Pears Cyclopaedia

i r S A .
l sA
CYCLOPAEDI
1971-72
OF BACK,GE:OUND IMFOKMATIO^^
A BOOK
for everyday use
and reference
EDITOR
L. MARY BARKER
B.Sc.Lo^^d.
Eightieth edition
readers for their
The Editor desires to express her gratitude to
one way or
criticisms and suggestions and to all those who in
of this edition . Corres¬
another have contributed to the making
addressed to the Editor at Middlema rch y
pondence should be
Halstead, Sevenoaks, Kent.
First published l 8^J

7207 038^ 9
Printed and Bound in Great Britain hj BJcbard Claj (The Chaucer Press), Ltd.^
Bungay, Suffolk
(g) ipyi fy Pelham Books Ltd.

CONTENTS./
Index 1-36
I Events A
1-
ge42V
pa1-66
2 Prominent People B
3 Background to, Public Afiairs. C 1-48
4 The Law of England D 1-26

5 The World of Music E
l“42
6 The World of Science F I “66
i“54
7 Background to Economic Events G
8 i“4o
i CO
Greek Myths and Legends H CO
9 The Contemporary Theatre I

Ideas and Beliefs i“i90
lO
J
II Gazetteer of the World K
1-128
12 13 1-56
General Information L
14
Literary Companion M
1-20
15 N
General Compendium
1-68
Medical Matters 1-30
P
1617 1-36
Introduction to Psychology 0 1-23
1-36
Modern Gardening T
19
18 Games and Recreations U
Domestic Pets 2
20 Atlas of the World

plates 1-32
INDEX
Some of the sections are alphabetically arranged and Index themselves* Their contents
are not included here except where It is anticipated some special difficulty in 'xeference, may
arise. Each section has a letter and, where appropriate, the column is given in brackets after
the page number, c.g.. F8(l). G26(2). The sections Greek Myths and Legends ’% Medical
Matters and “ The World of Music ** have each a separate index and glossary.
Page Page
Abbreviations . M49-66 Average, defined . Lll
ABM defence system . C20 Avogadro’s hypothesis .... Lll, F21(2)
Absolute temperature . L2
Acids and bases . F22-3 Bacteria . F39(l), P7(l)
Administration of Justice Act 1970 D8(l), D5(l) bacterial diseases in man .... P12
Adoption of children . D38-41 bacterial diseases in plants .... T31
Houghton Committee’s proposals . . 1)40(2) Balance of payments, defined . . G5(l). G28(l)
Africa: organisations . C41 table: 1960-70 (in new form of presen¬
See also Nigeria, Rhodesia, South Africa tation) . G29
Age of majority . B12{1). C8(l) Balance of power . Lll
Aid to imderdeveloped countries . . . G26-8 Balance of trade, defined . G7(l)
Air: composition . L3 Bank rate . G21(l). G22, G41(2)
pollution . L93 Baryons . F14
Alchemy . J3 Bats . . , L13
Alpha-rays (or particles) . . . . L4. Pll(l) Battery, electric . L13
Alpha rhythm . 015(2) See also Fuel cells, Solar batteries
Bauhaus . . L14
America’s Cup . . L4. 1X32(2)
Americas, organisations of the . . . C41 Bayeux tapestry . L14
Amino acids . L5. P27{1) Beat generation . J7
Ampere, defined . L6 Beaufort scale of wind force .... NIO
Andromeda nebula . . . . . . P4(2). F7 Behaviourist school of psychology J7, Q9(2). Q18
Animalldngdom . F32--9 Beta-rays (or particles) . Fll(l)
Antarctic exploration ...... L6 Bible . L16
Anthropology, physical . F47-61 Binary notation . L16
(tracing and dating the development See also Bit
of man; the races of man; anthro¬ Biological warfare . L15
pometry; physiometry; attributes of Biology . . F26-47
the blood) (the cell: cytoplasm and nucleus;
Anthropology, social . F51-4 multicellular organisation: classifica¬
(the notion of roles; kinship and tion and physiology of animals and
marriage; authority systems: eco¬ plants; geological record and evolu¬
tion; ecology)
nomic systems; religion; social
change) Birds . . . . . F38(2), L15
Antineutrino . . . . . . FI 4, Flfi(2) bird watching . . . . . . . . U19
Antiparticles . . F16{1)cage birds . . Z21
Antiproton . Birth control
L6, F14, Flfi(l) . . P56
Anti^mitiam . J4
Papal encyclical Huimme Vitae . . JS8(1)
Apostles . . Bit
Ii7 . L16
Arabic numerals . Blade death .
I»7 . L16
Arab-Israeli war (1967) . Black power .
C12(2) J7
Arab League . . Blood, function of .....
C41 . F36, P24
Arctic exploration . . . . . . . Blood groups. . . . . .
L8 F60{1), P64
Arrest, powers of . Body temperature . . . . . . .
. BlKl) P68
Asia: organisations , .... . . See also Infectious diseases
041
See aZso China, India, Pakistan, Vietnam Books: classification ...... Ll7
Asteroids . LO. F3(2)standard sizes ....... N8
Astronomers Royal (since 1675) . . . Brain and nervous system ....
LlO F37, P46
Astronomical distances ...... F7
drugs acting on the brain . . . . P23
Astronomical unit, defined . . . . L9
infantile undemutrition . P67-9
Astronomy; outline . . . , . . . F3“7 injuries to the head . . . . . . P19
(galaxies and stars; solar system; See Section Q as to how the brain gathers and
origin of uMveree; auasars and decodes information
pulsars) Brandt. Willy . . 010(2)
Atmosphere,, earth’s. . , ... , Breeder reactor ...
LlO . . . . , L17
See also Aurora, Ionosphere, Van Allen belts Brezhnev, Leonid . . . . ... . 011(2)
Atomic: bomb ... . . , . . F12(1) British Association . . . . . . . Ll8
nucleus . . . . F10(2)British Commonwealth, see Commonwealth
number . British constitution . . . . ...
F10(2), F20a), F66 021
British monarchs , . . . . . N4
particles . . ' , ' . . . . ' , ■':F13 Brltirii prime ministera . . ... N6
■' weight . ' . .. . Fl0(2), P21. F66 ; BritishRail . . . ...... Ll8
Atoms . ' "F9(2),F12(2),.F20(1)
Attlee. Clement . .• . ^ .„:03,04.06 British Standard
Brussels Treaty .Time . . . * ■ ■. . 037(2)
. -^'LlS
Aurora polarls .■ . .■ . " .'""''LlO
INDEX
FEARS CYCLOPAEDIA Page
Communism . . . . • ... . J12

Buddiism . * ‘ ^ Paoe Computer research .... Q29(2), Q23{1)
Budget: explanation ... . . • G24(^)
Conservative Party: general election re¬
Budgets. 1960-71 .... . ; G40-2 sults 1945-70 . C7
Bums and scalds: treatment .... P21(2)
By-elections, 1945-70 . . .. . . . C7 Heath’s administration .... . C42
Constitution, British . C21(l)
Commission on . . . . . . . 026(1)
Continental drift ... . . L26. F8-9
Cabinet : as bead of government structure C23(l) See also Plate tectonics
members of Heatb administration . . 042 Contraception . . . P56
Calendar information . . . NlO-11. last page Corporation tax . ...... . G40{2)
Calorie, .
defined . . ' 3j19 See also Tax reforms. G42(l)
nutritional . Cosmic rays . L27, F3(2)
care of
Canaries, defined . . • " 222 Cosmology: modem theories . . . L27, F3-7
Candela, . . . . . . L20. N7 Gost-of-living index . , . . . . G18(1)
Capital gains ........ G15(2) Coulomb, defined . . . L28
tax imposed (1965) ... G15(2), G40(2)
See also Tax reforms, G42(l) Council of Europe ....... C38-9
Country code . . . . . . . . NlO
Carbobydrates . . . . .... F27(l)
i5êl>iet Country parks, see National parks
Countryside Act 1968 . C8(l)
Cardinals . . . B20
Courts of Law in England and Wales. . I>4-6
Cats, care of . . ■ . . Z9-11 See cUso Juvenile Courts
CeH: ftmdamental unit of life . . . . P26-32 Crab nebula . . . . . F4(l)
cytoplasm . . . -^27' Criminal Law . . D9-11
nucleiss . . . . . . . . .P30
abolition of the death penalty BlOd), 026(1)
(diagrams illustrating genetic code
and double belical BNA molecule) Criminal Courts ....... D6
Criminal Justice Act 1967 .... DIO
Central Government: outline. . . . C21-6
(Structure: The Queen, Parliament, Criminal Law Act 1967 . . . . . DlO-ll
overcrowding in prisons . D47
The Executive, The Judiciary. Re¬ Curie, defined . . . . . . . . L29
form of Government. The Working
of Gtovemment 1970) Currencies, foreign . N9
Ceraml'CS . , . . , ^22 Cryogenics . . L28
See! also OMna Marks Cytoplasm and genetic activity . . . P27-80
Chain reaction: nuclear . . . . . F12(l) CzechOBlovakia . Cl 1-1 3
*See also Fission
Channel, tunnel . . . . . . . Ii22 Dalton and atomic theory . . . . FlO(l)
Chemistry , . . . . . . . . P20-6 Dadaism . . L29
(electron shells and stability; mole¬ Darwin and evolution . ... . . F46
cules. ions and bonds: metals and Day, longest and shortest . , . , . NlO
salts, acids and bases; the hydrogen Dead Sea scrolls . . . ... . L80
bond and water: diemical reactions. • Death duties, see Estate duty
catalysis, organic chemistry; tech¬ Death watch beetle . . . .... L30
nical applications)
Deflation . . . L30. G9(l)
Children and Young Person's Act 1969 . 1)41-3 De Gaulle . ... . . ... C9-10
China . . . C16-16 Democratic Party (DSA) . . . L30, 019(1)
China marks: Chinese, En^toh and Coh- Determinism and free-will . . . . . J13
, tinental .. . Devaluation of sterling ..... . G30(2)
Chlorophyll . . . . . . . .N15-2'0 X23 ■
Bee also Photosynthesis Developing countries, see Underdeveloped coun-
. tries
Chomsky and psycholinguistics ... Q29{2)
I>iet ............. P40-1
Christianity . . ... . . . . J’lo I basic constituents ... . . . P46{1>
Chromosomes . . , . . . . L23. FSO
Churchill, Sir Winston, retirement from ' calorics . . . . . . . . . P40(2)
obesity P41(l)
politics . . 05(1) weight/height tables ...... P4i
Circulation of the blood . . . P26-7, F36-6 Dirac: relativity and quantum theory . F16(1)
Civil Law . . . . . . . . B18-19 Divorce; legal notes . . . . Dll{2), D80-4
CivilList. .■ ;L24: Divorce Eeform Act 1969 , , . . D30(2)
Civil Service . . . . . ... , 023-4 DNA and ENA and the genetic code, . FSl
Fulton proposals for reform . . 028(2) Dogs, Care of .
Clouds . . . . . .... . lW Doppler effect . .
Coal . ... . . . F5(l)
. , , , . . X24 Drama: modem playwrights, see Section I
Colombo Plan . ... . . . , C41 Dramatic terms, glossary of . . . . 19-11
Bee also British
Colonies, Commonwealth
... . . . ’ K190 Drug abuse and drug dependence . . P22-4
Colour vision . . . . . . , . Qg
Ear and auditory perception . Qi2(2), F66(2)
Comets . on. Industrial
Commissioh . ..... Eolations .. ..*C25{2)
l26 • ... . . . . F8-9. L34
(Common Law . , . , . . . D7 (structure; age of rocks; continents
Common Market. . . . . . <39(2), C38(2) and the ocean floor. See also Atmo¬
applications for membership . . . G34-5 sphere. Moon, Solar system, Plate
tectonics)
political aspects . . . . ... . C39-40
Commons. House of . . . . . . Earthquake .... . . , . ,
C22
Committees of the House .... C22-3 Ecology . . , . . ■ . . , , J F41~4
state of the parties 1970 . . . . 07 (abiotic factors, biotic factors, popu¬
Commonwealth: outline , . . . . C30-4 lation dynamics)
Commonwealth conferences . . C31, C32, C83 Ecumenis m ... , . , . . . , ^15
PEARS CYCLOPAEDIA
■ IMDEX'
Page Page
Education: economic aspect . Fundamentalism . .
. J21
. F39(2)
L85
EECMstotical sketch . , . . . .* J15--16 Fusion: nuclear ■ . ^ F6(2)
(Europea n Economic Comimmity) (323- in stars ., .. .^ [’ ]* , ]* .
^
iintam , G9.(2), G38(2) Fun also .
See gi Plasma physics
s applications to join . . G34-
Commission . . . . G40{1)
Galaxies and stars ....
Council of Ministei“s . . . . . * 040(1) Gamma rays . Fll(l)
. . , ■ . . F3-7
historicalPlan
Werner baclfground . . . ' C37-9 Gandhi, Indira . .
(economic .and . monetary CT3. 014
' • • • • • G85a). 040(2) Garden . T33(2)
GATT . paths: weed control
EETA (European Free Trade dissociation) . G9(l)
Gauss, defined 1 ] ] . ] L46
. 09(2), 039(1) L4G, F3(2)
Emstem and photons . . , . . . P18(1) Geiger counter . 07
relativity theories. [ j’lS General
(Irenes . election results 1945-70
ELBO (Eiu-opean Space Vehicle Launcher L4G, F30(2), F50(2)
Development Ormmisation) . . . C40- 1 See also Heredity
Electrical miits, see SI units, Genetic code . . . F29(2), F31(2)
aiso Section L imder their names Geological time scale
Electricity . .... ■ . . , F18-19 • - . ^ ■ F44 Z18
George VI, death of
Electron! agiie tic waves . . . . . . F13(1) Gerbils • . . . 04-5
Electron . . . ‘ F10(2), F14
■ - F20. (Germany, after Second World War
C37-8
electron electrons
shells and . stability Germany. West (Federal Republic of) !
valence . :*
. ■ F20(2), F21(l) CIO
G32(2)
(Slestalt school of psychology . . L48
J2i 09{‘^1
Electron microscope . . . F27(2).L36
Electronvolt, defined • • . . . L3G Gold standard
Gold crisis 1968 ’ L49
Elements .... . . L36, FlOd), F66
and compounds . • ' • . - . .. F66 F20
atomic weights Gospels .
. re, . ].*,**.
valencies Government,
(structu Central:
reformoutline .’
of governm ent,
C21-6
- " . .■ ,F6G working of government 1970)
Elizabeth II, Queen : as constitutional Government, Local: outline . .
monarch 026*30
^ .V 021(2) (local government in Greater London :
cbronat ion , , . . . , . 05(1) proposals for reform: England. Scot¬ F21(2)
land, Wales, Northern Ireland)
Emotionconversi
Energy . . on . .. .. .
.* ]
* ]
] * ’ Q25 Gram molecular weight . . .. ■■ N9
F15(2)
! ] L37
See also Nuclear energy
Energy-mass equivalence , Gravitation . . . ,. .. * P62-5
. FlSdi Gramophone records 027
010(2)
English language , ... . M44 Greater London Council . . .
English law . . . . . . . Greece . . ... . ] ]
English verse forms . . ' Di-48 Greek alphabet ; . . .
M30-7 022(1)
Greek art, see Hellenic art . . ■ L60
L50
Eiês
B^teduty .....
........ L37. FSOtt'). md) Green Paper, defined . , . . ' L52
W cteo Tax reforms, 042(2) .138.016 Gulf stream . . . .
. . 040(2) . . • FlKl)
Euratom . LSI
L38, G33(2) P20{1)
Eurodollar Oornmunity,
European market ... see EEC. *, Gypsies- . . . . ■ . . * . ' , V '*
Haemorrhage and siiock
Everest expeditions . ... . ' "L38
Evolution of organisms . , F40-7,;L39 Hajlf-life: radioactivity
Hallmarks . . . . ’
See dso MulticelJuJar organisation G8(2) London silver marks .
Exchange rate, defined . . , . .
Exchange rates in relation to £ . m provincial silver marks .‘ . .• . N12 13
Existentialism . J18
.
Q14(2) Scottish and Irish
Hallucinogens ...... ]N12-Kl'4
■ L53,
L62
14
F17-
Extra-sensory perception . . . L63
Hapsburgs ......
Eye and visual perception . .Heat .
Q7*i2
J18 latent heat. . .. F17(2)
L69
Fabian Society ... . . . D86(l) mechanical equivalent . .
Family Law Beform Act 1969 L41 See also Joule, Thermodynamics
Fauvism ... ... Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
Feedback cult . . . ... 'T2G-8
J19 Helium . . .. ^Fl'Sd)
L54
Fertilisers . F4(l). F6(2)
] ] J20 . . L55
Feudalism . Heredit
in suny and stars
. . . . . ’ . . Q27(2)
interplay with envhomnent , .
Figures of speech * V. ] F8e(2)
M88~9 Mendelian genetics . . . . . . F47
Fish
First aid principles, see Physical inluries * F12(1) See also Genes
Hi-Fi .•■ . . . .. ^ - .X56
Fission : nuclear
See also . . .
Nuclear reactors , ' . L4i. •' . . . H8(l), D5
Flower cultivation . . . . .
. T3-16 . Family
High CourtDivision
of Justice D8(l),
. . D6, , *D12(1), D38(l)
Hinduism. . , •' . ■■ J24
Flying saucers , . , . . , * 3fj42, J20 HoObiiMinh .
Foreign exchange rates * K9 Holidays, public • . . .. . . 017(1)',
Foreign phnwes .... . . , ’ M4G-8 Horticultural societies • . . ... ■■ . NIO
Fractures , . . ... * P‘^l(2) Housing Act 1969 .
^nee . . ... . . (5^,10 D47-8
hree speech and public order .... D44r-6 Hovercraft . ] |•,57
Freud, see Psychoanalysis , . . . ,142
Hmnanism . ’ j26
Friends, The Society of .... ‘ J2i Human Bights . . . ...
Fruit growing . . . . . . ; ] ti6»26 Husband and Wife: legal notes *, ,. .’D28-84
036
Fuel cells Hydroelectric schemes . . . . . . lo8
l48
INDEX
PEARS CYCLOPAEDIA
Page
T33(2).T16
E38(l). Q17
PAOB
Hydrogen . L68, 1^0(2) Lawn: maWng and care of
hydixogen bond and water . . pas Learning in animals • -
in stellar evolution . . P6(1V See also Memory
Hyperons . . . . • . - . Pli Legislation, how initiated .
major Acts 1970 . . .
Ice ages . . • L59.I’48(2) See oZso Section D
Iconoclast heresy . . J26 Legitimacy and illegitimacy . L70. P14
. . D36-7
results
Income Tax . . • • • IfPtOM
See olso Tax reforms, G42 Liberal Party: general election r . . 07
i), G40{l)
G40{1) 1946-70 . . . . . . . . .
Incomes policy . . , G38(2), G39(2),. Gll(2) Libraries. . . . . , . . . L71
Index number, defined . . . . . ■ . L17
. 013-14 classification of books , , .
India. . . . . . ,013-14 J6 India Oflace Library . . . . ,L71,. E13(l) L61
Induction, Bacon’s theory of . . . i- . Light . .
IndiMtrlalis ation la underdevelo ped coun-
G26 speed of . . . . . . . . . L71. . L71
E3(2)
Industrial production, employment andi Light-year . . .
productivity, 19B9-70 . . . , , . , G3B Lightlng-up time . , ... . . Nil
Industrial relations reform . . . _ •. 026 Lightning. . .... . .
Industrial Eeorganisation Corporationn Literary forms . . . , . . . , . _
. G37(2) Living organisms, see Biology
(IRC) . , . . .
Industrial revolution . . . ■ . •. L62 In their environment, see Ecology
Infectious diseases . . . , - « • P7 Local Government: outline , . . . '
Inflation . • • • 04(2) Greater London . . . . . .. ..
causes of price Inflation . . . . • G18(l) proposals for reform: England, Scot-
effects of inflation . . G38: land, Wales, Northern Ireland , , .
growth in Britain after 1967 . . . G38(l) London University . . . . . . .
rntemational Inflation . . . . ■ GS8(1) Long-distance footpaths and bridleways .
wage inflation and Conservative policy. G40(l) Lords, House of . . ,
Insects . . . ... L62, ES3(1), ES8(2) Limar probes, see Moon
Instinct ....... E38(l), Q10(2) Lunar rock samples
Instruments, musical . . . . . • L63 Lutheranism., . . . J2g, Ja
, E64-:7
Intelligence . . ...... L83, Q28-9
International Bank for Eeconstruction
and Development (IBRD) . . . 027(2) ]|âoh number L73
International Development Aôciation MoLuhanlsm ! ! ! .
. . . 06(2)J29
. (IDA) . . . .. .. . .^ . . G27(2) Macmillan. Haroid ! ,
International lictuidity . . , . . G32(l) Mafia . . L74
International Monkary Fund (IMF) G8{1);G32(1) Magic! ! ! ! ! ! . . J29
International monetary system . . Magnetic storms
. reform of . . . ..... . fioa t . . ... , . L74
L74. E19(2)
special drawing rights ... . E9(2). E69(2)
US deficit . ... . . ., , 1 Magnetism . . . . . L74
961-70 ■ • Maintenance
Mamm orders
• • .• . . D28(2)
Intestacy . .
investment, overseas: taWe 1961-70 . . . ’ . msl)
TîQf9 als
Mjgnetohyd
\ Mamm*“' 0^
als rodyn amics
. . .
. . . E33(2)
Ionosphere . . . ....
i64:Ei2(2).E20|! Man, early . . .
Ions . . ... . L64.E1' )
methods of!
of dating . . E48(2)
Islam . . . .... . •. * . • . ■ jg® races of .
Isoohasms . . .... . . Iff® races of . . . ., . . E47-9P49
Maoism . . . . . . J30
Isotopes . . ... . . L64!
L64,
. El: Ell
Eio(2). F66(l)
E11(1).E66(1) ^ ^^.timg’ . . 016
radioactive ... . . . L76. E7
Israel, see Middle East Marxism ... . . . . . J81
Materials science ... . . L77
Joule, defined . . . L66, N7 Matrimonial Proceedings anc
dodai^ . .
Justices of the Peace . ... ,
■
■ I Maxwell’s equations.
Act 1970 .... . .
Juvenile Courts . . .■ . . .
Juveniles in need of care, treatment of • D41-3 ^"66 Measures,
Mean, definedImperial. and. .metric
.
Mechanical equivalent of heat,
Kelvia thermometric scale . . . . L66, Memory: theories . . . , . . Q16^28
See Absolute temperature Mendelian genetics . . . , . E47, L77
Kennedy, John E. . . ... 018(2), N6 Mesons . . . .... 18, F14. E22(l)
E18(2), E13(2)
Khrushchev. Nikita .... . 011(1) Metals . ... . . . . . L78
Kilogramme: primary standard . ^ L67. N7 Meteorology. ... . . . L78, E4(l)
Kinetic energy ... . . . . . L67 Meteors and meteorites . ,
Kings and Queens of England . . . N3-4 Methodism . . . . . . . . J31
of Scotland . . . . . . . . N4 Metre in poetry . . . . .
Krebs cycle . . ... . , i ir28(l) Metric system . . . M81-6
' Mlcroeiectrodes . ... Q6 Qll(2).
. L78.N6-9Q24(2)
■■■ micruejBcrroaes . . woi . , L79
Ijahour Party: general election results ilta Microelectronics . . . . . .
1946-70 . ,
Landlord and Tenant: lawrefoims
07 Middle East .
07 Middle Bast . . . . . .
Six Day War .
SixDayWar
. . .
. . . . ,.
. .
. . 012(2)
. . 012-13
D24-6, D47-8 Mterepresehtation Act 1967 ,
Languages andlanguage families . . . M43r6 Moderator, see Nuclear reactors
Lasers.
Law .
of England: mnrces and subdivisionB L60
D4 Modem
MolecularDrama' . ...
bioloigy f.
. . . .
.. system of Enafiish Courts . . . . D6-e See Section E. Part IV
PEAltS CYCLOPAEDIA
Page
Mpleenles . . . . . . ^ 1'12(2). I’20-22 Pasôrt . . . . .. . ; . . . 1,90
forces between moleeules .■ . . F21(2) Pavlov and the conditioned reflex . . Q17-18
of living matter .... pC value . . . . . L90
Monasticism ... . . . .
. i . F28.1’29
. J83 Personality and thinking . . . . . Q27
Moon . . . . . . , . pB value . . . L91. P22-3
age of . . . . . . . Photosynthesis . . . . . . P2S. F25(2)
ftrst buman landing, see Space i Physical injuries ...... . P19-22
phases of . Physics . . 179-20
study of rock samples . . (atoms: nuclei; electrons: raclioaetiv-
Multicellular organisation . . Ity: fields and waves: elementary
Music: historical outUne . . particles: auantum theory; relativ¬
glossary of musical terms . ity; conservation laws: parity;
list of composers . ... matter in bulk; thermodynamics:
Mutation theory . . . . states of matter: metals; semicon¬
Mysticism . . . . . . ductors; magnetism)
Planets . . . . . . . , . . XiQ2
Nasser, Gamal Abdel ... , . . C12(2) formation of . . . . . . , . P7{i)
National Board for Prices and Incomes . 689(1) See also Section L under their names
National Economic Development Council 636(2) Plants: classification . . . . . . F89-41
National debt . . , . . ,. . . 620(1) See also Section T
National income, defined . .. 611(1), 614(1) Plasma physics . . . P4(l), L92
Nationalisation under Attlee . ,... 04(1) See also Nuclear fusion, Magnetohydro-
Nationalised industries . . .... . , 618-14 dynamics
National Parks . . . . . ,. L82 Plate tectonics: the study of earth move¬
National Physical Laboratory T.. . . , . . L82 ments. . . . . . , . . . F57-60
National Plan (1966) . . . . .. . . 637(1): Plutom'um .... . ... . L98
National Trust . . . . . . . . . ■ L82: Poetry : English verse forms . . . . M88-7
NATO . . . . , , . , . . 038,041(1) stress, metre, rhyme . . . . . . M80-3
Nehru. Jawaharlal . . . . .
. . . 018(2) twentieth-century poetry .... M22-30
Neutrino . . . . . . . . . F14,L88 Police . . L93
Neutron . . . . . . . P10(2), F F14, L88 Poltergeist . ... J39
cope
Newdon and the first spectroscope . . L109 Ponds: weed control . .T34(l)
New towns: Great Britain .... . . L88 Pope, The . ... ... . . L94
Nigerian civil war . . . . ... , 017-18 See also Papal infallibility.
Nixon, Elchard M. . , . . . . . . 019 Population and food .... . . P43(i)
Nobel Prize winners. ... . . . . . L126-8 Population of the world . . . . . Li24
Northern Ireland . . . . 08-9.080(1) Population of United Kingdom . . . G9(2)
Novel, the contemporary Englishlish. . . . M4-21 the working population , . . . . 610(1)
Nuclear: energy. . . . .. . .L84,P12(1) Positron . . . . . . . . . . P10(l)
fission . . .... . . . . . F12(l) Presbyterianism. . . . ... . . J40
fusion .- . , , . . . . L86. Fe(2) Prices and incomes: labour GSovem-
missile race . . . . ... . 020(2) : ment’s policy . 639
Non-proliferation treaty . .■ . 020(2): Conservative policy . . . . . . 640(1)
Outer space treaty . . .... 020(2) Prices and purchasing power . . . . 637
Partial test-ban treaty . . . . .020(1)^ (table showing average prices, earn¬
power stations . . , . ■. . . L86: ings, real earnings, and real dispos¬
reactors .... able incomes. 1968-70)
Seabed treaty .... . ■. .
. . .020(2) L86' Prime Minister . . . . . , , . . C28<1)
weapons . . . . . . - ■ . ' . 020(1); Prime Ministers einee 1721 . . . . N6
Nucleic acids . . . . L86. F28(2). r29{l) Prisons, overcrowding in . . . . . D47
Nucleus: atom . . . . Private investment overseas . . . . 631-2
cell . . . .. .. .. .. F30(l) F10(2) ■
Privy Council ... . , . . . L96
Nutritional disorders . ■ . . . . . P41-3 Probate and letters of Administration . D21(2)
Probation officers . . . . . . . 1,95
Occam’s razor . . . . J37, Q8(l) Production, industrial . . . . . . 611(2)
Oceans, formation of . . . F8(2) table showing industrial production,
See also Plate tectonics employment, and productivity, 1960-
Ohm . . ' . . ... . . . . L86 7® . ... .... . . 686
Oil as source of energy . ... . L86 ; Proteins . . . ... . . 195, F27(1)
Pljunpic games . . . . . . . L86. U83 See also Diet
Olympic athletic records . . . . . U86 Protein symthesis . . . . ... F29(2)
Ombudsman, see Parliament! ■ary Commissioner Psychedellsm ...... . . J40
Org^c chemistry . . . . . . . F24(l) Psychic research 1 . . . , J41
Orgonomy . ... . . ... .137 Psychology, see Section Q for basic principles of
Orphism . . . . . , Experimental Psychology: Section J for
Osmosis .... .... J87, H117-28 L88 Adlerian Psychology, Analytical Psychology,
Psychoanalysis;
Dreams. Section P for Sleep and
Pakistan . ■ . . . , . . , . . 014-16 Public scliools . . . . . . . ; 1,06
Papal infallibility . ... ... J88
Paper sizes . .... . . .- . N8 .... .... L96.P6(1)
Parliament: how it works. ... ; C21-3 Pyramidology . . . . ... : .143
state of the parties .- . . . . . C7
Quakers, see Friends,. The Society of
Parliamentary Commissioner . ' . , . C22(2) Quantum theory . F14, P16(1)
Particle accelerators, see Cyclotron ■
Paftles. political . . . ... . C21(2) Quarks . . . . Mg
rise and fail, 1946-70. , . . ... C7 1 Quasars . . . L97i F6(l)
INDEX
X
PEARS CYCt.OPAED!A
Page
Page Synchronicity . . J49
Queen, The . 021(2)
as Head of the Commonwealth , • • Synoptists ......... Iill2
Taste, sense of . . . Q18C2)

Race Eelations Act 1968 . . . . D46, 08(1)
Eadar . . E9V Tax reforms: capital gains, corporation
tax. value added tax, income tax and
Eadiesthesia . . . . . . . . • J43 surtax . G42
Eadio waves . L97
Telepathy and clairvoyance .... J60
Eadioactivity ...... . Pll, E98 Temperature . E17
Eadioisotoi)e8 . . . I'll(2), FETd), P66(l) absolute zero ........ E2
Eadioastronomy . . L98, P6(l)
Eeformation . . . J44, J29 body temperature . . , . . . P68
Celsius and Eahrenheit ..... N9
Eelativity theory . . . . . F15-16, ElOO Ten Commandments, see Decalogue
Eenalssance . . J44
Terms of trade, defined . G6(l)
Eent Acts, 1966-8 ....... D26(2)
See also Housing Act 1969 .... D47-8 Theatre, English (since 1960) .... 11-40
Eepublican Party (USA) . . . ElOO, 019(1) (as dramatic art: theatrical groups:
Eesale price maintenance . . . . . 018(2) tists)
dramatic terms: directory of drama¬
Eeserve currencies ....... G82(l)
Eh factors: inheritance of .... F60(2) Thermodynamics . E114, P17(2)
See also Index to Section P. Thermoelectric devices ...... E114
Thermonuclear reactions, see Nuclear fusion
Ehodesia, rebellion in . . . . . . 031-3 Third world: organisations . . . . 041
Eock magnetism. . . . ElOO, P9(2). P69{2)
Eocks . . P8 Tidal power, harnessing of . . . . . E116
geological record . . . . . . . P44 Time . . ... . . . . , . E116
methods of dating . P56(l) Tobacco smoking ... . , . . P33(2)
See also Plate tectonics Tort, law of . . . . . D16-19
Eods and cones (vision) . . Q8(l), Q9(l) P68 Tonch, sense of . . . , . . . . Q14(l)
Eoman numerals . . ... . . N9 Towns, new . E88-4
Eomantie movement . . . ... J46 Trade unions and wage negotiation . . G16{2)
See also industrial relations reform
Eoyal Society . . . . . . . . E102
Treaty of Eome ...... 039(2). G34(l)
Sabbath and Sunday . . . . . . E102 Unconsciousness: first aid . ... P22(l)
Salvation Army . . J46, D44(2)
Schoolmen . . . . .... . J46 Underdeveloped economies; outline . . G25^8
Science: what it is about . . . . . P3 “ Underground ” movement , ... J60
United Nations: outUne . . . . . 034-7
Science museums . . P60-2 United States presidential elections 1968 . 019
i Scientific units . .... E104, L107. N7 Units, SI . ......... N7
Scientology . . . . . ... . J46 Universe: structure and origin . . . E3t-7
Seasons . . NlO Universities . L119
Semloondnotors . . . P19, E106 University Boat Eace . U36
SET (tax) . . . . . G42
Shrubs, planting of . . ... , . T38 Valency . , . . . . E120. E21(l). E66
-SI unite . , . . . . . . i E107, N7 Value added tax (VAT) . . . . . G42
Silver marks. . . . . . . . . N12-14 Vegetable cultivation , . . . . . T16-26
Slavery . . . . . . . ... 086(2) Verse forms . . , . . ... . M80r7
Sleep and dreams ... . . . . P59-62 Vietnam, war in ... , . . .016-17
SmeU, sense of . . . . . . . . Ql3(2) Viruses . P7(2). E26{2)
Solar batteries . . . . . . . . E108 Vitamins . . . .... . E121. P27(l)
Solar system. . .... . . P3(2), E7
Solar wind . . . . . . . E108. E66(l) See Diet
Voting age . 08(1)
■Soimd, speed of, see Mach number
•Sound waves : frequencies to which human Weathermen . . . . . . . , ,T62
ear responds . . . . Q13(l), E66(2) Wedding anniversaries . E122
■ nltrasonics .• .■ .- . . . . . E118 Weed control . . . , . . . . t36
Soviet Union . . . . . . . . Oil
Weighte and measxnes . . . , . . N6-t8
Spaceflight . . . . . . ... E108 Western European organisations . . . 037-41
Space research . . , ;. . . . . E108 Whiskers (materials science) . . . . E123
Special drawing rights . . ... . GS3(2) White Paper, defined . ... . . 022(1)
Spiritualism . . . . .... . J47 WiU-making . ... , . . . D20-1
Stars and galaxies . . . P4-6 Wilson, Baiold . . ... . . . (36
Stereophonic broadening . ... . EllO Wind force .... . . . . . Nio
: See aJso E64(2)
Witchcraft , . . .... , , J63
Sterling: as reserve currency
G7(2), G32(l), G33(2) Women’s Liberation Movement ... J68
Woodworm . . ... ... . E124
devaluation . . . . . , . . G30(2) World Bank ... . .... . G27(2)
. speculation against . ... . G30. GSl World Comm-unist Oonference 1969 . , 012(1)
Stock Exchange . . . . . . . G21{2) I World Council of Ohurches . . . . J63
Stonehenge . . . ... . EllO. J16(l) World population . . . . . . . L124
Strategic arms limitation talks (SAET) . 020(2)
Suez crisis 1966 . .... ... 06
Sun . Elll, E4(l). F7 X^-rays . . . . . . . . L125, Pll(p
Sunrise and sunset tables, 1971-2 . . Nil Yoga . . J63
Supemovae . . . E4(l)
Supersonic speed . . , . . . . Elll iZen Buddhism . . . . J6it
Surtax . E112, 042(2) Honism . . . . . . . , . . J64
Symbolism in poetry and fiction . M6(l), M22-S Zoroastrianism J64
HISTORICAL
EVENTS
Chronicle of events from the earli¬

