of shots is fired in a fraction of a second.
This is the chief advantage. If individual shots, or even groups of 5or 6 shots simultaneously by
LT. detonators are fired, the time required for inspection and clearance of fumes and gases
between successive firings is considerable. In steep seams, the exertion involved in frequent trips
for such examinations and connections is saved.
(4) The millisecond delay (short delay) detonators have been observed to produce less ground
vibrations than the half second delay detonators and are therefore used in mechanised quarries
where blasting of large diameter holes containing heavy charges is likely to produce
excessive ground vibrations and damage to nearby surface buildings and other important
engine foundations, etc.
Accessories
Safety fuse:
A safety fuse which looks like a cord consists of a core of fine grained gunpowder wrapped with
layers of a tape or textile yarn and waterproof coatings. The burning speed is usually 100 to 120 sec/ metre.
ICI manufactures a range of safety fuses to suit various Conditions, e.g.Double Bull brand for dry conditions,
Blue Sump for damp conditions, OCPS (orange coloured plastic sheathed) and Blue Plastic for wet and very
rugged conditions. IDL also manufactures safety fuse (yellow). When one end of the fuse is ignited, it carries
the flame at a uniform rate to ignite gun powder or to detonate an ordinary detonator which in turn can
detonate a high explosive.
Detonating fuse
For shallow depths, say less than 3 m, and for small number of holes, a detonator is inserted in the
cartridge itself and detonated by ignition of safety fuse or in the case of elec. detonator, by an exploder. For a
large no. of holes blasted at a time in mechanised quarries and in U/G coal mines electric detonators are used.
A deep hole in a quarry needs a long length of detonator leads and to avoid this it is common to use a
detonating fuse like cordtex (trade name of ICI). The fuse consists of a core of PETN enclosed in a tape
which is wrapped with cloth. The fuse is then completely enclosed in a tubular cover of plastic material
which is white for Cordtex and orange for Geocord detonating fuse ( ICI) The detonating fuse looks like a
plastic cord; its external dia. is about 5 mm and weight about 20 g per metre length. It has a velocity of
detonation of 6500 m/sec. and it is practically instantaneous in its action.
A large number of shots connected with detonating fuse can be blasted by a single detonator. A
detonating fuse can be used under water, as moisture cannot penetrate the fuse through the plastic cover.
Water may however penetrate into the core through the cut ends which can be guarded against by sealing
them with tape or water-proofing compound.
A detonating fuse is often used for demolition operations.
Nonel
The Nonel system of detonation is developed by Nobel AB of Sweeden. Primers of explosives with
Nonel detonators inserted in them are charged in the blast-holes and the Nonel tubes are bunched for
convenience of connection to the mains blasting system. Upon 'initiation, the shock wave passes down the
plastic tubes, the insides of which are coated with reactive substance that maintains the shock wave at a rate
of approx. 2000 m. per second which has sufficient energy to initiate the primary explosive or delay element
in a detonator. Since the reaction is contained in the tube, this has n'o blasting effect and acts as a signal
conductor.
Nonel means non-electric detonator. The flexible plastic tube has 3 mm external and 1.5mm internal
diam. The tubes are available in pre-cut lengths. One end of the tube is fitted with a non-electric delay
detonator which is crimped to it in the factory while the other end is sealed. The end having detonator is
lowered down into the blast-hole while the sealed end projects outside the hole. The sealed end is intituled by
detonator or detonating cord.
The advantage of the Nonel system lies in its extreme resistance to accidental initiation by static
electricity, stray current, radio transmission, flame, friction and impact. It is also immune to misfires caused
by current leakage in conductive ore bodies and eliminates the need for complicated electrical circuit testing
and shot-firing equipment.
Raydet manufactured by IDL Chemicals, is just like Nonel.
Raydet
Raydet is a non electric initiating device combining the
versatility and advantages of electric detonator and detonating cord. It
consists of a plastic tube carrying a very small quantity of explosive
material on its inner surface. A high strength no. 8 instantaneous or
delay detonator is crimped to one end of the raytube. When initiated, a
low order shock wave travels through the tube and initiates the
detonator. Raydet can be initiated by a detonator or a detonating cord.
A tag indicates the delay number of reydet and a tape fastening the
tube in a coil indicates the tube length. Length of tube varies from 3 m to 45 m. The delays are from no. 0
delay to no. 15 delay; No 0 delay is instantaneous. No. 1 delay is 50 ms and No. 15 delay is 625 ms.
When using the raydet, do not cut factory sealed end of ray tube and do not connect two raytubes.
One raytube will not initiate another.

