Transmission Line - Protection

Transmission Line Protection– PROT 407
Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults
Transmission Line
Protection
Introduction to Transmission
Line Faults
Copyright © SEL 2004
Technical papers recommended for this section:
6066.pdf, Introduction to Symmetrical Components, Stanley E. Zocholl
6090.pdf, Symmetrical Components: Line Transposition, Stanley E. Zocholl
Transmission Line Faults_r7 1

Transmission Line Faults

Objectives
z Analyze transmission line faults.

z Determine and analyze the voltages and
currents measured by the protective devices
during line faults.
z Identify the different factors affecting
currents and voltages during line faults.

Transmission Line Fault

13.8 kV
N.O.
18 kV
138 kV
13.8 kV
Line Fault
12 kV
Faults on overhead transmission lines are the most common in power systems. The high
exposure of the lines to ambient and natural elements make them the most vulnerable
element of the system.

Insulator Flashover
z The Most Common
Fault is Single-Phase-
to-Ground Fault
ARC
(Flashover)
z Main Causes
Lightning (produces
flashover)
Trees
Animals
Vandalism
A common occurrence is a fault due to a lightning-induced overvoltage, when one of the

insulators cannot withstand the dielectric stress, producing flashover. In most cases, this
fault disappears once it is cleared, so a reclosing operation has a high probability of
success. Other causes of line faults are contact with trees, animals, vandalism, etc.

Line Fault Transients: Voltages

5
Phase A-to-Ground Fault
x 10
1.5
1
Voltages (V)
0.5
-0.5
-1
va
-1.5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
The graphic shows how the voltages behave in the substation during a single-phase-to-
ground fault. Notice the magnitude sag in the phase A voltage and the high frequency
components that appear following the inception of the fault.

Line Fault Transients: Currents

Phase A-to-Ground Fault
4
x 10
2
1.5
1
Currents (A)
0.5
-0.5
-1
ia
-1.5
-2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
This graph shows the line currents during the fault. Notice the current increase in phase A.
From these last two figures, it is possible to conclude that the fault was a single-phase-to-
ground fault. The detailed analysis of fault transients is out of the scope of this section of
the course, but the graph is presented to give an idea of the instantaneous evolution of the
phase quantities during the fault.

Simple Short Circuits
a a a a
b b b b
c c c c
Three phase Single phase Phase to Two phases

to ground phase to ground
Unbalanced
The most common and harmful line faults are the short circuits, or transversal faults.
During these faults two points of the line at different potential make contact. This includes
the structure that supports the line.

Fault Type Distribution in HV

Transmission Systems
Fault Type %
Single-Line-Ground 70
Line-Line 15
Line-Line-Ground 10
Three-Phase 5
This table shows fault type statistics, which show that the most common fault is the single-
phase-to-ground fault.

Fault Type Distribution in

500 kV Lines
Fault Type %
Single-Line-Ground 93
Line-Line 4
Line-Line-Ground 2
Three-Phase 1
The high incidence of single-phase-to-ground fault is more noticeable in very high voltage
transmission lines.

Transmission Line Faults

L
d
Equivalent Equivalent
BUS S BUS R Source
Source
I=?
V=? Fault
z What are the values of Ia, Ib, Ic, Va, Vb, Vc

at the substation for different types of
faults along the line?
The two-source equivalent method is commonly used to analyze line faults.
The contribution of the system to the fault is represented by a simple two-source

equivalent where the only connection between the sources is the line. The simplification
does not greatly affect the concept. However, in some cases the equivalent might not
produce good results and the use of a computer simulation program is required.
This equivalent can be used to explain the behavior of the voltage an current phasors
during simple faults on the line. This is explained in the following pages.

Voltage and Current Phasors

Normal Operation
Va
Ia
a
Ib Ia
b
Ic
c Ic
+V + + No Ib
a Vb Vc Fault
- - - Vc Vb
Normal Operation
During normal balanced operation, the currents have a relatively low magnitude and the
phase-to-ground voltages are close to the system’s nominal voltage.


Three-Phase Fault
Ic
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic Va Ia
c
Va Vb Vc Vc Vb
Ib 3PH Fault
During a three-phase fault, the three phase current magnitudes increase and the three
voltage magnitudes decrease. If the fault is perfectly balanced, the faulted quantities stay
separated by 120o.
Notice that the phase A current is about 90° lagging the phase A voltage.


Phase-to-Phase Fault
Ia Ic
a Va
Ib
b
Ic
c
Va Vb Vc
Vc Vb
Ia ~ 0
L-L Fault Ib
For phase-to-phase fault (B-C fault in this case), the current magnitude increases in the
faulted phases and the voltage magnitude decreases in the same phases. The phase angle
between the faulted phases’ voltages decreases. The voltage and current in the sound
phase remain close to the pre-fault values.


Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic Va
c
Ia
Va Vb Vc
Vc Vb
Ib ~ I c ~ 0
SLG Fault
For a phase A-to-ground fault, the current in the faulted phase increases and the voltage in
the same phase decreases. The voltages in the sound phases have larger magnitudes than
during normal conditions. The magnitude of the sound phases voltages increment depends
on the type of system’s grounding characteristics.

Decomposition of an Unbalanced
System
Ic
Ia
Ib
Ic1
Ib2
Ia0
Ib0
Ia2
Ic0 Ia1
Zero-Sequence Negative-Sequence
Positive-Sequence
Single-Phase Ib1 Balanced Ic2 Balanced
Any three-phase set of unbalanced currents (or voltages) can be decomposed in

three sets of currents (or voltages) with the following characteristics:
• One three-phase BALANCED set with POSITIVE-sequence rotation (for a

system with a-b-c rotation).
• One three-phase BALANCED set with NEGATIVE-sequence rotation (for

a system with a-b-c rotation).
• One three-phase with the three currents that are in phase. This set is called
ZERO-sequence.
I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2
I b = I b 0 + I b1 + I b 2 = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2
I c = I c 0 + I c1 + I c 2 = I a 0 + aI a1 + a 2 I a 2
Drop " a" subindex :

I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2
I b = I 0 + a 2 I 1 + aI 2
I c = I 0 + a I1 + a 2 I 2

Symmetrical Components Overview:

Equations for Voltage and Current
I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2 Va = V0 + V1 + V2
I b = I 0 + a 2 I1 + aI 2 Vb = V0 + a 2V1 + aV2
I c = I 0 + aI 1 + a 2 I 2 Vc = V0 + aV1 + a 2V2
a = 1/ 120o
The symmetrical component equations can be applied to currents and voltages.

Symmetrical Components as a
Function of Phase Quantities
I 0 = (I a + Ib + I c )
1
3
I1 =
1
3
(
I a + a ⋅ Ib + a2 ⋅ Ic )
I2 =
1
3
(
I a + a2 ⋅ Ib + a ⋅ I c )
Solving for the sequence components, the equations give the sequence currents in terms of
the phase currents.