est times to the present day. For
events in pre-history the reader may
also like to consult the Geological
Time Scale in Part IV and the sub¬
section ‘ ‘The Earliest Men and their
Dates” in Part V of the Science
Section.
A2
CHRONICLE OF EVENTS^^^
Note. — For classical Msiorv and for the vast mitterniium most dates are well established. For oth^-
veriods there is sometimes, corisiderMe tmcertainty. Many of the dates in ancient history are either
dubious or apjyroximate, sometimes both. B.o.
B.O. PEEHISTORY
2870 First settlements at Trpy,
6,000,000,000 Age of Earth.
8,300,000,000 Earliest known rocks (found in 2850 Gkfidm Age of China begins (legendary).
Rhodesia and Manitoba). 2700 Great Pyramid age in Egypt begins.
2,000,000,000 Life appears. 2400 Aryan migrations.
600,000,000 First large-scale occrurrenoa of Sargon founds Agade: Semitic empire.
fossils. 2206 Haia Dynasty begins in China (legendary).
30,000,000 Earliest ape fossils (OUgovene 2200 Middle Minoan Age: pottery, linear writing
period— Payiun, Egypt). in pen and inlu
30,000,000 Early ape fossils (Miocene period— 1900 Bronze Age begins in Britain.
PTocmsiil, /B. Africa,). Stonehenge (1860-1660 b.o.).
1,700,000 Earliest known hominids (Lower 1760 Sliang Dynasty begins in .China (dated
Fleistocsne— Australopithecus, and traditionally 1780-1122 B,d.).
Homo hafiflis 8. Africa, B. Africa.) 1750 Aryan invasion of Mesopotamia.
Oldowan culture— first stage of
Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age 1720 Hyksos conquest of Egypt. War chariots
(hunting and food-gathering) introduced.
which persisted until end of Ice 17()0 Code of Hammurabi at Babylon.
Age, c. 8,000 B.o.
1600 Late Minoan Age: bronze In use.
400,000 Homo erecius stage (Jaya, China.
Africa) with crude chopping tools 1560 Sack of Babylon by Hittites.
and early hand-axes. Heidelberg 1546 I8th ■ Dynasty . in Egypt commences.
jaw. VertezOUos remains (Euroi)e). Cirtlisation at peak (under Thotmes IH, 1490).
180,000 Ancestors of Neandertalers and Chronology more certain.
Homo sapiens, with advanced 1500 Powerful Mitannl (Arran) kingdom in Asia
hand-axes (Europe: Steinheim Minor. Phoenicia thrivlng-^trade with Egypt
and Swanscombe). and Babylonia. Vedio literature in India.
70,000 Neandertalers (Europe, Asia, N. 1460 Zenith of Minoan olyiljsation.
Africa). Rhodesian Man (S. 1400 Ugaxlt (N. Syria) culture at its zenith.
. Africa). Solo Mhn (Java). Plaice
tools. Cretan civilisation ends: Emossos btumt.
, Temple at Luxdr built.
40,000 First cold phase ends. Neander-
tal race becoming extinct. Pharaoh.
1377 Ameifidotop IV (Ekhnaton), the "heretic'"
30,000 Second cold phase. Homo sapiens 1360 Zenith of Hittlte civilisation.
(modem man). Hnplements show ^ 1300 Israelite oppretoion (Rameses ID. Phoeni¬
slgnifloant advances: small knife-
blades, engraving tools. Paint¬ cian settlements — ^Hellas and Spain (Cadiz).
Tyre flouriBhing.
ings and sculpture; ma^c rites and
ceremonies. Cro-MagnonS with 1260 in
Atoyrian conquest in Babylon; dominant
Western Asia.
Aurignacian culture.
18,000 Final culmination of last ice age. 1230 Exodus of Israelites from Egypt.
Aurignacian culture dying out to
be replaced by Solntrean and ifiien ; 1200 Attacksof onHlttite
Downfall Egypt kingdom.
by ‘‘ PeoplesSiege
of theof Sea
Troy
by the Magdalenian cultures. (Homeric). Beginning of sea-power of inde¬
Great flowering of Palaeolithic pendent Phoenician cities. Probably all these
are connected with Achaean and other migra¬
tions in Aegean area.
16,000 : First
art. immigrants from Asia, to
cross Behring Straits? i 1122 Chou Dynasty begins in China (870 years).
8,000 LastglacierslnBritaindiBappeared. 1115 Magnetic needle reputed in China.
Proto-Neolithic In Middle Bast. :1028 Establishment of kingship in Israel (Saul).
Agricultural settlements («.».,
Jericho). Settled way of life 1000 Jerusalem capita) of Israel. David klnn'.
- leading eventually to suoh sldlis
as weaving, metallurgy; inven¬ 961 Solomon begins temple at Jerusalem. : " '
Rip Fedicr (India).
tions 'as' ox-drawn plough, wheeled
■ ■ ■ ■ cart. 900 Probably period of writing of Homer’s
epics.
6,000 Britain becomes an island (land 893 Assyrian chronological records begin.
connection with continent severed 860 Foundation of Carthage (traditional).
■ by melting ice-sheets). 781 Chinese record of an eclipse.
B.O. CIVILISATION IH THE WmnT.TB EAST 776 First Olympiad to bevised for chronological
4000 Susa founded. purposes,
763 Foundation of Rome (traditional),
3500 Sumerian civilisation flourishes. Cunei¬ 760 Greek colonists settling in Southern Italy.
form writing.
745 Accession of Tiglath-Pileser HI; Assyrian
3000 First Egyptian Dynasty. Itieratlo writing
aJresidy perfected. Power at its height. Deportation of subject
Early Minoan Age (Crete). Pictorial writing, peoples (Israel 722).
copper, silver, gold in use. Early Mycenean 6jM Kingship abolished in Athens.
civilisation begins. 625
2980 Mempliis capital of Egypt. veh NeosBabylonian
destroyed 612). (Ohaideon) Empire (Nine¬
B.O.
B.C. 621-110 ^ ® EVENTS
B.O.
6S1 Publication of Athenian laws by Draco. 01 Danus. Arbela (Gaugamela)— final defeat
610 Spartan constitution, made rigid after
Messenian Wars: later attributed to Lycurgus. 330 Death of DariuB and end of Persian Empire.
694 Athenian conîtution reformed by Solon. Alexander heir to civilisations of Middle East.
686 Jerusalem taken by Babylonians, In¬ the Punjab. Hydaspes: Alexander conguers
habitants exiled till 538.
Alexander at Babylon. Begin-
661 Pisistratus tyrant of Athens. “ Middle Bast and
of Croesus — great prosperity of Eastern Mediterranean. Ptolemy I founds
Lydia. dynasty in Egypt. Alexandria bMomes intel¬
lectual centre of Hellenic world.
^ Babylon ^token by Persians: Empire 3S3 Death of Demosttienes.
fomded by Cyrus, soon corers almost all of
ciyillsed Middle East. 321 De^h of Aristotle. Maurya dynasty
609 Eoundation of Homan Eepublic (tradi¬ unites N. India. •
tional). . . 312 Seleucus I founds dynasty in Asia.
608 Demoemtic constitution proclaimed in ishing.
Athens. 300^ Zeno the Stoic, Epicurus and Euclid flour¬
their power in
KortneiD Italy, Iroii age beginning in Britain, ROME: CWGtIESTS AND DECAY OP
REPUBLICAN INSTITUTIONS
GEEAT AGE OP GKEECB 390 End of Third Bamnite War. Eome domi¬
499 Eevolt of Ionian Creek cities against Per- nates Central Italy.
Sian king Darius.
B^tle of Beneyentum: Eome flnaUy de-
494 Secession of Plebeians from Home. (Tri¬ ftats Pyrrhus and the Greek cities of Southern
bunes established. Italy. Eome dominates all Italy.
490 Battle of Marathon: Athenian repulse of 874Indian^kai. becomes ruler of two-thirds of
subrcontinent.
Persian attack. ^ -
480 Death of Buddha. Battle of Thermo¬ 864 Begin^g of First Punic War (Eome v.
pylae: Spartans under Leonidas wiped out by Carthage). . -
.Battle of Salamis: Persian fleet of Mylae: first great Eoman naval
defeated by Athenians under Themlstocles;
Persian mvaslon of Greece halted; 865 -Defeat and capture of Regulns by Cartha¬
of Plataea and Mycale: Greek ginians.
mctorles by land, and sea respectively destroy 850 “ La T6ne ” Iron Age people invade Britain.
Persian inyasion force. Death of Confucius.
341firstÊnd of Pirat
ProTince Punic War. Sicily becomes
of Rome.
Beagne of Delos founded by Athens for
defence against Persia; soon becomes Athenian
281^ Eangdpm
Chinese of Ch’in
under completes conquest
.Empire, , (467 Naxos kept in by force.) states, Shih Huang Tih. of aJl
461 Pericles comes to power in Athens. 818 Outbreak of Second Punic War: Hannibal
468 (3mcinnatus saves Eome (traditional).
216crosses •
Alps.Of dflnnae:
Battle
466 Death of Aeschylus. Btannibal wipes out
447 Building of Parthenon begun. ' great Eoman army. ■ '
431 Death of Phidias. Outbreak of Great 214 Great Wall of China constnioted (by Hniriniy
existtufiTwalls),
Pelônnân War between Athens and 213 Burning of Chinese elates.
Sparta. Pericles Funeral Oration " (accord- '
Capture of -Symeuse by Romans and death
mg to Thucydides). ' of Archimedes.
4S5 Death of Herodotus;
Motaur™: defeat and death of
^6 Massacre of Melos by Athenians. Hasdrutol. End of Hannibal’s hopes of over¬
415 Sicilian Expedition: flight of Alcibiades coming Rome.
from Athens to Sparta. 205 Eoman provinces organised in Spain.
413 tioss of entire Athenian expeditionary force Eastern Han Dynasty in China.
at Syracuse. Battle of Zama: Hannibal defeated by Scinio
AWcanus.
406 Death of Euripides and Sophocles,
406 Battle of Aegospotami; Athenian navy 301 . E^ of Second Punic War. Some domin¬
destroyed by Sparta. ates Western Mediterranean,
196 After defeating Macedon; Eome proclaims
404^ -Athenian surrender to Sparta: beginning mdependence of Greek, oity-statM. Death of
of Spartan hegemony in Greece.
Eratosthenes the geographer (?),
403^^ Beginning
China. : of epoch
, of Warring States in in , battle of Judas Maccabaeua:
Jewish revolt against Seleuelds continues suc¬
400 Death of Thucydides, Greek historian (?). cessfully.
j999 Execution Of Socrates. 149 Outbreak of Third Pmilc War.
890 Occupation ol Borne by Gaols under
Brennus. 146 Carthage destroyed. Eoman province of
Leuotra: Spartans defeated by ^rica fprmed. Roman provinces of Mace¬
donia and Aohaea formed, and most of
Thebans: begimdng of Theban hegemony in remainder of Greece reduced to vassal status.
Greece.
War: Eevolt of slav«i in
370 D^th of Bttppoorates of Cos (?). Sicily under Bunus. Suppressed 182.
347 Death of Plato. 13E Siege and destruction Of Nnmantia by
338 Battle of Ohaeronea: Greek city-states Romans. Tiberius Gracchus Tribune. At¬
defeated by Philip 11 of Maoedom who be¬ tempted land refonns. Murdered 132.
comes supreme in Greece- 129 Roman province Of Asia formed from lands
336 Assassination of Philip of Macedon; acces¬ bequeathed by Attains of Pergamum.
sion of Alexander. .
124 Chinese Grand College to train OivU Service
officials.
384 -Mexander’s
Battle invasion'
of Granlcus, of Persian Empire.
first viotoryi 123 Caius Gracchus Tribune. Attempted land
Battle of Issus; Alexander defeats Darius reforms. , Murdered 121.
of Persia. 110 Chinese expansion to include most of south-
832 Alexander’s siege and capture of Tyre east of modem China, under .Empmwt Wu Tl.
occupation of Egypt. Commercial acti vity in Indian Oc^n.
■ events
06-A.D.432
B,0. A.P.
106 - :Juguitha captured by 3\EEiritis and SuUa. 80 Completion of Colosseum (Flavian Amphi¬
theatre).
104 Second Servile War: revolt of slaves in
88 Battle of Mens Grauplus: Agiicola crushes
Sicily under liyphon and Atbenioni Sup¬
press 101. Caledonians.
102 Chinese expedition to Ferghana and pos¬ 96 Accession of Nerva: first of the "Five
sible knowledge of West.
101 Battle of Vercellae: Marius ends threat of 97Good
Chinese expedition under Kang Tin (lieu¬
Emperors.”
Cimbri to Eome. tenant
Gulf. of Pan Oh’ao) penetrates to Persian
91 Social War: revolt of Italian cities against 117 Death of Trajan, accession of Hadrian
Eonje. Suppressed 88. Eoman franchise Eoman Empire at its greatest extent.
granted to most Italians.
88 Civil Wars of Marius and Sulla begin. 122 Beginning of Hadrian’s Wall (Tyne-Solway)
by Aulus Platorius Nepos.
87 Massacre in Eome by Marius.
136 Suppression
Dispersion of Bar-Cochba’a revolt and
of Jews.
82 Proscriptions in Eome by Sulla.
76 Belgic invasion of south-eastern Britain. 142 Construction of Antonine WaU (Forth-
73 Third Servile War: revolt of slaves in Clyde) by Quintus Dollius Urbicus^
southern Italy under Spartacus the gladiator. 180 Death of Marcus Aurelius, last of the “ Five
Suppressed 71. Good Emperors.” Beginning of the “De¬
63 Conspiracy of Catiline exposed by Cicero. cline ’ of the Eoman Empire (Gibbon).
193 Praetorian guards murder Emperor Per-
60 First TrfumvlTaterPompey. Caesar, Crassus- Julianns).
^x. sell Empire to highest bidder (Didius
68 Beginning of Caesar’s conquest of Gaul.
196 Clodius Albinus. governor, withdraws forces
65 Gayar’s first British expedition; second, 64. from Britain to support his attempt to become
53 Battle of Carrhae: destruction of Eoman Emperor.
army under Crassus by Persians. barbarians. Northern Britain overrun by
62 Eevolt of Vercingetorix against Caesar. 208 Septimius Severus visits Britain to punish
60followers.
Migration to Britain of Commius and his Caledonians (death at York 211).
212 Edict of Caracalla. Eoman citizenship
49 Caesar crosses the Eubicon. Beginning of conferred on all free inhahit^ts of Empire.
war against Pomp ey and the Senate. 220 End of Han Dynasty; China divided
48 Battle of Pharsalus: defeat of Pompey by and frequently invaded for next three cen¬
turies.
Caesar.
227 Sassanid Empire in Persia.
46 Caesar’s calendar reforms.
44 Murder of Caesar. 230 Emperor Sujin — Japanese history emerg¬
ing from legendary stage.
43Lepidus.
S^nd Triumvirate: Antony. Octavian, 261 Goths defeat and. kill Emperor Deoius.
42 Battle of Philippi: defeat and death of 2^ Break-away “ QaUio Empire ” set up; sup¬
Brutus and his afsociates. pressed 273.
31 Battle of Actium: naval victory of Octa¬ 273 ^Defeatby ^
Palmra Zraiobia
Emperor tind destruction of
Aurelian.
vian oyer Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian 284 Acctesion of Diocletian, who reorgaifises
unchallenged master of the Eoman world. Eoman Empire (293) with rigid social laws and
heavy taxation.
THE EOMAN EMPIRE
*0 Eiund Independent
27Senate.
Octavian given the title of Augustus by the Empire of Britain ; suppressed 297.
806 Constantine proclaimed Emperor at York.
19 Death ofVirglL 313 EdictEmpire.
of Milan. (Hhristianlty tolerated la
Eoman
8 Death of Horace.
6 Birth of Jesus Christ. (?) 320 Gnpta dynasty reunites India.
A.P. Nicaea: first general Council of
the Church.
6 Civil Service Examination system in China.
367 Sui^ssful attack on Britain by Piets.
, Ka^cal reforms by Emperor Wang Mang.
8 Annihilation Scots, Saxons.
of Eoman army under Varus by 8TO Eestoration of Eoman authority in Britain
Teutomo tribesmen under Arminius. by Theodosius.
10 Cunobelinus reigning over much of south¬
east Britain from Colchester. of Adrianople: Gotha defeat and
kill Eastern Boman Emperor Valens,
14 Death of Augustus.
17 Death of Divy. 383 âfegnns Maximus withdraws forces from
Bntoin to support his attempt to conquer
18 Death of Ovid. north-western part of Empire.
Italy.
388 Magnus Maxlmas defeated and Jdlled in
25_m Beginning
China. ofLater or Eastern Han Dynastv
29 Omcifixlon of Christ (?). Emperor Theodosius the Great:
the ^vtelim of the Empire into East and West
43^Plautlus.
Eoman invasion of Britain under Aulus at his death proves eventually to be the flnn.i
one.
61 Garaotacus taken to Eome as prisoner. 406 Bsuuper Constantine m withdraws forces
60 Eevolt of Boudioca. trom Britain to rapport ins claims: probable
63 Death of St. Paul. end of Eoman military occupation of Britain
64 Great Fire of Eome. 410
petorSa^ .Borne
^^norlus tefis by Alaric the Goth. Him,
Britons to arrange for their
68 Death of Seneca.
66 Jews of Palestine rebelled against Eoman
: "rnle.v own defence. - “
THE BAEBAEIAN INVASIONS
®8of,Death
Eoman ofEmpeiffiEB.
Nero— end of JuUo-CIaiidian line 415 VisigothB begin conquest of Spain,
70 Jerusalem taken and Jewish revolt sud- 419 Viaigothio kingdom of Toulouse recognised
preffied by Titus. by Eoman government. ^
78 "Deetrpctlon of Pompeii and Hmrculaneum 429. ’Vandals begin conquest of North AfHrtn.,
by eruption Vesuvius. . 432 St. Patrick begins mission in Ireland.
446-1002
As A.n. EVENTS
A.D.
446Borne
■ " Groana of al).
the Britons *’--last appeal to Pepin King of the Franks: founds Carolln-
(tradition 3iim d^roasty. Bavenna taken by Lombards:
461 (jhMons: Attlla the Htm repelled from end of Byzantine power in the West.
Gd/tu Dy niixsd Itoniaiii— Bajfaar!q,T) forces. 764 Pepin promises central Italy to Pope: be-
Binmng of temporal power of the Papacy.
45S AttUa’e i^d into Italy: destruction of
Aquilea and foundation of Venice by refugees, 778 BoncesvaUes: defeat and death of Boland.
465 Borne pillaged by Vandals. 786 Accession of Hkroun-al-Eashid in Baghdad.
476 Eomul^ Augustulua, last Western Boman Britain begm.landlsfa
'^5, me: Viking attacks on
u
ally by Odovacar: convention¬
the end of the Western l^man Empixe. Mercian dominance
m England.
481 Olovfe becomes King of the Branks, who
eventually conquer Gaul fd. 611). 800 Coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Boman
ifimperor.
Ostrogothic Kingdom in
Italy (d. 626). 814 Death of Charlemagne;
empire. division of his
616 Battle of Mount Badon: West Saxon ad¬
vance halted by Britons, perhaps led by 825 EUandun: Egbert defeats Mercians and
Arthur (?).
Wessex becomes leading Idngdom in Engiaii.).
827 Moslem invasion of Sicily.
BYZAiraroM AND ISLAM
MosleyItaly.
oouthem capture Bari and occupy much of
6S7 Accession of Justinian I (d. 565).
628 Code of Civil Law published by Justinian. final division of Carolin-
Me of St. Benedict put into practice at Monte aan Empire, and beginning of France and
Cassmo (traditional), Germany as separate states.
imder Belisarius reconquer MMAlpln becomes king of Piets as
North Africa from Vandals. well as Scots: the kingdom of Alha.n
668 Byzantine ônquest of Italy complete. Viking state in Bussia: first
663 St. Golumba founds mission in Iona. at Novgorod, later at Kiev.
568 Lombard lEingdom founded in Italy. 866 Fujlwara period begins in Japan. Viking
570 Birth of Mohammed.
677 Battle of Deorham: West Saxon advance East
wiS® Anglia
®? and in. England:
Mercia Northumb
subsequen tly ria,
over¬
resumed. whelmed.
888 Earliest dated printed book in .China..
689 Beunion of China under Southern Ch’en
dynasty 872 Harold Falrhalr King of Norway,
600 Gregory the Great becomes Pope. 874 Iceland settled by Norsemen.
697 St. Augustine lands in Kent. 886-H5 Viking attack on. Paris.
606 Grand Canal of China constructed. 803 Simeon founds first Bulgar Empire in
618 I'ang Dynasty in China: their administra¬ Balkans. .
tive system lasts in essentials for 1,300 years. 896 Arpad and the Magyars in Hungary.
622 Hejira or flight from Mecca to ivrwiUnii of 899 Death of Alfred the Great.
Mohammed: beginning -of Mohammedan era.
900 (3hana at the height of its power in North
687 Battle of Nineveh; Persians crushed by West Africa.
Byzantines under Hetaolius.
632 Death of Mohammed: all Arabia now 910 Abbey of piuny founded: monastic reforms
Mralem. Accession of Abu Bakr. the first spread from here.
Cahph. 911 Bolf (or Eollo) becomes ruler of Normandy.
664 Battle of Heavenfleld : Oswald becomes iHng 912 Accession of Abderrahman IH: the most
of Northumbria, brings in Celtic Christianity. splendid period of the Omayyad Caliphate of
Cordova (d. 961).
638 Jerusalem captured by Moslems^ ^
641 Battle of Mehawand: Persia conquered by 928 Brandenburg taken from the Slavs bv
Moslems. Henry toe Fowler, first of the Saxon Holy
Boman Emperors.
648 Alexandria taken by Moslems.
646 Downfall of Soga clan in Japan, after estab- 629 Death of Wencerias, Christian King of
Bohemia.
hshmg Buddhism: beginning of period of
mutation of Dhinese culture. ■
i.,
Athelstan,of West
Bmnanburh: crowning
Saxon Idngs victory of
now masters
660 Slav occupation of Balkans now complete. England. of
663 Synod of Whitby: Boman Ohristlanity
triumphs over Celtic Christianity in England. 965 Battle of ^hfeld: Magyars finally de-
icflited. by Ofcto the Great and settle in (Hungary,
686 Nectansmere : end of Northumbrian domi¬
nance in England. • 960 Beginning of Sung Dynasty in Oiina,
698 Carthage taken by Moslems. 965 Harold Bluetooth, king of Denmark.
711 Tarik leads successful Moslem invasion of
Spain. acceptsCh^tianity.
966 ^
Mieszko I. king of Poland, accepts Christi¬
anity.
718 Failure of second and greatest Moslem
aftack on Constantinople. Pelayo founds 968 Fatimids begin tbeir rule in Egypt.
Christian Idngdom of Asturias in Northern
Spain. 982 Discovery of Greenland by Norsemen.
726 Byzantine Emperor Leo HI begins Icono¬ 987 Hugh Capet king of France: founder of
Capetian dynasty.
clast movement: opposed by Pope Gregory n
md an importiint cause of difference between 088 Vladimir of Kiev accepts Christianity.
. Boman and Byzantine Churches.
001. Battle of Maldon: defeat of Byrhtnoth of
THE HOLY BOMAN EMPIRE AND THE Essex by VUdngB— renewed ViMng raids on
England.
TBTOMPH op CHEISTIANrrY m EUROPE:
NORSEMEN AND NORMANS 008 piof Skntkonung, king tff Sweden, accepts
Chiistlanlty.
782 Tours: Moslem western advance halted by 1000 Leif Ericsson discovers North America.
Charles Martel. , 1001 Coronation of St. Stephen of Hungary with
736 Death of Bede. crown sent by the Pope.
760- Beginning of Abbasid ...
Caliphate (replacing 10(» - Massacre of Ht, Briceis Day: attempt by
Omayy ads), Etoelied to exterminate Damea
EVENTS
101 4-1327 A.D.
1014 BatUe of CSon^: victory of Wsh under 1188 Third Crusade launched: leaders— BVede.
Brian Bora over Vikings. ^9^^ Baxbarossa. Philip August
1016 Canute becomes king of England; builds Bichard Lionheart of England,
short-Uved Danish " empire.” 1191 End
1192 Capture of Acre Crusade
by Crushers
^ complete sub- 1192 End of Third
of Third without regaining
jectionofBulgars. Jeniêm . BichardCrusade withe
I seized and held to r^
: Jenisalem.
som m AustriaBichard
on I1 seized
return and
journey.
1040 Tlx
Attempte. to implement
. Trace of Grod from ®om in Austria.-“■amara
on return seizea and held to ran-
journey,
about this time. U98 Imiocent HI becomes Pope.
Guiscard in south- 1202 Eourth lOrhê, diverted 'by Venetian^
me oaptures Constantinople.
takes Zara from Byzantines.
m^ Batin Empire. King John of Ingtod
xvoo
1060 -LNormans
Normans invade Sicily. losee
loses iNormanay
Normandy to jBrance.
Erance.
William I.
W*lTi conquest Mlof AllUSiUlIU
England under
UliUtJI ..Teijin proclaimed Gengiz Khan (Very
William I. Mlgh^ King) of all the Mongols: soon controls
1069 Befonns
_ of_ Wang
_ .
An-Shlh . _ .
in China. all Af nAnf.m.l Aoi'a
1208 Allênsian Crusade launched: the first
against Christians.
Siof (5enM ASa? ™ois
THE CRUSADES 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa: decisive
1071 Manzlkert: Seljuk Turks destroy Byzan¬ Children 8 Crusade.
tine army and overrun Anatolia. . ‘JL SPS'Jiiar'ls over Moors. The
10^ mdeb^d the CULlMlNATrON

Oburch discipline (Cregory VID becomes Pope.
and Papal authority enforced. OP THE MIDDIiE AGES
1075 Seljuk Turks capture Jerusalem. La^n
Church Council: the authority of
Md Papacy at Its zenith.
1076 Kumbi. capital of Ghana, sacked by Abno-
ravids : subsequent break-up of Ghana Empire. Dommie^
C^rta extortedrecognised
by barons byfrom
the John.
Pope. Marng
im Carthusians founded by St. Bruno at.
Chartreuse.
1228 Pranciscans recognised by the Pope.
1229 Emperor Frederick IIv through dinlomacv
1086 Compilation of Domesday Book.
1094 El Cid takes Valencia. recognis ed by
Teutoni c Moslems as Kinfo
Knights establi sh^ 7jeS” ’
in Prassia.
Cîl of Clermont: Urban H preaches ^
Eirst Crusade. Mongols) begin subjugation
“Jto uentraj Europe.
1098 Cistercians founded bv St Bobprf. at ioai -xi. _ _ i •
— CiteaiS^^^^^^
Citeaux. ‘vuuuou My^ oi. ytooert
.Kooert at
at Mongol Mamelukes
mcursions mto Centra
Frêe^ptured on hisEurope.
1089 become rulers ofCrusade
Egypt,
takes E^ Crusade under Godfrey of BouUlou
Jerusalem. ^ndmgo king declares his independence of
GbdiUSi uud Gi)ibraiC68 TaiB.m,
Willi^ Eufus in the New Forest.
T Jttutus in the New Eorest. wnaua and embiaces Tginm
fouSS
ima m: ‘v 1. - “ "'““I*™vne
AAciiry jL or -Cingiaiia acaulres
Normandy, captures his brother Robert. ae iianseatie
Montfor League.
t force reforms on Henry ni of
dP ed by Môls.
destroy"aronsunaer Simon
1116 Abelard teaching at Paris. St. Bernard 1260 Kublai KBan ruling in China.
founds monastery at Claixvaux.
1118 Order of ]TnJghta Templars founded.
imth ro
Loss Of the ne
White Ship and ,
heir to kgllsh de Montfort's
England. '
Parliament
ê^f tngl^dT' Montfo rt-s party become
Battle
1122 Concordat of Worms: Pope and Emperor ToS. Eâm: defeat and death of de Montfort.
conaprom^ on the Investiture Controversy but B>®®'tb ofOfThomas
Bepê Aquinas
Mongol attack on Japan.
takes English crown: civil wars êJh&r. Sicilians against
first king of TnestW“ ^ ^ of England, con-

ll£SrH^“L1S'ed
Christian stronghold of to ^b^ns^kttmpte
1148 Second Crusade fails to capture Damascus. end of Crusading in Holy
"^BertM“"“*“ «“o by beginnings
— TM SEES.
Buoueeas acepnen: nrat nf pated in 1275).
"‘ss ot 1808 Death of Duns Scotus.
1161 Explosi
Plantagene usedof in
kings
t ves warfare nd.
Engla
in Cfiiina.
Invades Iretand: beginning of
— Anglo-
X AiiTauca xitjmua: Deginniiii; or
Norman
Anglo-Norman rule.rule. Saladin
Saladin ruling
ruling Inin Bgmt
Eerot DEOIjINE OP THE MIDDLB AGES
-founf^f^ of Santiago Suppression of Templare by king of France

I«8nano: Frederick
^*"0.Barbarossa
Italian of Bannockburn: victory of Robert
U87 Hattla: destruction of Latin litogdom of 1327** 0“®***-

Jerusalem by Saladin. “ôom of of Edward H: .subsequently
1336-f499 EVENTS
A-D. .
1387 Death of Giotto. - ■ Burning of Joan of Arc,

1838 BeginnlngofHundred Years* War between the Navigator. jreat
England and ITance. war penweep to exploration ordered by Henry
® English capture French 1^4 trol of Plorence.
d;i
iQiiyi a U4 T I'iui ui jjiorence. Medici begins his faniily’s cbn-
— : fTciuijAiTao U4, juujtieriiu
authority in In Grennany
GeiSny obliges
obli^î^
leagues for mutual protection.
towns to form support from England, inBurgun^ra withdraw
favour Of Prance. "
burg Albert I becomes Emperor— the first Habs-
Emperor.
13^
X Battlespfêoy
xx..^.v.o
taoular
v,x xxicyf
English victoriesand Neville’s Cross: spec-
j-ioviue 8 IJTOSS: SpeC- bm-ff EmnPTn,. — - - -
over Prench and Scots. ^ V
Itogland . Beath of Jan van Eyck.
Cpm dl Eiemd
of Rome: killedattempts
iSRi ™ of
to reform government ■of Henrv VI of of EnffinTidCade against government
reaches Europe (England ®®fGe ^ CastIUon: final English defeat
1349. Scotland 1350). end of Hundred Years’ War. Constant!*
totompf by English StlrSma^ Ste. ' Byzantine
~ or
-
Jk^, py ™sn Eastern Eonmn Empte.
Statuts tofr^^
"P^rli^Mt
1853 of Prasmunirsr rostraints Dla(2Gd - -
on Papal intervention In England.^ R3BINAISSAN0E, DISCOVEgUES, :
1864 Otto^n Turks make first settlement in Eirst “dated
NEW printing
MONARCHIES ”
from movable types in
D®®fn of Stephen Dushan: collapse of Ser- Europe: Papal indulgence printed at Mahiz.
battle of St. Albans: beginning of
13^ Battle of Poitiers ; capture of E3ng John of Wars of the Roses.
^ ^ Prince,
rûlates bnperlal elections in **such
Golden
a wav Bull”
as to 1468 Mathias
Gieoree Corvinus Tw.x,T»,nîr{„™
of Pndiphru/i becomes Idnir of ETiniffarv*
valid until 1806. '

* , ? of Towton: Yorkist victory in a
Yorldsb
1868 X1.8 JaMoM.: ftiKofIrnob pimte. ffil”? S“"'^ I"-* SI
“J^MollSSTimST" “? team* Date Of Bx,.

b^mesthe official language in 1469 Marriage of Ferdinand of Amiron wifh
IfteUaorgstiJe: STthfm^&r^
1363 jjimm (Tamerlane) begins his career of con- Lorenzo the Magnificent .becomes
quest in Asia. luler of Florence,
1368 Ming Dynasty in China. 1470 Warwick (’’The Kfagmaw ;»> turns
1870
rîns
r
Bertrand
much dn GuescUn
tenitory
y>*w.w** from Constable
the of Prance-
English.
uuc AUiiKiiMii.
, ii; ' j”
- JtrtKlCe
Peace 3®‘'toones Edward
‘ ®f Edward IV: PP".jjUxjjtaLKi.rm.iiH
ait., Lancastrians
ot Stralsaad:. Hansa
2J Hansa iuin complete
comnlete control
control ofof c^hed ^ atat Barnet
Bamet andand Tewkesbury;
Tewkesbury. Tvan Ivan HT TTT
Baltic Sea. of Moscow takM Novgorod j Muscovy rising to
to Rome; End of Babylonish to Russia.
Captivity, 1476 Caxton sets up his press at Westminster.
1378
GreatDteputed
Schism.Papal Election;, Beginning of ’^^12 ?®<^ti®
Charles the ofBold:
Nancy: end defeat
of theand death of
greatness
13M Battle of Ohloggia: decisive victory -of T' conspirsioy against the Medici in
tw^x3 Donskoi
tS , Bôoa- Battle of Kullkovo:
iNvuoxo VI o™*-
jxuuaovo: Eazsa
Dmitri
DmiW l^nskoi nf of Mna/viTO
Moscow m-no ,v.„i _ ■ --.ii
vnns first major Florence.
Ptorence. :
“"""i'xxxvuj' aBiutmi, mo rneuioi in
,Rnssto victory over Golden Horde. 1481 Inquisition becomes active in CastUe (1484
Peasants Revolt in England under Wat »u Aragon).
.60? XI. , .r , ^ , Battle of Bosworth Field: beginning of
1384 Death of John Wydif. Tudor iieiiod in Bnglandi
1386_
^Battle of ûbarotta: ^ K\X“ Portugal safeguards laoa
■•• "‘"“(itiioaicBUttrua ouimex B rising
rising laus.
mdependence Cn.aMi6 4487
mdenendence from Castile. Lambert
,, .. .Simnel’s
_. -i"****<» fails „
t,,
ifiliA ' ' 'ei ~ Aôo -B^-rfcholomcw BifliZ rounds Osido of G-ood
safeguard
SwissJagiello Hope.
in- iaqi auuaiuo ui uooa
fromSempaoh:
Battle of
dependence Bto-baburgs. (VlariH- nî.4.^ * , ^
SaW) unites Lithuania and Poland 4^ Brittany acquired by Bang of Prance (by
Ko^vo: crushing defeat of laoo t? "■ t.
Serba and neighbonrtog naGohs by Turks. Rodrigo Bp:â becomes Pope Alexander
1 T* , Columbus discovers the West Indie^
1898 Timur invades and pillages Northern India.

i, j-wwatu Ai. ueyosea oy jaenry iv
the Lancastrian kings of England ,
Glendower revolts in
in Wales,
Wales. Death European diplomacy and International rela-
of Chaucer.
, tlpns. Treaty of Tordesillas: Spain and Po^
1401 De Haeretico Comburendo: the burning of ^ “to*® FP divide unexplored part of world;
heretics made legal in England. ^ subsequently approved by Pope.
1410 Battle of Tannenberg: Poles and Lithn- ^paburg-Spanlsh marriages: foundation
anlans break power of Tentonlo Knights. .of mter empires.
■i-j — Agfinoourt: great
HAea.1; success
ouccctni of
- oi Perkin1d00^
Warbeck captured by
-FFMrafcfv-v/JV vopJt/UUjLCU. uj Henry VH i
xini^ry -VJ
Henry V of
V of England in Prance. Council
Envln.n/I In nA««M/Ul of • fruinorAil
(^ng^ 1499). .Tr\>in rViKiif
John ^bot discovers New¬
Constance ends Great Schism, bums John Hus. foundland. ^
cialms to French 14M Savonarola burned. Vasco da Giama at
S^ê, iwoguteed. Hussite Wars befoi: Calicut: the sea route to rndii.. ^
^hemian heretics defend themselves success- 1499
êrigo
American Vespucci charfeBsrt of the.•Sopth
coast. ■
A.D.
I0\»0*1600
AJ).
discovered by Pedro Cabral.
estebbahed at Sevflle:
of Eenals.
w^Pa^y. Ma<tovelU writes The Prince.
Pacific (^5th^^:
^j»ue or jrioaden: James IV of ScotinTid
pd tilled by En«^ Hootiand iKK^ ®®^®tus burned by Calvin

defe^
, «*“S accepted ta^Germ^ ^
Of Swiss iaviiiclbttKy ^ ^bar becomes Mogul ISmperor^tlMS)™®^-

:% permanent Portuguese
iKi2s&ss;““ «
“tte<ffl5S.“"'”’^'*™-
lew Martin Luther nails un hla I’Mtatosor
Ninpfir Ouo “teMSwSidM**™'®*”'’'**-
beligious waks ooôfaips-
SSiSs?*“'“‘* »«'»
Vinci. -rr Axoo war oi Jtceiurion in Fra
Elizabethan
Scotland.
the Maghifloent becomes Sultan- S
1 ™til 1698i
teevocably. Ch^s Alva

AiJstrian and Spanish
taken by the Turks; Knights of
?lfesa£!,S: 'I""
lOTO
iS &A‘«; ta oem^ ,„,SSd
a^/4S5aLS^,^!S.‘»S i'Mlto mder^^m^ Clentral Sudan at its
^3SS“31«v*-
•“logai Jianpire, Italy *uuxiufij
under IdsbS^. to Itomco. led by
16^ êge of Vienna by the Turi™ c SebaSi^ ofp^lS*® pli^*’northern pro-

f°LFtoe
t>y Iâncleco Pizarro. d«Sf

Dutch Eepublic I^tif®^ ^^t ^becomes
Marri^ <^Hew
““ ««■of IMP tong of Portugal
Aragon declared ^ Catherme
^cedb^P^^^'x^ New Style) totro:
IMS of the Silent.
^ Dilution Spanish-Duteh War,^*^^° intervention in
reUgion^levMSM' because of ISM ® Great) becomes rule^êr8la®(d\629)®® ^

®»''to8h Armada destroyed
defeated. ^“^9).
by troops from
Jm S ooPQuered by®S®o ôthWp^n^«>®>toe de- Medici. Queen-
in Nffl^êriM ^So^v
Society of Jesuso^Ptoiations e
by Pow. recognised
^ ,^
i^ Geneva.
1S9S ^ « °5SS.“
fare of oolon&l^l^^^g^_\®^te for wel-
1646
1648 Opening
Death Of ofCope^,M ®^™®°^®™“®“*-
CbuncU of Trent
1808 ”
160f-*1686 A.n.
"
A.D. I EVENTS
'■ '
(Man-
1602 ûtoh East Ihdia Coiiipaiiy founddd,
Tejolfcs flnaUy suppre^d by. Moujit- army^. crushed: Battle of
Jês 16; of Scotland as
and Scot-t-
^ ;1646
1 Charles I surrende
Montrosers 8toarmy
Soots;destroyed,
1604 HamptOT Court Oonferenee: James -I1 Clmrles I seized by Army.
‘ oyerCharles I flees to
disappoints Poritans. ;T to Parliament.
1606 Gunpowder Plot. ®®oond OivE War: New Model x nees

himvxo
Cansbrooke Castle. v.îji^nea
•; ^rliame
defats Soots and Royalis
nt refashio ned ts. “ Pride’s Pii^^^
by Army. Peace of
^ÎmlSibunde^ ^ company: Westphaha ends Thirty Years’ War.
1608 Quebec founded by Champlain.
®*^tch independence in factt ! ASCENDANCY OP FRANCE

secured. Expulsion of Moriscos from Spain. 1649 Charles I executed. England goremed
Commonwealth. Cromwell hi Ireffl; as
1610 Assassination of Henry TV Of Prance. New
1611, PlanMon of Ulster with English and
Ver^n of the Scot- S
" Ôg Russia completes establishment
1661 Battle of Worcester: CromweE ’s llnal vie-
becomes Czar: the first Navigation Act. Hobbes Leviathan publishe
of the dynasty. ■ fc ^ d,
HMt EnglMi’
f ^budationofCape Colony by Dutch under
^^kfgn.r^hma’' W® explanation of
Cervantes.
Edict of Inquisltipn against Galileo’s astrono fends^lsl) ^lo-»«tch Wat be^
my.
1618 “Defenestration of Prague”: Bohemia ■ Id^^^^ômwell dissolves Rump, becomes Pro-
wertion of mdependence begins Thirty 'Y^ra’ n’ f , J^ôr-^nerala appointed to supervise
1620 Pilgrim Fathers settle in New England FngPnlf %Kland. Jamaica seized by
.
“^.®®®cre of Amboina”; English
out of fice islands by Dutch. Elcheliedriven
n be¬ 1 1668 Death of CromwelL
^°goyeênt^“'®’' of Turkish
comes Chief Minister in Eran^. -Kicnene u pe-
Petition of. Pyrenees: Prance replaces
by^mjnons^to Charlea I. FaE of La Spain as greatest power in Wêstem Europe.
P^“cb Ihotesta^ lose, political 1660 Restoratmn of monarchy in Britain*
power. Biirvey pubhshes his wort on Charles n. Royal Society founded. :
the
circulation of blood. ^ ®ce ^ . Mavrin: Louis XIV now rules in
Charles I begins Personal Rule. person. ^ Clarendon Code”; ; l>eginning of
persecution of Non-confb]unists in JEiigland.
Sweden - enters ^
^rty Years War* turns tide against Imperta- : by English: Seomd
Apglo-Dutch War ensues teMs 1667).
-^ctbfjtogaeburg, one of the worst inci- 1686 Gr^t Plague of London.
, dents of the Thirty Yeare’ War. ' ‘ ; 1686 Great Fire of London. Newton’s dis-
imtzen: , death of Gustavus !
Pwteh fleet in the Medway. War dis-
ie^. \TOEam taud appointed Archbishop of . - ®eyoIuti coyeryof ■ ^ ôns of
onlawofgra
begins: yitatlpn
first of Louis XIV’s aggr^-
Wentworth tabes up his
post as Lord Deputy of Ireland. “ Independence recognised by
^®WailSS^^ general 1669 Death of Rembrandt.
refuses to pay Ship Money.
1666 Japanese forbidden to go abroad. ' ^d liouis XIV.
TTV Bevolt
-D^ Poyerof between
peasajifcs Charles
and Don H
1637 Russian pioneers reach shores of Pacific. Cossacks upder Stenka Razin (suppressed 1671).
1638 Coyenant widely signed in Scotland. ■ I*®®bi8 (ends 1674).
1 Murder
ofDe Witt brothers: WEllam of Orange
bwomes leader of Dutch against French
Charles Î
^®tLl^^hl^tT’: defeated iuTO-
by Scots. Long Parliament begins: aboEtb 1673 Test Act deprives English (lathOUcs
u 1 and
bewmffi ruler of Elector
Brandenburg,
(Ered°
firic? Mohisre”*^™^^ Swede s defeat
offices. Death of
ed by
^vnif Af (Ûy suppressed 1660). 1
of Btoa prj. ’ Great Elector , rfae of Pmsaain nflUtary power^
1641 Ja:ê8e exclude all foreigners (excent for f’M ” of Oates utiEsed bv
^ ®'nd the Whigs to bring pressure on
^ Wentworth (Earl of ®nPP’’®ssi<>n of .Sottish
Covenanters, ^heaa Corpus Act passed
. '
1680 ^Chambers of Reunion: Louis XIV uses
te^^ârguments to complete annexation of
BdgehlU. Death M Charles H overcomes
lloMieu
Battle of Roorpl; French victory
, end of ^®jj^PPo**®nts* begliiB to rule without Parll^
. Spa^h reputation for inyinoibUity.
Franceh. 1^
of.Englis laef “aior Turkish
,..®*®^ of Vienna
attack by the
on Europe.
1686 Sedgemoor; Monmouth’s rebelUon crushed
by JamM H. Revocation of Edict of Nantes:
ravil Wax. North
^90?: lost
decisive’
to battle
Charlesbf iTli^
EngHnii wrsMutlon of French ,Protestajits by Louis
pemuir: .Montrose begins ylctorious J^yalfat
' AJ>.
EVENTS
1675-1772
A.1). AlO
167S Greenwich Eoyal Obeervatosfy founded. i5®bert Walpole becomes first Prime
Min^r. Peace of Nystad: Sweden
Northern War.
no l^^r
protest against James H’s
acctultted. WU-
— •Lwcivuiuuiuii. 1723 Death of Christopher Wren.
indemnity Act for Non-eonformlsta
to suh- 1729 Methodists begin at Oxford.
oue
rtL Irish Iôtestants.
i KllUecran lde: H death
of James of
collapse of Highland risihg. BiU government of Towns-
hend. who becomes agnoultural pioneer.
established by Compact between Bonrhon
"Qlon^41teyo&®®'^^ 2î&es m Omemment ^mgs of Frajttco sud Spain. WlthdrawaJ of
^Sead: French victory
W^pol^s^ Excise BiU. John
James n by William ?®®^- m. Boyne: defeat of
publishes The Borse-Hoing
, ^P^f'Olation of Ismerick: surrender of
of James H on conditions which & of tbe Heat tStile^^n-
are not fulfilled. 1738 Lorraine ceded to France.new agricultural
m^hS**^’ advocating
with Persian army sacks Delhi,
Glencoe:. Gtovemment’s
Ba Hogue: Anglo
Hutch fleet regains command of the sea.
1693 National Debt of England begun. becomes king of
1694 Bank of England founded.
Hoen^ abandoned: freedom of the 1742 uupns. _Fredenck siezes Silesia. hf>?rino Wai- Af
press m England. minfnnq
Fall of Walpole. T“
tofX' eqs Ip Austnan
-Austrian do-
1696 Peter the Great sole Czar.
ff* fast British Iring to
Byswyck between Louis XTV and
i^ “ *be field, defeats FrS.
joumeys “ incognito ” to jMoblte EebeUion under
tte^St™' ^ bv ■ ® Edward:
®'*e of initial
Cumberland
success, defeated
^riowitz: great Turlrish con¬
cessions to Austrians. victory
Death of
1700 Great Northern War, inyolving all
Baltic ^
, _of P^stonpans, •f®®°bit
march eato destroy
Derby. ed by ^
(hunber -
powers, bâns (ends 1721). Bat^ of Narva •
Charles XH of Sweden!
Death of Cîl^H of Spain: under French ®^®''^bere status QUO.
1750 Death of®i j-la-Ghapelle:
J. 8. Bach. Frederick re-
named succeffiwr.XrVs gian^n Philip of™5
Hmgarlan *|pi Succession begins. bolds Arcot: checks