Detonating Relays
In opencast workings, detonating relays using detonating fuse for initiation provide a non electric
delay firing system. This method avoids the electrical connections which are required when using delay
detonators. A detonating relay is essentially an assembly of two open-ended delay detonators coupled
together with flexible neoprene tubing in an aluminium sleeve suitable for crimping into a detonating fuse.

Inside the detonating relay, the construction is symmetrical with the delay element at either end so
that the detonation wave may pass in either direction. The delay interval for each detonating relay varies
from 15-45 millisecond. In use, the main or branch line of detonating fuse is cut at the point where a delay is
required, and the detonating relay is then crimped between the two cut ends of the line. By judicious
selection of the points at which the detonating relays are inserted, any delay firing sequence can be arranged
(fig. 8.3). Being non-electric in nature, detonating relays are insensitive to stray current and static electricity,

Cord relays
Delay detonating relays manufactured by IDL Chemicals are known by the trade name Cord Relays
A cord relay has a dia. of 11.5 mm and length of 152 mm. They are available with two delay periods,
15 ms and 25 ms.
Under the Explosives Rules, the various explosives and accessories are classified under the following
headings:
Class 1 — Gun powder.
Class 2 - Nitrate mixtures (e.g.-GN/l, Powerflo, Godyne, Pentadyne, etc.)
Class 3 — Nitro compounds, e.g. Blasting'Gelatine, Special Gelatine, O.C.G. permitted explosives,
Permex, Gelonite, Powex 80, TNT, gun cotton, PETN, etc.
Class 4 — Chlorate mixtures.
Class 5 — Fulminate.
Class 6 — Ammunition safety fuse, detonating fuse, detonators, delay detonator relays, etc.
Class 7 — Fireworks.
Class 8 — Liquid Oxygen Explosives

Circuit Tester
In electric shot firing before any attempt is made to fire the shots, the circuit is sometimes tested to
make sure that there is no open or short circuit. Such testing should be done by approved apparatus and it is
important that the current passed during testing should be limited, so that there is no possibility of accidental
explosion of the detonators. In addition, ail testing must be done from a safe place and safe distance from the
blast site.
An instrument to test continuity of an electric circuit for blasting is the bias to meter manufactured by
1DL chemicals Ltd. It is an electronic solid state circuit tester and is available in two ranges:
(a) 0 to 100 ohms for underground coal mines.
(b) 0 to 1000 ohms for other applications.

Crimper
A crimper is a pair of pliers to crimp or press the end of a plain detonator tube on a safety fuse
inserted into it so that the fuse cannot come out of the detonator. It is dangerous to crimp the lube end with
teeth.
Shot firing cables
During electric shot firing the leads for the detonator are connected to long shot firing cables (not less
than 30 m in length to fire the shots from a safe distance. The cables are twin-core and insulated to withstand
at least 250 V.
 Other accessories for shot firing include.
(i) Wooden stemming rod to stem the holes.
(ii) A wooden dolly weighted with lead or brass for deep holes in mechanised quarries.
(iii) A scraper made of brass to clean the holes and detect cracks.
(iv) A pricker made of brass, aluminium or wood to prick the cartridge prior to inserting the
detonator or detonating fuse.