Matrix Form
I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2 ⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡I0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
I b = I 0 + a 2 ⋅ I1 + a ⋅ I 2 ⇒ ⎢ I b ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢ I1 ⎥
I c = I 0 + a ⋅ I1 + a 2 ⋅ I 2 ⎢ I c ⎥ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
Define: Then:
⎡1 1 1⎤
[A] = ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ [I ] = [A]⋅ [I ]
P S
⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
The current equations can be written using matrix notation. Matrix A is sometimes called
the symmetrical components transformation matrix.

Inverse Matrix Form
I0 =
1
(I a + I b + I c ) ⎡I0 ⎤ 1 ⎤ ⎡I a ⎤
3 ⎡1 1
⎢ ⎥ 1
⇒ I = ⎢1 a ⎢ ⎥
1
(
I1 = I a + a ⋅ I b + a 2 ⋅ I c ) ⎢ 1⎥ 3 ⎢ a 2 ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢ I b ⎥
3 ⎢I 2 ⎥ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
1
(
I 2 = I a + a2 ⋅ Ib + a ⋅ Ic
3
)
Define: Then:
⎡1 1 1⎤
1
[A]−1 = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ [I ] = [A] ⋅ [I ]
S
−1
P
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦
The inverse transformation is easily obtained, as shown above.

Transmission Line Equations

Magnetic Coupling
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
Va Vb Vc Va′ Vb′ Vc′
Va = Z aa I a + Z ab I b + Z ac I c + Va′
Vb = Z ba I a + Z bb I b + Z bc I c + Vb′
Vc = Z ca I a + Z cb I b + Z cc I c + Vc′
The line model shown is the figure is generally used when analyzing faults with
symmetrical components. This model considers only the series impedances of the line,
with their corresponding mutual inductances. This model results in three circuits, or loops,
one per phase. The presence of ground must be considered to model the ground return in
case of imbalances. Line capacitances are usually neglected in short circuit studies. The
model serves to analyze simple fault situations. However, when high accuracy is required,
there are powerful short circuit and other simulation programs which consider more
complete line models.
Three equations result after the application of Kirchoff’s voltage law for each phase.
Notice the influence of the current in one circuit on the other two circuits. This influence is
presented in the model by using the mutual impedances, Zab, Zbc, etc. In the general case,
all mutual impedances are different from each other, because asymmetric line geometry
and ground influence.

Some Overhead Line Configurations
(Not to Scale)
Overhead lines and cables are among the most important elements of the power system.
They transport and distribute the energy along vast geographical regions. There is a large
variety of line configurations (conductor arrangement, tower design, etc.). However, the
lines can be represented with an acceptable degree of accuracy with relatively simple
models.

Ideal Symmetrical Line
z No Ground Return Effect Considered

z Dab = Dbc = Dca
a
Dab Dca
b c
Dbc
A symmetrical three-phase line is an approximation to a real transmission line. In this

model, the influence of the earth is not taken into account (perfect ideal return through a
conductor located at infinite distance); no shielding or ground wire is considered; and the
phase conductors are assumed to be located on an equilateral triangle, as shown in the
figure.
For this line, the self impedances of the three phases, Zaa, Zbb and Zcc , are equal and the
mutual impedances among the three phases are also equal to each other.

Symmetrical Transmission Line

Magnetic Coupling
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
Va Vb Vc Va′ Vb′ Vc′
Va = Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c + Va′
Vb = Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c + Vb′
Vc = Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c + Vc′
This figure shows the original phase equations for a perfectly symmetrical transmission
line. Note the value of the mutual and self impedances is represented by a single term Zm,
since Zab=Zbc=Zca.

Positive-Sequence Impedance of a
Transmission Line
Symmetrical (Transposed)
Ia1
Positive- a Short Circuit

Ib1
Sequence b
Source Ic1 Va′ = 0
c
Vb′ = 0
Va1 Vb1 Vc1
Vc′ = 0
I a1 + I b1 + I c1 = 0 ⇒
Z m I b1 + Z m I c1 = − Z m I a1
To find the positive-sequence impedance of the line, a three-phase, positive-sequence

voltage source is applied at one end, and the line is short circuited at the other end.
As the line is symmetrical, the resulting currents must be also balanced. Therefore, the
phasor sum of these currents is zero, as indicated in the figure.

Positive-Sequence Impedance of a
Transmission Line
Va1 = Z S I a1 + Z m I b1 + Z m I c1 = ( Z S − Z m ) I a1
Vb1 = Z m I a1 + Z S I b1 + Z m I c1 = ( Z S − Z m ) I b1
Vc1 = Z m I a1 + Z m I b1 + Z S I c1 = ( Z S − Z m ) I c1
Z1 = Va1 / I a1 = Vb1 / I b1 = Vc1 / I c1

Z1 = Z S − Z m
The value of –Ia Zm = Zm Ib + Zm Ic can be substituted into the line equations.
The result gives us the value of the positive-sequence impedance as a function of the self
and mutual impedances of the line.

Negative-Sequence Impedance of a
Transmission Line
Symmetrical (Transposed)
Ia2
a
Negative- Ib2
Sequence b Short Circuit
Source Ic2
c
Va 2 Vb 2 Vc 2
I a2 + Ib2 + Ic2 = 0 ⇒
Z m I b2 + Z m I c2 = −Z m I a 2
The negative-sequence network is obtained by short circuiting one of the terminals of the
line, and applying a negative-sequence voltage source.
Measure or calculate the currents on the source side and find the impedance as the ratio
V/I for each phase.

Negative-Sequence Impedance of a
Transmission Line
Va 2 = Z S I a 2 + Z m I b 2 + Z m I c 2 = ( Z S − Z m ) I a 2
Vb 2 = Z m I a 2 + Z S I b 2 + Z m I c 2 = ( Z S − Z m ) I b 2
Vc 2 = Z m I a 2 + Z m I b 2 + Z S I c 2 = ( Z S − Z m ) I c 2
Z 2 = Va 2 / I a 2 = Vb 2 / I b 2 = Vc 2 / I c 2
Z 2 = Z S − Z m = Z1 !!
The result gives us the value of the negative-sequence impedance as a function of the self
and mutual impedances of the line. This is the same as the positive sequence.

Zero-Sequence Impedance of a
Transmission Line
Ia0
Zero- a
Ib0
Sequence b Short Circuit
Source Ic0
c
Va 0 Vb 0 Vc 0
Va 0 = Vb 0 = Vc 0
I a0 = Ib0 = Ic0
The zero-sequence network is obtained using a similar method.
• Short circuit one of the line ends
• Apply a zero-sequence voltage source on the other end
• Measure the three currents
• Find the impedance as the ratio V/I for each phase
Notice that the three-phase zero-sequence source must have three identical voltages; and
likewise the three resulting currents are identical (pure zero sequence).