rôltle d by Francis Eakoczi against
Fra^ published
cS^S’&^^^^bem
A®?®*"*® ^®^ India. Chinese
calendar.
by Eooke. Blenheim*
Marihôugh
‘Ss”a.rs!2«« "&Ppsste
jag,perforce
“sss
stops France from winning war
is'eSS^S
became
Minorca
^’Sdd^ft°«f eaânakA^
iiaievm^
17^
ns.&s ^^.^beban^
Braddock's
of French
defeat
and Indians.
e^by
taken from British
(Byngiexecuted 1767). Black :^ftAf by
®f many British prisoMraf
Secretary of State, main influence
KossbkS^M ofSSin
Death of Auxungzib, last powerf
S*°ed: Scota^llrliênte ul
^^® COJidoers Bengal.
^’borough's third great
Pte^®
^ ■wctor^
“^^*2^68 ” foragainst heavy^^
Britain: Qnebec
1709 Pultap: Charles XH’s invasion of Eui«fa
victory— at great
by I^ter the areat™MaJplS^
'*®®^*^® '*®f®at of French in
1710 Tory government in England
1711 Dismissal of Marlborongh.
1713 Peace of Utrecht: England makes
geous peace^with Louis W. advanti
grants Aslento (monopolyBonri^nS of
American slave trade) to England of Soanlsb
GwlSnd Eîfe
^'*îstri?“DMth^‘rf France and 17TO
ENUtOBIKNED DESPOTS;
BRmSH EMPIRE FIRST
m el^&; Cayendish proves hydrogen to be
1916 'S^rtgBnial Act: English Pailia
ment urn.
EVENTS
1773-1829 All
AJ).
of Jesna supprâed by Pt»p6 18(W Bonaparte becomes Emperor, Spain de-
(rôred 1814). Eevolfc led by Pugachov in Britain. Serbian r^
Eu^ (suppressed 1776). “Boston Tea volt against Turks under Kara (Seorge.
Jrarty.
1806 Batrie of Trafalgar, Nelson’s great viotorr
1774 Warren Hastings appointed first (Jovemor- and death, Oct. 21. Battle of Austerlitz.Dec. 2.
Cleneralof todia. Treaty of Kutchut Kalnaril : ^9- Confederation of
I concessions to Eussla. Karl
acheele discovers chlonne. Joseph Priestley’s T^‘ ® reorganisation of Ger-
% disco very of oxygen. ^ Holy at Roman Empire,
Aug. 6. PruMia overthrown Jena. Napo-
and Boulton in partnership afc Soho j “ declares Great Britain in a state of block¬
En^neering Works, Birmingham. Lexington: ade— Continental System.”
first action in Ataerioan War of Independence. 1807 Slave trade
abolished in British Empire.
u Declaration of Independence.
Adam Smith s Wealth of Nations published. ^ Tilsit: with Alexander of Russia his
friend, Napoleon controls all of Europe. Ocou-
u 1777 Saratoga: surrender of British army under pation of Portugal by French, to enforce Con¬
tinental Blockade.
Q; Burgoyne to Americans.
?f Pranco-Spanish siege of
1808 Occupation of Spain by French,
Spanish
Gibraltar (raised finally, 1783). Samuel Cromp¬ nsing: _guepilla ^rfare. Peninsular War be-
ton mvents spinning mule. 5®'*^®
Wellington), Aug.Vhneiro
21. (defeat of French by
®®J® to Austria.
18M Battle of Corunna and death of Sir John
;;^™}ed neutrality of maritime nations to re-
stram British interference with shipping, 1,9* -Attempted risinjs in Germany
-^'JstriaJujiewswar. Treaty
..Joseph n introduces religious toleration of Sohdnbrunn. Oct. 14.
abohahes serfdom in Austria. Yorktown: sur-
render of British under Comwallia to AmBrloi.n 1819 ^ Self-government established in Argentina:
and Prenoh forces.
dent of Spain.
j A®?*?.*" American state to become tadepen-
saves British1,°West Ihdies.
_S^ts: Eodney's victory 1811
riots. Massacre of Mamelukes at Cairo. Luddite
1783 Treaty of Versailles: American ihdepeUd-
ence r^gniseA Pitt the Younger bScomes 1812 Retr^t from Moscow: destruction of
Muuster of Britain. First flights in hot- Napoleon’s Grand Army.
mr (Montgolfier) and hydrogen (Charles) bal in (Sermany. De¬
loons. feat of French by Wellington at Vitoria, Jime2l,
1784 Death of Df. Samuel Johnson. 1814 Soult def^ted By Wellington at Toulouse,
1785 Edmund Cartwright invents the power April 10- Abdication of Napoleon, April 11;
loom. Louis XVill Jdng of France, Congress of
Vienna (oonoiuded June 1816) under guidance of
1787' Amerioandonstitution drafted. Mette^ch. Resettlement of Europe, usually
Impeachment of Warren Hastings begins by restoration of kings. Germanic Confedera-
(ends 1796). - tion under Austrian snperviaion. Poland ruled
FEENCH EEVOLimON by_Czar.
jieigiain. Kingdom of Netherlands to include
AND NAPOLEON
^"^12 Washington THE OLD ORDER RESTORISD
:ênch Revolution first President
begins. of nof s the
Storming a
Bastille (July 14). 1816 Escape of Napoleon from Elba. Battle of
0 1^90 Civil constitution of the Clergy in Prance. Waterloo, June 18. Corn Ijaw in Britain to
safeguard agncnltural interests by keeping up
“ ^^®li_^l*'bffh
to Varennes.t of Louis AVI and Marie Antoinette -^Baoce (Austria, Russia,
Jm 17M Battle of Valmy: French Revolution saved Jfru^, Britain) to maintain Vienna settlement
\JiJ trom mtervention of European kings. Den- and hold regular meetings (" Congress System ”)
—frequently confused with Holy Alliance, which
V mark tx^mes first country to prohibit slave simply a declaration of Ohristfan prindples.
^ trade. France becomes a Republic. Napoleon sent to St. Helena, Oct, 16.
Louis Xvi beheaded. Second partition of
Poland. •AJ.V),B^dptte
jyeD. 6. made king of Sweden (Charles
Q
-asy 1794 1819 Si^pore founded by Stamford Raffles.
Pierre“ Glorious
and end First of June.”
of Jacobin Fallof Eobes-
Republic. Negro Beginnings of Zollverein (Customs Union) in
revolt m Haiti led by Toussalnt L’Ouverture, Germany under Prussian influence. Parlia¬
X^5795 The Directory established. " Whiff of mentary refPrm meeting at Manchester dis¬
rt ) Grapeshot : Napoleon Bonaparte disperses persed hy military (“ Peterloo ”). Aug, 16.
mob. Oct. 6. Batavian Republic set up
t France, 1820 Death of (3eorge HI, Jan. 29.
by
1821 Death of Napoleon at St. Helena, May 6.
^ 1796 First Italian campaign of Bonaparte: vie-
- tories of Lodi, Areola. 18^ of Verona: congress system
breaksCongress
down with refusal of Britain (Canning) to
1797 Treaty of (ûnpo Formio: Bonaparte com- intervene against revolutions.
pete^ Aj^ria
fight to make peace. Britain left to
France alone. 1823- "Monroe Doctrine ” announced by
President, Dec. 2. U.S, A
1798 BoMparte goes to Egypt. Battle of the
NUe. Vinegar Hill rebellion in Ireland sup- ®Xii®rebInation
which had forbidden Acts in Britain
Trades Unions.
pressed. Charles X
i^®^ coalition against France : Suvorov and 1825 Independence of all Spanish
fclngofPranoe. ^"*
Bussla^ notorious in Italy. Bonaparte re- maimand now achieved. Nicholas IAmerican
Czar of
ti^ 9.to Consulate
France. setCoup Russia. Frst railway. Stockton to Darlington,
Nov. up. a’dtat of Brumaire.
1800 Parliamentary Union of Great Britain and ---ei-uu,
ireiana. 1996
ope^ First crossing
ned of Atlantic under steam by
Dutch ship Curacao. Menai. suspension bridge
®^ty of-Lundville: Austria makes peace;
great French gains in Germany. opened.,,,, ■ ■ ■ ,. ■
- Battje of Navarino. Turkteh and Egyptian
ISW Peace of Amiens between Britain and fleet destroyedi Death of Beethoven. ■
l^nce. C^ZeSte Dundo*. flrst.practical steam- 1828 Death of Chaka, great Zulu conqueror.
snip, on Clyde,
Ireland nndor Robert 1^ (5re^ indwendent. Catholic Emandpa-
Britain. MetropoUtaov .PoQce
Emin^. Britain again at war with France. established.
rs
*830-1871
A12
A.D.
George IV, June 26. Louis 18M; Jâce Treaty signed at Paris. Bessemer
Philippe ousts Charles X. Belgium breaks Afnca*
mv^ta process for large-scale production of
away from Holland. Bussiaa Polaiid reyolts
ineffectually. : êl. Lt-vingstone completes Journey across
Isa First Reform Bill Introduced by Lord John 18W Indian Mutiny. Relief of Lucknow.
xtu®ell. Leopold of Sase-Coburg becomes king Canton captured by English and French.
of independent Belgium. British Association 1868 Great Eastern launched. Crown assumes
mduction. Faraday discovers electromagnetic
foimded. government of India. Treaty of Aigun, by
which China cedes Amur region to Russia.
18^ Reform Bill passed, June 7, Walter Scott,
Jeremy Bentham, and Gfoethe die. Electric 18g Darwin publishes Origin of Species.
telegraph invented by Morse. french support for Piedmont in war with
A^tria (Magenta, Solferino). Piedmont re¬
ceives Lombardy. Harper’s Ferry raid: John
English Church. ofFirst
.“Oxford Movement”
government grant miuie in Brown hanged. Dec. 2.
to English sohoola. First British Factory Act. and the Thousand RAdshirts in
1834 Poor Law Amendment Act: tightening up Sicily and Naples; most of Italy united to
oL relief in Britain. " Toipuddle Martyrs"
Victimised Paedmpnt. Vladivostok founded: Russia
to discourage British working-class strongly established on N.W. Pacific.
movement. Carlist wars begin in Spain.
1835 Municipal Reform Act revises British local ^8^ U.S.-Abraham
AmericanLinooln
Civil Wartakes office as Pres, of
commences with 11
government. The word " socialism " first used. states breaking nway to form Southern Con¬
I^mwortfa lilanifesto ’* of Peel define aims of federacy. BuO Run (July 21) Donfederate suc¬
Conservative Party. cess ends Federal hopes of easy victory. Victor
states programme of Emmanuel proclaimed by first Italian Parlia¬
Ohartiste. Great Trek of Boers from British ment as king of Italy. Emancipation of Serfs
South Afnoan territory. Texas achieves in¬ in Russia. Death of Prince Albert, Dec. 14.
dependence of Mexico. Bismarck , becomes leading minister in
1837 Queen Victoria succeeds to the throne. Pra®®a. Ganbaldj attempts to seize Roine
1833 National Gallery opened. put wounded at Aapromonte, Aug. 29. Cotton
mmine m Lancashire.
1839 prat Afghan war begins. Chartist riots at rising aga,inst Russia (suppressed
Birmingham and Newport. Anti-Corn Law-
League founded. Aden annexed by Britain.
T 1—3. inMaximilia
ouig, .July Mexico. n Battle of Gettys-
of Austria made
18W Penny postage instituted. Queen Victoria emperor of Mexico,
maraes ^nce. Albert of Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha.
Opium War, with China begins. Union Act 1884 _ C^pu of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia
gives Canad,a responsible government. Last formed Talpmg rebellion ^ciallat International
convictB landed in New South Wales. in China ended.
Federal army enters Atlanta. Sept. 2: General
1841 Hong Kong acquired by Britain, Atlanta to
Chartists present second national petition 22. Geneva Convention oriijfn-
and put themselves at the head of strikes.
1848 Repeal of the Com Laws. Peel resigns. .£®th of Gtobden. Apr. 2. General Lee sur-
1847 British Museum opened.
fton: slaverySSS!’’ ?• Lincoln assassinated,
êudment
abolished In U.S.to Death
Constitu- of
REVOLUTIONS ANB NEW NATIONS Palmerston, Oot. IS. Lister introduces ahti-
Mptic siwer:^ Glasgow. Tashkent becomes
18® Monster meeting of Chartists on Kenning- expansion in Central Asia.
ton Common, procession abandoned, Apr 10
Qêi^ revolutionary movement Booth founds Salvation Army,
Pbillppe throughont
abdicates: ®? heredity. WilUam
âr over Sohleswig-
J^public proclaimed. Swiss Federal
after defeat of Bonder- Hqlstem , ( ^Seveii Weeks (July 3).WarVenice
”). pSS secured
Wenna.
^^£.1. flight of Metternlch, accessio Rising in lor ItMy, who had, however, been defeated
n of Cust^za by
-Frôis Joseph. Nationalist risings in Bohemia (June 24) and Lissa (July
ôifurt Parliament: attempt 20). ’Ireaty of Prague. Aug, 23. -
to Ge^ny on liberal principle 18OT North _ Geniuin Confederation founded
mi^t Manifesto produced by Mart ands.Engels. Com- Mexico
Rosaiashot. Domi-
sells Alaska
territorial gains ftom
Mexico. Gold discovered in Oalifornia.
^ America for. to$7seizemillion.
Rortie. Garibaldi
but defeatedmakes
IStt Coliapto of revolutionary movements by
besieged by French (June 3) Pope wth French support at Mentana. Nov. 3
Parlianaentary Reform BUI passed
defeiêd by G^baldl, holds out until July 2 (Disraeli '' dished the Whigs ”),
22. Repeal of old
Navigation La^. Punjab annexed by Britain Japan; Meul
f’a’roor becomes Prime Minister of Pied-
*l:*fair: privileges of British for CJuban ?®5independence
ciUzenahlp at their highest defended by Palmera- Yêars* Warfrom Spaim ;
(1868-78)
Ihsraeli succeeds Derby as Prime Minister
defeated in general election by Gladstone, but
E^bitipn in Hyde Park. First Nov
satisfactory submarine telegraph cable between 18M êi^ Grant. Pres,
dlsestehllshed. Suez Canal of D.8.
formallyIrish Chiifoh
opened.
Gold discovered in Blappleon m declares war against Prussia,
AustoliaT^ Calais oflaid. Transvaal recognised by
Britain. Napoleon III Emperor of the ^dan. Pans beselged. Rome and Papal
French.
ta Japan: beginning of West- Sedsn^ Forster’s Gravelotte,
Educatio and
f5?®*®J Wngdom of Italy.n TWahAct
ern influence. Russia and Turkey at war. education within reach of all
t’y Prance and
m Crimea. Sept. 14
(Alma, Biege of Sevastopol. “*;^d eîdren. Papal InfalUbU
proclaimed ity an-
emperor of
man). Orange Free State set Balaklavaup?
Inker-
■ Oermroy at VeraaUles. Jan. 18. PaiS proclaimed.
1865 Sardinia Joins Britain and France ckpttu-
against
May, IQ,
1^' Governmslgn^
ent- troops enter Paris and
at Fraukfurt-on-MaJn.
lS7«rl909 ■*
^ A.D.
EVENTS
AJ>.
^ ^h-(îmnuiiards. May 28, -Thiers President ^ SUCi

of the^SepÛc.^^,;
opened. Trade Unions 31. Mont Genis tunnel
in Britain legalised. ’
JiAssaores by Turks: re-
attotervals for next quarter of century.
lUVAB IMPEEIAIi POWERS Open^ of Kiel canal, June 21. Rosebery

introduced in Britain. Death of China. Dreyfus
&»tfeas™! ^bimonosakl; Japan gets Formosa,
Majszini, Mar. 10. hand m Korea. New (toban revoluti
1878 DeathofLivlngstone.lVIay4. Ashanti war. breaks out against Spanish. Marconi on
sends
.Disraeli succeeds Gladstone as Prime mâge over a ntoe by wireless.
Minister.
1876 England purchases Khedive’s shares in on F'®'®? publishes
defeated
his first Wori:
Suez Canal, Nov. 1 onS PF®^®*®'®®'Fsis. Jameson by Boers.
Raid. Dee.Jan.
29. l.
Bulgarian massacres. Serbo-Turkish war Adpwa. Italian disaster at hands of Abjs-
j *5®. telephone. Custer defeated tost môr defeat of a white coloiSs-
Iarge»8caie Bed Indian sncce^. mg power by “ natives.
Porflrio Dim in power to MeSico (until 1911). revolt leads to Greek-Turldsh War
— *°*^9’*^ declared Empress of India.
TKmsvaal annexed to British Empire. War
gss.d‘3ssa,.7.£i2f «“»■ Vto^'s

Detween Briissto and Turkey. Satsuma rebel-
lion to Japan: Anal unsuccessful attempt to halt
new ideas.
T,^caty of Paris. Dec. lO:
1878 Con^sa of Berlin: generalPalkansettle-
n H?^SbJ®®e®®rrendered
®'^®® for $20 ceded
millionto
with A
Sifa*- Afghanist to Britain.
an (ended Second war 1®- battle ofOmdOT-
1880), Edison and ®^-''tohdists. Sept.2. Em-
1^^- first successful incandescent
electncUght. - Curies ®F-
discover Radium
assassinated.
. Sept. 10. The
Dual controyBritato and Prance) in Egypt. Golddiscovered
Zuiu^âr. ^ladrtone’s Midlothian Campaign.
Tay Bridge destroyed, Dec. 28. '
..Beaconsfield ministry succeeded by second
GIa(^ne muustry. Transvaal declared a ^®îo? Ladys^th. Jan. 6. Battle of
republic,
*^®t6at at litojuba: independence
of TransraM recognised. Prance occupies Tunis. ^y 17.Miewi
Boxer ftb. c iMa,r»iSS'
outbreak in China,. May.
“J^*®ter of Prance. Ame^tion of Orange Free State, May 28.
Johannesburg. -May 31.
Revolt of the Mahdi to the Sudan. Pasteur’s Khm Btotlon. _ Annexation of the Trans-
famoTO immunisation experiment to show that
tooculated animals can survive anthrax. -
Erêrick Ca,vendish. Irish Secretary, Jan. ealth
^’^ Commonw pro-
âssimted in Phoenix Park. Dublin, May 6. Deo. Victoria
cMmS** Rahway
®toenan
3(1^*^^™^dies, 22. Trans-
opened for single-track trafflo.
piple -M^ce (Germany, Austria. Italy) first -ânce, Jan. 80. Death
ftimed. Ale:^ndrla bombarded. July 11.
Cairo occupied by British troops. Sept. 14. 1I1& ends Boer War, Treaty of Vereenlg-
May 31.
celebrated case of misrule
Germany.
to Khartoum ®wal family of Serbia assas-
^%th^ WrLSf^“
Kmêd, June_ 11, First controlled flight in
to :êue Gordon. French establish
protectorate ,to Indo-Ohlna. Evelyncomplete
Baring
^P®-th^-alr
Wright at Kitty machine— Orville and Wilbur
Hawk. U.S.A.. Dee. 17.
takffl over adinioistratlon of Egypt. Russians 19M Russo-J
apanese War
caûre Merv.^ Berlin Chnference deflUes rights Japanese victory at Vain River,begihs. Feb. 8
May 1. British
of European Powers in AfriOa. Third Pwlla-
forcM under Youûshand reach Lhasa. At^
. mentary Reforr^ Blll. Parsons invents to êaty
meridian internationally with Tibet rigned at Lhasa, Sept. 7.
as prime meridian, Pablan Society ■ *° Japanese, Jan. 8.
1885 Khartoum captured; Gordon slain. Jan. 26. T«n Sm^y"

Wzhdestvenskl massacre at St. Petexshurg.
Britain. Home at Tsushima by Artmirai
2C Russian Togo
fleet under
:^y). Treaty of Portsmouth (U.8A.) ehds
Rtoe Bill defeaj^ to Commons. All Indians in
I5aimier produces Ri^âpMese war. Separation of Church
feS^f^®tor^.tompletion
no Railway. Gold discovered in of Canadian Paci-
the Transvaal. ■ ®®Para.tes its^
Ifrom^w^^ to Russia..
by earthquake and San
Are, Francisco
Apr.
1887 Queen Victoria’s Jubilee celebration,
June Simplon tunnel opened for railway trafflo,
William n ^rman Emperor. Countv June 1. htot Duma (Parliament with limited
Coimclis set up in Brit ain. '-Aiuucy powerg to in Britain:
Russia. Liberal " landslide "
<êath of Prince Rudolf majority Labour M.P.8 appear.
of Austria. Jan. so. Flight of Gen^ Xul- Movênt for Women’s
become master of to Britain. AJgeolras SuflCrage becomes active
Conference: Franco-
Pi^pe. Second Socialist International set ^rman
ueatn of Ibsen.rerolved in favour of France,
Vitamins discovered by F. G
Hopkins.
S;h^d^r^®®*°“ concludes sittings. Nov. 23 1907 New Zealand becomes a dominion.
nêd by divorce case: Dish politl- 19 W Armeirerion of Congo by Beiginm. Young
; ctens split. Sherman Anti-Trust Law- flmf y^^pûtioDu ATiTi6'o<tioii of Bosnift
cartels. Opening Herzegov^ by .^trla: severe rebuil and
Asqmth becomes Prime Minister for of
1V 1 Bhanarck resigns. Mar.
l^^C^vi succeeds. Heligoland ceded to 1909 Old A^ Pensions In: Britain. PiKury
rescheS: North Pole. sBldriot makes first
1 ^0 United States of Brazil formed.
1^, ^nama Canal financial scandals in France.
P“ses third reading to Ge^’s budget. Union
conomtiat
of es on prodiic-
South
“®’ ®®®*’ Afirlca
®to. Sept!^
1884 Opening of Manchester Ship Canal. Jan;
1 ^toiB***^^ T cha^: begtoitoigs . of .ch^p
events
1910-1928 A.D.
command. June 29. Third Battip pf v
I Q?i and florence NightinraJe. the Aime. Oct. 28 Can^tto-

Bolshevik Revolution, Nov. 7 toct os n a f"
EâhPvit1?^®®w-
B^chendaele
Balfour captured Aurtrtoa'
by British Oct^^
^Nov'^fi’
mtional declaration
home ’’ forrecognised
the^ws. PaJest’hip << '
Nov T
s
r.®aolieSun
Me. Bea^T under Yat
5®ubOTg Lmes smashed on Dec.
l0-m'il«'
Jerusalem, 9, Russo’
1?^’ Gape Race.
Bntish coal strike. Scott’s Apr.
last 14-
of Balkan Ware. ex- 1018 TreatyofBre8h-Litov6k, Mir
German airmstice signed, Dec. 16a GermsT,
"usso-
^ ' most of Turkey-in-
Europe diTided among Balkan state^
^ Ôffensive Sist B?Rish
first WORLD WAR .
Francis Ferdinand, heir to tie
Hve sunk m Ostend harbour Mn.i
2R ^snssinated at Sarajevo, attack to
affiinaf declares war
Russia, Aug. 1. German
®®™nnyy declares
declares war
against .Pf Aimens, Aug.
^^h^ against J^y^
Sên^y^ destro
8. Allenb y^
?• Jênnan invasion, of
Britain declares war ^ ttokish army at .Megiddo Bent’^^ m
?iHf
êd eiêd in
offensi armisti
Westce. Sept.
iSm-h29 SoSf
General
o« •
peaiwonary IForce concentrated Ger man s ve WUson’ s Fêl Potote;
pedi«ona^~®^^fr^’ hefnrA
R3C-
tiame.
d^Fir^w n^‘ r?'
ar Sept. / Japan
Mons:Battle
6*H9. of warfarfi
tt e 23- Ivcnnof
BriS
eraiSMs (Abouhir, Bwne. and Cressy) movement begins to’ Geimany
sunk by
to TolmffTDanHsSp
altoicates $ F%ufar goveSt
:,bto’7* lIT
gofc® n^'^T
od
Mn“ f-.^Krst Battle^' ol^res! Anmstice
the twenties and thir 11.^ ®-
signed by GermansTNo^
StQ dlstrS'^ôv ^“^ttte ôf ties
Sîorakorst and . —— —
^®,.. B®e'Ce Conference in Palis .Ta-n ia 'r,.*..!
^r ^duadr
agamrt on oflfjSv.^5.
tekey; Falkland Is Dee 8
by Sto J :^cl^fante‘A?^*BS
& 29 ‘lîlf dirM#® ^ fet
D^*'i7 p’roclaiinedi
coast. Dec. 2^ Zeppelin appeared over British
^ Gaui^. Jan 5. signed.at ylrsaflles, Jrmf ?8 '^Treat
^rmam: bre^-up of Auhtrto y of'sf
umt Brd^ dectored blockade n Imptoe, SeS.’
of Germany,
of iTeuve Chapelle. Mn.r
Dardanelles
landing of British. called off, lilar 22*
Australli^New
sS5l*a?o?"TS?’Apf?Sfti?'ig'
°f Aubers Ridge, May 0-26
Mn to
aS^'^t ô ^‘>-
■'^ on Austria. MAy 22 British Otten^W^ton to
CoaUtjon Government formed May 2fi‘ miisn
OôrdÛni^fSTu^^'
declares war on Tnrkev
JaniaViiUed Aiw%o t war bn Tori^v ■ makes
feated at Kut^l-iS^-^K"-
ên^ and'a^h 28.
DVc as BriHsh*^„tl°“^LS®°^^ Salonika,
*o*u Anzac by
and Suvla.^^y ®®
j l^l^fcrwT B^n.^. Stete'sûp
h despa
troops tched to Ruhr Jan. it
YoJulv
XTeatjr of jLausaime. kohm at
saoStt ^ ?
fc“rm"sa’' |».va
S"Îf S i>eha.
a a
Bte W mi t
accepted by London cSeni- ®
evacua-
^nuTORuhr
tion agreed to. Aug. 15'““™®®- .President,
,.fPla«e<lbyNivelle.earl?Dec. ®-
lib warfare begins
3f&.’S..V^K' W
Gamaina tis Anr to " Ridge taken i Sft&
'by
js
isSTife
Iil pSSss
™®® ■
^placed Nfyelle,
Jmr- 7 Tm^”*F® Ridge taken by British
in Framie. J^.2l““* w, anave
I» EVENTS
1928-194
0 ^
the Polish frontier along
June. Kellogg Pa^ accepte

Bntaini July 18. German airshipd bv Of
• POTSons crosses Atlantic. Oct. 15. with 60
WmqL in
Britain enfranchised. • abdicates,in
. women
Tw,'„i.i ■ Labour Mini^ry under Mac-

!tater-oonttoental ^hts.^'^S^S
"°Sv/s
asss%S
teas^..^^,Scapa
Plow with a
s^“sss
1980 R.101 destroyed in Prance on first
India, 48 lives lost, Oct. 5-^ddf fliirbf tn Pmland attacked by EussteT^ severea 30
Bri^h
interest in airships. ^ nricisii '^^Tfin^ni*«?'
^*®niian
fUnT-vio League
River Plate; of Nations.
engagement
ISa Gr^t floods in China. cruisers wfucship ^d?niTcil
Mxetw. Adcuc?^ Qraf hv tt iLrof
Resignation of Sil 14
“gafisST* ““ »f ctuitloo
exTCl^* wnmfiin w®Leainie of Nations’
theHiffiso-Pinnish 'NTAfinnis
war. offer
lo
Russia
19^ Hitler appointed Chancellor bv HinfiftTi eniê ofton&eSbûr!'“®®“'

and step by step gains supreme
Cihancellor. Are. p5). “
7-'^®]Slns^
thP^?£™„„-êiwi S®®^® captured
prisoners by
Altmarh taken off
1 Doj Reichstag set on murde
red bv
IV Naval Auxiliary in Nor-
Austrian Nazis, July 25 Deafb nf
burg Aug. 2 kitle? becom»cteL^*^<*®“-n f”:
103 6 plebiscite for refciuii to Germans tfliiI &of British
Kn& îps.to be fitted with Mand
l®e the a protec-
le miagnetic mines. Pinland
j iûssia the Karelian Isthmus, the town
KfSi a niilitary base on Hango Peninsula.of
’oc.*? teloff&r,;
1036 Nov. 18?
iSS-!Accession ^’^
of King Nations^^S
Edward ihrr To„ on ‘^®<îmanvî?TiGf^®?“"^ Norway by
Eepu^fcion of. lSo ). 19 „l^.®”*îrp0P8 arrive in Norway.
iSty^GÎSkly ^ iw o
7. Eeimhtarisation of Rhineland Mar *• .H land in the Paroes.
withdrawn from Norway
8'
® troops landed
i, "P"®8rdam. British troops - cross the
s BritishH troops land in Iceland
Hatlon^G^Sent
a«.King George VI. DecT llf
Coalition ^
Ministry xmder Chamberlam
conouest
AnstriaSie?ed’byGeiTOany°Sto'l3 ^BritN
navy mobilise d, S^pt.lsf^^Sh Hitler,
AgrSandh h;om Planders. Narvik captured hv
S
I ^ thdnoL^f^ ^P®^ Ypres, forces
BritishLille to be
and.other
Belfflau and French towns lost to the
Germans.
I Briti^ army from Bunlfirk
®’®pS’s®G<,S.ent^‘“^ 299 British y^Shis™ 20
•
■ war nf^f *i°® ^ Hitler his
proclato
enemies,a
«i-p«S'¥,iSag&jg'Ss«i“ 7 Italy seizes Albania de^^b.
®mat
Bouen. 10 Italy de-
Britain and
penetrate French
Prance.
i™™ captnred.^by German forces. 15 Soviet
14
A^^t British talks with Russia. 37 Con- Litliuania, .totida and Estonia.
iiifiAr a mtroduc^ in Great BritSn.' 28
minf1nj*lS“î-'îî°-Qerman Naval agree- tice. 35 Hostilities in®^®Pt
Prance tenns
M cease for
at 12.36
an Armls-
a.m.
MaV ll^rtif* ^®"-^««88ion TreX ^ Mauds occupied by Germany. 3
t.,i„ iTT;^ V , Bisneo ra nondon.

““ re-aff bombing
■^thdrew from British of
Somali-
irms British pledge to immobilised.
Briffi^gM*
?sr£. s favour of his
î“£son^«®^1.®^
Michael. 7 London
Rumimia abdicates
sustainsin
sercre damage in the largest aerial attack
Battle of Britain since
ends
German aeroplanes des¬
^ SECOMD WORLD WAR troyed, 1.733; RiA.P. losses, 916. 33 Japanese
German forco.s.
and Prance mobilise. 1-4 Evacu October 7 German troops enter Rumani «> Japanese
a, 38
troops enter Indo-China.
^ Greece rejects an Italian ultima tum.
Italian .,
attacks. 6
wmes. 1,200,000 persons moved. 3 Comnul
sorv H.M.S. Jervis Bay lost defending Atlantic con-
Jil men in Britain ag^ is to
^d
<mu Germany as fromHI 6 a.m.) between Britain 11 Italian fl^t at Taranto
y?T+ warship Admiral Schee^.
p.m. 4 British Dnnr crippled by Fleet Air
by submarine. R.A.P. iSd the Coventry heavily . attacked , the
^thedral destroyed,. , ,33. Albanian town of
*ip8‘^Tpi«f* German war- Koritza captured by the Greeks. ,
Ki a'iî*trwps on PoUsh8
Britain,
Decmbei 3 Bristol heavily bombed. U
. poraer. ,, u British troops ou BaEram, captured by Britiish forces ; begiuiiiSldi
Prencb soil, . 17 ng
1941
Tobrut capfc^d
g?:5!^., 26 Moe^hu.
jâse and Lendi^4. ^fofcen lalanirlfi, ix tt.S

Bfll signed by E-oosevelfc 27
entered; by Imperial
. *» ™poJibombeis
occupiedê S EieMh
by the tot
^v^vtfo. a muttiaawa capitulates 11
Athens
, • urcn i-^ battle

penetra^ of Bismarck
the IVtefeh iSS Sea 2S Afh At^-^
Ks 24^mW|^ ®ennan air-bome

lan 16 BamsBizerta captiued by aiuoo to
to the Euhr breached
SSt£l^“® Sthf^cSS
Tn« ^ Moscow dissolves t^lîtotem ^
ses July 10 Allied invasion of Slcilv pk iw„ot,Ai» •
f =sr-iiaa
C smrenders to Anted forces.
gl August 17 Scily to Allied hands.
nd 8 Italian mainland invaded 7 ifairv
Smolmsk^™^*'* terms. 86 Hghting round
““
« i
et
-
19 „ f Smolensk tak“m'S^y
between 18 and 26 to be dlrectPii

battleI , Boo^velt. end StallhS to Tehfran?’^^^’
S
3
[• l?«w®
S“*^*ig
1944 mdustry
of German by baUot
battlesh to Britato
ip Schara ha^'
pr
DeSSr 1^-/^ BSS°^taf Sl:

r Japanese
Mese forces sSK^t
iS to J&K mwS'^ W®**
^ ‘ ataly) destroyed by Allied
fa Tobruk
JPfince relicTOd
of Wales Biiiit'^mwWf
nS forces
and
■ *®f^£®.!J^^® .®’‘°a,ptnre
i’î^^bio d by Russians
and Abbey bvÎies 18loPn
Gan
pUlppto^&’^bf
iong surrenders to JapM^? 26 Hong-
1948
"S S-
surrenders l^^s
to JapanSe 29^f si
h f **'^S'Pore
:
to the isla nd of
“54^ hMr9itfsh^^-y Vl^dagaacar to-

0^ *^*AJjleyto^ AWHtyliia &Us
m Tobruk captured
by the g teken. Rumania 8urrend^®*®Rk ■'^*®®^bes
<*ayb8bt raid on the declares war on Ger^m^^®”" Bmaania
^^c2îaUWe
lSo&
1944-1950
P EVENTS
"MciMdh near fBiTAmhem.
ltoiT. W^ 22ed
Hist Battle of Pliflip- jannaTO 1 Tjw*- .. ..
pines, nationalised. 14
'<*^3Waisawri8lne<aTishedbytheGerinans.
:6 British troops tod on the mainland of Oreppp Fourth elected flret President of
14 Athens occupied by Allies. 16 Hungary H' ®“8f>end
S' Jcuigiaua worse
worst reeoroecl.
recorded.
^ for armirtice terms. 20 Aachen captured Sbtot
by the êricans. 26 Battle of Leyte Gulf: “ Batavia for a United
md of Japanese sea-power. 28 Second Battle
Anrfl r
ofPhihppines. Aprui school leaving age raised to 16 in Great
December 6 avil war breaks out in Athens. 16
Qen^ forces counter-attack in the Ardennes: j Marshall maoueeia
avwou Ad ”.
last
-- OermM
pest; encircled _offei^ve
— ^
encircled in the
W*iV West,
by EiiBflfji.Tifl
bv Enssians. 26 JJUUCb'*
Tr«»0« 46V Buda- *'?i?f;f,^“^^îBtary action minDominion
assume
India and Paldfff-jLn f»ecnmo,‘nftr«{w.iv«
enofl.
IndonesiaStatus.
ends,
1846 General (rfJtodia and 3dr. tTinnah Governor

Governor-
Palestine Gommittee-
touary 6 Organized fighting in Athens ceases. 11 Bntish Mandate should end, majority
U.8. forces tod on Island Of Luzon. 17 War-
report recommends partition. ^
---- - — - - JIUOIU UU XC-
opened. — “>=
February 4 Yalta conference 14 Bombing of « Conform, new mtematlonal Com-
Dresden. 19 AmeriS land ra Iîtoa set up in Belgrade.
Island. encans iana on Iwomna Novmto 20 Mantoe of Princess EUzataeth.
29
March 6 Cologne captured bv Allies £^^„S^2Wii’i'ee_WUiN. Assembly votes in
AprillHS. to^s:S7£awt of Palestine into Jewish and
suraounded by .Russian troops. 27 Russians 1848
Mlofer^^4s'"shotÎâli^
himself and his Mahatma Gandhi assaJinated* n MM ^
r?^ 8 MarchlODeathofJaâsaryk
nationalised.
day). 28 Naval art attaoks^n jap^ f“®® Imerto
"’tv AUiilf hrWarsaw recognised 14 BriOah’ Sl“for l^taeto^* at

T proclaim newState of l^L
flrrt'used against Japan: “'riWto'^ dtoînX"^ Cominform;

o*o.ôu uajyaai; bomb
o xtuBBia aovances mto Man¬ - - V* *^c*iU4 OUX'llAiCU uy aix. »o
churia. Nagasaki target for atomic b^b No. 2. Malayan Communist party outlawed. 29
« siineiMers uncondition Bread rationing in Great Britain ends.
Allies. 17 Lend-Lease terminated. ally to the August 16;Eepublic
of Korea proclaimed.
September 2 Victory
end of Second over T«?T\nn’ pniobm+nri.
World War.
end of Second mrfdWM. ^ celebrated. September 3 JDeath of Dr. Benes. 11 Death of
u .Ni Mediator for Palestine,
TT 17 Count
assassinatBernadotte,
ed.
“COLD WAR”: AERO-ASIAN October 80 Chinese Communist forces capture
INDEPE
- NDENCE - Mukden
iuuKuen. . --
October 9 U .S A. to keep secret of manufacture of ®ruman elected U.8. President,
-uuuui. uuutu. 16
atomic bomb. iu jjuvai
Laval execuieu.
executed. i* Birth of aa. son
oAnto Princess
Pr?nr.noo Elizabeth.
mH.vrt’KA+v.
November
Nuremberg,20 Trial of major war criminals opens at December 21 Republic of Ireland Bill signed in
Nuremberg. Dublin. . v»
IVtoch 16 ClothM rationing ends in Great Britain.