Exploder
Electric shotfiring is safer, quicker, and more convenient than ordinary fuse firing by flame or
ignition as it provides safety to the shotfirer and his helpers. Tapping of electric power from lighting or
signalling lines is not permitted by the Regulations.
The portable apparatus which provides the current necessary for firing electric detonators is called an
exploder.
The types of exploders that are currently used in India Magneto (or Dynamo) Exploder
The magneto exploder consists essentially of a permanent steel magnet between the poles of which
revolves an armature rotated through gearing by rotary handle or by a rack and pinion. The value of the
voltage depends upon the speed at which the armature revolves and the flux created by the magnets. A low
tension exploder gives a voltage of about 15 volts. AH.T. exploder gives about 125 volts. The mangneto
exploder fires only 1 or 2 shots at a time with single shot exploder and upto 6 shots in series with a 6-shot
exploder.
The exploder for U/G coal mines should be intrinsically safe. The armature is actuated by a special
twist action detachable key -which should always be with the shotfirer.
Battery Condenser Exploder
The current is provided from a battery of 4 or more dry
primary cells connected in series, each giving an e.m.f. of 1.5 V
per cell. It is operated by a detachable key. Rotation of the handle
through half a revolution first winds up a time switch against the
tension of a spring and then trips the mechanism which is
controlled by a centrifugal governor so that the battery is
connected to the condenser during a predetermined interval of time
(a small fraction of a second). The Rhino exploder in the market is
an example of battery condenser exploder. It is battery operated
condenser discharge type exploder capable of firing upto 3 shots at
a time in Rhino 3 model (and upto 25 with Rhino-25) ; when using
the exploder, the two wires of shot firing cable are connected to
the terminals on the exploder. Insert key and rotate one step
clockwise. The action charges a 150 microfarad electrolytic
condenser and a small neon lamp glows very brightly. To fire, turn
key anti-clockwise to "Off' position. This action explodes the
detonator and also discharges the residual charge instantly. In
Rhino-25 the firing current is 1.5 amps, input D. C. volts 6, output
D.C. volts 600 and firing current duration 3-4 millisecond. The
exploder uses only one P—276 Eveready battery. (Fig. 8.4)
Rhino exploders are permitted only in degree 1 and 2
gassy mines of coal.
Fig. 8.4 Rhino exploder .
1. Terminals. 2. Neon Lamp. 3 Key.
Condenser Dynamo Exploder
These are manufactured by Narendra & Co., The machine is suitable for operations in places where
inflammable gas does not constitute a hazard. Three types are in the market.
CNT 50 to fire 50 detonators connected in series.
CNT 100 to fire 100 detonators in series.
CNT 200 to fire 200 detonators in series.

All the three are suitable where the circuit resistance is 160 ohms. The CNT-100 exploder has an
output voltage of 750 V. D.C. The duration of current impulse to the line varies from 5 to 6 milli-second. It
has got one visual neon indicating lamp to indicate that the exploder is ready to fire. To operate - connect the
shot firing cable to the exploder terminals. Place handle on to the unlocking shaft; rewind until the moon
light comes on and then fire; switch off and disconnect.

Transport and storage of explosives

A building where explosives and detonators are stored is called a Magazine. A magazine construction
has to be approved by the Inspector of Explosives and it has to be on a site which also needs his approval.
Certain safe distances are specified for the magazine site and they specify the minimum distance of
residential quarters, public roads, etc. from the magazine. These distances depend upon the capacity of the
magazine; larger capacity requires longer safe distances. Small magazines in the mine premises are
according to licence in Form J. Such a licence permits the magazine owner to store upto 45 kg of gun
powder, 5 kg. of
 other NG explosives, 200 detonators, 50 kg slurry explosives (nitrate mixture) and any quantity of safety
fuse. The large magazines in the mine premises are according to licence in Form L for storing high
explosives upto 25,000 kg and 2,00,000 detonators.
Under the Explosives Rules the following can be stored together in the same magazine:
Gunpowder (class 1), nitrate mixtures (class 2), nitro compounds (class 3), chlorate mixtures
(class
4) , safety fuse, plastic igniter chord and detonating fuse (all of class 6).

164. Transport of explosives. – (1) While explosives are being carried on a ladder, every case or container shall be
securely fastened to the person carrying it.
(2) No person other than a shotfirer shall carry any priming cartridge into a shaft which is in the course of being
sunk. No such cartridge shall be so carried except in a thick felt bag or other container sufficient to protect it from
shock.

