What is vibration?

Vibration is the movement or mechanical oscillation about an

equilibrium position of a machine or component. It can be periodic,
such as the motion of a pendulum, or random, such as the movement
of a tire on a gravel road. Vibration can be expressed in metric units
(m/s2) or units of gravitational constant “g,” where 1 g = 9.81 m/s 2. An
object can vibrate in two ways: free vibration and forced vibration.

How do you measure vibration?

Vibration is most commonly measured using a ceramic piezoelectric sensor or
accelerometer. An accelerometer is a sensor that measures the dynamic
acceleration of a physical device as a voltage. Accelerometers are full-contact
transducers typically mounted directly on high-frequency elements, such as
rolling-element bearings, gearboxes, or spinning blades. These versatile sensors
can also be used in shock measurements (explosions and failure tests) and
slower, low-frequency vibration measurements. The benefits of an accelerometer
include linearity over a wide frequency range and a large dynamic range.

Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an efficient algorithm used to compute a discrete
Fourier transform (DFT). This Fourier transform outputs vibration amplitude as a
function of frequency so that the analyzer can understand what is causing the vibration.
The frequency resolution in an FFT is directly proportional to the signal length and
sample rate. To improve the resolution the time of the recording must be extended; but
be careful of a changing vibration environment.

How is machine vibration described?

Amplitude describes the severity of vibration, and frequency describes the oscillation
rate of vibration (how frequently an object vibrates). Together, amplitude and
frequency of vibration provide a basis for identifying the root cause of vibration.
What is Amplitude?
The amplitude of vibration is the magnitude of vibration.

A machine with large vibration amplitude is one that experiences large, fast, or forceful
vibratory movements. The larger the amplitude, the more movement or stress is
experienced by the machine, and the more prone the machine is to damage.

Vibration amplitude is thus an indication of the severity of vibration.

In general, the severity or amplitude of vibration relates to:

(a) the size of the vibratory movement

(b) the speed of the movement

(c) the force associated with the movement

In most situations it is the speed or velocity amplitude of a machine that gives the most
useful information about the condition of the machine.

What is velocity? Velocity is simply speed measured in a particular direction, as shown

below.
Velocity amplitude can be expressed in terms of its peak value, or what is known as its
root-mean-square value.

The peak velocity amplitude of a vibrating machine is simply the maximum (peak)
vibration speed attained by the machine in a given time period, as shown below.

In contrast to the peak velocity amplitude, the root-mean-square velocity amplitude of a

vibrating machine tells us the vibration energy in the machine. The higher the vibration
energy, the higher the root-mean-square velocity amplitude.

The term 'root-mean-square' is often shortened to 'rms'. It is useful to remember that the
rms amplitude is always lower than the peak amplitude.
How do we decide whether the peak amplitude or the rms amplitude is to be used? It is
really a matter of personal choice. However, it is essential to always use the same
amplitude type when making comparisons.

Velocity amplitude, whether peak or rms, is always expressed with a unit. Listed below
are two commonly used velocity amplitude units. (Some vibration analysts prefer the
logarithmic amplitude unit adB. However, discussion on logarithmic scales and units is
beyond the scope of this article.)

What is Frequency?

A vibrating machine component oscillates, that is, it goes through repeated cycles of
movement. Depending on the force causing the vibration, a machine component may
oscillate rapidly or slowly.

The rate at which a machine component oscillates is called its oscillation or vibration
frequency. The higher the vibration frequency, the faster the oscillation.

You can determine the frequency of a vibrating component by counting the number of
oscillation cycles that are completed every second. For example, a component going
through 5 vibration cycles every second is said to be vibrating at a frequency of 5 cycles
per second. As shown below, one cycle of a signal is simply one complete sequence of
the shortest pattern that characterizes the signal.

Just as a person's pulse rate or frequency indicates the person's state of excitement or
general health condition, the vibration rate or frequency of a machine component is
often a useful indicator of the condition of the machine.
Frequency, as with amplitude, is always expressed with a unit.

Commonly used frequency units are cps (cycles per second), Hz (Hertz), and cpm
(cycles per minute). Hertz is a unit equivalent to 'cycles per second'. One Hz is equal to
one cps (one cycle per second), or 60 cpm (60 cycles per minute).
Sample Spectrogram of vibration:

How is the Accelerometer Mounted?

Most machines involve rotary mechanisms. Motors, pumps, compressors, fans, belt
conveyors, gearboxes, all involve rotary mechanisms and are frequently used in
machines.

Most rotary mechanisms in turn have bearings that support the weight of rotating parts
and bear the forces associated with rotary motion and vibration. In general, large
amounts of force are borne by bearings. It is not surprising that bearings are often the
place where damage occurs and where symptoms first develop.