February 31 Russia protests against Atlantic Pact.
General 1of ^
UNO. Trygve Lie elected Secretary-
April 1 Newfoundland becomes part of Canada.
April 10 League of Nations formally wound up, May 1 Gas Industry nationalised, 3 Ten-power
June 6 Italy votes for Republic. 30 United States inference in london establishes Council of
atom bomb tests at BUdni. Europe. 12 Berlin blockade lifted.
July 18 United States House of Representatives August 24 North Atlantic Treaty comes
22 Bread rationing into force.
Professor Theodor Heuss elected
British H.Q. hi Jerusalem bloto up. first President of West German Republic. 21
24 Underwater atom bomb test at Bikini.
General too Tse-Tung proclaims People’s Re¬
August 1 Peace Conference opens In Paris. public of China.
October 2 RuMla recognises newly-established
k ®
. establishm B.A.O. considers:
ent of World Food Board. Pwple's
October 16 Npemberg sentences on Nazis carried P>eck elected firstRepublic. 11 Herr
President of East Wilhelm
German
out. ^ring commits suicide. 23 General |: . xCepubllc. . .
! December 8 Chinese Nationalist Government
Affl^bly of the United Nations opens in New “P hi Formosa,
November 10 Communists head poll in French 27 United States of Indonesto come into being.
General ElfictioiiB. - - 1950
-Agreênt signed for economic fusion Januaire 6 Britain -recognizes Oommnnist Govern-'
■ 01 Britidh and'Aiiierican zones tn Germany. ' rilent of China; 24 Dr. Rajendrtf>Friuad elected
A18 events
1960*1983 AJ>.
AJD.
EepnMo; 26 STew Pîes-îgned at San Francisco; Security
^ct betmen Japan and U.S.A., providing
j^îtation of Indian Eepubiic comes Into for r^ntipn of American forces to Japan
between also signed; 23 HM. the King undeiwoM
and Ohto signed in Moscow; 23 Labour successftil operation; 80 Festival of Britain emda
I^rty wins General Election wltb nairrow
maionty. October 8 Prin(^ Elizabeth and Duke of Edto-
b^h leave for Canadian tour: 16 Egyptian
■’wns world that com- Parilammt passes unanimously Bills abro^l^
hunger prevails; 22
Mrst of U.8. super-fortresses arrives in Norfolk. ^lo-S^tian treaty of 1936 and 1899 SuS
|^ndomMpnA»«ement; 16 Assassination of
Uaquat
over Britain administra- Khan: 26 General Election won by
Conservatives with small majority.
of Som^gMd ; 18 Fi^ shipment of mlli- November 6 Mr. Attlee receives the Order of Merit.
liOndon foreign-eKShange market re-
^^®bomg^°°® onder inanlage law unloaded
N.A. Pact abolishes opera after 12 years ; 24 Libya becomes inde¬
polygamy and child marriages and gives both pendent state ; 81 1.E.O. closes down.
1952
?**'**’»
Britato afto rtebta; 19 Points rationing ends in
8 years; 26 Middle East Tiipar- January 2 Mutual Security Agency replaces
^ Petrol
28 DectoMon by Britain.
rationing ends in Prance, and ITbST; Eranomic^ Co-operation Administration f 31
Britain. Elizabeth and Duke of Edinburgh
troops advance Into 8. Korea;
Semuity Ctomicll rails for cease fire; 27
Pres.
®o® forces to tmr^ ^^don on first stage of CtommonTrealth
protect Formosa; TTN. PebnW 6 King George VI died at aandringho.v'
Lîm^n
ator , miUtaryin assistooe
Kot^ proposes neutral medl- Bdlûrgh arriTC home by air from Kenya*
to S. Korea endorsed
1 . 30 Pres. Truman au- 81 Identityhcards abolished.
Elizabeth n and the^^™
PI African Oeoige
SupremeVICourtat WinS:
rules ta-
Km^^ nse of Amencan ground troops in
to S. Korea ; 8 Gen. s Act which places Cape coloured
designated O.-in-O. of IJ.N. forcrato voters on separate electoral register.
AÎ 11 !KM. the Queen declares that she wishes
mwts under chairman- ®to Stafford Oripps in
tbe ^viet delegate ; 7 ®oi^-^^®®''*dants to bear the name
Sfritoland; 28 Japan regains status
sovereign and independ ent power. ra
^ Blor^ ^n offensive and
5S;L ?S!S
mves blri^tp a ?™an ; ;16severe
Princess Elizabeth
daughter
•Assam ; 17 independmoe Day in earthauake in W Treaty top residence at Buck-
setting up European
Indonesia. S Defence Community signed to
September 6 British troops in action in Korea
Sos>p iSitioiiing ends in Britsint. : 9
Stafford Gripps Wh ^“^^‘■•“âttackec

^88th retires
parallel in
from Y IN -*^®toft m bigg^ raid of Korean war.
account of illness ; Pyoiigsanir
% capital, captured by lLN?j^^'

Of ‘ô^’î \p.®S*tocation®®*'to b^mesAgreement
of Boim independe
, nt
by
Of Paris, which sets up the
Qwrge Berna^=
rd Shaw ^
^ aged European Defence Community. aDoroved hT
&?YofSen^dlra®®'’“
^ÛMnthtmd^
t a^fnst
rms Labour oppositio
to Som^^ n; N16
and
Ightto^^r^'®®® Manchuria reported Devon ra^ rivers to flood; W/LraSiura
campaign agataT?5cta,i
laws to B. Aftjca gains momentum. ‘
® William Slim appointed Gov -Gen.
of Anglia (from 1963) ; 8 Nw
Ei^û
1961 ^binet aroolnts Gen. N^b ^taô^
Assembly rejects resolution of s first Sitomic weapon eznlndAd
nations caUing for 7-nati(m nnS^V®a 'and reforma
Wêrence for Decree
peaceful settlement of Korean
confiscating property of
oi explofflon of UB. hydrogen
Alfred Krupp
Feb^ry canc
16 Vesting dateelle d.and vivyeroy
for Iron Steel
relieved of all totobat Eniwetok atoll in mld-P^flc •
his com- 4^^
^publican Candidate, wins sweep-"
* can■
-Ameri “
ffiSSuSS Preside ntial eleotton.*
replaced by L™. ^ Fish. recently caught off Madagasour
as species of thTMsK^^tf
May 2 Pîw oil Industry nationalized* G<»r.
maw a-d^tted to Cmmcll of Europe ; 1968
8 H M.
S
'IfMsMSrisiWws
rfsfpaur Maffl^ Bussian of Brltain
delegate to ^mthe U N
r“
appeals tor osettlement
Colomb plan comes Into force : 9 state * of**
of Korean war.
and Germany officially
, 10 Ajmlstlce negotiations onen
A
-n ^ •^^^‘S’olbecomes
d abdicates
fifthinBing
faTOiu-
of
20 King AMuliah of
a" ^Pjrtlte Security Treaty between'
to Which Eussia. ChiSf Md

19B3-19S6 LJ>. EVENTS
A.D.
Hunt reMhed
June 2 CorcmationBuminit of Eli^f mMOZf
of H.M. Elizabeth H In t)^
WeW glp’r^'as^l
Llionei KT>zaw^««: -.rt ji-i_ . ... _ ’.
» r - « - . icwKniwon reached
Expedition Dy JJricaiiL
sum-
rt tbe Himalayas ■
■ 87 Korean Armistice signed at
Ai^nist 0-12 pisasfarous earthquakes in Greek “® 80th buthday and was ureaentpii
Ionian I^ds; IS Explosion of BussiMihy^^
gen bomb reported. '■uBoiauayoro 1965
SepteÔ T 17 Ba^rate reduced from 4 to 8i oer
cent; 28 Boyal Commiss ion on Capital Priniah.
“^‘recommended that juries
sraissaaxu? •“*
whether death sentence or fife shoSd
inôSnt
dS m Baâteto
êess creased Margaret left
fr:om
for 3tonr
to 3J
of per
wT
i6:d00ft.ciflMan^,Sfe ^êd
‘ôtlKf<S^t^™“> awarded 1953
discovered in Sussex in 1911, found bv anf^ml

• poto^ts to be partial hoax; 23 The Oueeii (EWtein Baghdad
^d Duke Of Edinburgh left in stratocmiser Persia acceded iater).
.te of e-montw tom of AnrirTfSl
Minite • as Prhne
Prime ^**ft.®Â5êh succeeded as
elected Pres, of Prance at the 13th bS-
^ former chief of Soviet
to death md Police’
Secret ®
^ Qaeen gave her Christmas broadcast
from AucMand; 81 Mildest
years, and before that for over De^herf
200 years.
oêo
1054 . . . ■ ■ :*? »-op«.te on
S^-(?ovemment government in Argentina.
12 M. Le Trouquer (Socialisbegan in the Sudan-
t) elected Pi^rtoSt
^“for I' eeêntists
of "War
effects of hydroffen hom^ Tn Issued
hecause appeal
of ivwtfriWA
hAlOT^r Rf*
February 8 The QUee’n •and^kstthe Parliam
Duke ent
of Edinhiir ff h
of newly
formed I^d^tion of Bhodesla and NvamlS
o^ned in Sa^bury ; 6 Britain's first “ breeder “
pile m Harwell. ureeuer
op^tion athydro gen bomb exploded at
16^^.^ l4)ndon gold market reopened after
<*? Dpie of Edinburgh left
Russia joined UNESCO ; 26 Conferenc^’wat
■ Nations, Geneva Mr
Ohm En-Iai representing China: Ruâ
&iS
™he in under 4
man In the world to do so- f
Portreffl of Dien Blen Phii fell to Viet-Mihh after
r8it6 reduced from Si to 3 Der fienf •• i k
Qpeen and, the Duke oO: tob^h re^miied
o^ned fJ^rPool Cotton Exchange re-

i
^Tyeto^®2^M? John A.
fee Costellofrom
(Fine
£2 Gimiii
to £3
,^cted Prtne Minister of kl. Ireland; 17 Indo-
Mendte-lSnoe to
F!?eS all-AfricSin Cabinet
ni9 .'ff*?*?' Appoint^ in the (Hold Goant!
1966.198
7 ^20
a.d. êvents
5terroriSî^j„ oMebra*^
^<»eastog,
i^^s°Agygi,.te t%>is®s
FAh«^^
S-ir H-lf — “
^bUSTsait
OomraTss isde-Qomi,itaât&
mfet. IWr
melr
Ballet;returned to
Death of
ffiyfefe
4-1^® Boyal
20 Mr.
- - „ ^ - il
sssS.f»iS&rS . fsff rârfiSv^:^ss:
£lKSSli«s=
"fSxSSSSi
E«wS«kM«i'SdT.Sj?S!S“,S2“>““*
-Hurd-cIass travel aboUahpd nn
ooffonn to S^taf «SrKi
???“»«>“; _tocdi..«fflfe.f2®S‘*4,*
oomplet^* llâ^‘b^^„*°^„ StoM
effects of radiation* 1
celebratiriSl
9^ Bênetic
of "1948
of treaty
(deathcato W MeW
penal ty^retatoeôSv ^
ffnance, Aswan Htoh m

^"tS h°eto"l!^f°^f ^•®•^ lo withdrawing offer
“•SSIS-WSd- " ffS^fSdtS

NationiUSerrtM after to^
aa,!£ss o»K
Prince Ptolp^vfl to®î„® ^®d9«®®P and
6 Athens from e^- fF^êd to

Is TOre made byê ®'PP®®’®
e
■- Mr. Nehru for the bf^n w of “oolear
weapon: ®®l‘'êltzer and
tests and
^^Mded; ll'^Ptos/pritt^ IT 17.12.66)
; Miirra^ .Menmark. 20 Death of Dr. Qflbert
' , ^^l'bf^SiSm'Bond’p?j^°
decisions taken by 1?!, Historic
tii^
indaKtS’^'gsjs
11^ jKy;^ ,y,( fflS'!Wii#y3
of ^‘PPototed chato
“ London
nuclear' p”.f;êr'^-i|,«-„^f.
jliVii'1 ¥ '1 IP' 1 election by kW1- o^llS^co.'^^

(Dr. AdSr ^'
general
Sept ol™ 6
t9S7>19S8 iÊNTS
visit
Military to BiSl 13
President nr T+°i'. to -Algeria"
save when negotiated “" longer necessary
smifilfws
nuclei* noW"î"nn^, “der , for me 1 General de «or,nn i,„- _ .
dark smoke cSi^
Of Prw Prime Minister
opened by the Ouwn • ^ th ’'^x^.-'ôrt

to ss?” cSSi&s a&i^
Sa&STSg?- ^
were still
expected to circl
faU^ the
ing th^X=/ , “
lefe^tenTmS at Gene^vi“Si"^
■ ■
1958 - deteîng nuelejff
overthrown ww Wr® po™®
^0 monarchyof
Hshment^f .ymsal assassinated; estab-
■^^êt) (Ctommon
force; Metric ■svirfMW nr^S^t'i™^ came into
adopted throuôut
West iodlm Pederation?^&4,®^’^«o^ of
/. and New Ze^M parSr’ s!3ig'i„?„?j3‘ »^bi“ag,sg
^Sputnik I dSegffiffl^nn'^ South Pole;
circuits ^f l1,367
367 Wales* '^1 of
“ ‘s
tell1S“-'lsk%s;i
miJfiR- of the completing
travelling 43 million
|eya\'StrtesssiSi»"
10 S*5fS>“£' “"SKS
. «
wpel
^™«|fX“s ''rs5“‘ts'’ss’“ recognised Eepub-
rocket failed- launch moon

on Christmas 'Snd • rmclear tests
VtSai^PucL “Sw
pedition, ^ ®r;
e^- i
ment that
ZETA had Iferwell
pSd 'flmVnHrfR ^ Announce-
^SSllSS=!if
dlsÔns odSEm T S
on
ux Hire-purchase* -so ^filaâtlona
PeaceM
I-ord Go^toS^
"'ms overwhelS^to ® tod
for®n?ni™i resulted in
Antarctic’tab?g
researchesa^V‘ ?t?.™‘.‘»
for at *1“
of
end
end Of
of IGY
IGY SoinSpd^^
atmounced-^l®^f_?ears. after
®ftor succeeded by
succeeded bv Pofd
Loto'^nWin? f^Cf Justice;
iô^^^“®**oe;
«e rô?lSlaS^
Arab Pederation- W “i™® of Staff. P'o^ asymef of thelmpenal General
jfope Pius XII at age of

^ ui iiuru rcuBseil. . —
irs-ib'. ?S«Ss«S?f.&^ 5
suocessfnlivS®?^, ,?“x Z?oa^ space-rocket
isgj^'&^s^SpSf i”i§s
miorer
suspend nuS^teS;. resolution to

tofoUowB^to ■ ®‘ Po^®*^ “vited
^®4CtopS tor “ Japan;
®«3
increS^d'*^^^/.
elected ijrî^^
first FWme Mlntetor returê^wfth
hf%«®^ Adams
Indian PedeTOtion-^^'®p5*^ô West
Wd the new Pedcr^ P^^S
cidtural agreement
®a«t: 6 Owning of
pipeline by Fren^lpê
l™®het Hill ^
21 Marriage Of ^
S^520 A ®i ®i.
ht’VW,
Persia to speed
Miss rec^
Parah
SomhPo^P? expedition reached
HfroeLim.a\toMomb at® ^
StaC^^n .tq_Unlted , 1980
Europe. 9 Work heam^nX “

12 State of ememen^nTp/TO ®a“-
years: Kenya after 8
to succeed s. J; «« |?Ept°T «‘E»o“ted
fonnallyopened by the Oupprl to Brifcfl.in Qi 'Rovvir w>-<> ^ SovJot . •AjQibQ^s.dor
officer descended 7 naval
Marianas Tren^ 24 Pacific in
?9 Broad(ômJ^(â^„rfe^^ to Algeria.
tabutM fc oollaS^Smg);^„J“”» ""■
m thrbo-prop airlmer (2^600

H ® ôvery in good condition of
p‘T‘SX£^-
Eyhngdales ôrkAi??îq’^-IS SSf a
Andrew bom. 29 AgarHr ^P^nee
tax-free annuity for V.C. bm^ ^ quake. destroyed by earth-
<Mences .Act came into'
inaugurated: 23 21 Sharpeville shootinv^* h named.
en^Si^n^hte ®23Mf P®i‘®®
27 Kep. of Toga (former

ni°‘ ot ^**empt on life *(rf’ ifr JP
18 Slue streak as mllitnr^wpAl.^'' Jerwoerd.
being as Indep^denffle^'^ ^'*^ came into

fa ^t^ leoon-
8 Wedding of PHrie^?S-*®^‘*^l^®bot down.
1960-1961
A.D. EVENTS
National Health Service
breakdown of Suininit conference- in chaxges aiimoimoed S nanf

Queen Hizabeth The Qi^n^ Mother ii3 new™” m Maria to Commander
M ItotthSe dSir SEtotaiSSll!
oi^® Everest climbed by 3 ChlnS^y deitoratraHonJ' ®™ouhoed (violent
coast)^ MEritish rale

*? ¥in Somaliland ended- U, _
0“ Tunisian _ II.
Hassan _ _ '
Sra|iK. r Mra
rejiS wXIX¥/v
&ri™s£
tinn
SiSf
a
,®® f
i^minlttee’
° - Eomosexnallty.
of ComiiiOTs
s recommenda-
30 Belgian
^<*«Poolont J the cSXSc
Convn "sTgr^saîsrs^
T9_~u rj;
Testament) publis
or tne ifilger. 14 The Neis?
hed. 16
tnb^ groups m Angola, Portuguese
murdered;
brutal retaliation of Portuguese bv
^ proclaim^0
ed a Min. M?LuS
Eenubli Sa°
e- Somnii
Tni^f
^'^g¥bnaW“'^h ?UBSi™a»
1 xiie xôrc Cominaiid cesabd to exist-
frl' iJaaomey Nicpr anri fti T»ô rJr 01 accueea.
Upper Volta became indeSent M » ,„ Command ceased to exist,
^hombe, Congolese privincial leader declared ® Ueatb of former King Zog of -Albania ii
to uT hMn»*- E™bh anted Adolf S^rjeru-
n JQorgftiiisi33g iiiiifcinm^g Foyc& saiem. Yun Gagarin njade first
^S<^llidf^^^„Mdepndent. 14 Sec. .23temnrection ^

toZ C^^Z Belgian troops
Britoto^ ^ r?® ,^psub held In Great
^^J5^£i¥^g^P,diê'Prtal of Pakistan aIsnS.' PS P^’dered blockade of
9 Sec. (^.icireMted^n Su^'to r^dthdmw sl&S “
ssii&S.S?i»&l'e
^ \jriuiies opened m itoinf^ 2fl pwiWa sttte'-rss
Minister of Jordan aisaseinat^ 28 Wine
1? ^^^^'^cement by Pres Enfianihn
S Op?ne“to OP
Dominican Eepnbllo, S^S8iS^°’Bmit>f'A?-
^'Meetfag ^ becê part of Nigeria. 3
rsKs^rfleS
&{Ss>’casmeasures
^ to stop ,repressive s'*&'p 2.s£SI
in Sir '
'^®^KSS^t fîpwing
cap.
Pioneer of space travel. l^Blwmedi?
ud left-wing ,
f( Baudouin of
Belgium, crushed. 21
Sti^^ in Belgium of Ghana,
Guinea, and Mali, i ceased to be
legal tender.
Mers^ and Manchester S^ S!

iMgest span of its Mnd in the wS (third
spimârch In Europe). 84 Bank anAfUn
ratf^
r^ from 6 to 7%. 80 Israel li “ngtmc
Santa Marla seized in hnrtnvu.nr.’^li®®?.^!?®? , tion
«op of deep-^k
deep-sea port at
at «Asdod. oonstruc-
e>7TA * Bltainmonetary
’s disposal.
jPmid6 ■uiBcod
Malor
1861-1062 A.D,
A.».
IS tr.N. recognised
^vemment as the central govem-
te. by “pay as
pause ” ended o
commonwealth
Sfc reaped at Geneva on of nSr

BSs*h„^‘s?eS„as,“„rG?st”g^ i
of nuclear
Sr‘K!«.Lfl£“
u.o.
TT q to
fn rfisum© UBdergroimd
at Arusha.
nucl Tahgan.
ear la MHirtlon agreemen
national (rf seas and beach
I&. tonaÎjoopold
Sld vUle,
kUledto ptoe to ciMh
t Ô es. )'
ôumSto 20 Qen
Congo, Ndolawhen
h?
Khodesia, to meet M. Tshmte in ^4-®^ leader, arrested by Fre^ to ajSwS*
eff^
United IS
&by EM ‘ sained*° indep

continue
endence be
to as
to iota Common Btorklt 8° Norway applied
created B£ttlofa?6wdo^‘
amJd
Whole SftSn'‘‘?S«StSworM de Mutest
Drf Wtoe to
•"pSSFSFSfTi
f ‘<as‘jr s isss
‘‘lrBffl£"'g
ThsWestUKUe.SMiS.tS"' Btaolution of
Sl3^“,S£SS?si
gf Sif S£f‘?'Sl>' S? ?“« HonSSSaS
a SSSSsSl station arEer]Sfey.®^6l0s® power
Mto aToSgti
supply to national gi'id^^ 18 ^ê^tjlelty
s sasgfsj.»s&‘®^"™
Gov -Gen ^ officially commissioned by cr N can^ “ ,.V™^®*8lty. India. 28
S.'BhodS ^ more hberal constitution for
^’Bent-®S^^|°l®™a became indepen-

5ie«Si«a"£'3'gs'?lTa‘y'''-- &^®2boolonial rulf gi
Euston statlo^m 7
GhanceUor of Bed ,re-elected
Queen and the

tion.historian.
l^Sed— ^ tot
êntoff space, communlca-
tour of Ghana rmLi left for 1J.S. andEtoOM. 20D^+hfeS;P“ between
at Plymouth 28 civic centre
ting lip of announce set-
— -^*A/a*iMôow
a,Amca iiD IVOrcQ jPole. Canter-
bury visited -
condemned hy U.N ® apartheid policy nuclear submSit StothPote^""®
5 Russia hftcran _.
offlciallv inanSt^„.,°f and

Abandonment of Tihti> TiT-^dependent. 10
British moimtatoeerS pdes«e. 11
peak (Mt. highest
launched two lnto^nrhit\ft^“**».i? BPe®ls,
orbits). 13 British orbits and 48
eased from £260 a ye^ further
gfs“&,y
accepted in prtociplSv coinage ?&• ooyiwon y feiTh£gn°„.Vsyi?e
by ^natef^VG^rnme^f*^^^*^ rêoted
w
80 Mr. Adoula Mfl m/ ^™b government. stmcUon of new £'='? “p-
the Congo resu
Katanga's raSrXatoâf^bombe
med diplom^c ?«reed on Victoria and WalfSms^w'^ between
1962 Of Savanmh,
towa r^ Venuwffi
s. M voyage
chant ship 27 • ^'b^êredmer-
came independent. “ -^ Tobago be-
moutbreak
weather inforec
Britain. 16
asts. 16 fiS?bPox ®l4.®^m.®fMf highway
Vlctâ. Bfc? 7 NeôuffiUand. to
Nkrumali. 16^- m ^Ln>l®®î®bS? lfor Dr.
Peopl e's Hnf
assured Eussia «v!>+ ni*®?®®.
ontt^d Notes Iran
to a
SOAmerloan would be pn°5^*^ rocket basM
to King Hussein of Jmda^* ' ^^dh of son
between ChtoesesfrSi irSiS;, * Elghttog
N.B. frontS®" on disputed
repubUc proclaimed “5*^
launched her first satoiufi^+i?*^ ... Canada
orbit. 80 HE too™rT.rf.:^*be Alouette, into
inent’s order that ^trro*^n^*b^* Govem-
Octobe r 3 6-orbiState^toyerritf
at Mlssitolppl t flight of TTs aoi.
sbpiil^ êprol
■‘‘-““■W. Ugand
memc be
ala Coun ca ®
MihluhSffi-hfaaS^^ cH opene d at me
St, fttJ^.‘:Eome‘
A2SA.D. EVENTS
1962-1963
A.D.
r? Opei^g of Hyde Park Comer underoass- of Dutch East Indies: New Guinea
Electricity for national grid generated at Doun- (West Imn) handed to Indonesia. IS Twenty-
reay reactor. _ ^ Commencement of IJ.S. na^ fewo-orhit Mght of Major Cooper of U.S.
Quarantine of Cuba. 28 Dismantling of mfesite Air
Force. ,16 Eadio contact lost with Soviet Mars
agreed npon by EuS; Gtom de
No''^-.1962. 20 Petrosian won world
Gaulle won referendum for Ms proposal title from Botvimuk: Life presidency for
for Pres. Sukarno of Indonesia.
direct election of President yuaaj. loi
November I Erasia sent spacecraft on 7-month Pope John 30CI t.i; new Internal
journey to Mare. 6 Admiralty ann^ced Kenya came
record ocgin aepth by H.M.S. Goo/^ in MtoSo mto forre ^th Jomo Kenyatta
trench (37,782 ft); Opening of Commonwealth resumedas Kenya’s first
war against
^titu^ (replaces boiperlar Institute, Eiotmg on big scale in Georgetown.
KeMmgton). 18 Death of Niels Bohr. 20 Bykovsky-Tereshkova
^ border dispute
C^se-fire declarati(no giace mghts (tot woman astronaut). 16
on resignation of Mr. Ben-Guiion announced. 20
flirther hostihties occurred after this date) 29 Douse of Commons censure on Mr. John Pro-
ôuncement of new todo-Pakistan negotia- fnmo, framer Sec. of State for War. 24 Zanzi-
nar achieved internal self-govemment. 28
tetsfecV ““
December 5 Soviet-Amerlcan Space research co
ûguriî
SO Pope Paul on inNalrobi
VI crowned. of Univ. of East Africa.
op^tion agreement: Uprising in British prot July 2 FTMco-German Treaty of Co-operation
M Branel m protest to joining Fed. of Malaria - rame mto forge. 5 Sino-Sov
British nuclear device exploded underground in talks he^n. 9 State visit of Kingietandideologic al
Queen of
Nevada. 9 Tanganyika became repubUc and ^ Britain. 26 Skopje destroyed by
Dr. Julius Nyerere its tot president . 12 earthquê. 29 Pres, de Gaulle rejected Moa-
Briti^ troops M control of Brunei uprising. 14 test-to trea-ty. 31 The Peerage Bill
Mmwer II as it passed ^thin received the Eoyal Assent; Security Council
Eritrea became province calMd on member states to impose partial arms
of Ethiopia: N. Ehodesia’s tot embargo on Portugal.
toed government formed. 15African domi-
Sir Edgar Augmst 1 Under Criminal Justice Act, 1961
;^tehead’s party lost to right-wing party in S mmmum prison age raised to 17. 3 First
; Ehodeslan general election. 17 Mr. MaomlUan solo climb on north wait of Eiger by
iteft for meeting vnth Pres. Kennedy at Nassau. ^chel DarbeUay. a Swiss mountain guide. 5
Bahamas. 81U.S. decision to abandon Si:j/6oM; Fartol nuclear-test-ban treaty signed in Moscow
offer of Potoris missiles for British submarines to
by America, Eussia, and Britain. 7 Seemity
SS^r or multilateral Nato nuclear force. Council i-esolufaon to stop sale and shipment of
23 M. Fedorenko succeeded M. Zorin as Soviet
perm. rep. at U.N. 25 Europe snowbound with w?
train ® (£2-6 million).S Glasgow- London n mall
robbery
freezing temperatures. 28 Agreement in prin¬ clared royal borough (first 9 in Caernarvo
Wales). 16
de¬
ciple reached between China and Pakistan defin¬ Announcement of American-Soviet weather-
ing mirtuakûndary. 29 Southern England ®®toiuMcations-satellite progi-amme. 20
swept by blizzard. 80 Worst snowstorms in
E^land since 1881. Sl British Transport Com¬ Mr. Khrushchev "visited Yugoslavia. 21 Budd-
martial law imposed in South
mission replaced by British Eailways Board
(created by Transport Act. 1962), with Dr vletaam. 28 Great Negro "ibeedom maroh"
Beeching as chairman. FI Death of George Braque.
"liot line” linlriTig
1963 Bjremlln with White House went into se^re.
Septemto 5 Soviet-Amerlcan co-operation in
Jmuaty 2 ^n. Lemnitzer succeeded Gen.
Norstad as Supreme Allied Commander. Europe W r®aearch in Antarctica announced.
8 B^ rate reduced from to 4 per cent
GaoUe’s press conference repulsing 1?
IS state of Malaysia President
(ifilaya, of
Singapore,
Algeria.
Britato’s entry to EEC and rejecting U.8. oê into heine. 17 Malaysia broke off
Polans offer. 15 Ofllelal ending of Katanga mplomatie rwtions with Indonesia;
seceôn. 18 Death of Hugh Gaitskell: Aden dales baEistlo missile early warning Fyling- station
acwded to Fed. of S. Arabia. 29 Britain was came mto operation. 18 New Australian
refused entry to EEC; Death of Eobert Frost dectoal
the American poet. ourrenoy to be introduced Feb. 1966
(unit .to he called the dollar). 19 Anglo-
February 1 Nyasaland became self-governing pro ^®nch, report recommende rail tumiel as
teotorate. 5 Death of Lord Samuel. 6 Ship¬ Qiaanel iSk. 21 ^fonn ofd Eoman CathoUo
ping restrictions on Cuba announced by U S
Government. 8 Overthrow of Iraq govern¬ Chto jounced by Pope Paul
on dejamal cmrency advocated division 'VI. 28 Eeport
ment and execution of Gen. KaBHim ig mto 1(W units. 25 Denning report of £l
on Pro-
Seventeen-nation disarmament conference re¬ fhmo affair pnWlshed. 29 Eeopenlng of Vati-
sumed in^ Geneva. 14 Harold Wilson elected
leader of Labour Party. 19 Bali volcano ^.epunoii:
East Anglia openedFirst at Norwich.of University of
buildings
msaster (others followed March 19. May 19) October 1 Nigeria became a republic within the
Earthquake in Barce, Libya. 22 Unemploy¬ Cranmonwealth with Dr. AzMwb Its first Presi-
ment figures showed 878,366. highest since 1947.
d^t; Algeria natlonails French-owned land
MMch M Fhst frost-free night in Britain since » mnduras government ed overthrown by Army.
Dec. 22. 8 Syrian government overthrown by f„Hamcane Flora struck the Caribbean. 9
iioilitary coup. 17 Typhoid broke out In Zer¬ W^nt d^jlisaster lN. Italy): the Kubaka
matt: First of Tristan de Cunha islanders re¬ of :ânte became first President of Uganda.
turned heme. 27 Publication of Beeching 14 years as
. Eeport on British Eailways. Chan^lor of Fed. German Eepubllo; succeeded
April 6 Opening of Berkley and BradweU civil by Pnrf. Ludwig Erhard. 18 Mr. MacmIUan
nuclear power stations. 6 Polaris tnitpjip Erime Minister; succeeded by the
ag^ment simed between U.S. and Britain, ^1 w Home; French sent cat into space and
pronghtlt saiely back. 28 Eobbicffl report on
f
leaM byElefenbaker Conservati
’s Canadian
Liberals in ve Party
general de-
election. higher education publlsbed.
American citizensUM conferred on November 1 Diem oligarchy of B. Vietnam over¬
Sir Wlnrton Churchill. 10 Pope John fttitt sewn by military coup; First executions in S.
, published his encyclical Pacem in Terris; New Africa imder the Sabotage Act of 1983, 7
toland to change to decimal coinage In 1967; Eleven German miners rescued after a fortnight
Loss of U.S. nuclear submaripe Thresher with toderground^Bir Alec Douglas-Home elected at
, 129 lives. 17 Commissioning of Eoyal Navy’s Kinross and W. Perthshire. 9 Train and Tn<n«
first nuM^-powered submarine, H.M.S. Dread- msaBters in Japan. 18 Death of Dr. Margaret
: nougtU, 2P Execution of Julian. Qrtmau. Murray, the archaeologist, at age 100. 16
Spanish communist leader.' Greece began to release Cmumonlst prisbners
EV-EN.TS
1963-1964 Aae
A.D.
Temples of Abu I came independent state of Malaw
re-sited. . 18 Opei^g i 10 M
Tshpml^ succeed
M I>artford--!Purfleet tunnel, linldiiff Kent of the Congo. ed M. Adoula
13 Death of as Prime Minister
Mmirice T
nn^
Drench communist leader. 15 Mrîvnt^^^'
Dallas. Texas; I’-lce- ' Union.
succeeded Mr. 17 Courtev of as
Brezhn Ses^m
^SdehItobL
t^®^?gh
Tweed must be wh^ ;®
-tresiaent. MeS new made
ês^ Publicationt of Buchananto as
report, in Outer Hebrides: air. Donald Cai^be
De^mber 3 Britain’s second nueleji U teoki
r submarine land-speed record appea
on Lake
rance Eyre^
of SirthWinsfn
the ^ Vamu, launched. 4 Second seS^nf aiw.?
n
ChurchiU to House of Commons.
IrHnn? ended: Glosure of Woolwich 31 Ammfcan
KSPtt'ias
mUef^W^®
tederation of Ehodes Clmstmas cruise. 250
FeOemi^V. j Dissolution
ia and Nyasal and. of
1964
foral^ne^ pKdpm.'^l^sslpi®
Toon®
^ F°*’® “^'1® Pilsrimage
between Pope andto Patri-
Holy
EO!K^ leader^ took over supreme coTviTvjnnr!’ np
Oronot 18 Common Market
îsed to 16 In mo-71 KiotTin

S. Ehodesia. after trial of Joshua IJkom
o. '
agreement on rail Chan-
&g»Si’Kg1J So êcra^ CoSrêMf fil
Bank rate raised from, 4 to6^ '-rorus. 27

(TitUin
i^vT % foBritish a'
riV Co^cU oS Ws (cbsM
isiiSar„jgSd.
ime tour of S.
Oot^r 5 The Queen and the Duke of F,<imhii,r,i.

isffi
fficde s-nd scholarship fond for study in« Of anhjed m Canada on week’s^!
^ President Kcuuedy. 27TT tf
^
TST
êacek^ping force ih ChT>rus oDpmfiAn'oi*
tiM^lle hi aS!" earthquake and

fighting in Cyprus SS.?rSi»„!SS“SS«î= E
Greek and Turkish comniu^ties
I
Pr^^fnr^T
& '^?®A-Paul Sartre
bad declinbd Hobel
beehârded
sfeSliSlis
and ex^rtdaxêSto^dealTi
tAbSce^f
a^»«h D^rK4%4”
service
Aberdeen. 3? Dea?^ of^&aTS “* I
ot AtK dâted
Decemberay 1goods
Death of T 'r s “
SSgffiffifffiJSf
railw Trni.,-1 „ . tt
depot
Pope
customswelcomed
officers hi ^
p&?i£.“73‘Es™*%ff
dying
signed by Glovemment. T ij.c

organisati ons. 17
Eebruary igflo.^’^f
SigSw sS; ; elected
1964.-66 A.n, EVENTS
A.D.
31 Mr. Donald CampbeU
* Bella of Algeria
depMed by Revolutionary (touncil
276^33 m record with speed of I under Col
Boimedlenne. 22 700th anniversary of Parlla^
Iratrali™'®’^’ DumblejTing in W.
^êbrated. ^ Early22,000 Bird miles into
went above
between Brazil and Africa). 30
^ Didonesia withdrew from DJT. 15 Cease-fire agreement m Eann of Kutch signed.
Child s body found (Dec. 11, 1964) in coffin train robber escaped from
in
Stepney^ffientifled as that of Lady Anne Mow- ® Inauguration of S!EC radiotelescope
Richard! Dube at ^Lord's Bridge. Cambridge. of Culture,
of
ot York (one of :^nces in the Tower) : remains 11 visited
K
W^minster Abbey; Prime Stevenson died in London.
t'C ®«r«ndi assassin 20 Lyndon Mme. Vaucher climbed north
inaugura ted ated.
as 36th President of Matterhorn, the first woman to do so.
S4 Death of Sir Winston Churchill. 26 Hiiidl fS, Rbst ted
transmit close-up
to earth by ofH.S.
pictmces Mars successfully
Mariner IV
^ tongue. with English
31 National of Grê dismissed Ms Prime Minister, Mr
Health prescnption charges ended.
Papandrwu.^16^ Opening of Mont Blanc
Queen and Duke of Edinburgh in
f Q® Death of Sjmgman Ehee, former
MM Director of Institute of î^ysenko dismissed ^0®; .pf on3- July
Mpubho Rnraa. 20 Malawi to become a
6. 1966. 22 Sir
Genetic
against N.s.Vietnam
7 First
. resigned as leader of the Alec Douglas-
J.' "M. Johnson announce H.S. would con- Edward Conservat ive
Heath (July
S5' '/P justified as necessar y
for defence of S. >f
Vietnam.** In 'w^ kMldive Islands became indeiiendent.
mdependent as 21st member 18ofGambia became
the Br. (Com¬
^ Enbuild^
AppoMtni ent of jirLord
London
CaseyBridge planned;
as Qovemor-
monwealth. ^ D.s. piloted jets bb^d Qeneral of Australia. 80 H.S. Medical Care for
\ letcong m S. Vietnam. 25 Dr Heenan tne Aged Bill passed.
Archbishop of W'estminster, created a cardinal.’ August 1 Eaffio and television
of, Boger Casement, from licence fees in-
ban on cigarette advertis-
Ehama becameBeohuanaland*s first Prime Award
A ■ .y to Industry^f **'’ for
“®w export
award and
" The Queen’s
tochnolog i-
3.600 18 n marines
Alexei
:êriea Leonov ^ (Mture,
fi®Wevement; M. Malraux, French Miniver
met Mao
^de^în Tse-tung in Peking. 6
*“ ^ spaceship and float D^bes on Kashmir border. 6 H.S. 'itotimt
S’ Rembrandt’s guineas
760.000 Tihts. Malaysia; ^®®?'
Marriage ® between
Singapore Moslems
seceded from
and
îtat successful two-man manoevrable flight 5°?^'^®*'® /o'^bidden ^2inAppointmir.A.E..ent11 ofNô
by (Cnssom and Young In Gemini III •. Dr first
frothy Hi^Mn awarded Order of Merit! WOTOT High .Court judge. 21 H.S. Gemini V
M Successful completion of H.S. Ranff& (Cooper Md Conrad) launched (landed Aug. 29
m^
after _120 orhits). 24 Pres. Nasser and Vine
^ Defeat of Mrs^Banc^”
anaike m^ylon elections J aisal signed cease-fire agreement in Yemen.
; Mr. Senanayake
âme Pitoe Minister. 28 • Death of the September T Pakistan forces crossed Kashmir
Princess Itoyal; EarthQua ke indJhile. • toê-firA line. 2 Death of Sir Harry Hylton-
A of
bl^®e of Husain made
Ms 3-year-old 6 Death of Dr. Albert Schweitzer. 6 Indian
” XjS'Jjnchmg’ of JSJaTly îrd commercial forces Invaded mPaldst
AiK*i®a^®^®
an and bombedCommons.
Lahore
CtoQcellationofTSE2. 12 ,êrican division 20,000 strong lan^d to
between Indian and Paki-
stan forces in Baim of Kutch. 11 Tomadces Labour
S. Vietn^ : General
Goverma ent defeated 14 Norwa™
election. to Second
m ndd-westem H.S., drilled 278 people.
of 26(3-mile ,Pennine Way. Britahrt 23 -iî£®S> Comicil reconven
Governmeed 4th session
nt’sforWhite Paper,
MOT i<^-distance footpath from Edale in
- 1964-70. 21 British
Britain’s Petrole
economic
um
T Roxburghshire.
§9 *? Dominican Republic, ^ rig Sen
CeMs-fir e to Gem struck oil in North Sea. 22
Indo-Pa klstan war.
in of 16 of
Landing per cent reduced to
American troops .
to Srsrvfei^m. °^^S^LA^*®“P*K®>’®rtBrow
F,®Pr*®®!l® agatot Pres. Sukarno of
communists. 3
on return to ,. MMt totemational symposium on water desail-
uation met to Washington. 4 The Pope flewTo
• 3p®»>®b confirmation
l„®^® found near Portuguese Iw adtoessed the U.N. .^mnblK
border in Feb. was that of General Delgado Menzies appointed
POTtuguese Apposition leader. 11 CJyelbne and i‘®*^
tidal wave disaster to E. Pakistan killtog WeMen Af the (Mmue Ports. 8 Talks to
16.OT0 ®“ BJôâsian independence ended
HIg gainst
Map,
WaW^^fI®®'®®;”®?*-
thA only knownU Publication
example of ofmediffival
VlnlaM
tion |’^®^®’®yoûnent elections; 14 Inaugura-
of Kennedy memorial at Bunnymede- Norse cartography. 13 Pres. Kasavubu oLthe
second atomic bomb. 15
S°°Fi® 'B®u?®®efl Tshombe. 17 Demon-
rtrati(^
SfSh^®Hwo®^ Benmore power station and Cook tMoughout H.S. and in London against
.Strait cabl^part of New Zealand’s lO-year
CânceUor of Fed. Rep, T?'® Erhard re-elected
fr®^0P“®Pt ,scheme.^^ritato and of Grermany
cease-fire call .of S2 Paki-
Sect^y
if
^craft;— op-oi)erate to developing two rnlUtary
31 intoers kllied to Welsh colliery
!^®?®f8y- 18 • The Queen and *0 the Fed. Duke
German of
oo® 267
28 oaS^®V Indian ascents of Everest.
miners kiiled to Indian colliery disaster.
itoMrs killed to Japanese colliery *^®-D®ffi'’2*' l .Bovereof gales
British colony Britishswept Britain.
Indian Ocean 8Terri-
New
(plosion. 3 Ba^ rate reduced to 6 per cent;
declaration of Independence;
and White, the lattel' walked in space' for 20 iiliLI®* W^'f Smith of Bhodesia
Britain deolar^ rebel regime illegal and intro¬
duced economic sanction s. 15 New land speed
m^ 4r;7 Visit of (Siou En-lai to Taim.nhi record of 6006 m.p.h. set up In Htah by jet-
w®
9o World ^®d bi Jugoslav mine disaster.
reimrd for ndle broken by^. Jazy of ®®’^* ■ ®® B®®urlty Council called on all
ânce (3 ^. 63-6
Commonwealth Prime sec.). 17 Opening of
Mtoisters* ConforeUce
ZZTJ
and urged ^ oil
'’'‘•'-wiAWiuiujieiaMaas.wn'Xi itaoaefiia.
embargo.; 25. Oenetal l^buto
EVENTS
1963-1966
A28A.D.
Rowing oil to . 1
Zambia naked Britain to send trooiia
to Earibaf
I
j (^171'mt VII
wif'm
(Borman andarrived
Lovell) inlarmehpfi
Zambia,
defence expenditure. c’oSsaf
=‘ ASauthoris
resolution
.tagBScoT
mHO S'*'
Tj?'^
Cên^t^S
r«toedVatican CJouncil closed
M PresiS fli Afr*
of 1& Boîi
Union: renlacft/l >«r ^.r,. -Nm—i-a >mao louvjcii
reja™^ 10 C-iT^'îta^ for EhS ”

relat withimaBritain over off dlploia_ IR
DroJre Bhodeai
Mr. Wilson
Sea Scrollsaddresse d ed
exhibit 01617.1? Assemblv^Tiw^rt
at
New ?P- Sliodesia;

m^Tiiaho^ ^ IQ* General for
de Anglican
Gaulle re-elected
Church
j^cnclilêsfdent. 22 diristinas tnice In
aji»£w3'3ixs
nam; De^h of Elchard Dimbleby ‘vipt
the BBC tele4 Enll
JfoSttoi ®lo Offic- °-f Barliam^t
(Thou
out fe?*'^tur!?SS,™H?ort
“ûrgeoi sideolo^?;ateÎs%f from
loaue cê mto force. S7 Oil rfe Sea
Gem
British
rSfi^TLl^
is S “ ^«rth Sea: 5 kiUed. 8 êftft" ™ nuclear device. 14
irieSd.^^®®^ Westminster Abtey Seaiian’s^stê be^™nd“d°’i^
19S6
summit talte in Tash- Guiana became independent state of
^
5®??^ Kosygin
^ îscna. as host.
10 Sudden d^th9 Violent
nf tvtt
- Shastri in Tashkent. 11 (}peii^
of
nJMrto Glawmetti, sculptor and

coup to Nigeria: Fed. Prime paint er 15
Min ]êd ^vS ed *?7®I®oted President ™Irish
by 2 astronauts
16 toeral Ironsi. O.-to-O, of ^|e ûbli? « ?w
twk over command to restore law SS rffilo M veiX “oomate
Sf-
18 ArrivalKorol LondontSS
in yov. of sir °Se
‘RPnffi^
Cfovemment. ga SmiSi reeime^ Md Japii^^ twislater from Chinese
mêria rejected Eoyalf
ErmogSive
for®
1^ on two Africans. SS^ên-

ai'|as»ye‘s,s*«l
st'wa.'’sf iSrfl
Vietnam resumed after 37 dava- -RHuti: SsraSli:i«At plant at Mol to Behdmn
gSi
Pebroa iy 3aS& t*^* «t iaS
Buceûl soft landing on moon
S
w
HonoluluTto
^ K pf^®T Jodrell B^ tete^
6-month freerem armoUneed