1[164A. Transport of explosives in bulk – Where explosives are transported in bulk for deephole blasting the
provisions of this regulation shall apply.
(1) Transport of explosives from the magazine to the priming station or the site of blasting shall not be done except
in day light and in the original wooden or card board packing case. The quantity of explosive transported at one
time to the site of blasting shall not exceed the actual quantity required for use in one round of shots. The explosives
shall be transported to the site of blasting not more than 30 minutes before the commencement of charging of the
holes.
(2)(a) No mechanically propelled vehicle shall be used for the transport of explosives unless it is of a type approved
in writing by the Chief Inspector, provided that a Jeep or Land Rover may be used for the transport of detonators
from magazines of priming stations’ subject to all the following conditions :
(i) not more than 200 detonators are transported in a vehicle at a time;
(ii) the detonators are packed suitably in a wooden box;
(iii) the wooden box containing detonators is placed inside an outer metal case of a construction approved by the
Chief Inspector;
(iv) the outer metal case shall be suitably bolted to the floor of the vehicle or otherwise fixed in a wooden frame so
that the container is not displaced while the vehicle is in motion; and
(v) no person shall ride on the rear portion of the vehicle.
(b) Every vehicle used for the transport of explosives shall be marked or placarded, on both sides and ends, with the
word '‘EXPLOSIVES’ in red letters not less than 15 centimetres high on a white background.
(c) Every mechanically propelled vehicle transporting explosives shall be provided with not less than two fire
extinguishers (one of Carbon Tetra Chloride type for petroleum fire and the other of Carbon Dioxide under pressure
type for electrical fire) suitably placed for immediate use.
(3)(a) The vehicle used for transport of explosives shall not be overloaded, and in no case shall the explosive cases
be piled higher than the sides of its body.
(b) Explosives and detonators shall not be transported in the same vehicle.
(4)(a) No person other than the driver and his helper (not below 18 years of age) shall ride on a mechanically
propelled vehicle used for the transport of explosives.
(b) A vehicle loaded with explosives shall not be left unattended.
(c) The engine of a vehicle transporting explosives shall be stopped and the brakes set securely before it is loaded/or
unloaded or left standing.
(d) A vehicle transporting explosives shall not be driven at a speed exceeding 25 Kilometres per hour.
(e) A vehicle loaded with explosives shall not be taken into garage or repair shop and shall not be parked in a
congested place.
(f) A vehicle transporting explosives shall not be refuelled except in emergencies even when its engine shall be
stopped and other precautions taken to prevent accidents.
(g) No trailer shall be attached to a vehicle transporting explosives.
(5)(a) Every vehicle used for the transport of explosives shall be carefully inspected once in every 24 hours by a
competent person, to ensure that :
(i) fire extinguishers are filled and in place;
(ii) the electric wiring is well insulated and firmly secured;
(iii) the chasis, engine and body are clean and free from surplus oil and grease;
(iv) the fuel tank and feed lines are not leaking; and
(v) lights, brakes and steering mechanism are in good working order.
(b) A report of every inspection made under sub-clause (a) shall be recorded in a bound paged book kept for the
purpose and shall be signed and dated by the competent persons making the inspection.
(6) All operations connected with the transport of explosives shall be conducted under the personal supervision of
an overman solely placed in charge of blasting operations at the mine.
(7) The shotfirer shall personally search every persons engaged in the transport and use of explosives and shall
satisfy himself that no person so engaged has in his possession any cigar, cigarette, ‘biri’ or other smoking materials
or any match or any other apparatus of any kind capable of producing a light, flame or spark.
 Procedure for establishing a magazine
An application in form 'C' and 'D' should be made to the Regional Controller of Explosives together
with six copies of site plan and magazine constructional details. He will forward all the documents to Chief
Controller of Explosives (CCE). CCE will then issue a form 'E' plus a draft copy of the licence 'L' and will
also pass one copy of site plan to District Magistrate who will issue a 'No Objection Certificate'. Based on
this, CCE will allow the applicant to proceed ahead with the construction of the magazine and also issue a
licence in form 'L'. On completion of the building the Regional Controller will inspect the magazine and
endorse the licence which must be renewed annually.

Fig. 8.4 B. Portable explosive magazine; capacities vary from 100 kg to 500 kg.
Outer steel shell 5 mm thick.
A portable magazine requires a licence from the Chief Controller of Explosives. It should be located
on a ground about 5 m x 2m keeping the following safe distances:
(i) From all buildings, huts, places of worship, offices, houses, schools, factories, etc................95 m.
(ii) From all roads, river walls, market, playground, etc...............................................................48 m.
(iii) From overhead high tension electric line.................................................................................91 m.