Zero-Sequence Impedance of a
Transmission Line
Va 0 = Z S I a 0 + Z m I b 0 + Z m I c 0 = ( Z S + 2 Z m ) I a 0
Vbo = Z m I a 0 + Z S I b 0 + Z m I c 0 = ( Z S + 2 Z m ) I b 0
Vc 0 = Z m I a 0 + Z m I b 0 + Z S I c 0 = ( Z S + 2 Z m ) I c 0
Z 0 = Va 0 / I a 0 = Vb 0 / I b 0 = Vc 0 / I c 0
Z 0 = 2Z m + Z S
The result gives us the value of the zero-sequence impedance as a function of the self and
mutual impedances of the line. This value is always larger than the positive sequence
because we are adding two times the mutual impedance to the self impedance, instead of
subtracting the mutual impedance from the self impedance.
Even though this result is valid for symmetrical lines, the trend is the same for non-
symmetrical lines. The zero sequence impedance of a transmission line is always larger
than the positive sequence impedance of the same line.

Transmission Line Sequence

Networks
Positive Negative Zero
Z1 Z2=Z1 Z0
+ + + + + +
V1 I1 V’1 V2 I2 V’2 V0 I0 V’0
- - - - - -
V1 = Z1I1 + V1′ V2 = Z2I2 + V2′ V0 = Z0I0 + V0′
The results obtained in the preceding slides suggest that the line can be represented by
three circuits which are not magnetically coupled.
The three circuits are called the line’s positive, negative, and zero-sequence networks.
It can be shown that, for non-symmetrical lines, the sequence networks circuit can have
mutual coupling, but this a relatively small effect which can be neglected in most practical
applications.

Typical Values of Transmission Line

Sequence Impedances
Nominal Conductor Geometry Grounding Z1 Z0
Voltage ACSR Wire (s)
(kV) (#/phase) (Ω/mile) (Ω/mile)
138 Drake (1) Triangle 3/8” steel 0.117 + 0.577 +

(1) j0.622 j2.73
345 Drake (2) Horizontal 7/16” steel 0.059 + 0.344 +

(2) j0.588 j2.235
500 Falcon (3) Horizontal #8 0.021 + 0.518 +

Alumoweld j0.564 j1.713
(2)
This table shows the result obtained in the calculation of series impedances for sample
transmission lines. It is out of the scope of this course to explain the methods used to
calculate transmission line sequence impedances. However, it is important to note the
factors which have a major influence on the values of these impedances. They are:
• The type and size of the phase and ground (shield) conductors
• The geometric position and distances of the conductors
• The average soil resistivity
• The number of circuits in the structure and the existence of external parallel lines
• The height of the conductor over the earth (more important for capacitance
calculations)
An average resistivity of 100 Ohm-m was considered in the calculations. The line
parameters must be calculated for each specific case.
The table shown here is an example and should not be taken as a specific
recommendation.

Simplified Generator Model

Bus
Ia ZS
- +Ea I
n b ZS Zm Z
m
-
+Eb Ic ZS Zm
-
+Ec
Ze
g
+ + +
Va Vb Vc
Ea = Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c + Va + Vgn - - -
Eb = Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c + Vb + Vgn
Ec = Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c + Vc + Vgn
This figure shows the model of a simplified generator which is widely used not only to
model real generators, but is also used as an equivalent source to represent the effect of the
system on each line’s end when analyzing interconnected power systems.
The procedure described before can be applied to find the three sequence networks for this
equipment.

Simplified Generator Sequence

Networks
Z1 Z2=Z1 Z0
+ + + +
E I1 V1 I2 V2 3Ze I0 V0
- - - -
E = Z1I1 + V1 0 = Z 2 I 2 + V2 0 = Z0 I0 + 3Ze I0 + V0
The three sequence networks of the simplified generator are shown. Note the following:
1. There is no magnetic coupling among the sequence networks
2. There is a source in the positive-sequence network. This source is the original

(natural) positive-sequence source present in the three-phase model.
3. There is no source in the negative -or the zero- sequence networks, as

expected, since a generator is supposed to produce only positive-sequence
voltages.
4. The neutral grounding impedance appears in the zero-sequence network. This

is due to the fact that, unlike the case of positive- and negative-sequence tests,
for the zero-sequence test there is a current flowing through this impedance.
For ungrounded neutrals this impedance takes an infinite value (an open
circuit).

Sequence Networks of a
Simple Power System
Equivalent S R Equivalent
ES ER
ZS1 ZR1 ZS2 ZR2 ZS0 ZR0
ZL1 ZL2 ZL0
(+) (-) (0)
This example shows the classical two-source equivalent over an isolated two-terminal line.
Both sources are assumed to have solidly grounded neutrals.

Line Fault Analysis and Calculation

Using Symmetrical Components

Transmission Line Fault

13.8 kV
N.O.
18 kV
138 kV BUS S
13.8 kV
BUS R
12 kV
Analyzing line faults requires using the symmetrical components method.
For this purpose, the system external to the faulted line will be represented by a two-
source equivalent.

Equivalent System
Source BUS S BUS R
Source
Line Under Study
V=? I=?
N
- -
- ES ER
V + +
+ ZS1 ZR1
S ZL1 R
I Line Under Study
The diagram above shows the traditional two-source equivalent. This is used to explain
most of the effects that the whole system’s characteristics have on a particular line fault.
Strictly speaking, the equivalent must have two voltage sources (S=“Sending”,
R=“Receiving”) with their respective impedances, and an additional impedance in parallel
with the line under study.
In many practical cases this impedance has a magnitude several times larger than the line’s
impedance magnitude, making its effect negligible. When there are additional links
between the systems at both line ends, this additional impedance must be considered or,
alternatively, multi-bus matrix-based methods have to be used to solve for the faults of
interest.
All the equivalent impedances of the system around the line can be calculated by using
either short circuit information at both buses or the original bus impedance matrices of the
system.

Example Equivalent System

BUS S BUS R
Source Source
I=?
V=?
Example: 138 kV line, 30 miles
Line impedances: z L1 , z L 0 in Ohms/mile or Ohm/km

Z L1 , Z L 0 in Ohms
Bus S equivalent: Z S1 , Z S 2 , ZS0 in Ohms
Bus R equivalent: Z R1 , Z R 2 , Z R0 in Ohms
This is an example system for a 138 kV line.
Line and equivalent system data:
z L1 = 0.12 + j 0.82 Ω / mile

z L 0 = 0.65 + j 2.47 Ω / mile
Z L1 = 3.6 + j 24.6 Ω
Z L 0 = 19.5 + j 74.1 Ω
Z S 1 = j 60, Z S 2 = j 60, Z S 0 = j130 Ω
Z R1 = 4 + j 30, Z R 2 = 4 + j 30 Ω
Z R 0 = 20 + j100 Ω

Pre-Fault (Normal) Condition
N1 Sending End is Exporting

- - 210 MVA at pf = 0.8 with
- ES ER Rated Voltage at Bus S
VPF + +
+ ZS1 ZR1
Bus S Bus R
VPF = 1.0 pu
S S = 210 MVA
ZL1 cos ϕ = 0.8
No Fault
In order to make the two-source equivalent as valid as possible, the voltage sources must
be set to match the load flow conditions existing on the 138 kV line before the fault is
simulated.
This is the equivalent system’s normal operation condition. For this particular case, it is
known from a load flow study that the sending end is exporting 210 MVA at power factor
0.8 and with 1.0 per unit voltage (138 kV) at the sending bus. This information is enough
to calculate the internal voltages of each source.

