Ancient times

A. Sumerians
● Cuneiform - The Sumerians developed one of the earliest writing systems known as cuneiform
around 3200 BCE. This system involved using wedge-shaped characters impressed into clay
tablets, which facilitated record-keeping, administration, and communication.
- The invention of the first writing system known as cuneiform is one of the Sumerians'
main contributions. It is a device that makes use of word representations and triangular
symbols carved on clay using wedge instruments and left to dry. Cuneiform enabled the
Sumerians to keep records of historically important items, or their daily lives.

● Sailboat - Before they invented the wheel, the main mode of transportation for the Sumerians
is through the use of waterways like rivers and seas. The boats were used to carry large quantities of
product and cover large distances.

● Wheel- Sumerians are credited with the invention of the wheel around 3500 BCE. The wheel
revolutionized transportation, making it easier to move goods and people, and paved the way
for technological advancements such as wheeled vehicles and pottery wheels.
- The Sumerians have been able to invent the wheel in the latter part of their history, as
the advanced tools required to build it were already available. The first wheels were not
designed for transport but mass manufacturing with the use of the wheel and axle.
Farmers managed to mill grain in less time with less effort.

● Irrigation Systems- In the fertile but arid lands of Mesopotamia, Sumerians developed
sophisticated irrigation systems to control the flow of water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
These systems enabled efficient agricultural practices and contributed to the growth of urban
centers

● Plow - Another farm technology that the Sumerians invented to ease the hardship of farming is
the plow. The plow is intended to dig the ground where the seeds need to grow thereby enabling
farmers to cultivate large parcels of land faster and with relative ease.

● Roads - The need for faster and easier travels led to the Sumerians developing the first roads.
They first paved the ground with sunbaked bricks and later replaced this method by pouring
bitumen, a sticky substance similar to that of modern asphalt.

● Urbanization- Sumerians built some of the world's earliest cities, such as Uruk and Ur, around
4000 BCE. Their urban centers featured monumental architecture, organized streets, and
complex social structures, laying the foundation for later urban developments.
● Ziggurats - Sumerians had a complex pantheon of gods and goddesses, and their religious
practices influenced later Mesopotamian cultures. They built temples called ziggurats, where
rituals and offerings were performed, and developed elaborate myths and rituals.

● Trade Networks - Sumerians engaged in extensive trade networks, exchanging goods such as
grains, textiles, and metals with neighboring regions. This facilitated cultural exchange and
economic development, stimulating technological innovation and urban growth.
 ● Epic of Gilgamesh - Sumerians produced a rich literary tradition, including epic poems such as
the "Epic of Gilgamesh," one of the earliest surviving works of literature. These texts explored
themes of heroism, mortality, and the human condition, shaping later literary traditions.

B. Babylonian - 
Babylonian Civilization known as Babylonia, it was a state in ancient Mesopotamia. The city of Babylon,
whose ruins are located in present-day Iraq, was founded more than 4,000 years ago as a small port town on
the Euphrates River. It grew into one of the largest cities of the ancient world under the rule of Hammurabi.
Several centuries later, a new line of kings established a Neo-Babylonian Empire that spanned from the
Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. During this period, Babylon became a city of beautiful and lavish
buildings. Biblical and archaeological evidence point toward the forced exile of thousands of Jews to Babylon
around this time.

BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION
Babylonian civilization near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Babylonians were great builders,
engineers, and architects. One of their major contributions is the hanging gardens of Babylon, one of
the 7 wonders in the ancient world.

• HANGING GARDENS was said to be a structure made up of layers upon layers of gardens that
contained several species of plants, trees, and vines.
• According to legends, the great Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II built the gardens for his wife,
Queen Amytis. However, no physical evidence has been found to prove the existence of the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon.
● Hanging Gardens of Babylon One of their major contributions was the hanging gardens of
Babylon, which is considered today as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

● Metalwork The Babylonians were able to obtain different metal alloys with which they used to
produce tools, weapons, and elements of decorative and utilitarian character such as metal
sculptures. They also mastered techniques such as granulation, of fine appearance and variety,
as well as the system of embossing metal.

● Hammurabi’s Code - Hammurabi, the sixth king of the Babylonian Empire, established a
comprehensive legal code known as Hammurabi’s Code. Written in cuneiform on a large stone
pillar, it consisted of 282 laws that governed different aspects of Babylonian society. The code
covered a wide range of topics, including criminal justice, property rights, commercial
transactions, family law, and labor regulations. Hammurabi aimed to ensure fairness and
maintain social order within his empire.
Hammurabi’s Code influenced later legal systems and played a crucial role in shaping the
principles of justice and punishment.