A|^£5C^-*Sf5r'd&k
"Êps«K?SdS‘K-s“rD? g
S aiM^ us Bave
19M 4 WiWJo to
°26Ê
» a
Cabinet reshuffle: ^ ^ê
T£^£IE»5tSS (longest road bridge in Srit

efaf
196©-19e7 -29
A.D. events
— br^ + v-^mscon whfle trying to

September 1 Britannia airliner crasherl at Tinw Election in General
iana in Yugoslaviaf tSd 4^PrJw^t de “ fflce jIrKdeX
HSHF-iis*
spS.OOOa’h'^Patetm
a^d^ffi j?S|)”^pF
Kabbi of torninoinTOaJtli in suco^sion to Dr ^beral Party following
Jacolx Brodie: Ponrfcb Frencb nuclear deviee Griraond. 20 Agreei^^
^•a SiS ®IrtP and ToiSô
êncan astronauts killed in&e in'^bin^dr^
ing ground test at Cape Kenned . ”
^SmralBmfwof^tt Kennedy.
fXkf
Britain’s tot Polaris submarine.* 8 Direct peace talks between TT S and
rSLar-so^sir^-iS Syte
Kb^^^^mne tot President ptBepu»
October 1 Edea:^ pf Speer and von Sohirach

Spmdau, leading only Eudolf Hesa Se ftom
2
■n'®®nK*i®? and tidal wave
Ked^JwStlon aS^tovomHnn*'®®
^ha Aberfan disastS: ^-
|™sr^ga”tss;“„&“§«^r
c^®A® -5? coal tip slid dom uDon
rule to GfeiL Suharto, 23 Trinidnii
J'q ^ <diil&en in scbooL : 26 Brussels chosen i
NATO Cornell. ^7
Cninas fourth nnnlAQT fnof oorf-« _ _ J
25
OKT of Americaii States)
Larachtog at Birkenhead
vw ;cuuu vpeueu CO cramc Dy 197fi ffln'hiP7»f of Britain’s seorad
. satiîctory solution of problems involved) *
Indonesia readmitted toD.N. Sr™ C’*y57 returned to ix>wer in Indian elpn
^nvoivea?.
from outer space and
prohibiting
feinv nnl^ use of Moon27 IntâSHrlaty
and oth^ SsHni
“'Slo
Vbnfcp bS^? torrential rain caiTsed
Plorence: ^ês Ml/wl^*onf
Prohibiting use of Moon f^^^
and other^c^lbil
signed in London, Moscow, and Wasldng-
«'wS“
gîof«..‘S^'S£f
appotatmw»t of ^
asaiî.Sa’iSSSi.,f.tSS 5”r*«»H«ff«"M5ESa'aSi
, Council censured Israel for^lltary attack on S'^n®^ DUzabeth ofHall Ipnflon’e new Mncert lian-
adjoining Kwal pLiitai
®f S.W. Jordan oFlS Not ^ ® B®®th of Zolto^d^f theîS-
^m^ded dismissal of Liu Shao- ^S®™u°®®5‘ ® Conflrmatlon that Amerl-
Ch 1, ddna 8 Head of State. 26 Opening of the ®p Thailand were bombing N
Ranee barrage: AustraUan Genem Bi^to® S?*“®?i^ Mrs. Indira GanSii reSert
J-B^M-ûnty
by Mr. Harold !ltety
Holt Coalition
returned;Gfovernment led ?^™®_Mlnlster of India: Launching of Italy’s
New Zlealand ?o®t ®*p®® the war, the Enrico Tow
General Election: Mr. Keith Holyoake’s Na- i?,?® Pr6n(^ general elections GauUlsts galnert"
Wonal Party returned. 29 King Ntare of hi National Assembly’ Death of
Burirodl overthrown while in ^go- re^bbe P.^rnnk Worrell the WMtInSffi cricketP?^
SKnZcttutTBâ'rbfd^^^
Pc;^^to foTbriS^^-ace'Ua
dependency smee 1627, t.came in
depen?e^!«
for S-day visit: “
“^SaAte kI
|
|r of^dnr aS^ «S
Chichester in Gipsy Moth IV rounded fSn-
M°High*B->r^îî^ hi dropped
bv Sierra Leone siezed
on Ttmey ôwM^
Omvm
^ successfid to
TT *5! wreck and setting Are to It-
concerned:^)
poîirg^ ®s“°a^tir^c8?®i^ ^:
on duties of rich nations toward

s
1967
A.D.
inau^ratad by staltomd
the Queen of 31 Deat-h, at
nt
fwm’fe ^10 events
AD
OawwB reached Cherbourg
^we!^mWaterlM eledtificS
PT?’ iw îned landsUde chêd ow to de^Sal
A^Ser ^S?
8ionTA ariu^^
19 Death of Konrad
.rfe)n
daughter arrived in New
WadMr Komarov, the sS
^f^T &•«' r^««i iaESSSS”S«
^snS^'au?
flight
SijrbirSi??
) completiOT of test
came toto operation, providinj? for
thp
ton of decimal currency in Britain in 1971°*^Tk
totSSaoSX" “-““"ii'* Motii bWhdw
^Tb-ifn^S® ^^*®ter’s statement to Commons-
anntv H ^ joto the Conmon
SpelfolS-sSSlCS®
sssts.’^"^ n “ SmSk;
|» Sii=fiS“ef “ff tes
S'F55“al,S™JT“- “Mto “MSi
* 22 slrtoauakrta N.W^ûrkey “’'ll
SJf °"»Sm
MedTv ,24 Pris" de Gauuf
l&ss sill
Chichester arrived flfs
in PIvmoiit K ' sri i
Eastern NigeS ^1® from ElderaS' nf SSJ^vSskSS
b^MWste?m
fromChinese^toCT W#ThIntaXdn^
appointed Defence
forces &’aS ft
|¥«,?dmbinffpfN.VlS
^‘srlS„^)"S‘ra'A';SS 3 the Soviet
Mss. gss,'; Dânlifc^
firTresomtlon^ Council’s cease-

ship sa,iled through Straltof Tfra
i (&?
Israel for aggîTO^^l? Octotor 2 H.M.8. Eesolninm BritaSn’H

first hydrogffl K”- in 5M°ded her d«i •
submarine, eommlasffrneA ® ttot Polaris
urinKing: It tne amount of alcn}>ni

stream exceeds the pr^Sibed i«
firiniriTitf ♦■laa ^ Js 811 Offence to dnve 8ftei*
ss'-cStefllSslS^ mnis per lOOinlllliit^nf
Cuban revoluSwl^^
milh-
Gwovara.
mew^ treaties conoeSfl^ °5 . fluting In SZ Se- n®n^f
possible new sea-iPMm>^„i "^Pal and
AustraM^tet d Clarke of
sec. at Va^wS iw.!^ 19-8
control of- Old Citv nr^rc Israel took over “"5g«3
&
NATO H.O at of new
p«iod«»iÂS“ij>.2ga.^»iMof
of Egyptian 5* NavyeiS# » «
^
troyer Aiiioisuidfofl’ SimfiôDf des-
Md other
against Vietnam mr <„ ®^°o«trat ons
E^t’s SuearoUreflnwleB of
epidemic began at^Mtrv^M ?S:‘^'*-B‘outh
Shah of Iran: Gov^mpnt^'.n„r? Coronation of
national librarjtohZ^^^®^‘°“ “$*' to build
the Queen at7
hwtUities. .-^b-Israel ^mglo.Pren<*Z-eement^^/,^?®“®J’^ ®*fo!
t967-»1068 events
Asi.A.D.
A.D.
^tainf Hrst aufeomatio link-up aiid separat
E^sian cSS ion
increased from 6 to 6} per

SB‘ ££'S ‘"twSffSyS"'-"
o^deed (deals: between central banks
at 885
80 yeara’ imprisom^nfto oo Resignation of mte reduced

28
Bu& WjnvPres Soy toJenldii
, Novntn-p
74 per cent
ttt
^ Bolivia. 18 Devaluation
0®“<i (S2.80 to $2.40 to
rate increased from 6i to 8 ner
WnifA ProfMor Blackett and Sfr William s§S|5i,iaTts!ob‘hto»‘&w“s
^PPO“t®d to the Order of Merit. ^ to become D.8. Sif ffl
of
.Crofeîonal negligence: Security Staff at Pentagon. 87 Yuri Gac^rio vmos li;
British resolution
of Israeli forces from ..t® Munch special drawing rights
Arab teitories and an end to aU
®'t>™aoned plan to biiild aCTSent fn ^°“®^^^“t’erence in Stocking”
Jite sanctuar
■hfe®^ y)., 23S?Indus
^n?hSr Aldabra
water (uniaue
nroiect wild
Jhei^*T? ®‘’ 'w
^ oneMangla Damin on
of biggest
in-
the
world.
Ttesaisre.fesif”’’'”
physicist. Prof. Lev"
2? suburbs flooded: death roU 404. aof -w Luther King at Memphis, Tennessee
^ Assassination
Conference out
ruled with aSn J
eariv negotiations fo^ ^Mtnain aCTeed to direct talks with D s"
London dock strike Algeria s secessionist
hngpSf^*®' fimt.coimtry eastern
to recognise Biafr^
independent as the region 16
nWs rw? South Yemen. 30 Greece. Trakey, Lake Havasu City withdraw
in Arizonafromto ElSlO.' 17
be site for
settlement i^bne Minister. 88 Ex-
of 0^™ssSf teme
Câda’sright-wing
np^T'-h p^°i
N.P.D. Party Trudeau became
won 12 sSts ^
:We^n telescope at Royal Observatory state parliament of Baden-WiwSberg
Herrtmonceux. the biggest in Europe: May 3 Pres. Johnson accepted a M Vietnam “
^rld nm.
660,000 guineas paid for Monet’s
Attiesse at Christie s. ^ Termsse (t Sctinte- tS‘sto^sm“ri^^®°“T preliminary
3 Eu:st human heart in
Jnr>View \ between
■ ®*®®t clashes i® Latin auarter
students andof uolicp-
Paris.
tmMplant operation took place at Cape To^
Con^^tme attempted unsuccessfully ®bar?® tSh^haml:
St®r}oh workers occupied
Wrpr,pi®J?®i^*^®®^ beace talks began in
factories. 18 Paris.
Pres
on I™^n i°w t® <!S®1^ military junta. 14 bS
^nnto!^ ®i,-îsa reafSrmed Australia
by Primen elections in Italy:
TO swimming accident. Pa^’î®o°®p tour to return to*
. voted âgainst negotiations for
??.t’^,to Common. Market; Britain r AasemDiy aaODtedtheir
declared anmestv
readb
lo * Din1ow^®“ T^piild not
5n relations be wlthdratra.
resumed bet^veen
ment. 29 TIN Security Council adopted resdiu-
■ .^ Statement by N. mmt* M ™ ^ mployers and Govern-
Minister that N. Vietnam
tloM*^n°Whps®®“®’^®o¥^V*'® mandatory^nc-
ff Vietaam“ S
1968 Jiine 6 Senator Bobert Kennikiy' sliot Erench
&naêX: Ol®®i“tion of in T,nH
'^««’et/or spacecraft soft-landed on A^^les:- he êd the next day-. 10 National
Cardinal Ottavlanl from
®®patpr John G. Gorton elected S Deat Of 2/6d introduced.
Prime Mhuster of Australia. 14-16 VJOlPTif- on
.^thenfrv- h’i^
Wp ^slr
a.14 Restrictions
®art*qu^ amicance ^fh® illegal
uw rSgime m jôdesl
by anyone 15connected
Warsaw
tremors nient
in W. ofBlcil^ le 'fttoe
cuts in public Party, led
t*u?^ i manûv resby Mr.
ih : Piemr
CzechosiiSu 28
lovakia wra
Qûdian general election. 30 In French
eSori^Tnagreement fmm for scien-
home to
tmc and tectoologioal cooperation
simied in
®®i?ipt»yi^- Korea of ^Jolty,®'®®*'^ traded be-d
Increase
on intelligence mission oS N. Korean eoart!^
®^^Ff,
for tatoAl-lBU Thant in Moscow and London
on Vietnam, 18 D.8. plan^ bmuhS^
putsklrts ôf Saigon; 10.600 S^nld
, troops to sent to Vietnam. 18 Sec^ ^ Uppsala, Mr. Alec Rose, landed at Porfs-
Offensive in Vietnam; D.a. “ San Be Was MghM the next
1 a;®!®®*®*! by N. Vleti^ ^^y® ^® MurvUleed replaced
^le-hand round the
M
(Pres. Johnson’s offer Of 19condition worid^lnY^^/i^^^
Bompidou as Brim© Minister of ®® SidaaS
Sept. 1967
that topeara Prance P9
talfc8_ would follow and no military advaâee
the pause) : Introduction of ■L^â. to Kdola, Eambla, -in operation. ^
Brftlsh Standard Time. 19 Ranh of Kutch .ueamor Otto Hahn, the German physicis
t*
hilwrPf
tenth 4®S¥?b- nlne-tenths to India: one- Mri^ student riots in Mexico City. 89
to Pakistan. 24 Battle of Hu^ end of encyclical Eumame uiteeoo
birth control: The
ndemn-
YSt'day defence by Vletcong guerrillas. Emm^
March 2 The Queen exercised royal preroga
tive of
ol Bratislava between Czech
3 iMricansArnd’S^seS
or*
detrifiten^l®^
foL^^SSth East Germany, Hungary Poland
stantwLevldenoe that virus came from lamh Soviet Union: Death of Marshal Rokossov
sky
j Argentina. 6 Africans In leMtary hero of Second WorlA War’
Rhodesia hanged in defiance of the oSwori’a 6 Talto between both sides In Migerian ciyii
iSPo^®^®'. ?? Mauritius became independ
^ leading toSi ent
s!s^^®ri®b . so S^t forces ,withHungary
SovietQennauy &tn
coutingeand
cent. 16 Stock Exchange awTMmmif ® 20 afvlJ +f”™®^ wlth^
closed, and Bank BplShd ehtored Czechoslovakia', Pope
EVENTS
f 968>1969 A.D.
A32
yisH;ed_ Bogota, Colombia, ttie first papal visit w®pon._ 28 Following attack {26th) by
to Jjnenea m its 460 years of connection Arabs
on two Israeli
mandos airliners
retaliate at Athens. laraeli'î
with Ilpian Catholic Church. 27Endoffour- d by wrecking 13 Arab aircraft
aay talks in Moscow between Soviet and Czech at Beirut aôrt. 31 Successful maiden
leaders: C^ch leaders gave certain undertakings flight
^ withdrawal of Soviet
TTon? ' S8
ênt. M of
gasPrints Marina.
and clubs Duchess
used by of
Chicago Eaido airliner (riyal to
gainst demonstrators at Democratic KloXn^Conc^Se™'’oraey march from
^tional Convention, 31 Major earthauake in
KhoraRjan province IfB Dan, ^ndonderry. 4 Spanish enclave of
ffiu <^ded to Morocco. 6 Soviet Venus
Seêmber 6 Swaziland became independent. 11 lamched. V Opemng of Commonweal probe
Departure of Russian troops from Prague, 13 th Prime
Mlnist^ Oonference to London. 16 Efrst
England and Wales
c *^00^^ operation to orbiting flight by
Soviet Rot/az
nf- Rhodasia ruled that
AppeUate the
Division 4 and S^Gt/1/.Z; 6. 16 Vietnam neacp
talks In Pa^ . resum <^®™f°>
ed ^*alafterwaters
2 mSs
legal. IS Worst flooding 1989'. f 6 so
from to
m England since 1963 (rain caused by warm
irom b. i ranee meeting cold air from ScandJ- aR
“ ®^l8nd).
Britain. 19 18 Two-tier
Bank postal
rate reduced
^ 21-22 aashes between
students and police to Mexico City. 22 Suo-
of Soviet spacecraft Zond 5 Febn^ 8 Assa^toati
Ren^r" on of
^ Dr. Edourdo Mond-
m xnaion ocean, after research voyage round S“d
^?r Mossamtoqu e nationalist leader. 12-13
Wsit ol to. Wilson to Bonn and W Berlin
SS?Kii , reconstructed Abu 16 Danguration of Kainji Dam on ®fNigbr MvS'
submarine
oA Theatres Act, abolishi
abovengLake Nasser. iêria. 18 Ati^k by Arabs bn Israeli air-
censorsh
Marcello ip,
Gaetano -fow and Lisbon, 19
of Lady Asquith., 20 Kilimanjaro
French again
of fflW Minister of Portugal because etobed by 8 blind Africans. 22 Vietn^
Tet
vetoed British entry into Common Market. offensive began. 23-Maroh 2
Nigerian troops captured Nôn to European capitals: Visit of B^dent
Death of fomer
taken Aba and Owerri in Sept,
^g Sand
.Mars of tSaudi-Arab
spêcraf laimchedia. 24 D.S.
between police and crowds and . .26 Death
in London-
rioto to EdikaJ, Prime Minister of Israel. 28 ofBank
Mr
® British Prime Minister and Mr.
discussed proposals for settlement of rate raised to 8 per cent. '
™ Elvis Fearless off Gibral- 2 Successfifl maiden flight of French-built
mr (talks ended m disagreement). 11 D S Concorde at Toulouse. Mrs. Golda Meir
u-man moon rocket Apollo 7 successfuilv chosen as lOTael’s Prime Minister. Sino-Sov
. 10-day orbital test manouevres. plash on Ussuri river. 3 Apolloiet9
12 Olympic Games opened to Mexico W-day earth orbital test mission.
Pemando Po and Rio Muni, dependencies City:
of elected W, Geimany’s
Independent as Rep. of Edua- Sppial Democratic
^ Pnîdent
B©rlto- 7 by Federal
toriM Guinea. 14 The Queen opened newBns- Opening of
for imderground
over 60 years)*
railway to“ be
9 General
Frague: treaty Prime
signedMinister.
provld-
EosvS'u
Mr for
tog stationmg of Soviet
M of Soviet Kad, Ê^ptlan Chief of Staff, killed during 3-
troops in Ozeoho-
^ Czwhoslovakla became a two- baê with Israel along ûez
■ f*^|o f'ôration: Massive deifionstratibn march
to London agaansfc Vietnam war.
Johnson ordered halt to bombing of 81 President
N. Viefa^!
WFetroleum. 14 I’® Mortga
site for
ge Britain’s
rate in
Bri^ taoreas
No;^ber .l Pres. Liu Shao-chi exneUed from hvîSîh®^f ed ■1 to 8J per oil cent/ 16 fbund
deposit Mrs
C^neM Cfflnmimist Party. d ^în LuthOT Kng preached at St. Paul’s, the
^^^womni:
Vietiw to deyso.
afr 1969 18 U.8. offensiv
Geneva Conference onened'Se in
f *2 E*ohard Nixon. Republican. Lom^m bfeboat disaster. 19 British troons
«• restrictions m France: Bank ratj» toded Width no opposit ion on Anguilla, 25
raised from 6 to 6 per cent: ' Major policy state- Bffilgnation ofRres.
^nt hy Mr. Brezlmey at Polish Pa^ Ctongres FaldâAyub
n ArmyKhani
took ^n/Va hvB
over power
, tbr^t to a Socialist country is s
to all Socialist countries.” U Maldlve a threat M
Visit of Lord
^ Eagos on fact-finding mi^ton
arepublic^^lSNewGr^SiîtS Island
increase power for Prime
mmistOT, Mi. Papadopoulos, 19 German Ebtaa’s ninth Communist
to revalue the Deuteehe Mark anv
M^tli® bf Group of Ten cotmtri“ 1^^ ^ 5^?® w "WtlSh-buOt Concorde. 14 Tiin Pian
declared as
Mao^s successor.
■ Sm? 2®nn^ni7® ^°ê“ents. 22 Sts^^
arranged for sup-
Placed First Secretary17 or
Mf.^Dii^k i^
GzmÎov^v
uu^ fci260 iiuUion, JV^ce did nofc devalue hn+ of the Fefleral Assem-
introduced- stringent measures of total- E^|ish army units to guard
exchange
trel and econoês; Mexican 26 Deathr
staS^
con-
fffln
dSl to Northern Ireland. 28 President key points
SaragS of
Italy on 8:day statecaptured
visit to byBritain : BiafrM
g^lair, American novelist. ^ Serious Federal fpês
recaptured by Biafrans. 28^Si
de Gaulle resigned as President of France
yote defeat in referendum^T AnXuallnn n fter
declaration of policy on Enrop^Ttoed
In
Mr. Terence O’Neill' resigned as Prime
2 Tô plSs bloKj
wat^ over Weisli border. 8 JRovai MayMinister of Northern
1 Secrecy Ireland!
oath taken ®® ^rime
by new cardinals in
fln^ TOnsistory ceremony not to reveal
totrucWora given to them anv
by the Pope; Malor
*®®l^r'Glark became Prime Minister
M .Her maiden voyage. 3 Death of Dr Tialrii-
Hîn, India’s President. 12 ConseryatiTiea
onêr*m^dS7
gained ^
957 seats in urban MizabeOi S.^ted
arid.'borough elections
1969 A33 EVEINTS
A.D.
A.D.
• in England and Wales; Eepresenfcafcion of the September 1 King Idris of Libya deposed by mlli-
People Act 1069 came into operation (TOting ■ tary junta, 8 Death of Ho Ohl Minh, President
age now 18). 16^17- Landings of Soviet Feaws 5 of North Vietnam since 1946. 10 Barricades in
and Fentis 6 on surface of planet (220 million- Belfast dlsniantled and Army’s “peace line ’’
tolle; flight. 45 months). 18-26 tT.S. Apollo 10 • erected: Cameron Eeport jDistiirbances in
moon flight (Stafford. Young, Geman);- 21 Northern Ireland issued. 11 Meeting in Peking
Lord Eitchle-Calder appointed Chairman of ■ between Soviet and Chinese Prune Ministers,
Metrication Board. 27 Hungary first Warsaw Mr. Kosygin and Mr. (Jhou En-lai. 16 Pres.
pact country to ratify nuclear non-proliferation Nixon announced withdrawal by mId-Deoember
treaty. 80 Colony Of Gibraltar renamed City of further 36,000 troops fitom S. Vietnam. 17
' of Gibraltar. Pres. Suharto named West Irian as a province
of Indonesia. 21 U.S. s.s. Manhattan first com¬
June 5 World Communist conference opened in mercial vessel to navigate the Northwest Pas¬
Kremlto -hy Mr. Brezhnev. 8 Spain closed its sage: Indian troops called in to queU religious
frontier vrith Gibraltar; Conference on Midway .riots in Abmedahad. 23 Mr. Ton Due Thang
I. between Ihres. Nixon and Pres. Thieu of S. elected President of North Vietnam: China
Vietnam: withdrawaL of 26.000 IJ.S. troops carried out its first undergroimd nuclear test.
announced. 10 Provisional Eevolutiohary 24 Official opening of earth satellite station In
(iovernment set up by Vietcoi® in 8. Vietnam;
Cambridge to establish a social science tripos. Hong Kong, with first “ live ’’ television trans-
mlsaion between Hong Kong and Washlnôn.
16 M. Georges Pompidou elected 19th President 28 General election in Federal EepubUc of Ger¬
of France on the second ballot. 16 Death many: Herr Willy Brandt, leading a coalition of
of Field-Marshal Earl Alexander. 17 Boris Social Democrats (8.P.D.) and Free Democrats
, SpasSky became new world chess champion, (F.D.P.) elected Chancellor. 29 China exploded
beating former champion Tigran Petrosian. a new hydrogen bomb. 30 Peking Eadio said
18 Government’s plans to put legal restraints on China was ready to settle border dispute with
unofficial strikers dropped in return for T.tT.C. : Soviet Union by negotiations: U.S. announced
pledge: to deal with unconstitutional disputes. withdrawal of 6,000 troops- from Thailand in
20 PoUutlon. of Ehlne: millions of fish killed. next nine months.
. 24 Eesignation Of Sir Humphrey Gibbs aa
Governor of Ehodesia: closure of Ehodesla
House in London announced. 25 IJ.S; Senate October I Vesting day for new Post OfficeCorpora-
tlon (Postmaster-General became: known as
adopted resolution cailUng upon executive Minister for Posts and Telecommunications).
branch not to commit American troops or 10 Hunt Committee report on Northern Ireland
financial resources to foreign countries without recommended disarming Eoyal Ulster Con¬
approval of Congress. 29 Death of M. Tshombe. stabulary and disbanding B specials: Sir Arthur
IJ.S. troops in Vietnam: 639.000 including . Young, commissioner of the City of London
263.000 for grormd combat. police, took over command of the E.U.O. 11
July 1 Investiture of Prince Charles as fllst prince Mr. Tung Pl-Wu appointed President of China
of Wales at Caernarvon Castle: Dr. Gustav In place of Mr. Liu Shao-cM. 11-13 Group
Helnemann took office as Pres, of Fed. Eep. of flight by 'Soviet Sovuz spacecraft — first experi¬
Germany. 3 TJ.N. : Security Council censured ment in synod
space ofwelding.
meastues taken by Israel, to change status of national Bishops 13opened
Vatican’s inter¬
in Eome.
Jerusalem. 6 Assassination in Nairobi Of Mr. 14 The seven-sided 50p (lOs.) piece introduced.
Tom Mboya. ; 8 Ohiireh of England rejected ,16 Mr. Duheek resigned as President of Czecho¬
scheme for unity with Methodist Church while slovak Fêral Assembly: Peaceful demonstra¬
tion by millions of Americans against Vietnam
■ Methodists accepted union: Tate Gallery to war, 20 Tallffl started in Peking on. Soviet-
. have hew gallery on adjacent site. 9 , Egypt
extended full diplomatic recognition to E. Ger¬ Chinese border
cyclamates with dispute.
effect from23Jan.
Britain ' banned
1, 1070. 24
many. 18 Launching of Soviet unmanned,
Lum lH; Eenewed violence in Londonderry. . Deutsche Mark revalued upwards at 3‘66 to the
14 Inauguration of first earth-satellite com¬ U.S. doUar (old rate DM 4.00 = $1). 27 St.
munications station in Middle .East (near yinoent receiyed status of 'Associated State.
Manama. Bahrain I.): First major contingent
of IT.S. troops began withdrawal from S, Viet¬ November 11 France decided to take part in pro¬
ject to build particle accelerator (reduced from
nam. 16-20 President Of : Finland, Dri IJrho
Kekkonen, paid State visit to Britain. 21 Two 800 CeV to 200 <3eV) under auspices of CEEN
:ir,S. astronauts. Armstrong and Aldrln, first . (Britain withdrew in June 1968); Owners of
• men to land on the moon (3.66 a.m. B.8.T.). Torrey Canyon agreed to pay £1-6 million each
22 Prince JUan Carlos of Bombon-Parma named to British and French governments' for claims
future pLlng of Spain by Ceneral Franco, 23 for oil damage in 1967. 14 Launching of
Commissioner Erik Wlckberg. a Swede, elected ApoUo 18 (Conrad. dordon, . Bean): second
General of Salvation Army. 24 Splashdown in human landing on moon 19th; splashdown
Pacific of ApoUo 11 capsule (Armstrong. Aldrln 24th: Ctolour programmes began in London on
and Collins aboard, after 195 hours in space). B.B.G. 1 and I.T.V. 16 AKeement signed be¬
tween Tanzania, Zambia and China on con¬
• 31MarsTT.S. Mariner
which were fftelevised
took photos
back of
to large
Earth;areas
Popeof struction of 1,100-mile railway from Dair es
Paul visited Kampala. Uganda, to consecrate Salaam to Zambia’s coppcrhelt. 17 Strategic
new shrine to Ugandan Catholics martyred arms limitation talks (SALT) between U-S. and
there in 1886: Halfpennies ceased to be legal . Soviet Union opened in Helsinki. ,18 European
tender in Britain. Commission of Human Eights presented con¬
fidential report to Ministerial Committee of
Augnst 8 French fl^nc devalued hy 125 per cent. Council of Europe on alleged violation of human
9 Sliio-Sovlet agreement on border river naviga¬ rights in Greece. 21 U.S. to return Okinawa
tion after meeting at Khabarovsk^ 11 Presi-. to Japan in 1972, 24 Endolf Hess, last of Nazi
dent Kaunda announced plans for Increased war orhnlnalB in gaol, moved temporarily to
government control of economy and for reform ' British Army hospital: Soviet Union and U.S.
of state institutions. 12 Apprentice boys ratified nuclear non-proliferation treaty. 26
march in Londonderry followed by 3-day street U.S. renounced use of biological warfare. 28
. 16battle.'
Mr. V. 14V. British troops
Glri. Acting on duty:successful
President, in TJlster.
in W. Germany signed hon-proliferation treaty-—
the ninety -fifth country to do so.
Indian presidential election. 17 Eiger climbed :
by six Japanese mountaineers. 18 Hurricane December 1-2 Summit meeting of E.B.C. at The
CamUle which began as African rainstorm Hague: agreement on negotiations for British
swept across Mississippi Gulf, killing over 400 entry by end of June 1970. 2 Death of Marshal
people. 19 British Army took over responsi- 1 Voroshilov, former Pres, of Soviet Union. 4
billty for police and security in Northern Ire¬ Quarantine in Britain extended from six
land. 22 Arrival in Pakistan of first Chinese to eight months. 10 Soviet Union pledged
trade caravan using re-opened " sUk route ” support for Arab countries in Arab-Israer con¬
from China over Karakoram range. ^ 29 (General flict. 11 Launching in Britain of Fhiropean
election
became Primein.'Ghana: Dr. Busla (Progress Party)
Minister. Conservation Year, emphasising need -to im-
ptove air, water and general environment-; For
events
1969-197 l.D.
0 A34
A.D.
first time since Jan. 1968 U.S. and CSiineae ^ ^ttee^ 7^TotaJ,;solar eclipse
diplomate met for discussion ^d on television screens. seen in Mesfcn
8 Archbithnn
Eêi ^^
Council inQf Wajsa^T 15
announced withdrawal before ifi
60*000 tmops from Viet-
S)
majorV
X
IB*Commons
^ 18
voted
becameforPresi-
oer-
»,oSsffiSt«s s2.sli
I^l^âJso^v&’to Ind
fired herat Diamant
centre B rocket
^
EiS. Mch G&
*■ j-uutsnu jjemocrat ic Parfev
"b" with Kurds ends in Irao-
.as^ Si, i8.?«4t»
won
as'i sweeping victory: the Komeito (dean sentîon in Parliament, recognition ofEurdf
^^vernment) Party gataed additional oi^
22 seats
^cialist Party lost 44, 30 New ^
principles: country
bSed^rS
to ^'Mîâ .^7. Congo (Brazza’rtUe)
Imown asf^T**
the People’s Eepublie of the
January 1 Limit of £10 over-the-count

er with-
to^
uwem. iS^ n^ht trom W savings aceou^^^ raised
Biafra
Oêm- me of Gen. captured
Oiukwn
18
it Slih poUoemen proclaimed
in Britain won
end right
of sei^sion’
tmbaM ^tead of helmets. 19 cSch to wea^
Z°*’“ta^^cehhacy; Pnamruration
official vlrt tolritain- on

of republic.
iinv ithodesia severed h^
1370 Ass EVENTS
3Hay 1 Pres. Obote of Uganda announced nationali¬ by Labom Government in 1964, 20 Deathdf
sation of all important exiiort businesses. 4 CôeUor of the Excheguer.
Four studente at the American Kent State Unl- 23 First hill of new Parliament enacted to give
versitr shot dead by National guard during anti¬ peôns to people over 80 who were not Insured
war demonstration: Eoyal family returned firom under present state scheme; Two CS gas
Commonwealth tour of Australasia. 6 New 20- cannisters thrown Into Commons chamber from
year treaty of friendship, cooperation and mutual Strangers (ladery: 87 Death of Dr. Salazar.
a®istan£» between Czechoslovakia and Soviet Prime Minister of Portugal. 1932-68. 30
Union signed to Prague. 7 Italian regional Daii^ges totaUing £486,628 awarded in High
elections: socialists in stronger position. 8 In Court to 28 deformed thalidomide children and
borough elections in England and Wales Labour tîr parents. 81 Himachal Pradesh, pre-
made net gains of 443 seats. 8 U.A.R. became poMly admi^tered by Central Government,
a full contracting member of GATT. 13 U.N to become 18th state of India (later, Manipur
Security Council adopted resolution condemn¬ Tripma pd Meghalaya also granted full
Statehood).
ing IsrMl military action in Lebanon: Begin¬
ning of Danube floods in Rumania which caused
161 deaths. 15 South Africa expelled from Aigust Sinter-island ferry sank in squall
Nevis, W.L: mom than 100 people missing; off
^tematlonal Olympic Committee. 18 Illegal
Student dejaionstratiou in Johannesburg^ in During further disturbances in Belfast,
protest against detention without charge, for ted rubber hiffiets. 7 Under U.S. Army peac®
over a year, of 22 Africans. 31 Herr Brandt initiative (the ‘Roger’s Plan”)
Md Herr Sfoph held second round talks at oease-te agreed between U.AR. “standstil l”
and Israel
Kêl. 88 Britain cancelled South African force along Suez Canal. 10 Mr.
cricket tour. 25 Foreign banks in the Sudan Mauffimg._Hme_ Secretary, warned that direct
rule from Westmmster would be imposed unless
nation^d. ■ official
Itoperor
of mhiopia paid visit to Haile
Soviet Selassie
Union. programme of reform went forward. 12
31 Earthquiê in N. Peru: more than 50.000 German-Soviet non-aggression treaty signed in
people Med and 800,000 homeless: France Moscow by the Federal OhanceUor. Herr
successfully carried out biggest explosion in Brandt, and Soviet Prime Minister, Mr. Kosy-
current nuclear test series in Paciflc. 13 Israel complained that Egypt had
Tdolated ceam-te by moving missiles near Suez
June 4 Tonga became an independent state wlth- pnal. 14 Conclusion of second romid of
m the Commonwealth. 7 Fighting, lasting stmtegie mms limitation talks (SALT) between
^veral days, broke out in Jordan between U.S.A. and Spwet Union in Vienna. 19 Sino-
Government troops and Palestinian guerrillas. wvlCT teade_talta began m Khabarovsk, Soviet
9 Agreement signed by Pres, of Kenya and Fm E^. mmches in N. Ireland banned
Emperor of Ethiopia on boimdary between the mtU Jan. 1971. 23-^pt. 6 Second plenary
wo countries. 11 Drought (over 8 weeks) in of Ninth Central Committee of the
Borrowdale. one of wettest regions of Britain; Coimnunlst Party of China held in Peking, with
Seathwaite had warmest night in Britain for îma Tse-tung presidbag. 85 In¬
100 years; Inauguration of Zululand Terri¬ direct talksn ^tween U.A,B.,
opened in NwYork, xmderIsrael and Jordan
torial Authority, second of eight " Bantustans ”
to be created In S. Africa. 15 Pres. Kaunda fbe H.N. mediator. auspices of Dr.
86 Government
announced that no more eoal would be im¬ of the Sudanâmounced nationalisation of the
ported from Rhodesia since enough was bebig iT^s, _ w Western Samoa became a member
proceed within Zambia. 17 GU discovered oftoe Coirnnomvealth. 31 Mr. Edward Akufo-
by U.S. eonsortlnih off coast of Ghana. 18 Addo elected Pres, of Ghana.
General election in Britain: Conservatives won
TOth over^ m^prity of 30 (Conservatives 830, Septenffier I-.3 Eighth summit conference of
Laboiu 287. LlberAs 6,). 19 Record orbital
wace flight by Soviet cosmonauts in Samz 9 AAbaba, under Governme
Addis chairmans of O.AU. in
nt hip
of Pres
(17 days. 17 hours), 81 Death of ex-President Kaxmda, opened with address by U.N,
, Sukarno of Indonesia: Brazil won world cup Gen, : agreed that delegation should be sentSecto-
to Britain, France. Italy
age in U.S red -fr 2 t 1 S S duestlon of arms sales to