Pre-Fault Condition
N1
138 kV System
- -
- ES /δS ER / 0 ES = 1.494 / 57.79° pu
VPF + +
+ ZS1 ZR1 ER = 0.716 / 0° pu
Bus R
VPF = 1.00 / 37.04° pu
Bus S
I PF = 878.58/ 0.17° A
IPF
δ S = 57.79°
ZL1
No Fault
These are the results for the pre-fault condition. The expressions used to determine these
values are:
S = VPF ⋅ I PF
*
⇒
I PF = (S / VPF )
*
ES = Z S1 I PF + VPF
ER = −( Z R1 + Z L1 )I PF + VPF
Ipu = 2.1 pu
kva 100,000kva
Ibase = = = 418 A ⋅ 2.1 = 878 = I ACTUAL ( A)
3 ⋅ kv 3 ⋅138kv

Three-Phase Fault
BUS S BUS R Source
Source
Three-phase
Fault
V=? I=?
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
Va Vb Vc RF IFa IFb IFc
A fault analysis begins with a three-phase, perfectly balanced fault. It is assumed that this
fault occurs at some distance d from the sending end.
Our goal is to calculate the sequence and phase voltages measured by a relay located at
substation S.
Note:
Most authors and protection engineers use the per unit distance “m” (in per unit of the
line’s length, L) instead of the distance d in miles or kilometers. The per unit distance is
defined as:
m = d/L
where d = distance to the fault in miles
L = line’s length in miles
Thus, the fault occurs at a distance m -in per unit- or 100*m -in percent- of the line’s
length.

Sequence Network Connections

N1 N2 N0
- -
- ES ER - -
V1 + + V2 V0
+ ZS1 ZR1 + ZS2 ZR2 + ZS0 ZR0
I1 1-m I2 mZL1 I0
mZL1 1-m mZL0 1-m
ZL1 ZL1 ZL0
IF1 RF IF2 RF IF0 RF
=0 =0
As required by the symmetrical component method, only the positive-sequence network is

considered for a perfectly balanced fault.
There are many ways to calculate the currents and voltages in these networks. A Thevenin
equivalent is used to calculate current IF1. The Thevenin voltage source Eth is in series
with the positive-sequence Thevenin equivalent impedance Z1. The following derivation
serves to calculate the positive-sequence and phase currents at terminal S.
Z y1
Z x1 = Z S1 + m ⋅ Z L1 ; Z y1 = Z R1 + ( 1 − m ) ⋅ Z L1 ; C1 =
Z x1 + Z y1
ETh = C1 ⋅ ES + ( 1 − C1 ) ⋅ ER
Z x1 ⋅ Z y1
Z1 = = Z x1 ⋅ C1
Z x1 + Z y1
ETh ETh
I F1 = =
Z1 Z x1 ⋅ C1
ES − E R ETh
I1 = I PF + C1 ⋅ I F 1 = +
ZT Z x1
I a = I 1 ; I b = a 2 I 1 ; I c = aI 1 ;
Notice the importance of the positive-sequence current divider factor C1
The positive-sequence voltage V1 can be calculated following the familiar circuit laws.

Numerical Example
z Calculate the currents and voltages at Substation S for a
three-phase fault located 10 miles from this substation.
z Use a fault resistance of 2 Ohms.
BUS S
BUS R
Three-phase fault
V=? I=?
Va 0 . 18 / 28 . 97 ° pu Ia 1745 / − 31 . 21 ° A
Vb 0 . 18 / − 91 . 03 ° pu Ib 1745 / − 151 . 21 ° A
Vc 0 . 18 / 148 . 97 ° pu Ic 1745 / 88 . 9 ° A
These are the results for the currents and voltages for a fault located 10 miles from the
sending end (m=0.33). Note that the voltages and currents are all balanced as expected.
The voltage drops to 18% and the current reaches twice the value during normal load.
These effects (voltage sag and current increase) would be larger if no fault resistance is
considered).
Complete all the calculations of these voltages and currents.

Results
Three-phase Fault. Sequence Voltages (p.u.). Three-phase Fault. Sequence Currents (Amp.).
0.1
V1
0
0.08
-200
0.06
-400
0.04
-600
0.02
I1
-800
-1000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 500 1000 1500
Three-phase Fault. Phase Voltages (p.u.). Three-phase Fault. Phase Currents (Amp.).
0.1 1500
Vc Ic
Va
0.05 1000
0 500
-0.05 0
-0.1 -500 Ia
-1000
Ib
-0.15 Vb
-1500
-0.2
-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
The diagrams show the graphical representation of the voltage and currents at the sending
end.
Observe that only positive-sequence voltage and positive-sequence current are present.
Therefore, the phase voltages and currents are perfectly balanced.

Phase-to-Phase Fault
Source BUS S BUS R Source
B-C Fault
V=? I=?
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
RF IFb IFc
Va Vb Vc
The second fault we will analyze is a short circuit between two phases. Again, the distance
to the fault is considered to be a certain unit value m.

N1 N2 N0
- -
- ES ER - -
V1 + + V2 V0
I1 I2 mZL1 I0
mZL1 (1-m) (1-m) mZL0 (1-m)
ZL1 ZL1 ZL0
IF1 RF /2 IF2 RF /2 IF0

=0
According to the symmetrical components method, for this type of fault the zero-sequence
currents and voltages must be zero. Therefore, the zero-sequence network is not
considered.
The Thevenin voltage, Eth and the positive-sequence Thevenin impedance Z1 , are
calculated in the same way as for the three-phase fault. Here we use the negative-sequence
values of the original impedances. All these derivations lead to the results in the following
expressions:
Z y2
Z x 2 = Z S 2 + m ⋅ Z L1 ; Z y 2 = Z R 2 + ( 1 − m ) ⋅ Z L1 ; C2 =
Z x2 + Z y2
Z x2 ⋅ Z y 2
Z2 = = Z x 2 ⋅ C2
Z x2 + Z y2
ETh ⋅ ( Z1 + Z 2 )
I F1 =
Z1 ⋅ Z 2
I1 = I PF + C1 ⋅ I F 1 ;
I 2 = −C 2 ⋅ I F 1 ;
I a = I1 + I 2
I b = a 2 I1 + aI 2
I c = aI1 + a 2 I 2

B-C Fault Numerical Example

z Calculate the currents and voltages at Substation S for a
b-c fault located 10 miles from this substation.
BUS S
BUS R
B-C Fault
V=? I=?
Va 1 . 0 / 37 . 04 ° pu Ia 878 . 58 / 0 . 17 ° A
Vb 0 . 513 / − 125 . 4 ° pu Ib 1783 / − 132 . 21 ° A
Vc 0 . 534 / − 159 . 8 ° pu Ic 1355 / 76 . 29 ° A
This slide show the numerical results obtained for the phase voltages and currents for a B-
C fault at m = 0.33. Note the following:
a. Voltages B and C (faulted phases) have a sag of about 50%.
b. Phases B and C current magnitudes increase considerably.
c. Phase B current and voltage remain similar to the normal load conditions.