Deterioration in quality during storage

The chemical composition of explosives may change slightly after storage under humid and hot
conditions. The explosive may become insensitive to detonation or unsafe to use if the change in chemical
composition is excessive. At the mines no laboratory tests are carried out to decide the extent of
deterioration, but visual examination is the only guide. When the wrapper of a gelatinous nitro-glycerine
explosive is removed carefully an explosive in a good state would permit the wrapper to come off cleanly
from the cartridge and there would be no evidence of discoloration, incrustation,-softening or exudation of
liquid in the explosive itself. A gelatinous explosive slightly darkens during storage, particularly at the ends
due to absorption of moisture from the air. Such discoloration is usually accompanied by softening and
dampening of the explosives. The moisture absorbed by the explosive may cause a white incrustation of
ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate on a gelatinous explosive. A higher degree of deterioration is indicated
by exudation of nitro-glycerine or aqueous solutions of sodium or ammonium nitrate and the cartridges
becoming too plastic. Such explosive should not be used but destroyed.
Powdery nitro-glycerine explosives deteriorate much faster than the gelatinous quality as the former
absorb moisture more readily. The deterioration is indicated by discoloration at the ends, softening and
dampness. If there is any exudation of liquid the cartridges should be destroyed.
Ammonium nitrate explosives mixed with T.N.T cake and become solid due to absorption of moisture
during storage. If the cartridges become so solid that they cannot break easily between the finger and the
thumb, they should not be used but destroyed.
Slurry / water gel / emulsion explosives — Deterioration of slurry explosives is usually indicated by a
breakdown of the gel into separate liquid and solid components. It may also appear as hardening of the
explosive cartridge. Cartridges may also be swollen or distorted and salts in the composition may crystallise
on the outside.
Detonators — Detonators showing signs of corrosion of the tubes are dangerous and must not be
used; this applies particularly to plain detonators.
Detonating cords — Almost the only cause of deterioration or desensitization of detonating cords is
moisture penetration into the explosive core. Prolonged exposure to sunlight may cause the plastic outer
coating to become brittle.

Destruction of unserviceable explosives

Explosives which have become unserviceable for blasting should be destroyed and never dumped into
a garbage heap. It is a sound policy to seek expert advice from the manufacturers for methods of destroying
explosives. Always assume that burning an explosive for destruction may change to detonation. The methods
adopted for destroying are as follows.
Gunpowder — It should he thrown into water, preferably hot water, which dissolves out the-saltpetre
and renders the explosive harmless.
Ammonium nitrate explosives — These are hygroscopic and may be buried in a damp ditch where
they become harmless with the absorption of moisture. Or they may be destroyed by drowning in a large
volume of water.
Explosives with nitro-glycerine — Not more than 25 kg of explosives should be destroyed at a time. A
clear space of ground free from dry grass, about 100 m all around, should be selected and a line of shavings
of dry straw or grass lay down. On this the cartridges should be placed in a continuous line not more that two
abreast with the cartridge wrappers below them and with art interval of about 25 mm between two cartridges.
The line of shavings of straw or grass should extend some distance, say 6 m, beyond the explosives.
Kerosene should then be sprinkled over the shavings of straw or grass. The straw should be lit with a short
length of safety fuse and the operator should withdraw immediately to a safe distance. The direction of wind
should be given due consideration when burning the straw.
The degree of containment caused by the cartridge wrappers in high ex-plosives is sometimes
sufficient to cause explosion. It is, therefore, essential to open the wrappers and unroll them.
Safety fuse — It should be destroyed by burning in length in the open under suitable precautions.
Detonators — They should be thrown into a deep river or alternatively, they may be soaked in
mineral oil for 48 hours and then destroyed, one at a time under suitable precautions, by burning.
When destroying explosives do not select a stony site where burning or detonation could create
situation of flying stones during destruction.