Vibration measurements are thus usually taken at the bearings of machines, with
accelerometers mounted at or near the bearings.
Since conclusions regarding machine condition - and hence whether or not money and
human safety are risked - depend on the accuracy of measurements, we must be very
careful how measurements are taken. It is important to always remember that the way in
which we mount the accelerometer very much determines the accuracy of
measurements.

How should accelerometers be mounted to ensure measurements are accurate and how
can we do so safely? Here are some guidelines:

(a) Mount as Close as Possible to the Bearing

Imagine a doctor who listened to your heart through thick clothing and placed the
stethoscope closer to your kidney than to your heart. You would likely doubt his
diagnosis as he would be basing it on sounds distorted by undue obstruction and noise
from other organs.

When measuring vibration we must always attach the accelerometer as close as possible
to the bearing. More specifically, we must attach it as close as possible to the centerline
of the bearing to avoid picking up distorted signals.
(b) Make Sure the Accelerometer is Firmly Attached

For the accelerometer to detect true vibration behavior, it needs to undergo exactly the
same vibratory movement as the vibrating component. An accelerometer must therefore
be attached firmly to the vibrating component so that it does not rock or move
independently of the component. A loosely mounted accelerometer produces signals
distorted by its own independent movements and therefore gives the wrong message.

Various mounting methods exist, but mounting by means of a magnet is the most
popular as it offers a balance between measurement reliability and convenience to the
user. The magnetic mounting supplied in the Commtest vb kit can be attached very
firmly5 , while allowing the user to measure multiple machines using the same
accelerometer, with minimum time spent on attaching and detaching the accelerometer.

To ensure that the accelerometer is firmly attached, it must be stuck to a magnetic

mounting surface this is even. The magnetic mount must sit securely on the surface with
the accelerometer positioned in the prescribed orientation.
For the surface to be even, it must be free of debris, rust, and flaking paint.

The mounting surface must be truly magnetic (iron, nickel, or cobalt alloys). The
magnetic mounting must not, for example, be attached to an aluminum surface by
virtue of iron beneath the aluminum surface.

To avoid loss of magnetism, the magnetic mounting must not be dropped or heated.
Care must also be taken not to strip the screw thread on the accelerometer and
magnetic mounting.

(c) Make Sure the Accelerometer is Oriented Correctly

Different situations require the accelerometer to be oriented differently. For example, to

detect parallel misalignment the accelerometer is usually mounted in the radial direction
of the bearings, but to detect angular misalignment the accelerometer needs to be
mounted in the axial direction.

The signal produced by the accelerometer is dependent on the orientation in which the
accelerometer is mounted, since the amplitude (amount) of vibration varies in different
directions.
(d) Mount the Same Accelerometer in the Same Location

For a particular measurement point it is important to always mount the accelerometer at

the same location to minimize measurement inconsistencies that may lead to wrong
conclusions. Where possible, always use the same accelerometer for a particular
measurement point.

(e) Mount the Accelerometer on Something Substantial

The accelerometer must never be mounted on a very flexible part of the machine as the
spectrum will be distorted by the flapping of the flexible part.

The accelerometer must never be used on structures that are very light as the weight of
the accelerometer and magnetic mounting will distort the vibration behavior of the
structure. In general, the combined weight of the accelerometer and magnetic mounting
should be less than 10% of the weight of the vibrating structure.

(f) Take Care of the Accelerometer

If the accelerometer is treated roughly it may produce unreliable signals. Because of the
strength of the magnetic mount, you must take care when attaching the accelerometer
to a mounting surface. You can achieve this by approaching the mounting surface with
the magnetic mounting tilted at an angle. When detaching the magnetic mounting, you
must not use the accelerometer as a lever for breaking contact. Instead, the magnetic
mounting should be gripped tightly and then tilted sideways to break the contact.

The accelerometer cable should never be twisted acutely, but must be anchored in a
manner that prevents it from being damaged. Twisted or freely swinging cables can
distort the measured spectrum.
(g) Take Care of Personal Safety

You must manage hazards at all times. When taking vibration measurements, three
kinds of hazards stand out in likelihood or severity: injury by moving parts, electrical
shock, and magnet- induced damage.

Firstly, when mounting the accelerometer, you must take care to prevent the cable from
becoming entangled with moving machinery. While the quick-release connector
minimizes this danger it should not be relied on as a substitute for correct installation.

Other things that could tangle with moving machinery include loose clothing, long hair,
data transfer cables and straps.

Secondly, you must never attach the accelerometer to any high voltage surface as this
may cause electrical shock.

Thirdly, you must never bring the magnetic mounting near any magnet-sensitive objects
such as pacemakers, credit cards, floppy disks, video tapes, cassette tapes and watches
since these items can be damaged by magnetic fields.

There are other possible hazards. You should read and thoroughly understand the
vbSeries Instrument Reference Guide before using the instrument or its accompanying
accessories.