B-C Fault Results

B-C Fault. Sequence Voltages (p.u.). B-C Fault. Sequence Currents (Amp.).
600
0.35
V1
0.3 400 I2
0.25
200
0.2 V2
0
0.15
-200
0.1
I1
0.05 -400
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
B-C Fault. Phase Voltages (p.u.). B-C Fault. Phase Currents (Amp.).
0.6
Ic
0.5 1000
Va
0.4
0.3 500
0.2
Ia
0.1 0
-0.1 Vc -500
-0.2
-0.3 -1000
Vb Ib
-0.4
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
The observations made from the previous example are evident in this graphic
representation of the currents.
The phasor diagrams not only show the magnitudes but also the relative angles of voltages
and currents during the fault.

Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault
A-G
V=? I=? Fault
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
RF IFa
Va Vb Vc
The third fault we will analyze is the single-phase-to-ground short circuit. This is the most
common fault in transmission lines.
Traditionally, a phase A-to-ground fault at some distance m is considered. The fault

resistance is considered to have some non-zero value.

N1 N2 N0
- -
- ES ER - -
V1 + + V2 V0
I1 I2 mZL1 I0
mZL1 (1-m) (1-m) mZL0 (1-m)
ZL1 ZL1 ZL0

IF1 RF IF2 RF IF0 RF
For a single-phase-to-ground fault the sequence networks are connected in series, as

shown.
The Thevenin voltage Eth will be in series with the three sequence equivalent impedances
(Z1, Z2 and Z0), and three times the fault resistance.
This network connection is algebraically described by the following formulas and

expressions:
Z y0
Z x 0 = Z S 0 + m ⋅ Z L 0 ; Z y 0 = Z R 0 + ( 1 − m ) ⋅ Z L 0 ; C0 =
Z x0 + Z y0
Z x0 ⋅ Z y0
Z0 = = Z x 0 ⋅ C0
Z x0 + Z y0
ETh
I F1 = I F 2 = I F 0 =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + 3 ⋅ R f
I1 = I PF + C1 ⋅ I F 1 ;
I 2 = C2 ⋅ I F 2 ;
I 0 = C0 ⋅ I F 0 ;
I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2
I b = I 0 + a 2 I1 + aI 2
I c = I 0 + aI1 + a 2 I 2

A-to-Ground Fault Numerical Example

z Calculate the currents and voltages at substation S for a
phase-a-to-ground fault located 10 miles from this
substation.
BUS S
BUS R
A-G
I=? Fault
V=? I=?
Va 0 . 2 / 43 . 29 ° pu Ia 1467 / − 23 . 9 ° A
Vb 1 . 132 / − 92 . 15 ° pu Ib 887 . 98 / − 118 . 9 ° A
Vc 1 . 145 / 169 . 12 ° pu Ic 862 . 01 / 120 . 24 ° A
The result for the A-to-ground fault is shown. The voltage magnitude in the faulted phase
drops to 20%, while the voltage magnitudes in the sound phases increase. The current in
the faulted phase increases, while the current in the sound phases remain similar to the pre-
fault current.
Complete all the calculations for these voltages and currents.

A-Ground Fault Results

A-G Fault. Sequence Voltages (p.u.). A-G Fault. Sequence Currents (Amp.).
0.5 300
V1
0.4 200
0.3 100
0.2 0
0.1 -100 I1
I2
0 -200
V2 I0
-0.1 -300
-0.2 V0 -400
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
A-G Fault. Phase Voltages (p.u.). A-G Fault. Phase Currents (Amp.).
600
0.2 Ic
Vc Va 400
0
200
-0.2
0
-0.4
-200
-0.6 Ia
-400
-0.8 -600
Vb Ib
-1 -800
-1.2 -1000
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
The phasor diagrams clearly demonstrate that the zero-sequence quantities are present in a
similar amount as the negative-sequence quantities. Moreover, the phase angle between
voltages and currents of negative- and zero-sequence are very similar.
Notice that the positive-sequence voltage leads the positive-sequence current by an angle
less than 90°, while the negative-sequence current leads the negative-sequence voltage by
an angle very close to 90°.
In this system, the negative-sequence source impedance has a resistive part equal to zero,
which means ZS2≈ –V2/I2 must have an angle close to 90°. This is equivalent to the angle
of +V2/I2 being close to 270° for faults on the line. For a fault right behind the relay’s bus
the current phasor direction reverses, and the angle is close 90° (270°-180°). This forms
the basis for designing ground directional elements.

Two-Phase-to-Ground Fault
B-C-G
V=? I=? Fault
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
IFb IFc
Va Vb Vc RF
A two-phase-to-ground fault can be the result of an evolving fault. This means that what
originally is as a B-to-ground fault, evolves to a B-C-G fault when a C-to-ground fault
occurs following the original one.
This is likely to occur during multiple insulator flashovers.
In this case, this fault looks like a B-C-G short circuit with impedances among phase B,
phase C and ground. For the sake of simplicity, the fault will be represented as shown in
the figure, with a fault resistance existing only in the ground return path. The study of this
situation does not jeopardize the analysis and conclusions about this type of fault. Students
can find this case described in the Additional Resources section at the end of this manual.