Liquid Oxygen Explosives

Oxygen gas liquefies at—183°C. A given volume of liquid
oxygen, when gaseous, is equivalent to 840 times at N.T.P. i.e. it has as
much oxygen as would be available from 4000 times its volume of
atmospheric air. If a combustible ingredient, made in the form of a
cartridge, is soaked in liquid oxygen and then subjected to reaction of
combustion, the reaction takes place with such terrific speed that large
volume of gas is instantaneously released at high temperature so as to
cause explosion. The velocity of detonation under suitable conditions of
confinement can be faster than 5000 m/sec. This is the principle behind
the use of liquid oxygen (LOX) as explosive.
LOX is used for removal of overburden as well as mineral in the
quarries of coal as well as metalliferous mines. But its use is prohibited in
underground coal mines. LOX is marketed by Indian Oxygen Ltd. in
cartridges of two types.
(i) Small cartridges of dia. 25 mm to 90 mm
(ii) Large cartridges of dia. over 100 mm upto 210 mm
For small as well as large cartridges there is a "standard" cartridge. For small group the standard
cartridge is 38 mm dia. x 300 mm long. The standard cartridge of large group is called "Full cartridge" and it
is 190 mm dia x 600 mm long. The other cartridges are specified in terms of volume of the standard
cartridge. In blasting performance, a full cartridge of LOX according to LOX dealers and results in the field,
is considered equivalent to 18 kg of conventional explosives.
For those areas where the demand of liquid oxygen is heavy, the Indian Oxygen Ltd. has established
central depots equipped with storage tanks and other arrangements of preparing LOX cartridges to be
supplied to consumers about, an hour or two before charging into blast holes. Such depots are at Bermo,
Kathara, Lohardaga, and centrally located centres in mining areas. Liquid oxygen is transported from
factories in special vessels on trucks.
A LOX cartridge ready for blasting is prepared at the depots by soaking an absorbent cartridge in
liquid oxygen. The basic ingredient of an absorbent cartridge is a cellulosic substance like crushed jute-stalk
or other agricultural product though other substances such as hydrocarbons or metallic powders are used to
impart to the soaked cartridge the properties of an industrial explosive. The absorbent cartridge for use in
coal contains a special composition called "Loxite-C", with a view to reduce the temperature-of the gaseous
products after the blasting and such cartridges for use in coal are -called LOX-C. The absorbent cartridge
consists of the above ingredients wrapped in paper covered by cloth. Loxite factory at Ranchi manufactures
absorbent cartridges which are kept in stock at the depots. LOX cartridges are not stored in colliery
magazines, but are supplied by depots on 2 to 3 hours' prior intimation of the exact requirement for blasting.
For small consumers within 300 km of oxygen factories liquid oxygen, is supplied in special
containers of 26 litres by train. During transit some evaporation, 5 to 10%, does take place. The small
consumers have to obtain loxite absorbent cartridges, soaking boxes and other equipment to prepare LOX
cartridges on the spot. Only small cartridges are prepared at the quarries in this manner for use in holes
drilled by jack hammers or wagon drills.
LOX cartridges are inflammable and the flow of gaseous oxygen emanating from a cartridge will
cause smouldering material, glowing coals, and cigarette stubs to burst into flames. LOX should therefore be
kept away from such burning or smouldering material.
Characteristics of LQX are not constant. It depends much on the time that has elapsed between
removal from the soaking vessels and firing. It is therefore not possible to specify the weight strength of
LOX cartridge. LOX does not require a booster for blasting.
The LOX cartridges should be used in the field without delay {within half an hour in the case of large
cartridges) to prevent loss of absorbed liquid oxygen. Grease or oil should not come in contact with the
cartridges at any stage. If the oxygen of a LOX cartridge evaporates, the absorbent cartridge can be used
again to prepare LOX cartridge at the depot. The ‘Life’ of a LOX cartridge in open is about one hour i.e. its
full blasting power is available when used within that period but diminishes gradually after that period. The
"Life" however, considerably increases in the confinement of the hole. The cartridge loses its oxygen by
gradual evaporation if it comes in contact with water. For use in watery holes only H-type cartridges
wrapped in a polythene bag before lowering in the hole should be used. The toe will not be sufficiently
loosened if LOX is used without such precautions in watery holes.
LOX can be fired with or without the help of a detonator. A hole charged with LOX can be fired with
safety fuse alone like gunpowder. In small-hole blasting, detonators are not much used as safety fuse is
economic. Holes deeper than 3 m are fired by a detonating fuse.
Blasting practice in opencast mines
Efficient blasting should give such rock fragmentation as to eliminate the need for secondary blasting.
The fragmented rock should be easily handled by the bucket of the shovel. For mineral which has to go to
crushers, the size should not be more than the, input size for
primary crusher.
Quantity of explosive consumption
The volume of rock broken by explosive is given by
the following formula
Rock blasted per hole (solid m3) — depth of hole x
burden x spacing.
Rock blasted by a round of holes = depth x burden x
spacing x number of holes in the round
The following table gives an idea of explosive
consumption in quarries (O.CG. or 80% special gelatine) for
various rocks under Indian conditions (Solid m3).