.to_ at BA. u om 1 o 8. 3 •^^0®'- Jield
.Jfrf Conference of 14 West African
o ceBd wmtries in Dakar established West
Bri ivA aft ri8s,t0ol f rutnoei’ fr steFaams Gre
a
(t«o
be tariens er t 00o-
o rmiLgll
wa s om
ppe
lkhlip
ansd whe
^riep Rice teow
pltata s Black Development' Affiioclatlon. 8
ro(&et failed at Woomera
tor iena a s n
lau edin 18 8 l M D r a e to ^t Its satellite into orbit, 4 World Council
fronct Cz 43) O 6 r. ubncPce xpe of Ghjuohes^proposed financial aid to African
,' om Alnlte
poUm ed echloesg l prmoun
eakrt
y id-
u io
mac bon By ^slCvaaatkio t8ecist V Arctic: dwater ni Prtutely orderOf planes
MC'Okln^ in Indiaby
nan ted m Bel 7 t
naanndd Lo -8i8ng olen ad i l sturs
c fast a nd t di - abpUslpd by presidential decree. 8-10 Third
tro es flo in. 29 .Con onde G v tional su^lt ponfmenp of non-aligned countries
ops
, annoimced -TO removal erv rry; oon
of srestrictions e nsale of held in Luspa (Zambia), Pres. Tito of Yugm
council houste: Britain made ati its third rapplica-
m ent
Market; vIssue e of circular Blâ piping important part. 17 Jordan
civil war bpau: house to house flghtte m
10/70 announcing Conservative policy on
ônda^ TChool education: circular 10/66 :Anmp between King Hussein’s army and
(issued by Labour Government) wIthdraW P^timan
Expo 70, closed perrmas. 13 World
m Osaka, Japanexhibition.
(British
stoppingêvolutipn towards compreliensive PaÛon bp 8.676,600 visitors. 13 per cent of
of Pres. Nasser to total attendance). 19 Syrian Palestine Libera¬
HOTlet Unlon.^ The warmest June since 1868 tion Army ^ts intervened in flghtbig in
over most of the Midlands. 21 U.S. Senate defeated by 66 votes
to 89 on motion to cut off all fimds for U-S.
^ Administrative division of West Pakistan terc^ m Vietnam and neighbouring countries
mto four provinces (Baluchistan. North-West by 31 ^ Dec. 1971. 88 Resumption of U.S.
Frontier, Sind and Punjab) came into operation. arms aid to Greece announced: Timku Abdel
8 Queen s speech contained proposals for trade Rahman resigned as Prime Minister of Malaysia
imion refonn, tax outs, stricter Immigration (succeeded by Tun Abdul Razak). 84 Soviet
abolition of Land Commission. unmpned Xwia IS brought back moon rock
6 SefiOT Luis Ali^z of the ruling Institutional pmples from Sea of Fertility; Commander
Itovolutlonary Party elected President of *f®,cques Cousteau, French undersea : explorer,
Mexico (he took office on 1 Deo,); Death outlined to CfOUncll- of Europe
sentence pasMd by miUtary tribunal In Cam- graname to deal with sea pollution.6-polnt pro-
87 Agiae-
wcua after trlaU %u of former Head of mem to pd civil war In Jordan slêd in Cairo
by King Hussein , and Mr. Yaaslr Arafat, chalr-
Canada. 6 Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Foreign of the Central Committee of the' Palestine
and Commonwealth Secretary, told Commems togmUsatloh, and repfesentatlyea of
<M Government's intention: to resume .‘the sale ProoWtated St. OJeresa
of arms to 8, Afiioa.whiohihad b^n-abandoned of. Avila (1616-82) Doctoy of Uw Church
events
1 970-71 36
A.D.
opening paragraph
A.d. of which !
i Commonwealth of nations is ^
elSted iSSt
of Nigeria
l■^
ajinounced
sffrtisiSi
SiitiaH /ii«i'°‘ i’ ^5 Quebec kidnapptogs of
extreme separatist group. 10 Mi became
independent and a member of the i
Com^m-
Ctooms
%,.yoaration British
s of of niSf^^l
andS
40 diplomatic
16th eyclOM dS
reMi^fl S flSfding hi ^
Murd^ of martyrs. 17
Dr ti^pped on 10 Oct. jÊoUs Eoyce. 7 Male referendum in Switzer-
îeto .ênde became president of
amve m power by democr
socialist in Latin
atic
êrica by
hw Amencan
aSJ?'- ” am Vietnamese
and artillerytroops
supportsupported
cmBwA
“fo fa«8- 9 Apollo 14 astronS bSk
on
*° succeed Mr. John ■w^5v ûff^duake In San Eemando vallev
^‘s^d
Jiwmm Pr^k^°^ New Zealanders. ^ritaiii, u.S. and Soviet Union i Seconfi Ppotj
M British ambassador in
9 I^th of General de GauUe. 12 Washington ^ m Commons ofo Signed
GySS
tidal wave struck E. Pakistan in BrSaSuS: Eolls Eoyw (PmS ^Mlby
Mtionahsmg company’s Wal Msets
.200.000 deaths, 2 mfltoho^ 'l4
1^; 17Eussilyitha’s ittnad J7 iandôn mSfn
8-Wheele moon-walker which
moved over smface, inaugurating which agreement to
exploration. 20 Por ttea new stage
W
admit China but majority ttoe
!)ayâiS'’^t7F*T^
in? nfw
resume
two-thirdds.after
21 2-year
D.S. halt
Lmb-
was
i«j.afsjffiiefb^?asssf"i^s”
20 S. Vietnamese reversf^
immedi ate
eesîion ot armed attack against EennhUc ^
pedestri ans^ New
MarcliLondon Bridge onened fWr
r? of over against
protest lOfl nonGovem-
+TaAAx
s ^dustrlal Eelations BIU. 22 To^does
Demooratio Eepublic of Yemen. ^

Becemlwr 2 Britain to return to GMT in
xirtnto* t/ommonwealth citiaêns and Aliens
mwt^ (clocks to be put back 3i Oct
1971)
diplomatcaptivit y of
kidnapp ed Mr.
6 Jamw
Oct 4Cross' 26 S. Vietna
into Eimlaud w^r^t Thn oe^^^Twmesesystem drive of
in LaS^
Immigration
t^^ control
SedteXS>o^1in?SAJ2&?.J?otad) “êeri^^pfe^®i^V-'? craftsmen in

to So^s BiTôt^Vlre
t^^gamlaslon of scientific^
^Son^f ^dressed jmt
Îmont ^
MinS2?*.;e^land
rested as Primein
Parliament
ftom 81 SStch 1971
v^tff o/pMltl“. ®20
iiiMi mil PI
^ VtotoS'^ge
SsSd ^8^116 March 1968) of
conferPTiPA^Xf 1 Congress called for
nuclear dls^^“^Vf
Dmon êed to outlaw ^rm^âil ^81
2°ThSr^®^^^?ST Kentucky mine dlea^r i for mdCdf’ê of
<JM« IMvral Sa?'tiJ a
^ms aad Cairn-
STa.ssrr’TiEUsS
permanent base abo4 ilSh. * develop
Glimpses of some of the famous
people in the history of the world.
See also Section E for composer
s;
Section I. for contemporaiy drama
¬
tists; Section M for novelists and
poets of the twentieth century.
PRO people
^ topS?ABSociati^
British Pr^ l964^ChL(inn^T °f tbe’ • nerye
ary TJniv. 1967-; ChancBlinr /w?r°5 I^'eester
ant
msssssa md A&^ ^ (Nichol
1967-: O.M. 1942as Breakspear)Cambridge
id n»;oi aniv.
!of^ Albans;
1164-69. Hethe only
crownedEn^Sh ^L'f ' i^SG), pope
St.
'SSiSaffi'Be-ias
us) Holy Ionian Emperor TraS+'i? ®®rbarossa
he Aeschyl us
of Ireland(626-46
to H^6 b.c.).'
H' overlordship
founder nf
for have a •
toama.
to (wai comeOfthe
down to uslavê^^T ®®t^
g»s
ileloise, a woman of lAamiW ™
Sic
to I
^9^ ml Theh^manyp
_ 'trUogyoniliMtes. *®“® a
Ksassjr
«i Fossu MshM êoi-ciies
êrich Edward Dalberg

fS the^^^tte^hfeU^g®^ ffit so™*'^T f°r
>r wrote his life. ®
VipsaniuB son-m-law
(63-12 Tacitus
n.o.). Homan
Ken™!®’ ^Bedfordshire: ^
^|^werfd^tîFthe^fjS_;/"‘^‘^^WaaWngtonf I
1 Akh^"^*‘?'T®‘=®^nwfc
h. ^
(1542-16051
“ magnetic
extended the toMri^ ^^®ynn- , He
- India, stabilise ™ he aLStolstMHnn’' of
to Eng J® f commerce and learning^mld® h'°mot6d
?itli the ErSch asô^®T^^!£?““® (^846) ' respected Hindu * though ataristW
Muslim,
independently tonomer Xevender, working ; miffllom
culture. ^ ® flowering of Mogul
GiUinghamT^t- b- A1
novelist. His shortstor^ ^Po^P' Spanish
piMs
subject(The Three-^mem’d'^wftf*^®''®
of Pallas baPp®t^^.i the
^ oiwra Her 0wig4n WoE’s
pomician. He and Whig gtor]Ma^Vthe
.IM.M ttaA
E~“p®
.SSa®“®^ ®® tot
S.e’oES'
. was co-founder with sSlif Tailer, S
Adelard of Batt 11 ._ Ali
■“SiM^î 'iffl'tS'SteSSS'Ftoto. Om-
He suffered under DlocleHan of‘v^^®i“®belter.
St. Albans), where in the (now
-,Mâ Prince
Albert founded aeab^vôftw' “®™e- Offa of
of Saxe-Cobi^^tlS
in 1840. ?n^Si*,®On °f the Duke
Victoria
PROMINENT PEOPLE
Aloott Louisa May (1882-88). Athens 464 b.o. and inspired Pericles
.Imerican author of
books for girls, notably Little IFompa
scholar, who settled on
the continent and helped Charlemagne
with the
ieoSm'j^ education. See Monasticism,
Altod (d. 1069). Sôn archbishop
crpwned William the Conqueror. of York who uo
S «clS“K,K
pupil or males, the first
make geograpMcal maps, among
ho ^ thePhilosopher,
Greeks to
and to speSe on
““3 SS” =.“&
(1647-1710). English composer
of
church miMic, theologian and archit
ect He
deigned Peckwater quadrangle at
Church, the chapel of Trinity College Christ
, and All
in Andersen, Hans Christian (1805—751 Ttomio-i,
ISt,
Alember r^l
Jeimuttleo?"Eond^ d’ (1717-83).
mathematician Ereneh!h which are
and philosopher, one of the
le Auderson,^ Elteabete Garrett
of the (1836-1917), one of
Sghten ^ represen tative
Alexande r ment^’
of Tunis, Earl of (Harold Leofrie Rpnrwt.'■e |aM« English
le ôrnfi^ i“s
women to enter the medical
^
1. yeais and later became mayor
êxander) (1891-W69). bS fleM^S®f of Aldebur
Fpqrf -Ind* lo?^® Pr^^^tised in London for mmy
gh
b. Irdand. Directed retreat Alliedat Dunkirk
Armi4 in
194o’
t. Antoea del toto (1487-1531). Italian
painter b
Meaterranp~M Commander,
Alexander II (1818-81), reforming Tsar
of Eussia
)■ as ansr''"' “ *“» “»
succeeded his father Nicholas in
1855. In 1861
he emancipated tte serfs and in 1865
established
provincial elective assemblies.
government became reactionary, Later MsI K wbo attempted m (1864-97), Swedish ex-
and he wasS 1897 to reach the north
assassinated by Nihilists. ® remains of the Axl-
Alexander tee Great (356-323 u.o.). pvopditi Fo^ P?? ®' ((Norwegian scieutillc
Aristotle, he Greek
succee con-
d
i ^^nok®‘^*‘t'F. White Island, including a
wf M Wng of Macedon in 836 b.o.^ A s sketch maps, and diaries.
He led the Greek states against Persia* and*
crossing the Hellespont, he defeated ■ ■^rnrsTmoo ■pFt®n.°^ *^® of Jesus, brother
Darius i w ’t?*?®® festivul is observed
and sacked Persepplis. He captured
Egjrpt and I SF„ti became the patron saint on
of
tound^ êxandria. He penetrated to India
I m the 8te 1 cent.
Scotland colomast, a- onui, m
i ra Giovanni
‘^^.®7-;^,^65). Italian(his Dominican
painter. An
mund^m^^°“* later legends formed '
r.» (1844-1926). daughter of^ ■ and Rome.
mîiil itîTi^*^ especial ly religious frescoes,
^°F?6n (1872-1967). political coni-
^SBSSgwSS&'^^SffsS nJFFwu
•
m which he mgued teat war could
no longer(1910),
T*'’ Great Illusion iiay,
•'“Fw-i (1221-84), king of Leon and Anders Jous (1814-74). Swedish peace
entile, knopi for his code of laws and his prto physi-
i
?® caused the first general
Watery of Spam to be wiitten. Dethrone
d swmv^^hpFF^n^ beat, magnetism, and spectro-
g‘a^sr‘‘““'“”““‘“-
Ateêd tee Great (849-99), king of
tS H.iSed £S5s
Wessex who
. succeed
a nattonal figure. Prom the 1
outset
Danish invaders. After years he William III in 1702. The act of
of
1^ won the battle of Bthandun (Ed^toifi, union with Scotland was passed
probably in 886, made peace in 1707.
without marked A
ability,
with Guthr^. leaving to the Danes tee was influenced by favourites,
the north at first by tee
1^® built ships, w^ an able adminis- Duchess_of Mariljorough, but in
the main she
tiator, and promoted education, his
own traus-
tel
tsue estaDlishea
Queen Anne s Bounty
Sclples
to im-
ter litoraj^ finances). ^ Her reign
output (Swilt, Pope,w^^ noUUe
Addison
êle, Detee). developments in science (New-
A® yKcount (Edmund Henry Hyninan
Menby) (1861-1986), British êral
served on He A tee Marlborough s Vanbrugh),
victories in wnr
and for
the Western front 1914-16 com- A
manded in Palestine 1917-18. captxS
JerusaWm ^ (1038-110
on 9 December 1917. ^ a mSSil’n'T®®” 9). Italian
Ereneh scholar who ‘See
playwright.
^ded Lanfranc as archbishop of Canterbusuc-
ry
of ^ Hn rîated^WUilam II, but was a
e With the liter s successor, Henry W S
tec^M L
Anson) (1697-1762),
a™ observations were long recorded ^d'niral who sailed round tee world
Amptre.; Anto6 IMOarie (1776r-l88^. pSili being reduced during the
voyage froni seven ships to one.
propound
s!lw®li^ who *^® *that ■ 5ya8 compiled by his chaplain.
the theoryelectric An account
??®ult ed
of molecular
A nfi.bindiian. In his reign,
Sd Mte ' which suc-
was
Amimdsen, Roald “lm ."“‘*
(1872-1928). Norwegian ex¬ Antoninet’wall
?f>raan emperor,
between tee Porte
plorer, the first to navigate the
uMth-west
F»?f®ei5®™‘^^'®î®^/5^‘*^®®°'^('bpole. Sailing in
the
“ftelm ilta™
fishing smack Gjoa, he made the north-w Antony) (c. 83-30 n.c.).
paswge in 3 years, 1003-6, and in 1911 est Ai
nailed He supported Oaesag. and
to theairtarctic In tee PrewM, reaching opposed by Brutus
tee
rP JA IS llv d mouth before pole
lifs
Scott. His attempt to rescue
iced
luH-i)!®®®*'*?’
suicide. defeated by Octavian:
His association with corn¬
the
‘^®
“mrws'llfe® “P
âcreon (c. 660-476 B.c.), Greek lyric poet
At monastic
Anaxagoras (488-428 u.o.), Ionian pMlosopher who life.
B. in Upper Egypt, he retired Into
0 (fiOHiEd.)
' ■^mnn^HHpurp ®^^^ Promoter of the
PROMINENT people
A PE- ATT
B4
the desert, where lie was tempted, but attracte Arne, Thomas Augustine (1710-78). English
®' nioiiastery. Took part d com
(B'rom his sup- poser,
a masque
remembe
calledred for Buie,
^l/red). RWfSf
and for e/areiS
(S'
SbSpe
posed help aînst erysipelas derives its name of so^ such as Where the bee sucJcs. hTS TOOte
fat. Antony s Are.)
painter whose chief
p^tmgs. whi^ have not survived, were of
êsander the Great holding a thimderbolt and 1761)UdSor™® to
of Aptodite rising from the sea. Amoi^ his poems is The Scholar Oimy
Applhnaire. GniUaume (Wilhelm ApoUinar Arnold* Thomas (1796-1842
(1880-1918), French poet re^s^- ia whose influence at Rugby). gave English headmaster
it a high position
restless and experimental period in
Arehenius, Svante August (1869-1927).
tuo before the first w orld war. He invented Swedis h
position
among pubhc schools.
tim Some of Polish
estrae Greek mathema-
several ancient
wS.
for his conic Alexandrian school, remembered
sections; introdu ced the terms
elhpse, mrahola, and hyperbola. êiBian liings. G?he
n).*^® iirst
”"^ electroly
.^taxer xes dissocia-
tic
Bhodius (fl. 250 B.O.). scholar and poet tto ttltfo son nf
of _.êxMdna. and Rhodes, librarian at Alexan-
aut\ero
Appeit, Nicholas Argonau41),
e^ epm (1752-18 is about tbe Argon-
tlca sometime treacherous
1^424^0 4^^man n®’° succeeded
V poisoned
and was
Francois Appmt, invented the method s known as SoLf?’ to^* to bear the nme/ wc ina
of pre-
vegetable foods by means of Arthur (c. 600), fabled Celtic warrior
sealed oara or tins, and paved the toe ®th cent, chronicle of ,iSSi first referred
who
speaks of his 12 victories over the
(1892-19(J6). Eng&h to mediaeval times his legend invadlne
AunMn^ IS ôrld industry . de?
physi^t. test known as the discoverer of the w exteiBive literature, woven toother
region of the upper atmosphere which
became knpvm as the Appleton layer. prmbeu in 1485. Excavations are currf‘r»fiv
development of radar Hjs proceeding at Soutb Cadbury, Someiêt
Hotel prizewinner 1947. fh^
Aaiâs, Thomas, St. (c. 1226-74). scholastic Aimde l.sed Thoma ofs his^”'^
(1353- -Jft
efo orr a*
suppo sitef86^ Ca^
to his
seat. 1414). archbi shop to®
pMosopter and Dominican friar of
Italian Canter ta“i
Med^bury 1896. and for a time lord cSeUorof
PMpsophieo-theological sy^m
ittoml^) is still accepted by Catholic ^?uder of the Pilgrimage of Grace
ecclesiastic. He understood Aristotle 1536, directed^ against&® the Henrioi
well and A< !^ persecu the Refram
ted an Lollarda-
s'
B.O.), Indian emperor and upholder
irs of Buddh ism.
execute 1537At fli'st he e:ând oiciorm a-
tion:
by conquest, dbut on being conver . ed ^ emphe
Dominiiiue âncois Jean (1786~185^> ted to Bud-
fteiMh artronomer and physicist, remembe ^tosm rej^ted w^ and aimed at the good of
his
discoveries in electromagnetism red Ceylon and Syria. Art flourish^, mdas far as
^® 1®*^^ Buddhi st mission aries
and foaiw
mathematician.
f.: "^s^^’Tse,
for son of an astronomer; remembererl
his contributions to pure mathematics served under Glad-
mechanic, and hydrostatics, notably iQuîR His government enacted prime
social minister
refo^
medean screw for raising water, the the Archi¬ meluding old-age pensions (1908)
conception
of specific gravity, the doctrine of levers and imemnl^
measureruent of curved areas. Hot and f ®“tto“ismance
give way (1911). but as a war mSK
to Lloyd George. H^lmel
less
s^ practical
Sf to 1926.^ Pfe dSter
Physician, in-
speaker, was
^ cSiKllr4sl
“ "f 3M„¥S!£r-‘~7
iSaln
Aster, to AaMc.
Viscountess M Witcher
(Haney B«d» » Aafnr
fortm??;
.
AFist^B S (d. c.Me4
468 B.O-), Atbfijiian gsneral and Danôime) (187%-1964>. the S wm^ mj.,
M P
Aristippns (e, 436—356 b.c.), founder
Hetwofth
theat e
Ovtpti
snoma aim at pleasure, but held that^hfi ctoês againrt the British in 1916
put of Turkey in 1922. and drove
President
Pleas^t was identical with the ^ ^ ^
upholder of the doctrine
loJs-sa™^^ ytotuaUy dfotator*
of Plato, after whose death In W he Mt Atterm
.Sa .£,? £SSf“ ““ *“'>»

of knowledge Atberstone> William Quvboii nfti'R qq\ o l-u
as his subject, giving it unltv mid
ifooo'
ht, ^^. Pô®°» which held its oto^?
Arkwrig Sirôhard hy
(1732-92).EngIishinveTi+nr ■^*Sla toe Huns ftom
^ (Clement Richard Attlee) (i«fta
school of lSono4s Vw
S
AUC-BAU PROMINENT PEOPLE
Stepney 1919, and parliamentary leader of Ms

party 1936-55. His government helped to
create a welfare society and granted indepen¬
dence to India. His writings include an auto¬ ■ Baher, BahM or Babm' (Zahir ud-din
biography, As it HapDened, and Empire into (1488-1030), founder Mohammed)
Commonwealth. wmch ruled northern of the Mogul dynasty
India for nearly three
Auchlnleok, Sir Claude John Eyre (b. 1884) ' _ c^tmies: a descendant of Tamerlane.
British field-marshal : G.O.O. North Norway ' Bach, J(Aann Sebastian (1685-1750), composer.
1940: C.-in-O. India 1941, 1943-7: Middle B. at Eisenach, Germany, he was successively
Bast 1941-2. violimst, church organist, and chief court
Auden, Wystan Hugh (b. 1907), poet, b. in Eng¬ • musraarn It was as organist at the Thomas-
land and natui-alised an American. Succeeded tocha, Leipzig, that he composed the St.
C. Day Lewis as professor of poetry at Oxford L Matthew and tte St. John Passion and the B
1966-61. See Section M, Part 11. imnorMass. His work was in the school of the
Auer, Leopold (1846-1980), Hungarian violinist I contrapuntal style (especially the fugue and the
and teacher: Mischa Elman and Jascha Heifetz : Chorale): after Ms day it lost favour, but
were among his pupils. duri^ the last century it has gained ground
Augustine oJ Canterbury, St. (d. c. 605), fii-st arch¬ continually. Personally he was contented and
bishop of Canterbury. He was sent from Home miworldly, but latterly became blind. His
in 597 by Gregory the Great to convert the family was connected with music for seven
English peoples. generations. See Section E.
Augustus, Cains Ootavianus (63 b.o.-a.d. 14), Bach, Karl Philipp Emmanuel (1714-88), 3rcl son
first Eoman emperor. Nephew of Julius of the above, and one of the first experimenters
Caesar, he was for 12 years triumvir with Mark m the symphoMc and sonata forms.
Antony and Xepldus: then reigned alone. His BacMianS; Wilhelm (1884-1969). Gterman pianist,
reign was notable for peace, and for writers like gifted in mtei-preting classical and romantic
concertos.
Horace and Virgil: hence Augustan age for a
great period in literature (the title Augustus was BMon, Francis, Lord Verulam (1601-1626),
given him by the Senate). English philosopher. He threw over Aristote-
Aurelius, Marcus Antonius. See Marcus Aurelius han deductive logic for the inductive method
Antoninus. (see Baconian method. Section J): i-emembeied
Aurlol, Vincent (1884-1966). French politician. ror the impê Ms writings gave to the founda¬
He voted against surrender in 1940, was in¬ tion of the Royal Society (c. 1662). His chief
terned and escaped to London in 1943. Presi¬ work is the Novum Organum. His career as
dent of the Fourth Eepubllc 1947-54. statesman under Elizabeth and James I was
Ara-angzeb (1618-1707), Mogul emperor of India. _ brought to an end by charges of corruption.
Son of Shah Jehan, he obtained power by acting Bacon, Roger (a. 1219/20-1294), founder of English
against Ms father and brothers. In Ms long philosophy, advocate of the value of observation
reign the Mogul empire reached its fullest and experiment in science. He first studied
extent; but he estranged Hindus and Sikhs: mis at Oxford but when he returned from
and when he died Ms authority was in dispute lecturing in Paris he devoted himself to ex-
and the Mogul empire broke up. perimentai science, especially alchemy and
Austen, Jane (1775-1817), author of Emma, optics. He became a Franciscan friar in 1257.
Mansfield Park, Norihmmer Abbey, Persuasion, After Ms death he acauired a reputation for
Pride and Prejudice, and Sense and Semibility. ^ necromancy which was undeserved.
Though confining herself to the personal rela¬ BadenjPowell. 1st Baron (Robert Stephenson
tions of the English middle classes, she combined Smyth Baden-Powell) (1867-1941), founder of
artistry, accuracy, imaginative power, satiric Boy Scouts (1908) and Girl Guides (1910) to
humour, sense, and genuine feeling with the promote good eitizensMp in the rising genera¬
ability to create a range of living characters. tion: CMef Scout of the World 1921-41. As a
She spent the first 26 years of her life at her yoimg officer in the South African war
cav^yMafeking.
father’s HampsMre vicarage. She was rm- he defended
married.
Baer. Kail Ernst von (1792-1876), German natura¬
Aii^ lst Baron (Herbert Austin) (1886-1941), list, b. Estonia, founder of the science of em¬
Enghsh motor manufactm^r, pioneer of the bryology. He discovered the manunaUau
small car— the 7-horsepower oar — wMch he _ OTnni (1827). An opponent of Darwin’s theory.
put on the market in 1921. Baffin, William (1684-1622), British navigator and
AvenzoM (Ibn Zuhr) (c. 1090-1162), Arab physi- explorer who in 1616 discovered the hay wMch
eian, b. SeviUe. His cMef work was the Tasir. separates the north-east coast of Canada from
Averroes (IbnRushd) (1126-98), Arab philosopher, Greened, wMch bears Ms name.
b. Cordova. He believed in the eternity of the Bagehot, Walter (1826-77). English economist and
world (not as a single act of creation as de¬ loumaljst, editor of The Economist. Among
manded by the current theology of Islam, his works are The English Constitution and
Christianity and Judaism, but as a continuous Lombard Street.
process) and in the eternity of a imiversal in¬ Baird, John Logie (1888-1946), Scottish television
telligence. Indivisible but shared in by aU. pioneer,
visor. inventor of the televisor and the noeto-
He expounded Aristotle to Ms coimtrymen, but
Ms teaching was modified by Neoplatonism. Baker, Sir Benjamin (1840-1907), English civil
He was a friend of Avenzoar, engineer. With Sir John Fowler he built the
Avicenna (Ali ibn-Sina) (980-1037), Arab pMIoso- Forth bridge and the London Metropolitan
pher and physician, of Bokhara, whose in¬ railway. He designed the vessel wMch brought
fluence on mediaeval Europe was chiefly Cleopatra’s Needle to London. In Egypt he
through Ms Canon of Medicine, in which he was consulting engineer for the Aswan dam.
attempted to systematise aU the medical Baker, Sn Herbert (1862-1946). English architect
knowledge up to Ms time. who designed the Bank of England, Rhodes
Avogadro, Amedeo (1776-1866). Italian physicist, house,
DelM. Oxford, and, with Sir E. Lutyens, New
remembered for his hypothesis, since known as
Avogadro’s Law, that equal volumes of gases Bakst, lAon (1868-1924), Russian painter who de¬
uuder Identical conditions of temperature and signed scenery and costumes for DiagMlev’s
^ pressure contain the same niunber of molecules. ballets.
Avon, Earl of. See Eden, Anthony. Baldwin of Bewdley, 1st Earl (Stanley Baldwin)
Ayrton, WlUiaai Edward (1847-1908), English (1867-1947), Conservative prime minister.
electrical engineer, inventor of a niunber of 1923-4, 1924-9, and 1935-7. His handling of
electrical measuring instruments. His first the crisis over Edward VIH’s proposed marriage
wile, Matilda Chaplin Ayrton (1846-83), was one ended with the king’s abdication.
of the first woman doctors, and Ms second wife, 'Balowa, Sir Abubalcar Tatawa (1912-66), federal
Hertha Ayrton (1854-1928), became known for prime minister of Nigeria, 1960-6; murdered
her scientific work on the electric arc and sand dining the crisis of January 1960.
ripples and for her work for woman suffrage. BaUour, 1st Earl (Arthur James Balfour) (Isis'-
Ayub Khan, Mohammed (b. 1907), Pakistani 1930 ), statesman and writer. He was Conserva¬
imlitary leader: president of Pakistan. 1968-69. tive prime minister 1002-6. As foreign secre¬
Azikiwe, Nnamdi (b. 1904), Nigerian statesman: tary under Lloyd (3eorge, he ■was responsible for
president of Nigeria, 1963-^6. a declaration on Palestine.
Be PROIVUNENT PEOPLE
BAL-BEE
Bôl. Joto de (d. 1260). founder of BaUiol

®^rd, a regent for Scotland: sided
„ He^ III (1249-1 Ins barons.
against 316), king of Scotland,
above, lie claimed the throne against leases might be eausedfl the
inyltoof thf
^d was chosen by the arbitrator. Batten, Jean Gardner (b. 1809), New Zealand
J .Englmd, whose oyerlordship he
acknowledged woman who flew solo from Englai -iiv
Later, on renouncing homage, ldf AmtraU
oi me
was taken c^tjye and d. in retireme Mdy by micro-organisms. vtiwuii a
BalUol (d. 1363) obtained nt.
the Baudelê, âi-les Pierre (1821-67), Erenoh
%9kdom for a time, acknowledging Edward III of origmahty and sensitivity best irnASk nonf
surrendering Lothian: but re-
tired on an annuity, 1366. Les Fleurs du Mai. His life was^*i^T,î
BalLJoto (d! “ingih priest and a leader of «
and iU-he
poverty nna aith. composer^ daikened by
the Peasants’ Eevolt, after which he was ^^’er (1883-1953 of nu-
wOTk^ ^
(1816 -01), ),presb
compositions, songs,yteri
and anchamber
divine
and passions of the new social class born of fho P6ur et sans reproclie.** Se fought in
^ revolution and KapoleSi c^paigns against Italy and fell at the bLie
manager.
West Bidgway Dias (1899-
1966 imWl Ins1''™®
1 o^ft ’ assassi
mlmster
nation ofin Ceylon
1959. from
His isssSofl
Baylis, Lilian Mary (1874— 7Yio-non>mv.
S-s «rw^Sf
ii
fhp womano prime
Sirimaw Bandaraminister.
naike, 1960-5
bee^l
Bi^s, Sir Joswh (1743-1820), an amateur scien¬ Beaoonsfleld. See Disraeli.
tist of wealth who accompanied Captain
lo the Pacific 1768-76 Cook He M ey,ifAubrey
Beardsl English Vincent Of
left botanical collections to the British Mnsenm white artist, who In a brief(1872-9 8) black-aod
life published
Bantmg. Sir Prederiok Grant H Best ôvtmd
(1891-1941) r™'
Beatfe
Boo 1st Earl ®°’^*'’^
(David°™rsial
Beatty
(as
) in(1871-1
the Yelloio
Bmtock, Sir Granvffle (1868-1946), compos lf 936)
songs, orchestral and choral music er of
Barharossa. See Erederick I.
Barhamssa (Itai. — ^ red beard), surnam
e of two
wjio were isarbary niratfs* TTimy V/T ^ in Heliffnlan/i
'^nstantmopie.
John (1899-1970), conductor of
,S?Si S?£“ »? Jwta.a."®""'*
Halid Orchestra 1943—70: succeeded Toscanithe
as conductor of the New York PMlh ni
Symphony Orchestra 1937-42; Sm^
' ^ jSTi57?S“ S’letohor.
® (1874-
mithor of the war novel 1935). Erench writer
Le Feu, which portrays poUtic
rrnm® m, a British
Canadiannewspaper
by birthowner
He (?nandw
SimSK experience of the

B^ham , st,
Bichard ’ Harris
hnniori author of T7ie(1788- 1845)
IngoUs BncUsh
hy Legends ,
Barnardo, Thomas
Immes for John. (1846-1906),
orphan-waifs; founder to
devoted himseE of °C <5>4®rb«rrhe mkde “heôS^
^ ®®'^®' coming into
„ SSffiS3i^"“‘"»- « *.? “4-'M"Sel

â^^r _4iT®lr^^’^ ~nf ^taclude Samuel'X^1906). Anglo-Irish dramatist
„ S®ctet'd 1^69. Ess
ier&sTTMl&ram8^£^^rpZ
Baiw“w-''“fTu tês*the*lfl03
jE%gin. of parulmont 11“ ’^Mawri ^8-736). EoBIisli historlim
" — - Beoham' Plr '?.■*■•
(J-881-
la tt
folk-song which inspired
aProtes
1945). Hungarian
®™ienian peasant musi

tant St.
compos
jôm ED. early age lie was deeply intereKfi
er
Od irl
c He
pSSSrtfSfHS
left for America in 1940 wh^wba iîn v.'S®
“s»p’SF»ia-
Feview.’ he co^TbuteTto ibs^SMay
MCoealaed W MoM.'S.namg’SlK
B7
BEH-BER PROMINENT PEOPLE
there; he never married, and gradually became Benthmn, Jeremy (1748-1832), utilitarian philo-
deaf. In the development from simpUcity to soptor and writer on jurisprudence, ffis main
co;Îexity of mmical treatment, he stands worlm amGmernment and Principles of Morals
midway betiyeen Mozart and Wagner: but in and Legislation.
him were uidquely combined the power to feel Bendey, Richard (1662-1742), classical scholar
and the mastery of musical resources necessary _ who tod pioneer work in textual criticism.
feelings. Between the years Benz, Karl (1884-1929), German engineer whose
1805 and 1808 he composed some of his greatest motor car produced to 1885 was one of the first
worte ; the oratmio Mount of Olives, the opera
taelio, and the Pastoral and Eroica symphonies P internal combustion engine.
Bdrpgsr, Jean Pierre
besides a number of concertos, sonatas, and de (1780-1867). pûlar
Emnch SOTg-writer. whose compositi ons were
songs. The symphonies, nine in number, rank
as the greatest ever written and the pianoforte
sonatas a^ string quartets are tmequaUed in piTOOs^™™ to serve(WUliam Carr Beresford)
some passing political
beaiity. He died in Vienna at the age of 66.
See Section B. w
Wellmgton •’
in general. War
the Peninsular He fought under
ised the Portuguese army. and reorgan-
Behr^, von (1854-1917), (Serman bac¬
teriologist, founder of the science of immunology Berg, ^ban (1886-1936), Austrian composer whose
Nobel prizewinner 1901. best-Imown work is the three-act opera Wozxeck,
Behilng, Vitas (1680-1741), Danish navigator who based upon a drama by Buchner, which has
entered the Russian service and in 1728 dis¬ become a modern classic.
covered the strait which bears his name. Bergson, Henri Louis (1859-1941). Preneh
Belisarira (605-65), Roman general under Justin- philosopher, exponent of the theory of creative
evolution and the life force.
mimer 1927. See Vitalism, SectionNobel J.
prize-
and'^rsteM against the Vandals, Ostrogoths,
Bell, Alexander^*Graham (1847-1922), inventor, b. Beriot, Charles Auguste de (1802-70), Belgian
Edinburgh, emigrated to Canada in 1870, later mohmst, whose wife was the operatic contralto
eecoihmg an American citizen. In 1876 he Charles Wilfrid de Beriot
eitaibited an invention which was developed (l833-1914)wasapiaDist and the teacher ofRavel.
into the telephone. He devoted attention to Berkeley, George (1685-1763), idealist philosopher
the education of deaf-mutes. and critic of Locke. His spiritual outlook led
®®i^trhde Margaret Lowthian (1868-1926) b™ wbeheve that reality exists only in the eye
the uncrowned queen of Arabia,” was a of God, that it IS imdiscoverable by science,
traveller m the Middle East: her knowledge though it can be revealed by religion. His
proved of service to the British government in chief work is Alciphron. He was a master of
the first world war. toose. Of Irish birth, he became bishop of
Bellarw, Edward (1850-98), American author of Cloyne.
LooJcing Backward, a prophetic utopian novel. Berlin, Irving (h. 1888), American composer of
Belhni, fanuly of Venetian painters: Jacopo (c. popular songs, b. Russia: pioneer of both rag-
1400-70) and his two sons, Geutae (1429-1607) time md jazz music. His songs include
whose worto include the Adoration of the Magi Alâmer s Bag-time Band, Always, What’ll I
(National Gallery) : and Giovaimi (c. 1420-1516), do?; his musical include Annie Get your Gun
brother-m-law of Mantegna, and teacher of and Call m Madam.
Giorgione and Titian, who continued his trad Berlin, Sir Isaiah (b. 1909), British university
ition of light and colour. teacher, to Riga; Chichele Prof, of Social and
Bellini, Vtaceuzo (1801-36). Italian operatic com- Pofitical Itoeory at Oxford 1957-67. His works
poser: b. ^cily. His melodies were admired by Include Karl Marx, The Hedgehog and the Fox.
Chopin. His best-known operas are I Oapuleli and The Aê of BnligTiienvienL
rJ' ^fonteccM, La Sonnambula, Norma and Berlioz, Hector (1803-69). composer. B. near
I Pimtam. See Section E. Grenple, the son of a doctor, his romantic
Belloc, Bfflahe (1870-1953), versatile writer whose seMibihty. taste for the grand (as to his Be-
The ChUd's Book of Beasts, Quiem), and response to literary influence made
The Path to Borne, Hills and the Sea, Oautionarv him a prme figure to the Preneh romantic move-
Tales, and historical studies of Danton, Robes
7^® works include the symphony Borneo
Pierre, and Richelieu. B. in Eranoe. he be and Juliet, and the operas Benevenuio Cellini
came a British subject in 1902. asaa Bealnce and Benedict. His tot wife was
Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (1778-1823). Bgypt- ®'p*'r®ss, Harriet Smithson, whom he
settled in England in met while she was playing Shakespearean parts
1803. His first interest was m hydraulics, and to Rome. See Section B.
for this purpose he went to Egypt to Mehemet Bernadotte, Count Folke (1896-1948). nephew of
Ah. There he explored Thebes, Abu Simbel, the late^ng Gustav of Sweden.
pd one of the pyramids, sending some sculptor for Palestme 1947. AssassinatedH.N. media¬
by Jewish
tures to the British Museum. terrorists.
Benavente y Martinez, Jacinto (1866-1954), Bernadotte. Jean Baptiste (1764-1844). a French
pamsh dramatist, whose plays include Los wmmander who served under Napoleon, and in
InUreses Oreados (Bonds of Interest). Nobel
prizewinner 1922. T1818 he chosen
In heir to the throne of Sweden.
succeeded as Charles XIV.
Benedict^ St. (c. 480-c. 660), patriarch of western Physicist, b.
mmasttcism. B. at Nursia, and at first a her¬ Ireland, ftof. of Physics, Birkbeok College,
mit at Subiaco, he attracted numerous followers 1937-63, Prof, of OrystaRo-
pd grouped them in twelve monasteries. J-983-8. Author of The Social Fime-
Later he went to Monte Cassino, where he ti^ of SMnee, Science in History, The Origin
fomulated the Benedictine rule, of wide appli¬ of Life. _Lenln peace prize 1963.
cation to Western Christendom. See Monas- (1813-78). French physiologist
ticism. Section J. whose discoveries though not of immediate
Benes, Eduard (1884-1948). Czechoslovak states- appheation paved the way for the work of
man; co-founder with Thomas Masaryk of the Pavlov and Hopkins.
êp Republic after the break-up of the Bernard^ of Menthon (923-1008), patron saint of
Austro-Hungarian monarchy (1918). mountaineers. He founded Alpine hospices in
Ben Gurion, David (b. 1886), Zionist leader. He the passes that bear his name.
helped organise the Jewish Legion to 1918, and Beiurad, St, (1000-1168). abbot of Olairvaux,
was prointoently connected with the Labour wWch heê a chief centre of idle Oisteroian
movement to Ralesttoe to between the world prdM. This order aimed at seclusion and aus¬
_ wars, ijîme minister of Israel 1948-63. terity, and practised manual work. His writings
Beniwtt, Enoch Arnold (1867-1931), EngUsh
pthor, who wrote of the pottery towns where had wide toah
BernJtodt, influence to Euro
(1844-1928 pe,
), French ^
to Paris, daughter of a Dutch jewess.tragedienne,
he_y^ broupt up. His novels include The She be-
md Wives Tale, Glayhanger, and Hilda Lesswavs. came a member of the Comddie Ftancaise after
He po wrote plays, including Milestones, The the siege of Paris. Her first performance In
Great Adventure, and Mr. Prdhachi itondon wm to 1879, Her successes included
Bennett, James Gordon (1841-1918), proprietor of PWto, La Lame aux CamMas. Fedora,
the New York Herald. He sent out Stanley on Thedora, md La Tosco, and she produced and
an expedition to find Livingstone. played to Racine and Mollfere.
bes-blu ®® prominent peopus
from the story
w“f«
eSy*° politiclln
produce organic He i-i^the
compounds syntlieU-
'|Si Saji’S" elffia,

dete^nati^ concerned with the eS 8oa'aa"“”* ““ iSs SIX'S
^°7P«ian
5jcSsas,ri.ffs£r«SKS”.? P,™Provmghls steam-engine
^ fb” isQ^f ®fPart Blackett)
™;tea/o'jsSo
0cS'
fl87QîQA?^ Henry Beveridge)
h^„S,Z%, fXSA
1966 -70.^ feS’ 'M^
M 1967
Stendhal, aM9-1746), scorn

ih?vi „ct. .utUo, „,
of thJ^«M- l^fUan refonner, leader
Sinî m ^ foliowlr of
H«SS3I
Biât, Marie Francois Xavier nVvi iBni>\
iss»K
death”” thefor^s thaTrestSct :fipS‘
“ifieS/’SrSleS'S.'S-
his controversy TOi& “nV■ '=">»“ '■>
Sf
S£?‘j“> “ JS2 a.sa; ^SfSff
Sr&'sySS
“the great teS^ nr tE® oalEd
Museimi 1893-1933 "^"^raea at the British