N1 N2 N0
- -
- ES ER - -
V1 + + V2 V0
I1 (1-m) I2 mZL1 I0
mZL1 (1-m) mZL0 (1-m)
ZL1 ZL1 ZL0
IF1 IF2 IF0 RF
The sequence networks for a B-C-G fault must be connected as shown in the diagram.
Similar network techniques as previously shown are used to determine the currents and
voltages in this case. The following expressions are obtained.
ETh
I F1 =
Z1 + ( Z 2 ⋅ ( Z 0 + R f ) /( Z 2 + Z 0 ))
I F 2 = − I F 1 ⋅ ( Z 0 + R f ) /( Z 2 + Z 0 + R f )
I F 0 = − I F1 − I F 2
I1 = I PF + C1 ⋅ I F 1 ;
I 2 = C2 ⋅ I F 2 ;
I 0 = C0 ⋅ I F 0 ;
I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2
I b = I 0 + a 2 I1 + aI 2
I c = I 0 + aI1 + a 2 I 2

Numerical Example B-C-G Fault

B-C-to-ground fault located 10 miles from this substation.
BUS S
BUS R
B-C-G
V=? I=? Fault
Va 1 . 18 / 36 . 87 ° pu Ia 873 . 28 / − 0 . 92 ° A
Vb 0 . 17 / − 76 . 6 ° pu Ib 1754 / − 142 . 84 ° A
Vc 0 . 21 / 170 . 21 ° pu Ic 1535 / 83 . 7 ° A
The B-C-to-ground fault at 10 miles from the sending end apparently produces similar
results than the B-C faults.

B-C-Ground Fault Results

B-C to Ground Fault. Sequence Voltages (p.u.). B-C to Ground Fault. Sequence Currents (Amp.).
0.3
400 I2
0.25 V1
200
0.2 V0 I0
V2 0
0.15
-200
0.1
-400
I1
0.05
-600
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
B-C to Ground Fault. Phase Currents (Amp.).

B-C to Ground Fault. Phase Voltages (p.u.). 1500
0.7 Ic
Va
1000
0.6
0.5
500
0.4
0.3 0
Ia
0.2
-500
0.1 Vc
Ib
0
-1000
-0.1
Vb
-0.2 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
These phasor diagrams show the similitude with the phase-to-phase fault. The difference is
more evident when the sequence phasors are analyzed.
The presence of zero-sequence voltage and current change the general pattern
of the B-C fault.

One Phase Open
Only One Pole Open
I=?
V=?
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c
In transmission systems, two events can occur that demonstrate the effect of having one
phase open:
• When a double dead-end tower jumper is lost.
• During a single-pole open operation.
The figure shows the latter situation.


N1
- -
I1 ER
ES
+ +
ZS1 ZL1 ZR1
N2
I2
ZS2 ZL1 ZR2

N0
I0
ZS0 ZL0 ZR0
The sequence networks are connected as shown in the diagram. The sequence currents and
voltages are calculated with the expression shown below. First, define the auxiliary
impedances Zk1, Zk2 and Zk0:
Z K 1 = Z S1 + Z L1 + Z R1
Z K 2 = Z S 2 + Z L1 + Z R 2
Z K 0 = Z S 0 + Z L0 + Z R0
E
I1 =
Z K 1 + Z K 2 ⋅ Z K 0 /( Z K 2 + Z K 0 )
I 2 = − I1 ⋅ Z K 0 /( Z K 2 + Z K 0 )
I 0 = − I1 − I 2
I a = I 0 + I1 + I 2
I b = I 0 + a 2 I1 + aI 2
I c = I 0 + aI 1 + a 2 I 2

Numerical Example
single-pole-open situation at Substation S circuit breaker.
BUS S One-phase open BUS R
V=? I=?
Va 1 . 6 / 60 . 3 ° pu Ia 0
Vb 1 . 05 / − 84 . 12 ° pu Ib 799 .33/ − 104 .89° A
Vc 0 . 994 / 160 . 17 ° pu Ic 778 .07 / 105 .64 ° A
As a result of having one pole open, notice how the bus-side voltage on the affected phase
increases to a value even larger than the internal voltage of the equivalent source.

One Pole Open Results One Pole Open. Phase Currents (Amp.).
One Pole Open. Phase Voltages (p.u.).
300
0.8
V1 200
0.7
0.6 100
I2 I1
0.5
0
0.4 I0
-100
0.3
V2
0.2 V0 -200
0.1
-300
0
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
One Pole Open. Phase Voltages (p.u.). One Pole Open. Phase Currents (Amp.).
Va Ic
600
1
400
0.5
Vc
200
0
0
Ib
-0.5
-200
Vb
-1 -400
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
The phasor diagrams show a remarkable presence of negative-sequence current.
The zero-sequence current could be even lower if the system is not solidly grounded.

Practical Definitions and Concepts

Used in Line Protection

Source Impedance Ratio (SIR)
Equivalent
Source Bus S Bus R
Radial Line
ZL1
ZS1
| Z S1 | Fault
SIR =
| Z L1 |
z The larger the SIR is, the smaller the current and
voltage magnitudes at the sending end bus.
z A large SIR indicates a weak source.
There is a well-known apparent incongruity in protection. One one hand, we do not want
currents to increase and voltages to decrease too drastically, to minimize damage to the
equipment and the system. On the other hand, protective relays work better, in a more
secure way, when the changes in the currents and voltage are more severe, and therefore
more dangerous.
For example, an overcurrent relay will do its job better if the short circuit current
magnitude is considerably larger than the load current. In one way or another, this is true
in all types of relays.
Rule of Protection engineers should know how large those changes can be in order to predict the
Thumb protective devices behavior or, better yet, to properly design and set the relays. One of the
parameters used for this purpose is the source impedance ratio (SIR=ZS/ZL), defined for
radial lines. The effect of this number can be seen by calculating the fault current at some
point on the line located a per unit distance, m, from the substation location.
Assuming a bolted three-phase fault and using the same notation as in the other cases, the
phase A current and the voltage seen by a device at the substation will be:
I = ES /( Z S1 + m ⋅Z L1) = ( ES / Z L1) /( Z S1 / Z L1+ m )

V = m ⋅Z L1⋅I = m ⋅ ES /( Z S1 / Z L1+ m )
The dependence on the SIR is evident. The larger the SIR, the smaller the voltage and the
current will be.

Importance of the Equivalent

Source Strength
N1 z Source Strength Depends
- - upon Relative Impedance
ES ER Magnitude:
+ +
ZS1 ZR1 Source S is relatively weak if
I1 | Z S1 |>>| Z R1 | ⇒ | I1 |<<| I1′ |

I’1
mZL1
Source S is relatively strong if
IF1 RF | Z S 1 |<<| Z R1 | ⇒ | I1 |>>| I1′ |
As mentioned previously, when the lines belong to a non-radial system, the two-source
equivalent can be used to draw some conclusions.
When one of the equivalent sources has a relatively small equivalent impedance, its
current contribution to the fault is large. Moreover, the voltage drop at the substation bus is
pronounced. This source is called a “strong source”.
Conversely, if the equivalent impedance is large, the contribution will be small and the
voltage variation during a fault could be undetectable in some critical cases. In this case,
the source is a “weak source”.
In most cases, the relative value of one source with respect to the other is a useful
parameter, since some types of protection elements respond better when the sources at
both sides have similar relative magnitudes.