Fig. 8.19. S-Spacing; B-Burden

Rock Explosive consumption kg/m3
1. Bituminous coal 0.1
2. Medium hard shales, sandstones, gypsum 0.2
3. Sandy shales, sandstone 0.3
4. Massive sandstone, limestone, laterite 0.4
5. Very hard shales, marbles, dolomites,
limestones, magnesites, hematite 0.5
6. Extremely hard limestone, conglomerate 0.7
7. Gneiss, granite, amphibolite, schist 0.9-1

Depth and pattern of blast holes

The depth of vertical blast holes in coal is generally equal to the height of the bench. In hard rock,
like sandstone, laterite, hematite, etc. the depth should be 0.5 to 1 m deeper below the level of bench floor.
This loosens the toe. In any case, the hole should terminate in hard rock and not in the soft one; otherwise
the force of explosive is wasted.
Burden is the minimum distance from the face to the blast hole (the berm usually refers to burden at
the top of the face).
Toe is the projection of the bottom of a face beyond the crest. Sometimes the bottom edge of the
bench is referred to as toe.
In hard rocks like laterite and hematite the spacing and burden vary from 0.3 to 0.4 times the height of
bench. In less hard rocks like coal and sandstone, the spacing and burden vary from 0.5 to 0.8 times the
height of bench. The exact dimensions depend upon the hole diameter, type of explosive used, type of the
rock, nature of rock consolidation and the angle of cleats or laminations with the blast hole.

Preparation of primer cartridge and charging blast holes.

For blasting with detonating fuse the primer cartridge of a booster, O.C.G. and similar gelatinous or
semi-gelatinous explosive is prepared by pricking a through hole in it, 10-15 cm below the top with a brass or
aluminium pricker and threading detonating fuse through it. A knot is made at the end of the fuse in contact
with the cartridge to prevent the former from coming out. In the case of LOX, to prepare a primer cartridge
no hole is pierced in the cartridge but the detonating fuse is coiled at the neck of the cartridge in the form of a
loose knot so that some length of the fuse is in intimate contact with the explosive along its length. Aquadyne
and Superdyne slurry explosives which are in the form of cartridges closed at both ends by strong rubber
bands can be made as primer cartridges by tying a detonating fuse round the cartridge. The short length of
fuse at the knot end can be inserted into a small hole pierced in the cartridge by a pricker. The slurry is
viscous enough not to flow out of the, small hole.
The primer cartridge is always placed at the bottom of the hole in case of blasting with O.C.G. and
similar explosives and also in case of LOX, ANFO, and slurry explosives. It is generally lowered by the
detonating fuse tied to it. LOX partridges have a loop of copper wire round the neck. A self detaching hook is
attached to the "copper wire loop and the cartridge lowered in the hole. After the cartridge rests in its place in
the hole the self detaching hook comes out of the copper wire loop when the rope is slack. Cartridges of other
explosives including ANFO or slurry explosive are dropped or lowered into the hole. ANFO mixture or
slurry which is not in the form of cartridges is poured into the hole. In the case of ANFO or slurry explosive a
few cartridges of booster or O.C.G. in the middle of the total explosive column or at the top is essential for
good blasting performance. The quantity of O.C.G. or other explosive as booster in the total explosive
column if ANFO or slurry explosive is used is nearly 15-20%.
Deck loading i.e. separating the explosive charges into sections by
placing a column of stemming between groups of cartridges is a useful
technique for obtaining better rock fragmentation especially where soft and hard
rock are encountered in alternate layers. A primer cartridge is placed at the deck
charge also and the detonating fuse of bottom-most primer cartridge is threaded
through the primer cartridge of the deck charge. (Fig. 8.20)
The drill cuttings in overburden are used for stemming after moistening
them with water. The stemming is packed by tampers or a wooden tamping
dolly.
LOX cartridges, if they have to be used in watery holes, should be
enclosed in polythene bags before lowering. After LOX cartridges are lowered
in the hole, sand bags are slipped on top of them to anchor them at the bottom of
the hole and to prevent them from floating to the surface as liquid oxygen
evaporates. The hole is then completely stemmed by overburden cuttings. Gas
bubbling through the water should not distract attention as the blasting
efficiency is not affected if blasting is performed within a reasonable time.
The detonating fuse is cut after leaving nearly 1 m length outside the
hole for attachment to trunk line of fuse. The connections of detonating fuse of
the blast hole with trunk line are shown in fig. 8.21. Where two or more rows of
blast holes are to be fired in one round, delay detonators are used. Short delay
detonators or millisecond detonators give good fragmentation and reduce ground
vibrations, the-latter advantage being important where
quarries are situated near areas having buildings and costly
engine foundations.
The blasted rock pieces in mechanised quarries fly
upto 300 m. All the workers within 300 m of the blasting
site .should withdraw to safe places. Warning is given by
the shotfirer half an hour before the blasting and again 5
minutes before the blasting by an electric siren, or
alternatively by a bugle. All the machinery like shovels,
drills etc. should be withdrawn to a place where it is not
likely to be damaged by blasted rock or should be suitably
protected. The heavy blasting in mechanised quarries
should take place during rest interval of workers.
The electrical circuit of detonators is tested for
continuity by a circuit tester which is essentially a
galvanometer. When everything is in order, the cable from
detonator leads is connected to an exploder and the
explosives are blasted from a protected place.
Pump-truck arrangement of Maharashtra Explosives Ltd., for SMS System
In opencast mining where blasting is on a large scale, the SMS system, is adopted as a standard
practice, involving use of specially designed pump-trucks for transport to the blasting site ingredients
required for SMS System. The Site-Mixed Slurry System (SMS), basically comprises a mother support plant
where an intermediate non-explosive slurry is, initially, prepared for SMS application. This intermediate
slurry subsequently, is transferred to a 10-te capacity stainless steel tank mounted on a 18-te capacity, three-
axled 'Ashok Leyland' chassis, suitable for off-highway applications.
On rear side of the pump-truck, two small stainless steel tanks of 150-litres capacity each, are
mounted which store cross-linker and sensitizer solutions. Each of these tanks is connected to a stainless
steel screw pump powered by a hydraulic motor. The intermediate slurry, cross-linker and sensitizer are
simultaneously fed onto a mixing hopper at a pre-calibrated rate, wherefrom it is pumped into blast-holes
with the help of a progressive cavity stainless steel pump. The pump delivery is connected to a 15m long,
static-charge-resistant chemical hose of 50mm diameter. All the control, check, relief and regulating valves
for the hydraulic fluid are mounted at the rear end of the chassis in a control console.
For safety consideration, all storage vessels are made of stainless steel. The discharge hose is
antistatic. The exhaust pipe is fitted with a flame-arrestor and a fire screen is provided separating the main
body of the pump truck and the cabin.