^ Spanish patoter aSya- *”® ‘^‘^J'- the
tS”ând^^dTsoei^°i»^
class struggle înfluêndâr®®* ®*^'i®®fng the

1830. 184T4d'^71? y sS- 37^^‘i^® ?“
prison. ‘A. ne spent <37 years m
®“l872-wkV* I^V°f Edwin
&.Srsi‘S?^
Phe EoMiify by Us Mutinous ^rom
S'iSeSSfffis'lf-.fft'' “*-
iS,t*g,"tSS? W “KM- SSJiSrsLf '■“FS

minister: and when ttehonsp^r Prussian
Peters-
filcl) t St. . Wtotor.
Errmco-Prassian mr Jf l87o3f Blondin. Charlesdl824-W)

B, in Geneva, he becamfi iPênch'mnA
nn?!^ miontal themes.
was defeated at Sedan when. Prance
came united under .^'Ecn be- _ who crossed the Niagara Bain. nA ^?-f^?'f^Prmer.
Prussia, with the Mn^ ^®^^®rshlp of Bliioher, Qebhord Trf»h«roA* ®p *’®bt-rope.
by the Sower prê^ '°®*ead of Prussian SS He fou-L '742-18%).
preside ovS the BeX He
especially at Lntzeu and f Napoleon,
powers in 1878. In 1884" European Pleted WellingS vtetorv af ^*® P“h-
policy. His authorffnWni ^ffan a coJonial timedy arrival Waterloo by his
its inherent defects ®P**®
cautious and
politics. This accurat.^^Bc»‘2'f
faeSr based
pE on
power
William IH who TOGMedwi PP<JPrstood by
and strongtheled
and the ^
the campUmi ajifSit ® ®,?®i-“
Front
dEmiesed the-a^ceXf'-Tn Hitler. He hnin appeasement of
1^^ ,
interned in Germanjîgi^^^ briefly and was
BLU-BOY PROMINENT PEOPLE
°aSSS=“™“‘
d.„, tat »» «.Mea ,n ^.,. 61 tad mBS ®s%|¥r 7 , —s2fS£’
■ — *,iio WAUUXioi. JULG UtJUaiLie
i^!“Kr
V1T — »«***** \^xo— iutuiiiu autnor, captain-ge neral (rf the church,i;i'S.
and made it
of Romagna, the Marches, him-
father of the novel. (1^13-75),
He is chieflyItalian
known autbpr.
for his ?aptlLfeSof*^^nh^^:?h^®^^^^ and
JJecameron (set in the neighbourhood of Korence
during the plague), and for his Ufe of Dante. his death fighting m Spain.
BoSCf »^s»914),êricanw^^^^
Madrid. music, lie settled m scientist, responsible for the " green revolu-
5SSJ“SS;r^
tviuuc uwu ayiiipuonies,
symphonic sketch author.
In
i,'' - J Trw4ii.o UJ, vSLtiObUUie auu
prodded the dark ages the Steppes of (^niraZ Asia and the opera Tr m<^
mathematical treatises. with some elementary Igor, See Section E*
-—•a va.oou— JL/tUUoli -- » British
JUildKHau and
UULIiOr,
nuolear physicist whose researches into the
structure of the atom gave him great authority horeign Bible Society; in the course of his
m the world of theoretical physics. With wandermgs he studied gypsy life and mote of
Rutherford he applied the Quantum theory to experiences m Lavengro, Romany Rye,
the study of atomic proce>sses, Nobel prize*
wmner 1022. Bible in Sm . Indian na- '
Bose, ^bhas Chandrain
Boieldieu, Franco^ Adrien (1775-1834), French tionalist leader: killed (1897-1946)
in a plane .crash.
tV — ^''77“
Dame blanche. ujt/ciao, iut.;iuuJJUiJ jua
me of Dr, Johnson,
fy.r T 7 withfcûuuubu
whom he spent orgome
ituwAor ufie
BoUeau-Despreaux, Nicolas (1636-1711), French
literary critic and poet, best huown for his 1 journals and letters
Satires. rpcrotly^published form an extensive literary
Bolto, Arrigo (1842-1918). Italian poet and com- Bofha LoSs fiS69-iQ
PO®®r-
poser;forheVerdi.
wr9te
wrote the libretti of Olello and Red-
and and
M. statesman
zn L .^ ioi xuiJt-’uu
In command
uuuuiA of- Tranf?vafl]
^rican soldier
BOiuier
slafj forces 1899-1902 in the Boer war, he became
Boleyn, Anne (1607-36). queen of Henry VIII and prme miifister of the Transvaal in 1907. and
mother of Queen Elizabeth. She was maid-in-
waitmg to (^therine of Aragon and her suc- mio of the TJiuon of South Africa In
cessor when Oatherme’s marriage was tory then1“imder
j 1914-18
German war
rule.he conquered terri-
annulled.
ass hes iS “
- ■‘■‘juv/, K3UUUU jajutsricaii
mvolutionist, called the Liberator, b. Caracas. «««
- • -Bs-raKWta
w. «'»u-j.uxu;, Aiiiuiaii paincer.
He worked under Fra Lippo Lippi,J«.» and talnta.
was
movements in the north¬ Influenced bs(Savoharola. His art is delicate
west of South America against Spanish rule and poetic. His Birth of Venus is in the TJflizi
aimii^ât a South American federation. He andhisJ HaraaMd F«M«sinthe
fovmd^ toand Colombia (now Venezuela,
Colombia, Panama, Ecuador). He died poor;
as a Lati Infem^ Gi^Jlsry. He illustrated Dante’s
nl (186^933). English poli-
w^ In tl^ Augnstinlan trEdition, Botviiinik MikhnII iqui T^non' i, i
0^ the
«sj5;i&fSSS « “•
cX^l“ ^
Privy
Bondi, Hermann (b. 1919) British mathemflH/>toTi Iinmortal Hour, and writer on
ta‘S‘Sn“i<M?fc'’;nSs S" -■‘o “>

Boffiu(;'
animals.î''Tir2ajr£n’3f‘‘
’’ i,s8;
Pamter «<
of S«‘s
.He ô4P'
minted a new copper coinage for
he became a Benedictine monk, md “fjliêspeare and

proval. iHe founded Puida Abbey and beramp
archbishop of Mainz, but was ^ oolleofod the works of
BoimmA. Pieree (1867'-1947). Freneâlnter of was master of
and sMUeddra^g]^!^*^
Booth, I? (Joto Boyd Orr) (b. 1880),
Edwin Thomas (1833-93),
Shakespearean aotOT, brother of JohnAmerican
Wilkes
BMth who assassinated President Lincoln.
Zd I Avuuucr luia nrsc
general of the SMvation Army. b. Nottingham. with Robert . Hooke
uex7-9i).; English
laid the scientist who
foundations
'liWs
In 1805. with the help of his wife, Catherine S chemistry and physics.of .,B„ the
He
Booth, he began mission work in the East End established the law which states that the vohune
of London, which, led to the creation in 1878 of Of a gas vanes inversely as the pressure upon It,
the Salvation Army on military lines. It provided temperature is constant. His eliJef
developed branches in many parts of the world. work IS the Sceptical Chymist (1661).-
Briem, Eugtoe _
(1858-1932)
. — *» . irtOPtE
JoBo/i, mi^he Awpcl,
Tunis, Sicily. aM Noi^^„,n? commanded in
wx*vivc».ci wxio.captained whose realistic plaV deli with Lo*^?™^**®*
Ax
ajrranst England 1936-48 - Atlantic
Mând Loôt ®|fe|4h eStaier JhoSieff

idl^l- ,
xTes. Sir
Bra^g, Eoyal Society 193^— in
William ''‘'^«
, j.v7,£,o
above. Bfetoc^^rf °f the and ’oraX;^ fn^lfd V'^^bden ”îb ®t^tesman
Cavendish laboK cSn'dgf ils-S®
b. Derbyshire, of poor narmn^^^^ canal builder,
S?“A1I.S«’SH%¥ ®
miUwright. He X° empfo^Pd ^?t>renticed as a
At hisSd
BrSfe“^ Tycho^' ('^4^-1001)™!)®^^?®'^ astronomer,
stmetare?'
mati
videdc bv
obser
Wsvatfo
soverS
ns IhichL®i %aj*iborg. pro-
eSe d ■oritten, Edward Benjamin (b icnai
Mersey with the Trent ^ bnking
-i:' .•the,
SrS'~iF£|»^ composer, closely a^Sfi^

_ burgh festival, o M lofis
mtteopolog
Brooa, ist and
Paul
He ocalised theleat ^pion
®aslieh
iîe Alde-
eer oee Section E.
?f Shîn
SicaUnlorJIsTo^^Vi.^^^
Section E. ’ romantic in temper.SSee
of reading and wrii.ir.o- f»4 hf.^fipted big system

result ofm aMideni blind. As the ^ in H.S.A. after 1938 Sleepwalkers. Lived
BrSm a® V®® himsetf bliiS (1671-1745) were marshals Marie
Victor, Prince IrBSgfenf I-oMs
bis name: ??ffs ^bieh bear
(1778) and a mSn? water-closet Hobel prize for his wn?-tni« 1892) received the
and his brotherûriM°^n “iP®hanics,
numbers ol baSf-Xea.^^ printing the serial theî
I960),onlsa
alsotion of gas^,t rad
a phyS î-pd®r®’^??he
JofcWy!(1875-^ x“
StSr^to^S^ ‘?Si7f-;»>-.D«i.i.
dau|htM^'’of°an novelist,
tacaicr
,.r ‘tS '°' descent incumbeldôrHaworib'*'v®{
B.Sr™i‘s'“;r
Of tt. Poaeiu Si,
S^S’„f§S^f
She published under a Vôrkshire.
which was at oSuctoS'ôSS® Hwe.
by SJiirlev and followed
” gffli. J,"KS? WS'-, “f« «' W«6h (1818-48) wrote ' sister Emily
Morris maitog cStoonsX ''''“ham
Brook e, Rtipeand
and in etcW. *®-^thes. he e.yceUed Semis:
Grey. rt (lS87
Aims-i9if
'^® ^^82X0
(1820-49)
;i v®° lluthering
wrote Agnes
Bre^lîôld’îlsas illqf ^*
and poet, whose cyni(M^md«off“®’î ‘^’I'amatist died during the flisi worm "“^bsh poet who
characteristic
went of SeXSd
to the tos ■'™jhs are though few, sho^d morn^’ "^®rlvs.
fA PoeM GrantchesUr
■S,??ham and Vaux.ini^ll^J}^
ist T?a molude the
EMt Germany afteT-ttewaf’
,,fef’’'S‘Sag’p
Ste®""' ‘““ootlfo if&SS
Berry Whfch
»ai.fsrgsif4s»aK^ ” “■
epted for hif resliicb mii’ .i*ysi-
Jiifter failing to bfiifi fho iT^Q^'
Old Brown
Brown
_ as ae, Charlesof Parre
martyr.
Osawatnniip^'> ‘ ^cwn as
r fiRq-i-r.?.
awatomie
was lianged
and aregarded
vôement of SeimS. '^°® the Ad-
^ftoche^^
Conmimist PartyKm^^Stlreta^y®
in o of +f^®t®<êd
®^,*he Soviet „ fch
SSSSIfS
?^' êU.li arMat
a^vLiSSlS
eluding Dicker's in-
sm Of E& d Bridges) (1892-1969). novels. ^ Papers and other
permanent secret^t^thp^VeY^ ^’'®“ 19^5
_ Pf the civil service. Treasury and head Browning, Elllzabeth Ba?rett nRn^«-.‘^y^^
f Of migio
spent
?.?p *1 lier youth
1 Owing to an childhood,
m^puuiV she
English
tog ^vith ffirt Sf^>^b?,ck. but her meet-
“■psisis#~
brought a remarkahi?^^’ vhom she married
bis canal, to the t by ttoeherwoK“orSt?ia
nusband. Thev ^®'of “f®’
those her
!a.v.) from Majichpsî^^r.®! Brindley Sonnets from the Portugue3?^Â^ a SMWren,
Worsley. latM^xterfdwi I® coal rmines at Browning, Bobert (181^91
Bvmcorn. “ - ®‘^ to Join the Mers^ at cause of his involv^^v in ’
mi beis’/i.
Be-
pMy slowly. In SirnfJS^ 'i^ntation grew
'Mavor)
»lar
dramatis“(i88&6
s was The i)''ôo
firs tL^®^^âuthor and ScutcheoTk he attenmt^®'*'.? fhe
t. The t ^^^ Henry married Elizabeth ‘trama also. He
abroad. Hfe worto bved maiSy
a«d The Etoff a«d tWooI Personae
PROMINENT- PEOPLE
BRU-BYR
g
Bruce, Robert (1274-1320), Scottish national! her two predecessors, he was Queen
leader against Edward I and Edward II of I s secretary of state. 1558-72. Wilft Elizabet h
lord high
England. Crowned king in 1306. after years
r : '7 i aouu* a/iter
Bannoc ytjurs treasurer* 1572-98 '
-- - - — ^ k-
aJOiLUlVJUii.- Burke, Eto^d (1729-972-9
). Whig 8. nign
burn m 1314. treasurer . 157 wri
Bruch, Mas (1838-1920), German composer and tary to Lord Bockingham and entereo^'âj^^'
conductor, best known for his 6 minor violin PMo|o7he^ Br.in he“S»S-^
concerto. tion (though notHe the^vpcated the e)
independenc emancipa¬
of the
tietter administrati on
Bruckner, Anton (1824-96), Austrian composer
and orgamst. See Section E.
irm.*
Brummell, George Bryan (1778-1840), "Beau Burnet ?
(Mbertn^tî'vT ai the French revolution.
against
Brummell,” fashion leader and friend of the b Edinburgh of Salisbra-y.
'idlin’'
sSrSiard^faigdoS' (1806-59). English S
Thames (Eotherhithe) tunnel. He wasei^neer Tpiiwnrn>£ ° 9^ British

of the Great Western Railway and b“he Krtent w?rk?n Londo/*'
to
Sw BristolTbroWhtâ^rfroml&amanfls'
min 1970),
1970). and the Great Eastern. His ® Sato
ffreo/, “o^'f‘thf of(1752-1840),
home life.
other works include the Clifton suspension K
liske d *’^9ino>^sanlst. Dr. this
1778, and Burney, she pub-
brought
bridge over the R. Avon at Bristol and the her
mtp court and literary society. She aEo wrote
Royal Albert bridge over the E. Tamar at Cecilia and Camilla.
Baltash. Bmus, Robert (1769-96), Scottish poet. The son
BrimeUescbi. Filippo (1377-1446). Italian archi¬ ot a cottar, his first poems published in 1786
tect. b. Florence: he adapted the Ideais of the a farm.
Roman period. Examples of his work in The farm failed, but he had a post as exciseman,
Florence include the RItti Palace, the churches and continued to write simply with tenderness
of San Lorenzo and San Spirito, and the cathe¬ and himour. Among his best known poems are
dral dome (the biggest in Europe).
Bruno, Giordano (1648-1600), Italian philosopher. the rye,Lang Syne, Scots loa hae. Coinin' through
and The Banks of Boon.
Atronomlcal
tronomical
Dominionviewsfriar
of Copernicus:>rca and was burnt
burnt pplorer
exuinrflv and orientalist, who
metTf made aao)
at the stake. to Mecca ay^^^
and Medina in ^
pilgrimage
Bricm
1853 disguised as a
(«• 1082-1101).. German monk, founder He explored Central Africa and trans-
the Carthusian order at La Grande lated the Arabian Nights (16 vols.).
Chartreuse in the French Alps. Burton, Robert (1577-1640), English clergjmwn
Brutus, Mmcus Junius (85-42 b.o.), conspirator md scholar, author of The Anatomy of Mehm-
against Jidius Caesar:, later
Atuwoju committed
L.tJJXJLLUlUW3U suicide.
BUIUIUC. CllOllL
- - , -- - KJV,iWiiUlOJLl XlULLUitliiOL
who Spent most of liis life in Prance lecturing ^d composer of three operas (the last i>r.
and writing Latin poems, plays, and treatises, Pat^s^, unflmshed at his death), much or¬
Montaigne. Mary Queen of Scots, and James VI chestral ^d chamber music, and
of Scotland were his pupils at various times, piano. B. m Empoli. he lived works for the
in Germany.
Buchman, Frank Nathan David (1878-1961). See Section B.
Dying at 24, his limited output (principally Conservative politician who brought in the
Baatom Tod and the fragment Wozseck) is Education Act of 1944 and helped secure Con¬
marked by power and maturity. servative acceptance of the welfare state. He
BucMe, Hemj Thomas (1821-62), author of The took a leadmg part in drafting the Industrial
Swtory of Cwilisation in England. CTiarfer of 1M7. Butskellism. ’’ was the term
Buddha. See Gautama, Siddhartha. apphed to Conservative social and economic
Budge, Sii' Ernest Alired Wallis (1867-1934), policies of the early fifties. Master of Trinity
archaeologist who conducted excavations in College. Cambridge. 1965. Life peer 1965.
Blesopotamia and Egypt. BuUer, Samuel (1612-80), English verse-satirist,
Bvôn, Georges-Louls Leclerc, Comte de (1707-88)
Frpch naturalEt, author of the Histoire I'^toor of the poem Sudibras against the Puri-
naliirelle (44 vols.. 1749-1804).
Bulganm, Nikolai Alexandrovich (b. 1895), Soviet Butler.'
tolrist,ûel (1886-1902
author ). English
of Ercjclioji and novelist and
its sequel
prime minister 1966-8: defence minister mewhm Bevisited. Other works include The
^ 1947-9.1953-6. Retired 1960. Fair Haven, Life and Habit, smd Evolution Old
Bull, John (c. 1562-1628), EnglEh composer: and N ew, m which he attacked Darwinism. His
possibly composer of God save the Queen. The Way of All Flesh
Billow, Hans Guido von (1880-94) , German pianist after his death.
Md conductor. He married Liszt’s daughter He oto were published
lifa.-ôie6oregularly
w exhibited
at the Academy and was
_ Cosima, who later left him to marry Wagner. also a musician.
chemist,
®The ^t.®discoverer of toe metaE caesium and her ddhutom London in 1892. She married
rahidium, d?sc ™to
and inventor toe
of the Bunsen brnmer. Keimerly Rumford in 1900.
vations m spectrum analysis. sociM reformer: succeeded Wilberforce as leader
Bunyau, John (1628-88), was originally a travell
**X4V4 w xittvts eerveu m Lne of toe ^ti-slayery group in parliament.
Parliamentary aimy. He joined an Indepen- Dutch^
^ X w meteorologist
’ who formulated the law
i/iouxAUil UOY7-yu;,
dent church in Bedford In 1656 and became a wmoh bears his name (an observer with hack to
popular preacher. After toe Restoration he nortliem liemisph6rd has lower pressure
was thrown into prison, and there wrote The to left; m southern hemisphere to right).
^ V..if w v/j, xuo VIV WUliio, Uutdlr
toown
known after Pilgrim’s
Pilatimi's Progress
Froaress are to,
arp The rear-atoiral, explorer (1888-1957).
and itoencan
War, âce Abomiding, md ]M:r.Badnian. See
Holy over the north pole. 1926 : and aviator. He flew
in 1929 made the
also Allegory, Section M, Part V. first flight over toe south pole. He made other
Burokhardt, Jacob ChrEtoph (1818-97), Swiss polar expeditions in 1926. 1938-6, 1989 and
historian, author of The CivilisaUon of the Be- 1946.
naissance in Italy. Byrd, WilUana (1648-1023). English composer of
Bu^hlej^ 1st Bai’on (William Cecil) (1520-98). church music, sacred choral music, string music,
English statesman. After holding office under vocal and instrumental music : and a founder of
B12 prominent
byr-car PEIOPLe:
Camden, William (ISSl-ifissi ■Pno-ooT, i-

Camwon, Sir David YoiSg
and historian. His Brita7}n}f^S^^^ ^tictuary
p»«»
etcher and landscape pahiter ° ’ ®^°it>sh

tffiUf” fo“r S
teWASas5£~|
IiTOjS^'ySS"M "M
f
from east to west. He
yika and in 1872 went oi^n
Romantic Itovement. SeS j! ^ â"s.S’g.si\a»^Tgs

ss„?«g£‘£ffiSSa
c
1®^ Baion Clyde {1792-18fifn
,”ir£S-‘2»iig«S¥;ss
“«?“S *SS? I,'%S??£- ^“0“
' caS pa% Sc£ %&"

iSi ~ fSg
Sf4 %£. ten
Stall trmer)
«_f 27e.38n.,Wl. ,ioJS?
a. &r3r w„ « “ ™
sfl£!il«”S!-r™s friend of G. B Shaw beauty and wit,
fo“j'Srptte“isS“i£“‘^’“S
ISIS® «»/d £B,

TrisoTâk &'
^MiWe etocidaSvês ‘ii® t®®* of
for the pioneer garden eityofBoim- L’Mrmm. Vfe “°T®is are
Oanal^ô (Antonio Canal) (ifinv—i vfia\ t* t-

artist. B. at Venice he ^*oban
city. From 1746 tn ’'3®'^ of his
^nflon. S>£?«lto “r4”iJff|b,’?SiS='t';
and was the tot tvrecoMi^P
He was 7ia?
oS!l SKa“
an advocate » S winS
of (SthnUp^*®^ ™
statesman,
South AmerlcT recognise the free states of
betwM.
ss5iîis=
“B°Svl55‘S.gS%?if‘t“» Physicist and
style. used grace into the “tiSPtor.
classical
I’raaT%*X^to *on''®+f J
S“£€'Sl'^’“l=?- prod uMd with
lightning a new elertripUTr
Pho^hnmLnt î^® identity of
toamatlst, renSi^l^f
i/iiuUKJ— demSrate tlmt wnipl- first to
for PMUp m' ' nr= ^SS”> “tSTStt'^S”®
Ms.“a’sssaa*“,4®aa;
Oupablanc aj Jose Hnoul fiSRs— 1Q/ô^
and fiiSs? ruled Tvith
rt, -uwisto
,
former aud tliebloiriaTi^^^*^^* re*
a5s““t.£Ts3rf*.^x‘
«ia.f -wS s
spread on toe conUn^t

r'sa.'s ‘ doctrines
^■tSa ”«<«■
b. n«tt e™,. a'iSn^Sog-SE-
1
CAR-CEH B13 PROMINENT PEOPLE
I
mental variety into the cantata and oratorio, dominance. His acceptance of Bussian support
and brought the recitative to perfection. His led to the “ missiles crisis ’* of 1962.
JepWia is still in print, and there are collections Catchpool, E. St. John (b. 1890), first secretary of
of his works at Paris and Oxford. See Section the English Youth Hostels Association, 1930-
E. 60: president of the International Federation,
Carlyle, Thomas (1795-1881), Scottish author. Of 1938-50.
peasant stock, he went to Edinburgh university, Catherine, St. (4th cent.). Traditionally a virgin
but later lived mainly in England where he martyr in Alexandria, though not mentioned
lectured. He married Jane Welsh. His in¬ before the 10th cent. Legend represents her
dividual views pervade his historical writing. as tied to a wheel: hence “ St. Catherine’s
His best known worlts include Sartor Resartus,
Heroes and Eero Worship, Cromwell’s Letters Catherine de’ Medici (1619-89), Italian-born wife
and Speeches, and the French Revolution. of Henry II and mother of three French kings
Carnegie, Andrew (1836-1919), philanthropist b. (she was regent for Charles IX). Her an¬
wheel.”
Dunfermline: emigrated to America in 1848: tagonism to the Protestants may have led to the
and after early struggles he established the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s day. She was
Carnegie iron works, from which he retired in able, and appreciated art and literature, bnt was
1901 with a fortune. He made munificent unscrupulous and cruel.
gifts to Eree Libraries and other educational Catherine of Aragon (1486-1636), first wife of
work. Hem'y VIII of England, was daughter of Ferdi¬
Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite (1753-1823), nand and Isabella of Spain, and mother of Mary
Erench military engineer, prominent in the Tudor. When Henry VIII attempted to obtain
Erench revolutionary wars, 1792-1802. His papal dissolution of theh marriage, and subse¬
son, Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), wâs a physicist quently obtained an English declaration of its
and engineer who worked on the motive pow'er nullity (thus precipitating a movement towards
of heat, establishing the principle that heat and the Beformation) she bore herself with dignity
work are re'v'ersible conditions. Sea F17. during her retirement.
Caroline, Queen (1768-1821), was married to Catherine the Great (1729-96), Empress Catherine
George IV when he was Prince of Wales. They II of Eussia. Daughter of a German prince,
soon separated, but when he became king in she married in 1745 the futme Peter III, a
1820, she tried to assert her position. The aues- weakling, later deposed and murdered. Intelli¬
tion came before parliament. In spite of some gent. cultivated, autocratic, she proved a
public sympathy she was unsuccessful. capable ruler for a time but was hampered and
Carrel, Alexis (1873-1944), American surgeon who opposed by the landed interests and, des¬
won the Nobel prize in 1912 for his success in pite plans for reform, her reign was marked
suturing blood vessels in transfusion and in by imperialist expansion and extension of
transplantation of organs. A Frenchman by serfdom.
birth, he returned to Prance in 1939. Cato, Marcus Porcius (234-149 b.c.), Eomau
Carroll, Lewis. See Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge. statesman and writer. His tenure of office as
Carson, Baron (Edward Henry Carson) (1854- censor was characterised by austerity and con¬
1985), Irish barrister, solicitor-general for Ire¬ servatism. He advocated opposition to Car¬
land 1892: attorney general 1915: first lord of thage.
history. His writings deal with agi’icnltmu and
the admiralty 1916-17: member of the war
cabinet 1917-18. He led a semi-militant organ¬ Catullus, Baius Valerius (e. 84-64 b.o.), Boman
isation against Home Buie. poet who wrote lyrics to Leshia. His poems
Carter, Howard (1873-1939), Egyptologist who i show sincere feeling and also Greek Influence.
was associated with the 6th Earl of Carnarvon GaveU, Edith Louisa (1866-1916), English nurse
in discovering in 1922 the tomb of Tutan- who cared for friend and foe in Brussels in
khamrm. 1914-15, but was executed by the Germans
Carter, Jacaues (1494-1667), French navigator, b. for helping Allied fugitive.? to escape.
St. Malo, who explored Canada, especially the Cavendish, Hemy (1731-1810), English scientist,
gulf and river of St. Lawrence. a contemporary of Black, Priestley, Scheele,
Cartwright, Edmund (1743-1823), English inventor and Lavoisier, remembered for his investiga¬
of the power-loom, and also of a wool-combing tions into the nature of gases. He discovered
machine, important steps in the weaving side of hydrogen and the chemical composition of
the textile revolution. water. He was the first to determine the
Cartwright, John (1740-1824), brother of the above: weights of equal volumes of gases.
reformer and agitator against slavery. Cavour, Camillo Benso di (1810-61), Italian
Caruso, Enrico (1873-1921), Italian tenor, b. statesman, who, as premier of Piedmont, helped
Naples. to bring about the unification of Italy.
Carver, George Washington (1864-1943), American Caxton, William (1422-91), first English printer,
Negro agricultural chemist of world repute. probably learnt printing at Cologne, and iater
Casabianca, Louis de (c. 1762-98), captain of the set up a printing press at Westminster.
Erench flagship L’ Orient at the Battle of the Cecil of Chelwood, 1st Viscount (Bobert Cecil)
Nile. He and his ten-year-old son died together (1864—1968), English politician who helped
in the burning ship. : draft the Charter of the League of Nations.
Casals, Pablo (b. 1876), Spanish cellist and con¬ Nobel prize for peace 1987.
ductor. He exiled himself from Spain in 1938 Cecilia, St. (2nd or 3rd cent.), patron saint of
as a protest against dictatorship. music. Tradition in the 6th cent, says that she
Casanova de Seingalt, Giacomo (1726-98). Italian converted her husband, and after her martydom
adventurer, author of licentious memoirs, was buried in a catacomb. She is often repre¬
Cassatt, Maiy (1845-1926), American artist who sented playing the organ.
settled in France and was a friend of Degas. Cellini, Benvenuto (1600-71), Italian sculptor and
She painted women and ehOdren, and aroused goldsmith. B. at Florence, he worked for some
American interest in Impressionism. years in Borne. His bronze statue Perseus mth
Cassini, Erench family of Italian origin, distin- : the head of Medusa is at Florence. His life
guished for work in astronomy and geography. was adventurous and he wrote an Autobio0aphv
Through four generations (1671-1793) they were wlfich is revealing of hhnself and his time.
heads of the Paris Observatory. Celsius, Anders (1701-44), Swedish physicist and
Cassius, Caius Longinus, Boman general who op¬ astronomer who invented the centigrade ther¬
posed the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, and mometer.
took part in his minder. He died m 42 b.o, Ceresole, Pierre (1879-1946), Svass founder of
after being defeated by Mark Antony. International Voluntary Service. He was by
Castlereagh, Visooimt (.Bobert Stewart Castle- profession a teacher of euglneeruig, and his
reagh) (1769-1822), British minister of war and pacifism led him to become a Quaker.
foreign secretary, who took a leading part in Cervantes, Saavedra Miguel de (1647-1616),
the Napoleonic wars. He was however un¬ Spanish novelist and dramatist, h. at AIcaH de
popular and committed suicide. Haueres. He was injured at the battle of
Castro, Fidel (b. 1927), Cuban revolutionary. Lepanto, and thereafter struggled to earn a live¬
After two unsuccessful attempts he succeeded lihood from literature. His Eon Quixote des¬
in 1959 in overthrowing a police-state. He has cribes the adventures of a poor gentleman, con¬
initiated reforms in agriculture, industry, and fused in mind, who on his horse Bosinante with
education, and repulsed American economic his squire Saaicho Panza seeks adventures: it
PROMINENT
Ciz-CHI PEOPLE
enticihm of life. Of his plays only two

cHHofsm rfnifc f survive
^ permanent
Cepime , vence,
(1839-1906
m -te-en-Pro the ),
son French
of a painter b"
wealthy
and trade-sman. He developed a highly banker
oriSnal
stj le, ns^ colour and tone in such a way
increase the mpression of depth. He as to
saM that predation of artf he was Vef niî?i^f ®'P'
he wanted to make of Impression ism some¬ with.the political probK®ofhls ?hn*°
Maria
marriagewaswith
unpopu
the lar
French
tta -Sis
thing solid maLite durable,
Giotto, like
six the a™ ofyearn
hundred The
More, he rnore than any other artist deten^ned bishop LaudnS^'LgSanfsTMd^^
the course European painting was to Scotland.
take. Za
fe&hi1he*Civl?k?^?h°,“^
es ^ 4®fe
are ta the^Neff
orzola'* onlfr^
^ National GaUery. He wasBaigmus
if®* Grand^s a friend
Chadwick, Sir Jês (b. 1891). English
one of Eutherford’s collaborators physici st
in the field when the monarchy was restor
atomic research. Discov
^ ered the mutmn of in Mâr escaped to Fmn^
eil
Civil
ti the discovery of
Russian painter, b at
JmreatiS^ H^fvelSris*''"
posed by parliam^t. ® conformity hn-
Sn
Birmin|
telm!^"if
bâme flffa
Conservative
EPkIish states
iSSS-SCrFv®
Lia''. ^drGlai“
Eonie Eule for Ireland, and was He opS^l and Isabella suciSededto Jhl Ferdinand
the first od His rivalry with FraS T afw ®®c,msh crown.
^ (1869-1040). sonecti
to prot on h^
of Josep
He was prime minister 1937-40 when
Tia st
162?^^ H
Sci.as fia
aiSKSti“M
“of PM
"»;f«twoS
“ass.cS'"' «
Pame.
Tx:X ^ I’^-uYAutuiueu wueoecd^ MdoMnvadMgNonTOywi^
SSl?? SSSSV'iS '?hS? !>«,»“?£
1848), lYench. writer *^(1768-
oSlery collection is in the “ate
£? ail#
SrtteMand jj5*S»» (19Sl ™ ““ “Sfc2»S&2';.i!;s» js-t wuo
diapmaa, Sydney (18^
saf»»SS£F™'?s
.Sif;
Cherty Otcliar^ T7mt>io Plo-ys include The
sS. ms storYActe“*-pr^vf^**
Sleepyhead, The Post steppe, Tlig
Charcot, Jean Baptisteâgfiy’îoa^^w®^*'®?.^- Eisfep.^Foor
He ous
wis of humwl
sketc h^ mTt^4 8®<1
student at aS“ow
eêditions tothe ûtWaS
Plore^.whoinlW-5indfonl®?^n-^^®^^^^
Conservatoire ^d^ comM^r^nf °n

church music. composer of operas ™.i-
and
‘^flM^lV^f Conner Stanhope)
destroyed In the earttiqua^ôf to his natwal^li^ PhiHn^t“®'S’ whose Defers
m
n'^St »
i and film
o.ass.silCfgiirfafe?
in baJlo™nd Guy-Eussao’s
hydrogen gas
Clmiles ^ward (Stuart) (l72fA-Rft^ fim
Fretender ».«.. Claimant
-v «^®5SiSr“
“ o»)
‘oyK^l^fti^rS): ." cSSiid^"?? Si
B15
CHI-COB PROMINENT PEOPLE
Euommtang army, lie attempted to unite Cimarosa, Dornemco (1740-1801). Italian com-
China: but (involved as he was with business Doser.
interests) he was more anxious to defeat the begreto. H^He best-know n opera is II Matrimonio
held revolution ary views.
Communists than to repel the Japanese adven¬ Cunon (c. 012-449 B.O.), Athenian statesman and
ture in Manchuria in 1931. He was unable to general, son of MUtiades. He defeated the
establish peace and a stable, progressive re¬ Persian flwt at the mouth of the Eurymedon
gime: and in 1949 retired to Formosa after m 468. He worked for cooperation with other
military defeat by the Communists. His wife states, including Sparta.
is Mayllng Soong. Cipri^, Giambaliasta (1727-86), Italian painter of
Chichester, Sir Francis (b. 1902). English seaman, mstorical subjects who worked in London: a
who sailed his CHpsv Moth IV into Sydney har¬ founder member of the Royal Academy.
bour m 1966 after a 107-day voyage from Clair, Rend (b. 1898), French film producer,
Plymouth, and back again round the Horn. whose early films, fid! of wit and satire, in-
Chippendale, Thomas (1718-79). designer of furni¬ clude
lAoerte.Sums les Toits de Paris and A Novs la
ture. b. Otley, Yorks. His designs are shown in
The Genmnmn and Cabinet Maher’s Director, CiMe. Johm (1793-1864). Northamptonshire
1764. labourer who became a poet. Poems Descrin-
Chirico. Giorgio de (b. 1888), painter associated hve of Rural Life and Scenery, and The Village
with the siurealist school, bom in Greece of Minstrel were among his publications. He died
Italian parents. in the coimty lunatic asylum.
Chomsky, Noam (b. 1908). American theoretical Clmendon, 1st Earl of (Edward Hyde) (1609-74).
linguist, professor of linguistics, Massachusetts English statesman and historian. He was for
Institute of Technology: Inventor of transform¬ some years chancellor to Charles II. and his
ational grammar. daughter married the futme James IX, but be
Chopin, Frfiddric Francois (1810-49), Polish pianist f^H ®iod died iu exile. He wrote a Sistory of Vie
Rebellion.
and composer, son of a French father and Polish
mother. He has been called “ the poet of the OMrk, Baron (Kenneth McKenzie Clark) (b. 1903),
piano ” because of the originality and delicacy English art historian. He was director of the
of his playing. He enjoyed Paris intellectual National Gallery 1934-45, Slade professor of
and musical society, was a friend of George ‘•'f Oxford
. ? Council 1946-60.
Sand, and played in numerous concerts all over Arts 1963-60. peer chairman
Life and 1969. of the
Europe. He died of consumption. See Section Clarkson, Thomas (1760-1846) devoted his life to
Hie abohtion of slavery and shares with Wilber-
Chou-En-lai (b. 1898), Chinese revolutionary foree credit for the passing of the Act of 1807
statesman. He organised revolt in Shanghai abolishing the British slave trade.
in 1927 and later joined forces with Mao Claude Lorinin (Gellfie) (1600-82), French land¬
Tse-timg, becoming prime minister of the new scape painter. B. near Nancy, he settled in
China in 1949. At the Geneva conference Home. A close student of nature, he excelled
of 1964 he helped to seciue peace in Indo¬ m depicting sunrise or sunset, and founded a
china. picturesque ” tradition.
Chrysostom, St. John (c. 347-407). preacher. Claudius (10 B.o.-A.n. 64), Homan emperor. After
Chrysostom means golden-mouthed. First at the murder of Caligula, he was proclaimed em-
Antioch, and later as patriarch of Constanti¬ pêror almost accidentally by the Praetorian
nople. he was an eloauent teacher: but by out¬ Guard. He was a sensible administrator. In
spokenness he lost the Empress Eudoxia’s ms time the empire was extended to include
favour and died from ill-treatment. Britain. Thrace, and Mauretania. He was
Churchill, Lord Kandolph Henry Spencer (1849- _ probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina.
95), Conservative politician, who held brief Clausewitz, Karl von (1780-1831), German military
office only. He was father of Winston Churchill. expert whose Vom Krlege, expounding his
ChurchiU, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer (1874- theories on war. dominated Prussia in the
1966), British statesman and author, son of the 19th cent.
last-named. He entered parliament in 1900. Clemenceau, Georges (1841-1929), French states¬
He served as a junior officer with the British man of radical views: twice premier, 1906-9,
forces abroad: and during the Boer War he 1917-20. He was a defender of Dreyfus. In
acted as war correspondent. He held the old age he presided at the peace conference of
following ministerial posts: Under-Secretary 1919, where he was hostile to Germany (“the
for the Colonies 1905-8: President of the Board
of Trade 1908-10: Home Secretary 1910-11: Clemens, Tiger”).Samuel Langhome. See Twain, Mark.
First Lord of the Admiralty 1911-16, 1939-40: Cl6opatr^(69-30 B.o.), daughter of Ptolemy XI.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1916: . the sixth queen of Egypt by that name, a
Minister of Mimi Hons 1917: Minister of War bnlllant, ambitious woman. In 51 she became
1918-21: Minister of Air 1919-21: Secretary of Mint soTOreign with her. younger brother
State for the Colonies 1921-2: Chancellor of the Ptolemy XII. She was banished to Syria, but,
Exchequer 1924-9 ; Prime Minister and Minister obtaining the help of Caesar, regained the ktag-
of Defence 1940-5 : Prime Minister 1961-5. He dom. She and Caesar became lovers, and in
was rector or chancellor of three univei-sities. 47 she bore him a son Caesarion (later Ptolemy
Cast in the heroic mould, he lived a fhll life. XI V). After Caesar’s murder she returned to
His main achievement was as leader of the British Egypt. She met the trhunvir , Mark Antony
people in the second world war. His writings and bore him twins: he deserted his wife and
include abiography of his ancestor, Marlborough, broke with his brother-in-law Ootavian (later
and histories of the first and second world wars. Augustus). Antony and Cleopatra were, how¬
He exhibited at the Koyal Academy. Hon. ever defeated in 81 B.O.: Antony fell upon liis
American citizenship conferred 1963. sword, and Cleopatra killed herself with an asp
Chulalongkom, Phra Paramindr Maha (1863- bite. Her life Inspired Shakespeare’s Antony
1910), Siamese reforming monarch. . and Cleopatra and Shaw’s Caesar and Cleopatra.
Cibber, CoUey (1671-1767), a London actor and Clive, 1st Baron (Bobert Clive) (1726-74). English
dramatist. His best comedies are The Careless general who helped to lay the foundations of
Htmhand and Love’s Last Shift. He wrote an English power in India. B. near Market
autobiography. Drayton, he entered the service of the East
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B.c.), Eoman India Company. He contemplated sulelde.
orator and phllMopher, many of whose letters but A^lo-Fr^ch rivalry, culminating in the
and speeches survive. He held political office Seven Years War, gave scope for his military
but was killed by the troops of the triumvirate. powers in the siege of Arcot and the battle of
CM (El Gampeador) (e. 1085-99), name given to the Plassey. As a governor he showed administra¬
Spanish knight Hodrigo Diaz, a soldier of fortune tive capacity. In his later life he was poor and
, who fought against Moors and Christiana alike. uimopular.
Myth made him a national hero of knightly and Clovis (c. 466-611), Merovingian king of the Franks
Christian virtue. and a convert to Christianity. He defeated the
Cierva, Juan de la (1896-1936), Spanish engineer Burgundians and West Goths, and fixed his
who invented the autogiro. court at.Paris.
Cimabue, Giovanni (Cenni di Pepo) (1240-1302), Clyde, Lord. See Campbell, Colm.
early Florentine painter. His oidy certain Cobbett, WUUam (1763-1835), English controver¬
work is the St. John in Pisa cathedral. sialist, He is ohiefl.y known for his Rmal Bides,
. ’■—■•I t-feoPLE
It was used ki
Political Register invented the revolver in 1835
the war with Mexico. ' ••— --'.u.ai