Importance of the Pre-Fault Condition

Review of the Superposition Principle
1. Faulted System 2. Pre-Fault System 3. Superimposed System
N1 N1 N1
- - - - -
- - ER V1F ZS1 ZR1
ES ER ES
V1 + + VPF + + +
+ ZS1 ZR1 + ZS1 ZR1
I1F mZL1 (1-m)
ZL0
I1 IPF
mZL1 (1-m) mZL1 (1-m)
-
ZL1 ZL1 EPF
+ +
IF1 RF EPF IFF RF
- N1
This diagram shows how a faulted system (1) can be represented in two systems:
a) System 2 represents the system during normal load conditions (pre-fault), and
b) System 3 voltages and currents represent the increment (or decrement)

required for the pre-fault quantities to reach the fault quantities.
Thus, the faulted system voltages and currents can be calculated by adding the
superimposed (or pure-fault) values to the pre-fault values. Therefore, the fault values are
affected by the pre-fault condition.
The effect of the pre-fault condition is very evident for a perfectly balanced three-phase
fault. For imbalances, the pre-fault condition only affects the positive-sequence quantities
during the fault (provided that the pre-fault system is balanced).
Note: In the figure, EPF is the pre-fault voltage at the fault point.

Effect of the Pre-Fault Load Flow

(A-G Fault)
210 MVA Power Flow Zero Power Flow
A-G Fault. Sequence Currents (Amp.). A-G Fault. Sequence Currents (Amp.).
300 0
200
-50
100
-100
0
-100 I1 -150
I2
-200
I0
-200 I1
-300 I2
-250
-400
I0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
A-G Fault. Phase Currents (Amp.).
0
A-G Fault. Phase Currents (Amp.). Ib Ic
-100
600 Ic
400 -200
200
-300
0
-400
-200
-400 Ia -500
-600 -600
-800 Ib Ia
-700
-1000
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Results are shown for a single-phase-to-ground fault in the example system.
The quantities at the left show the sequence and phase currents previously calculated with
a pre-fault condition with 210 MVA. The phasor diagrams at the right show the results
assuming there is no power flow through the line before the fault occurs.
As expected, the relative magnitude of the positive-sequence current is larger for the case
with large pre-fault power. A similar effect takes place with the positive-sequence voltage.
This results in different magnitudes and angles for the phase quantities.
This effect must be considered when designing and setting protective relays and schemes.

Effect of
Line Asymmetry

Symmetrical Line Impedance Matrix
Va = Z S I a + Z m I b + Z m I c + Va′
Vb = Z m I a + Z S I b + Z m I c + Vb′
Vc = Z m I a + Z m I b + Z S I c + Vc′
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ Z S Zm Z m ⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡Va′⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb ⎥ = ⎢ Z m ZS Z m ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ I b ⎥ + ⎢Vb′⎥
⎢Vc ⎥ ⎢ Z m Zm Z S ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vc′⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
[ ] [ ] [I ]+ [V ′ ]
V ph = Z ph ⋅ ph ph
These equations for the the symmetrical line were described previously. They can be also
written in matrix form.
For the symmetrical line, all the elements on the diagonal are equal. The off-diagonal
elements are also equal.

Symmetrical Line
V0 = Z 00 I 0 + V0′
V1 = Z11 I1 + V1′
V2 = Z 22 I 2 + V2′
⎡V0 ⎤ ⎡ Z 00 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡V0′⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
V
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
1 = 0 Z 11 0 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ I1 ⎥ + ⎢V1′⎥
⎢V2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2′⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ] ′
Vseq = Z seq ⋅ I seq + Vseq
If the equations of the sequence networks for a perfectly symmetrical line are stated in
matrix form, the off-diagonal elements result in “zero.” This is because there is not mutual
coupling among the three sequence networks.

Non-Symmetrical Line Impedance

Matrix
Va = Z aa I a + Z ab I b + Z ac I c + Va′
Vb = Z ba I a + Z bb I b + Z bc I c + Vb′
Vc = Z ca I a + Z ca I b + Z cc I c + Vc′
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ Z aa Z ab Z ac ⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡Va′⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb ⎥ = ⎢ Z ba Z bb Z bc ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ I b ⎥ + ⎢Vb′⎥
⎢Vc ⎥ ⎢ Z ca Z cb Z cc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vc′⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
V ph = Z ph ⋅ I ph + Vph′
These are the line equations when asymmetry is considered.
Note that all the elements of the matrix can be different. This asymmetry changes the
behavior of the line currents when compared with the symmetric case.

Non-Symmetrical Line
V0 = Z 00 I 0 + Z 01 I1 + Z 02 I 2 + V0′
V1 = Z10 I 0 + Z11 I1 + Z12 I 2 + V1′
V2 = Z 20 I 2 + Z 21 I1 + Z 22 I 2 + V2′
⎡V0 ⎤ ⎡ Z 00 Z 01 Z 02 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡V0′⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1 ⎥ = ⎢ Z10 Z11 Z12 ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ I1 ⎥ + ⎢V1′⎥
⎢V2 ⎥ ⎢ Z 20 Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2′⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
Vseq = Z seq ⋅ I seq ′
+ Vseq
If the equations of the sequence networks belonging to a non-symmetrical line are stated in
matrix form, the off-diagonal elements are not zero.
This can be interpreted as mutual coupling among the three sequence networks.

Typical 400 kV Transmission

Line Tower Configuration
13.3 meters 3.58 meters
S1 S2
8.53 meters
10 meters 10 meters
A-Phase B-Phase C-Phase

20 meters
In this example, a typical tower configuration for a 400 kV transmission line consists of
the following:
• Horizontal configuration
• Two bundled conductors
• Two ground wires
The modeled line length is 110 km.

Transmission Line Impedances

ZCA
A-Phase C-Phase
B-Phase
ZAB ZBC
ZA ZB ZC
ZA, ZB, ZC Self Impedances

ZAB, ZBC, ZCA Mutual Impedances
Untransposed transmission lines have different self-impedances and mutual impedances.
They are: ZA ≠ ZB ≠ ZC.

As a result, negative- and zero-sequence currents will be generated during a three-phase
fault.

Sequence Currents for a

Three-Phase Fault at Line End
Bus S Bus R
Equivalent Radial Line

Source
I=?
ZS1=0 Balanced Three-phase
Fault
I a 0 = 74.21/ − 19.14° A
I a1 = 5484.74 / − 85.84° A
I a 2 = 486.26/ 36.82° A
Assuming zero source impedance and a radial system, these are the sequence currents for a
three-phase fault at the end of the non-symmetrical line.
As shown, there is enough negative-sequence current to possibly deceive a device whose

operation is based on negative sequence measurement.
In this case, the ratio of negative-sequence current to positive-sequence current is slightly

less than 10%. For phase-phase and phase-ground faults, the same ratio approaches 100%.
As you will see later, this ratio can be used to supervise a negative-sequence directional
element to prevent it from operating for three-phase faults.