● Mathematics - Babylonians developed an advanced system of mathematics, including the use

of a base-60 positional numeral system, which laid the foundation for modern arithmetic and
geometry.
Babylonian mathematicians employed tables and algorithms to solve equations, calculate areas,
and work with fractions. Their knowledge of mathematics influenced subsequent civilizations,
such as the Greeks, who adopted and expanded upon Babylonian mathematical concepts.
 ● Astronomy - Babylonians were skilled astronomers who made precise observations of celestial
phenomena. They developed the first known comprehensive calendar, based on lunar cycles,
and tracked the movements of the planets and stars, contributing to the development of
astrology and aiding navigation.
● Astrology- Babylonians played a crucial role in the development of astrology, believing that
celestial events and the positions of celestial bodies influenced human affairs. Their astrological
texts became influential throughout the ancient world.

● Calendar system - The Babylonians devised a complex calendar system based on lunar
cycles. Their calendar, known as the Babylonian calendar or the lunisolar calendar, consisted of
12 lunar months, with each month beginning at the first sighting of the new moon.
To align the lunar calendar with the solar year, they introduced intercalary periods, additional
months inserted periodically.
The Babylonian calendar aimed to maintain synchronization with agricultural and religious
events. It influenced the development of subsequent calendars in the region, including the
Hebrew calendar.

● Construction of ziggurats - The Babylonians were renowned for their architectural

achievements, particularly the construction of ziggurats. Ziggurats were massive stepped towers
that served as religious temples and centers of worship.
These structures were built using baked bricks and had multiple tiers, each receding in size as
they ascended.
The ziggurats had a central sanctuary at the top, where religious rituals and offerings were
made to the deities. The most famous example is the Temple of Marduk in Babylon, known as
the Etemenanki, which was considered a sacred site and a symbol of the city’s power and
religious devotion.
● Utilization of cuneiform writing - The Babylonians utilized cuneiform writing, one of the
earliest known writing systems. They developed an extensive body of written records,
encompassing various genres such as literature, legal texts, administrative documents, religious
texts, and scientific treatises.
Cuneiform involved impressing wedge-shaped marks onto clay tablets using a stylus.
Babylonian scribes were highly skilled in writing and interpreting cuneiform, allowing them to
document historical events, preserve cultural heritage, and transmit knowledge across
generations.
The decipherment of cuneiform texts has provided valuable insights into the Babylonian
civilization and its contributions to various fields of knowledge.

Medicine- Babylonians made advancements in medical knowledge, documenting various

illnesses and treatments in medical texts. They developed diagnostic methods and herbal
remedies, laying the groundwork for later medical practices.

C. Egyptians
● PAPER OF PAPYRUS. A welcome advancement was the Egyptian discovery of a paper or
papyrus. Papyrus was a plant in Egypt which grew abundantly along the river Nile. They were
able to process the plant to create thin sheets that one could write stuff down on. Because
papyrus was lighter and thinner than clay tablets, the carrying and storage was simple.
● HIEROGLYPHICS. Like the Sumerians, the Egyptians also established a writing system that
used symbols, known as hieroglyphics. Some claim that hieroglyphics were adapted from the
 early writing system that formed by Mesopotamia as a result of trade between civilization. The
Egyptians claimed that their gods provided this writing system to them. Hieroglyphics was a
language which tells the modern world of the ancient Egyptians' history and culture. Their
documents were well-preserved as they were carved at pyramid walls and other important
structures of Egyptians.
● Ink Due to the invention of paper, engraving in stone is no longer used and was replaced by the
usage of ink in writing. Egyptians made ink by combining soot with different chemicals to
produce ink of different colours
● Hieroglyphic It is the Egyptian system of writing that uses symbols. It is said to have been
adapted from the writing systems of Mesopotamia due to trading. Egyptians believe that
hieroglyphics are given to them by their gods. Their records are well preserved since they were
carved in the walls of the pyramids and other important Egyptian structures.
- Ancient Egyptians developed one of the earliest writing systems known as hieroglyphs,
consisting of pictorial symbols representing objects, sounds, or concepts. This system
facilitated record-keeping, communication, and the preservation of knowledge.
● Cosmetics Egyptians invented cosmetics called ‘kohl’ for health, wellness, and superstitious
purposes. Kohl is created by mixing soot or malachite with the mineral Galena. They would put
kohl around their eyes to prevent and even cure eye diseases. They believe that it can also be
used as a protection from evil as beauty for them is a sign of holiness.
● Wig Back in Ancient Egypt, wigs were used for health and wellness purposes compared to its
aesthetic purpose in modern day. Wigs were used to protect the heads of the wealthy Egyptians
from the rays of the sun and to prevent head lice.
● Water Clock The Egyptians invented the water clock which made use of gravity and water to
enable them to measure time. It was widely used as a timekeeping device during the ancient
times.