Computer blasting model: The latest technique in blast design is to use computer simulations which take
into account rock properties, blast geometry and explosive characteristics. One such computer model is
SABREX, marketed by 1CI (India) Ltd. SABREX stands for 'Scientific' Approach to Breaking Rock with
Explosives. The essential requirement for running Sabrex simulations is:
1. Five rock properties; Density, Young's Modulus, Poisson's ratio, compressive strength and
tensile strength.
2. Explosive characteristics like shock energy, gas energy VOD, detonation pressure, density, etc.
A companion programme called CPeX— Commercial Performance of Explosives — calculates
these properties for a given composition and density.
3. Blast geometry in terms of hole diameter, bench height, burden, spacing, charge, stemming, delay
pattern, etc.
Given these inputs, SABREX predicts fragment size analysis, throw, muck pile profile, damage
envelope, fly rock and cost of drilling blasting. The results are displayed in colour graphics and tabulations.
The blasting engineer can experiment with adjustments to many factors in a computer safety and achieve
results of practical benefit.
1. SABREX accommodates variations of input to all elements of the blast design.
2. SABREX crack pattern is a view of the cracks extending from each bore hole
yielding information on fragmentation, delay periods and back break.
3. SABREX gives a picture of back break damage.
4. SABREX calculates fragmentation in terms of the percentage of passing size.
5. SABREX calculates ‘heave’ and builds muck pile profile to assist in subsequent digging
operations.

0
Secondary blasting
Secondary blasting is carried out in two ways:—
1. Pop shooting.
2. Plaster shooting.
Pop Shooting. A hole is drilled by jackhammer for charging with explosive and blasting the boulder.
Normally a depth of 0.3 to 0.6 m is sufficient for most of the boulder sizes. The explosive, widely used, is
special gelatine in conjunction with safety fuse or detonators.
Plaster Shooting. A charge of explosive consisting of either a single primed cartridge or a few
cartridges is laid on the surface of the boulder. It is then covered with a shovelful of plastic clay which is
pressed into position by hand. It is advantageous to wet the surface of the stone before plastering and the clay
should be well pressed down for good contact with stone round the explosive. Special gelatine, or Ajax G,
can be used for the blasting. I.E.L. has developed an explosive known as "Plaster Gelatine" for this purpose.
It is a high Velocity, high strength, gelatine type explosive suitable for such work. Piaster gelatine is not in
the regular products of I.E.L. but can be available on request. I.O.L. also markets a LOX cartridge which is
used for contact blasting.
In plaster shooting the explosive charge used is about four times that required for pop shooting.
The object of secondary blasting is to break oversize boulders produced during the first or primary
blasting to a size suitable for loading.

o0o-