Asymmetrical Lines Create Coupling

Between the Sequence Networks
Another Example
Example Phase Example Sequence

Impedance Matrix: Impedance Matrix:
⎡1.00 0.45 0.39 ⎤ ⎡3.28 0.04 0.04 ⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0.45 1.00 0.45 ⎥ ⎢ 0.04 1.00 0.08 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0.39 0.45 1.00⎦ ⎣0.04 0.08 1.00 ⎦
To illustrate this coupling, this example shows a phase-impedance matrix for a non-
transposed line. This top row is Zaa, the self-impedance, Zab and Zac, the mutual impedances.
Notice that the mutual impedances are not equal.
Looking to the right, we see the sequence impedance matrix where the top row corresponds
to the zero-sequence, the second row to the positive-sequence, and the last row corresponds
to the negative-sequence. Notice that, unlike the case of a symmetrical line, the off-diagonal
terms of the sequence matrix are not zero.

Sequence Mutual Coupling Creates

Unbalanced Voltages from Balanced
Currents and Vice-Versa
Factors used to evaluate current deviation:
Z 21 Z01
α2 = α0 =
Z11 Z11
I A 2 = α 2 ⋅ I A1 I A0 = α0 ⋅ I A1
The two factors (α2 and α0) defined in the equations serve to give an idea of current
deviation with respect to the perfectly balanced condition.
The larger α2 is, the larger the contents of negative-sequence current will be. The larger
α0 is, the larger the content of zero-sequence currents.

Tower Configuration and Phasing

Affect α2 and α0 in Parallel Lines
Z1 = 0.31/ 86.49o Ω Z1 = 0.28 / 86.37o Ω

Line 1 Line 1
α 2 = 0.1189 α 2 = 0.0442
α 0 = 0.0256 α 0 = 0.0116
Line 2 Line 2
α 2 = 0.1189 α 2 = 0.0411
α 0 = 0.0256 α 0 = 0.0150
ABC ABC Phasing ABC CBA Phasing
The figure shows the power configuration and phasing affect the magnitude of α2 and
α0. Certain tower configurations and phasings have lower α2 and α0 factors than others.
The EPRI 345 kV Transmission Line Reference Book also addresses unbalance due to
line asymmetry. This example shows two phasing options for a vertical double-circuit
tower.
The tower on the left has much higher α2 and α0 factors than does the tower on the right
for the same conductors and conductor spacing. The difference is the phasing. The
tower on the left has an ABC CBA phasing counting counter clockwise, while that on
the right has an ABC ABC phasing. It is interesting to note that the tower on the right
has the lower positive-sequence impedance, which is also better for power flow.

Tower Configuration and Phasing

Affect α2 and α0
Line 1 Line 2 Line 1 Line 2

α 2 = 0.0477 α 2 = 0.0489 α 2 = 0.1021 α 2 = 0.1023
α 0 = 0.0828 α 0 = 0.0799 α 0 = 0.0123 α 0 = 0.0159
ABC ABC Phasing ABC CAB Phasing
Next, you will study a sampling of horizontal tower configurations. Which phasing is
best for protection is not as clear cut as that for the vertical tower configuration.
Here, the circuit on the left has the smaller α2 factors, but the higher α0 factors.

Use of Computer Programs

13.8 kV
N.O.
18 kV
138 kV BUS S
13.8 kV
BUS R
12 kV
The use of computer programs is the most accurate way to determine the power system’s
behavior during faults. Modern fault programs include:
1. Simulation of any type of fault in multi-bus, multi-source systems. The

maximum number of buses that can be simulated is, in some cases, very large.
It is normal to see systems with thousands of buses modeled with these
programs. The simulation can be done for different pre-fault load flow
conditions.
2. Simulation of switching operations to determine the variation of the source

impedances during fault clearing and reclosing sequences.
3. Simulation of relay operation. This is a particular feature of some programs

which specialize in protection analysis.
The most sophisticated programs have complete models of the system which can include
electromechanical (slow) and electromagnetic (fast) transients, as well as the effect of
instrument transformers.

Summary
z Fault Analysis Techniques
z Symmetrical Component Method
z Influence of the Pre-fault Condition and the
Fault Resistance
z Influence of the Source Strength
z The SIR Ratio
z Influence of Line Asymmetry
z Large Systems and Computer Programs
Summary
Engineering techniques can be used to calculate and analyze the behavior of voltages
and currents during line faults. With these analyses, a series of conclusions and
definitions can be established to use in detecting faults and minimizing damage.
The Symmetrical Components Method serves to simplify the calculations and provides
an analysis tool used to improve protection methods.
The pre-fault condition and the fault resistance magnitude are important factors that
affect voltages and currents during faults.
The source strength and the Source Impedance Ratio (SIR) are useful indicators to
predict system behavior during line faults.
Line asymmetry must be considered in some fault analysis cases.
Computer programs are used to calculate faults in large systems and complex
situations.

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Transmission Line Protection– PROT 407

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Copyright © SEL 2004

Technical papers recommended for this section:

6066.pdf, Introduction to Symmetrical Components, Stanley E. Zocholl

6090.pdf, Symmetrical Components: Line Transposition, Stanley E. Zocholl

Transmission Line Faults_r7 1

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Transmission Line Faults

z Analyze transmission line faults.

Transmission Line Faults_r7 2

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Transmission Line Fault

Transmission Line Faults_r7 3

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

A common occurrence is a fault due to a lightning-induced overvoltage, when one of the

Transmission Line Faults_r7 4

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Line Fault Transients: Voltages

Transmission Line Faults_r7 5

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Line Fault Transients: Currents

Transmission Line Faults_r7 6

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Simple Short Circuits

Three phase Single phase Phase to Two phases

Transmission Line Faults_r7 7

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Fault Type Distribution in HV

Transmission Line Faults_r7 8

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Fault Type Distribution in

Transmission Line Faults_r7 9

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Transmission Line Faults

z What are the values of Ia, Ib, Ic, Va, Vb, Vc

The two-source equivalent method is commonly used to analyze line faults.

The contribution of the system to the fault is represented by a simple two-source

Transmission Line Faults_r7 10

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Voltage and Current Phasors

Transmission Line Faults_r7 11

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Voltage and Current Phasors

Transmission Line Faults_r7 12

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Voltage and Current Phasors

Transmission Line Faults_r7 13

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Voltage and Current Phasors

Transmission Line Faults_r7 14

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults

Single-Phase Ib1 Balanced Ic2 Balanced

Any three-phase set of unbalanced currents (or voltages) can be decomposed in

• One three-phase BALANCED set with POSITIVE-sequence rotation (for a

• One three-phase BALANCED set with NEGATIVE-sequence rotation (for

Drop " a" subindex :

Transmission Line Faults_r7 15

Section 1 - Transmission Line Faults