® freftra^f advocate of °ofiSi,“t. SS- ^S!%s'A“sr’‘r
c’S*'s^‘® 51^ safeiKt SttiM?’ *»>'“ra to tlie HfeltaS It
tal Europe. See Mona^cfsln
founded a number of moninto^'f? Section
• who
‘^°186m Dundonald (1775-
pSi!s;si!i
Columbus, Christopher (r i446-ifinm^-TF ,•
navigator,of who,
Isabella SpSn prevailinis’
to bSl-hP 4° ”2^ liahan
and
and otherin West
pedition, IndÎn
1492 diSjovered HiaôF®®
Cockcroffcj Sir John Dou^^las nR(i7—
C tionist
“don and
Comemus, theM&
John Amos advocate
Pasto^ n5Q9_i^#i\
rf’tn75®'’ , he
SeltSeVeflt sîared witli’E.I!!' Pictures in education, mf oTeaualitv^nf
method of teachmg iSlLf *K, <i«ect*’
.ta tSSSIon S5a“,.WS ’f tional opportunity for Ss ednca-
wliat is lcno\7n as the
physicist whose work on la™ ’ 4^™uan
^ tag PrtocIX ^ ™ aircusWon- ffiUt'fsixS « 2“
cSissîS; *'S'’fiffesa?F°” “•
I M^sac husetts Instit
administrator, brother
ute of
of Tech^Syscientist-
1980-
^vki^thimtStoV~W--
on 16 Oct IQOQ? “ Britain êrican
(1.390 ft. j
^TC°lfstoôle ’boo^ deM
with famlV
ships and include So, relation-
S M ‘
0ota“j Si
wtl lS
led
lt s®t
S"
Cond4, Louis, Prince de fi65>i— ««, ,
under Louis yrv statesman ooS^^ra? “S

Fss
coSSSSSS||?S
enccSrageT new industrle™ supernaturalTbut appealed
to
fueianisS, He ôwn as Oon-
°JS
^klSb.^’^cono^f^ln^°Zf^^ S““i
.|ss5Si^lsi"S^(1889-1959). love and respect of one’s^feUn™ ®o^ taught
andpoUti?aU&ifS«^^ ambition, chSty foSriverS ^Perlorlty to
See Confucianism! Section J^ ’ ^ repentance.
aEt,’SS,lt?y7±r-,
ooss
T:
poet, critic, and fi-ipmi nr ^ ..Bnglisli
SeforpolMc
mariner Mrem"mevAU
in the Brlti^ “^^^^*
: Sif
Coleiidge-âylor, Samuel (1875— loiov i? it t.
Sffi jiFs a“
oossffi!
painter, b. East Berghott
contemporary lurnef wL^^S?- his

continent with his the
scenes Bis
work was more -,5“® Borne. His
E^land at the time aM!i&cted®rtf»®^K^^
school and Delaerbfa lSStUoc*^? ?.®^Bizon
Vlotom „4 Altai,
Ensiteh ”TSi p&.'w.ffi'a fflfif »s

wSiSiSf (gS, S°bUT W®
^'‘.5‘ISiS"SS?r,
turn. Meni^, wfv ®*"<B.e<i in Specn-
"“•
coSs.isa'iSf&ff
treaty With
S’^r
“^^“sa«s3
negotiated the sas.-” ““wr&tefsB
”°S^SoUi|.8-Ma,
“ S^ ’ English ““ '" *
Colltos
<>* ■»
. Md ,figure painter.^
WflUau ni Wllkio fiS9r_ landscape CoS^Ti®* sJ®f« Of the of
om
above; practically *Se flrst“j^p)kiF®“ .îie
deal with the detpcfiiw, np ■“®"®î.,?e'êlist to
CoU. Samuel (1814.62),in 1860^ onme. 2/te Woman
ss,£*sr''g«^»tap..geta
^ New
to
and
aîcMtumf~tobo^r^
Zealand anF of discovery
Oni? appeared &tford. Connecticut, underâve niure. He anchom
hlTSimmiSd nrBofa*Be
ny'ship!
fe
COO-CUM PROMINEN T PEOPLE
fil7
m 1770 on hjs first voyage and gave it that nmyifi CrMg, Edward Gordon (1872-1966). son
beoanse « the interesting plants found on its producer and author of books onof stage- Ellen
shores. He also surveyed the Newfoundland
coast. ^ an attempt to find the north-west Crêr, Thomas (1489-1566). archbishop of
passage he was murdered at Hawaii. Canterbury under Henry Vm, and Edward
Cooper, Sir Astley Paston (1768-1841), English Eeformation. VIOn :
surgeon and author of medical textbooks. consented, to return
Cooper, James Penlmore (1789-1861). American faith, but wheu called upon to make
novehst. who produced stirring stories of ad- public avowal of his recantation, refused, and
ventme, among them The Spy. The Last of the contributions were
Mohicans. The Pathfinder, and The Beer Slaver. n i^^^-(dushsh Bible and Book of Common Prayer
Cooper, Sûel (1609-72). English miniaturist. (1560-82), Scottish adventurer
with his brother Alexander (d. scholarly accomplishments was
1660) m_ the Victoria and Albert Museum.
Among his mimatures is a portrait of Cromwell.
Copernicus, Nicolas (1473-1643), founder of Cripps, Sir Stafford (1889-1952), British Labour
modem astronomy, b. at Torun in Poland. He statepnan. A successful barrister, he relin-
studied at Cracow and at a number of Italian prMtice for public
" work. As chancellor
^verdties before settling at Erauenburg in otff the nabraw"'
liexchequer in post-war Britain, his pro¬
1512 where he became canon of the cathedral. gramme was one of austerity, hut his able expo-
More of a student than a practical astronomer, sition and single-minded purpose won
he spent most of his private life seeking a new general support. lU-health terminated him his
theory of the heavenly bodies. In his On the car0Gr.
Revolution of the Celestial Orbs, published after Bâneesco (1819-1901), Italian statesman.
his death, he broke with the past and put for¬ Who aided Garibaldi and was later premier.
ward the novel theory that the planets, includ- Cr^m, St. (c. 285), martyr
mg the earth, revolve round the sun. tramtion they were Eoman with his brother. By
and became shoe-
Coppee, Francois Joachim (1842-1908), French
poet, novehst and dramatist. makms, hence patron saints of Rhnp.mfl.iHnp-
Croce, Benedeto (1886-1962). Italian philosopher
Coauelin, Benoit Constant (1841-1909), and Co- Md ci-itic. His philosophy is expounded in the
auehn, Ernest (1848-1909). (Coauelin atnS et four volumes of Filosofla deUo Splrito (which
cadet), brothers, were leading lights of the has been translated into English), He founded
French theatre. Md edited La Critica in 1903, a review of
CorelU, ^cangelo (1653-1713), Italian composer hterature, history, and philosophy. He was
and violimst, who established the form of the . strongly opposed to fascism.
concerto grosso. See Section E. Croesus (d. c. 546 n.c.), last long of Lydia, reputed
Corneille, Pierre (1606-84). French dramatist, who to be of immense wealth. Conquered and con-
ranks with Eacme as a master of classical demned to death by Cyrus, he was reprieved
tragedy. Le Cid, Polyeucte, and Le Menteur when Cyrus heard him recaU Solon’s saying
marked a new era m French dramatic production. Call no man happy tiU he English is dead.” landscape
(Charles Cornwallis)
(173^1805), British general who commanded painter, b. Korwicb.
the Bntish forces which surrendered to the of (Evelyn Baring) (1841-1917),
êricans at Vorktown in 1781. thus ending British diplomat who, as British comptroller-
the war of independence. Ete was twice pneral m Egypt from 1883 to 1907. did much
governor-general of India. to maintain order, improve the finances, and
promote development. His Modern Egypt
Coro|Jean Baptiste (1796-1875). French landscape appeared in 1908.
Correggio, Antonio Allegri da (1494-1534), Crouton, Samuel (1753-1827). English Inventor
Itahan painter, b. Correggio. His style antici¬ of the spmmng-mule (1779). which substituted
pates the baroque. His Ecce Homo is in the machinery for hand work. He was b. near
National Gallery. Bolton, a farmer s son, and benefited little by
Cortfe, Hernando (1488-1547), Spanish adventurer, his mvention.
b. Medellin, Extremadura, %vho captured Mexico Cromwell, OUver (1699-1658), Protector of
the
j.or bpMn. crushing an ancient civilisation. coômwe
Goultpu,. George Gordon (1868-1947), scholar and Mnd. B.alth M England. Scotland, and Ire-
at Hnntmgd on. he represented
Huntmgd on m parhamen
Mstprim of the ^Middle Ages. In his Five
C enturies of Religion he sets forth his interpreta¬ served undert,theWhen civil war
Earl of Essex:
tion of monastic history in England from the and then rMrganlsed the parliamentary army,
Conquest to the Eeformation. winning victories at Marstbn Moor and Naseby
Couperin, a fa^ly of French musicians who were Tortuous negotiations, with
^ ‘^rvais, Paris, from about 1660 be brought to an end, andCharles I could not
be promoted tbe
tiU 1826. _ Francois Couperm (1668-1733). called He defeated
c Great,” is the best known today the ôts at Dunbar. When continued dlllioul-
for his harpsichord music. KO'^’emment he became Protector in
CousM, Victor (1792-1867), French educationist 1663. but raon obliged to govern by major-
and philosopher, founder of the eclectic school. of Ireland enhanced the
Cousins, Samuel (1801-87). English mezzotint difficulties of tha,t country. An able general
a strong character, he was personally tolerant and
engraver of :^tes after Keynolds, Miiiaia.
Landseer, and Hogarth. , and dev^:*burhe
Cousteau, Jacaues-Yves (b. 1910). French under found lumself m the revolutiona
water explorer, pioneer of aqualung diving. IS no easy exit from ry’s dilemma—
a revolutionary
Couve de Murvffle, Maurice (h. 1900). French Mtuation, thus paradoxically he provoked
English aversion to military rtde
1958-68. Cieneral de Gaulle’s foreign mim’ster
CromweU, Richard (1626-1712). son of the aboye.
OoverdMe, Mes (1488-1668), one of the early _ and his TOCoessor in the protectorate.
Engteh rMoraers. b. Yorkshire, later to become Cr^well,Thomasa485-1540)
bishop of Exeter. He assisted Tyndale in succeeded Wolsey in .EngIlsh 8tatesman.
the service of Hemy
translating the Fentateuch and completed his and carried out the dissolut ion of the
owntraâtionoftheBlbleinl535, ThePsahns
still used in fhe Prayer Book and many ““^teries, hut on Ms fail from favour he was
phrases in the authorised version of 1611 of the
from his translation. are Crookes, Sir William (1832-1919), EngKaU physi¬
cist who discovered the element thalDum (1861)
Cowper, William (1731-1800). English reUgious and mvented the Crookes tube (ISTD which
poet.^ His work is oharaeterisod by simpUcity
and ^ndemess His best-known poems arc research® into the ft ^ô”5son
conductioand
n ofothers in their
_ John Gilpin and. The Tasle. electricity in
_ g®es. He was also an authority on sanitation.
Cox, David (1783-1869), English landscape painter.
A collection of hla works is in the Birmingham I.®®. whose
ftpoa mustrator, (1792-1878),
work and caricaturist iand
_ Gallery and the Tate Gallery. Tales, Includes
OliverUlustgra-
Twist.
Crabbe. George (1754-1832), English narrative OoUectio^ of 1® work are in the British Museiun
of CTto humour; author of The Village and ; and the Viotona and Albert Af iiBanm
Cummings, Bruce Erederlok (1889-1917), EyigjiBi,
r people
of a Disap^
Prnsqifl^^'wo*'^''
TTl^®o®’^®^^f®d composer, b. Breslau
musical develonS
Browne m. (SSS
admiral two worldfwars
’ (llss-f fl* ro.iT ^
b ■Priinhii
” ®rs| as, .a, :“!?■„'« ,»«.

in-îfTf fS +■£„ naval commander-
Kr‘ «<«> ”.S«?S.£°3 ui
^ l?4i^®LMtorfl9^43T'^^ “
VairTrSS'^P ’^‘wSSSSf-S?«iJ'S"s j«. . «™.

Meree ostMf he^sl^^'®"^- st%S troubled period. Olho^ hi^g|ifi°J?Jf,® ^n a
toSftoile ns^Q married
or twice, he loved Tînn^ S^„l*®*^,.l^nt once
Beatrice, wto is believPrtÎn^^°“ .?® ®nUed
srAS “I HFSsi^lSl.Kvt
iS"f "I™;," S““uS&0TOTh?i
^TSmSi SSTa.KIiS'ss
iS=«”S&?‘SS
^■^®®roy of India 1898-19^
description of he’ll purgatorv^ ®'
. fore^ fa" 1916-18.

Old MeLs^(o°n
sss.r,sS“Sy“¥™
D’Arblay. See Bmney
«?• “STSX.'SS;
"
««a found.,
,!=!■
a?'5fMiSrS”|S”is
manv VeaS ® '1®19> a standard work for
-"■>“« — perity *ând "ewd 'goyermM

«eS, nt ”
“lint, Ir
iiilSPfpsS
a. Wsf
’l"' ".»•■
SliTxS
_ of the ForfarS: ^ shipwrecked crew
“SSâhsWlhi'eûly ‘o^|P % fn^^sh

"TA « atffi- 1“ »«”■
SnSfoar^te^Sd lis'sis- .j™"".

of Species (1869) Tu o ^n The Origin
Bril? M
“fsiVSsSsr.otsa.tira ?'s?”
«•£■*&', S£ *‘*1'*“^
ttough“'™icomedt]fMolSs°^^^^
DaSrifS-nslYlfte^^
ôlmo)U^ and
de TcirasGon,
By Mm. Accordlntr to +h^+S^?*^°P°nnded
chemical eleSs are o^nfoM nf tBe
from oneFatter
Damien. another t!o?^^*®41’'^£^^.Bift’erent
aga^so^v^
George Hudso™)^^ ' Charles Coleman and
supported her daim 4 theTuJT?4®“®^*^nd, he

ttdTeXtoWlSrH?;’!^ ofSkM.
“»n
?• ™
Dionysius invftM hlrb ^ ™<»rtamty of life, the south
nêd sword hÔTer ]4*^nn*®n n
Hence tte esnressioTi“s-a7'^ hy a hair. DS,”g'î‘,srf;i5f««r'"“”
Da^d, Jaogues InuIsfms-iRisv
«“K>soh, Walter Johannes Of classical subject/ ^
(1S6 2-.1 950) . anfaSeJ^â
Amer”i- ^f
DiSoh^Sf dêr ortft?^°°^®®
„3
DAV-D prominent people
IC g
David, St., patron saint of Wales who parentage. His music, highly
lived in
south Wales m the 6th cent.Davidson) ^ “. idiosyncratic m idiom, was more readily re-
fWiS 1980), archbishop of Canterbury, See Section E.
1903- ,®®‘Iif ^ to England 3 prt
Demoon^ (c._ 470-e. 400 b.o.), one of the first
Davies, Sir Walford (1869-1941), Tiinfi-iigu orcanisf P“Pii, of Leucippus (fl. e.
compi^r. and broadcaster on music
Dartes, wmarn Henry (1871-1940h
Welsh poetBt dPniPfi^fho J'®®^ atomic view of matter,
nd aia® of mtod as a separate en-
mrnif
of attitade - hppmess and Inner tran-
liy
7?£ A was important
not shared moral principles. His
by Aristotl
his contem
by Plato and poriS!
e, but wm
Da Viucl. See Leonardo.
civU warnr atomic theory
®r r, P®®®?d mto the background for many centuries thus
ir^ in Kentucky, he êrican
leader. D.der was
of the Confederate States when made president
the civil war
(385-322 B.O.). GrS“ orator i^b.
broke out. After the war he was
treason, but discharged. He wrote The tri^ form T> ® A growing power of Philip Athenians
of Macedon.to resist
Do Qutocey, Thomas (1786-18 69), English essay-
Davis, John (c» 1650—1606), Elizabethan exrjlorer
strait, the <Snnel er ®wa®’ ^P®to( pf Wordsworth and
tetween tte Atlantic and Arctic oceans m 6) ns
Confessio an Opium-
of De
elDe^Reszke
on the Sr , Jean (1853-192 and
operatic Eeszfce
singers!
IP Tin^p£tSA2'A*®”o^’pto®s®,cond a baritone,
mined the Kenians, and in 1870 was sentpu’ppde (James BadclMe)
AmnlpraPAFe^
d ^®®^®®'^!®®.®^ English Jacobite
P%*tog the pretender on the
lOiû
foim rf
tuG L^d his release he helped to
Ege^g in 1879 1 was again iin- 1° ^®^® *tefeated at Preston in 1715 and
îsoned; ^d wrote Leaves from a Prison Diaru/. Descartes,. Rend (1596-1650). French mathemat
l-
Davy,
rin^ wasSir Humplm? (1778-182
subsequently t.*^^'I- S®^kF¥’°®®®t,®£ “modern philosophy. Uncon-
ofreturned
hls 9), tofound
parliamen
work Englls hê^t
practicai ;i v’' sought
®®iioi®stic tradition
d dogim, he to get back toand theological
why anything
application, e.p., the mmer s safety lamp
which5^ ®®;id to be true, which
still be^ . riame. His Elements ofAitricul-!- frmtfid Jme of thought. The turned out to be a
contains the first use Inn tesian philosophy is summed basis of Ms
up in his own
element.” He took(9 T^ words, eogito,
assistant at the Eoyal ergo sum (l think, therefore I ami
d Dôuto. Camille (1760-9SSe£o
lS:
êwber. Sir Guy (1861-1938). English architec »« oonvGntioii, and. wrote wittv anrl fif)rf>‘io+ir»
Preservation t F**£A£?^*®*^ the National
^ GmiveS?A
pampblet s periodicals. He was an ally of
Eând, he did much to bring aboutp
buUdings tliroughout the D^toon, and when Robespierre came to power
“ttrs »V“&ri9S?6“‘s s;r *

! M Dmtm executed on the same day
historian.
SSSl“ n? »“ '
7 V — *^® etolawed
Stato and Trotsky. B. in
Polish Coin-
, mui^ Party but was expelled for his anti-
- xmpreBSlUIllBl/ SCnOOi HI : I?®^®- Di 1939 he came to London
music. Among his works are Suite beraa- ^ ^ father statesman.
„(L. A882), Irish and an Irish
*b.
popular Clwir de lune; mother. ^He was brought up in Ximerick and
d un Fame, inspired by the poem tor his part in the Easter risSg
naop- when the repubUcam
?® egpesed the treaty of 1921:
Elanna Mi tosand
toci^ drama. See also Section E.
Defoe, Daidel (1660-1731), EngUshpolitical writer- Fail won the election of 1932. and he
™?WAA F^® ?®^® F® president. FiaS thenb^
also aiEhor of Mobinso n OmsoBi Moll Flanders camenresid®ntôf the
Gl. Hn’tein. Bia Sliorlest 8, and prune minister. ExecutlVôimcSs2-^
1938-48. 1951-4, iswlo
him impriso nment. Wav with
De Forest, Lee (1873-1961). American inventor wAi.is'^®war.
worid Irish ed
®^®*®'^^courag neutrality in the second
the use of the Irish
who WM the first to use alternating-curr lanâge, ^d m spite of early Intransigence his
improved the thermionent ic
v^ve detector by which wireless and sound , leadership has been moderate. “s
®®T.X, ?*®’ Dame Ninette (b. 1898) Irish -hAm
were made poss ible auu aouna ballet dancer and choreompher;^ Sto
^ films Edgar
Degas. (1834-1917). French. Impressionist Europe with Diaghllev, 1923-5 anfr toured
founded the Sadl^ Wells Ballet
Sai^to^ ®9’î5ô son of a banker. He (Low
objects fromr, everyda y life— dancers,
^ cafe life, the racecourse. . ovecmi. , Aulobiograpliv (1057),
De ^sperhÂlciae (1881-1954). Italian politician ® ®“‘ JP'®® (1842-1923). chemist and
who founded ae Chrfatian Democrat ll^rty physi-
federation: prime minl-and ®rid inyented the vacuum
RsnfifiTSfFws®^
flask. Einoaidine. He succeeded in
The explosive cordite was the joint in
De touUe. See GauUe, Charles de.
Be HaviUand, Sir Geoffrey (1882-1965). pioneer _ ventionJplmj[l869—
Dêy, of himself 1962)
and Sir FreSek philosopher
, American Ahef^' ™
civfrand military aviation in Britain: designerof
\vm?®^°^®^’ educationist. A follower of
Sîi^
_ Med, In. ®) Moth nmoMaea. His son was
1946 while testing a plane.
Demcroix, Eerdinand Victor Bugbne (1798—18^*11 (1625-72), Dutch exponent
iMt& mg:
republican orstates-
^ painter of the EomSs school
Walter John ,(1873-1966). EnMiah i^sOtiated the Triple Alliance, but wuh Awr
has a character^- ■torown Ig^ the Orange Party and murdered
DiagMev, Sergei Pavlovich (1872-192 9) Russian
oauet. Among those associated with him
*” Anna
Me POTlova toimder of the Russima™
SS*i t , Vaslav Nijinsky,
savma, Leonide Massine, Michel Tamara Ear-
Foklne the
®®Ser.’ (1797-1856), French historical choreographer. L. N. Bakst. thT painter’
®iênt Philibert L6o (1886-91). French Igor Stravinsky, the composer. ■ a^d
Dickens , Charles (1812-^). popular EmriiHii '
aSS^°®®’v graceful music, including
h?uiff’ which ia/cmd is the best known, and for Vivid story-telUng. -Of
ballets, among them Ooppilia. mTan i°£ *he 19th cent.. wiSi
Delius, Frederick (1862-1934). English
composer
humble ongm, he was extremelySnoM ^r
suoâfti].
DtC-DUB
„.«&K‘Li&K'i
°‘ r>4^gnsi“
£"a”t
““"*' ?s;rS
Diokinson,
^ Sufaf' Gfoldworthy
“ Lowns
*V womworiny rii5R?i_ioQoi
“'“»‘ "«'>™Eno-1" ^î^Jrcva
jôwes {1863-1932), MUton,reoaor
4i.y,
eftS5pto?- andsi*oS“Sa
Tennyson.
Xftimiailovicli *ffl“ta'53
nfloiôi^
DiSK-Mworthy Lowes (X863-1932) the „ Russian
upholder’ofeJ pe.
tas
novelist, b. T^rS^stn
rev9lutiQnary Mos^ ^ nvair^Fh
activity te wisent to LrJ
Mitic of art and
“S literature, and“an of letters,
editor of the
EsSSS^«ss
"™”'
ftogffissistss'™'”’*
nnerTps n» it _
the Far East, he promoted Dutch trade and Kiêside, 1st Baron (William ,Shoifn
and desfatched who SSl’ t® British'
toti’ntMôf (1858^^^-Geiman engineer, S’ travel
'^PUt a palace in Dalmatia. ’ secretary, 1970-.
jh?Ilrej‘l^JlifSaMdAlS5£’toS’iS ”“»”*"** ”°**“ “'
?*®^33 ISfobel prize for their ’iwk to de^fn- ® 1568-1626), Enghsh comnoser
âîrW Conan (1850-17^11

h
DisraoU, Benjamin, Earl of Bêo^m (isna-«i i r. ^0^. historical novels. watson. He ateo
®P'51ished his tost n^ (1844-1901), English
DisariS wffisf ss.

Hto
TOter. Under the sseMoiiii, 3® ““■> ‘o "“* ®“s«
SSS" iSSSTSaa'
y, a lecturer m mathematics to oSord “

mtofera® <^®^®~86). one of the last Florentine
“SiOiSS^sfe
DiiarDMoib 1925, iwh„.„a-, . n 3>«sr ”“• “«■» <* -j- a7£^s:
tlon of the neoX rehabilita-
poverty,'^ ^ Sicily m their desperate
toench Guiana. At a new trito «oo “

or Bff Frier's'' if
exonerated ^&rto his Sl,w^
joiurope. - uiiiougn exonerated. restorertMnip^î -5?
deôfcically, aroused tlie Playwright. His -Dlavs
fÛaf sStor‘° b^FloiSw^sof of ^ceol6®di “aird of
£t“a%SnnreEi|TT^^^^^ "t®-
«-^wh otht. stst

rs
DUC-EDW 02 ^ .1 PROMINENT PEOPLE
Du Chaillu, Paul BeUoui (1835-1903). traveller in Eastman, Geor
Africa, who m 1861 and 1867 published ac- of t^ roll ea • -
19o“rBri“plS ®MoâITopioS
dS!’^ Jbto^ster
of State in the tl88?-W6W toretary
KOwWiS î^ration Stanley observatory
(Greenwich (’1882-1944), l9O0-
Eng-
1963-9
opposed toHis forelp'"’polic
negotiation T ^ andMellbly
with liussia to U.S. loks^^toa®
TTorid. Aatoe of the Flmicat
Dumas, AiexMd^’^1802-70), French romantic êrican

novelist, among whose many works a™ 27ie
'mê Muslceteers and The Count of Monte PubM’^ to'^"T87^'’
Dumas, Alexandre (1824-95), French dramatist EdeSk^ Gerard naan-ieo'ji m i -u
Si®'*-”™' ™.Uor I.
Dimdee, Irt
1st Viscount (John
(Joim Graham
Graha,m of nf Claver-
m«Arov. 1923, became
TnooT - — foreign .ij-u ®^t®red pttijjaiueni
secretar.v parliament
in 1936 (rein
m
(1648-89), Scottish soldier (“Bonnie gEmns ip Itoosevelt
1938 over
Dimdee ). Employed to suppress the coven- ); Chamberla
deputy primein’s rebuff
ministerto
^tere, he was defeated at Drumcloff, but vie-
Bothwell Brig. At the revolution of mS 1955.
lofr ' ffis succeeded
Suez policySirdivided Winstonthe Churchill
country.
1688 he supported James H, and was killed in He resigned for ]^th reasons in 1957. Mem-
the (victorious) battle of Killiecrankie.
Dundonald, Earl of. See Cochrane, Thomas. Gwefc. _ Earldom conferred 1961. Chan¬
B™is Seotus, John (c. 1265-1308), Scottish ^ 77
cellor, Birmmgham^'^Mors;
Hniv. The JteCcmiincr; and
schokstic philosopher, b. at Jlaxton ’near Kox- Ed^ (943-7^^
biirgh opponent of Thomas Aquinas. He
oirl.lu.li5U. ttuu ii.li adw'R^ W a ^grf England 7 9ro 969-76.
yn He rr
joined
Oxford the
and iftanciscaim, studied and
Paris, and probably d. at taught
Cologne.
Cologne. heir Athel^^fc^
at Edgar of Edward
E^vrri theOeo-^
f.hA rtrVTTpAClCfi-V**
Confessorn^rw^B. but in ^ thS- -r i
TA Ble chaiieêd the harmony of faith and reason.
Bi^stable,
Tn.T - ' 1380-145S), the
(c. -.wwv;
John vw. uAic cfuxicisii Eng-
earliest jliUK- “^|îJi''
Claim. âsion he was unable to maintam - hi,'
lish composer known by name. He was a con- Edgeworth Maris /17H'7 ihaqi
temporary of the Netherlands composers Dufay I whose stories mclude Castle tJSaekrent ■ t, npvebst
.
and Bmchois. See Section E.
j.,te
i 1
Canterbur "'Xit o-iujjiuiaauy or
y. He lived through seven reigns 1921), , and Bel
AbsenteecoMort of Queenind a.
Elizabeth
from Athelstsm to Ethelred, and was adviser H. He re-
especiaUy to Edgar. Hnder, him Glastonbu
Abbey became a centre of religious teaching. ry 1947. .when he took the accession
Jj
name
to the thrones
of Mountbatten.in
Dupleix, Joseph FrancoE (1697-1763). French 1 0.S 1? l^nmmk on his naturalisation
preat-great-gran dson of Queen
governor m India. He extended French in¬ Victoria, grandson of Admiral Prince Louis
fluent and power in the Carnatic, but his plans of
^ttenberg, md nephew of Earl Moimtbatten
were frustrated by his English opponent, Clive.
He was recalled m 1754 and died in poverty. ^ Burma. Pres. British Association 1961-2
■(^^reeW (1471-1628), German painter and
tZi'w - n HO Wita Uli&c ms ^“safford^’^^®'^®’*'^®® Edinburgh. Wales,
Diaian contemporary, Leonardo) a man of inventor of tbe transmitter and receiver for
!§to®tnt®mpOTa“f the
teUeotual puriosity and bfed^
solentifle. I automatic teleâp.^^JL^’-WSl),
h; the phonogr American in-
insight. His
beat workis in his copper engravings, woodcuts, practical incandescent lamp; apd aph; the first
many device*?
imd drawls; the former include The Knight. di^ributiou of light and power.
BielaT^hoha. and St. JcToine in his Study. He From being a newsboy on the railway and later
may be rârded as the foimder of the German a telegraph clerk, he became a master at apply¬
school ^d a pioneer of etching. Examples of ing soientiflo prmeiples to. practical ends.
tas work are in the British Museum. He He
? research laboratory (originally a bam)
WM
the frie^ of Luther and Melanothon.
S* (John George Lambton) (1792-
aJtei the disturbances of 1887, and in 1889 me- .’’P® sofl of
Sthl^toltmbLMJSsS^^
sented to pmllament the Durham Report, AVMch (98(1-1016). the. son of
lîgd Aown the principle of colonial self-govem- mrds^d; England, but soon after-
Hnse, Elenora (1861-1924), Italian tragedipuTiH HJO^'loeB), English kipp
Duval, Claude (1643-70). notorimis hfgl^^'an fomded^®wi®tmi,?5ffl,. ^ .Gonquest S
fit iwL He was canon-
DvoMk, Antonin, (1844-1904), ' Czech composer (c. B70-c. 924), son of Alfred.
Of Ragland, suc-
was, head of „the

§! 'the B.National CoierVrtotre
Natioml HoierVffie ener^tic hte legislation
Henry to toflueniie
1272. d.Able the andde¬
(1892-6). Aee Section velopment of the land law, and he summoned
A soldier, he edn-
Mastronom
o'iS’ Watson (1868-1989),
er who was astronomer royal 1910-83 English qtiered .mies, building castles, but could not
royal for Scotland 1906-10. maintam his hold on Scotland.
Dyson. Sir George (1888-1964): Sush composer Ed^d — Hucueeae
te. a1307ms andlafclier
was
and miter, to We
^d 2Vje Nm
Ncio Mch^ni
ilftisic he anal^s tb« . n succeeded, his , father
toehnique of modern schools of compositi S^sIhe defeated by the Scots at Bannockburn. Weak
He composed several choral works such as on. and inept, he was murdered to 1327.
Canterbury Pilgrims and Nebuchadnezzar^ The
Edward J?T
11 as(1312-77). succeeded
king of England his father
to 1327. Popu-
lîtary glory, he began
f5S-„Hufldred Vews War with France. He
W (1442-83), able but dissolute he

Yorkist
Latterly
Easflake, Sir Charles Look (1798-1865). setole.''® ®.
became whose
l^der
painter of historical and religious Works. English re^ brought
the power of the monarchy,about a revival to
to EnpHqh sea
i-kowunenT people
EDW-
ERA
g
dav./our Quartets ; hte

V (1470-83). succeed
IV at the age of 12 aud wased a Ms father Ddward
of baronial relatives. He pawn M thTomr.
and Ms brother
ScSffiSLS ^5.SSw" ^
Duîfp® nf Tower by Ms uncle. BJch^ _tlonsIandM(Partn)! ®®®-
dered tLn^?h o tîere probably mur. Eetere her mlrriê M ^glq
Ush ed. “ot been estab. ^^^Mei^'of ale ®Uth VI.
Edw^ VI (1S37-53), succeeded Ms father Henry lady Elizabeth iêlaâranernfû..
™ ^ tog Of delicat e and studiou
England when s, and Ms
carried on successively by the
^^T^Werôf
sucetidei
tmte Northi
mdnce mberla
dthe while
nd: lady
to prayer
name
Jwns ® Oranmer
ane Grey his success or.
book ffifCdS, sstrsf^sf
vaeriSi M«S isl'liS'S

ssri;«.si
England was established
SS«sa¥Sd'llsF?“*““£J
E?P“i«teyiHs ^WtodMrt^h Alexandra MaiT of

Winding created Duke
over^Mof
s
S Wof
proMs^nmrrK^P of_ disagi-eement
II &
1940-46 ^ was governor of the BahamS
air caissons in bridse hniwin^

(b!"m4)^^""'^ i96o“S
JSiToSiS s ^^ceEdwTd
îffZSSS i^7s«rss
with G^. ^rfes^dSi
the Institute for Advanced
»tudy at Prmceton 1083-46 In AumS
ôln
Pro^^®7^8rwtor E^tmia!
to Bfeffi?EH^P ^totite mote toing of
the urgency of
Of m^re^Ste ^ f e dange?
^ bf^l^tm to%MTv v-^- Philosopher.

Ûed an
Europe Fo^s. N ^
theatre dffi- i^-oP®
operatl
ivas Eepubhc an Presidm t A&fii^s^
Ei^tein.^^ Sergei mSioS (ia98-i ^
liiissian film diTGctor of ^Phi> Prt##Ty,«7 * ^ oa«i
Mil, Alemnder JSfemMi. and Tmn.
15d «fi H-
„W from Granthanfto We4mî?^ ^

“tone-% through freedom
m
o* (Thomas Bruce) (l76fl-iR.

iii
of Mary
in Hew College
au^s; eS" M
elude novels M- miupinC^dJôuarpT^s^®”^?
been deserted bv Bewes had

Bible to obtoT(ÔKf Pos-
tliree cMldrm brought
poetup and
his
and became a B^hûliectTîgl^f"®!^' ^“ssj.’"irsS.I*^8§fS

EHH-FIT B23 PROMINENT PEOPLE
^ Jabomtorr assisttmt to Sit HuniDliry Da^™t
UMUccessM as governor-general of Ireland. electrlcfdSdmtrr m ûs^S-sd
&sssaMa»?ue“ “ asr
fht
£itll6lb6rt) TClUff of !El6Ilt OJt tll6 closs of tll6 6tll F^fmaTt Hfinri /lJ37d— .1Q*?Q\ . «.-. i
§fV.,=K.“ »« S Wa SI
Etlielrednic. 968-1016). King Of England. En- PaSl°a9l(K65f®®King of Bgynt 1936 60
|iS,W»‘SIV=S^l5
Etty,
E|£. wmiarn
wiSSi1l7S.'SiS?"SSw
O-ia
(1787-1849). English artist of his- clergym^, authorWintem
of the schoolboy
(1831-1003).
storyDwll.l,
toncal and classical subjects. Enc.
Panlkner, William (1897-1982), American novelist,
Eueken, Rudolf Cliristoph (1846-1926), German whose series of novels. The Sound and the Fury
pmlosophCT of activism, which puts personal AS I Lay Lying, Light in August, Sanctuary.
ethie^prizewinne
effort above intellectual idealism. South. Nobel prizewinner
Nobel r 1908. „ 1949. See Section M, Part I.
Euler, Leonhard (1707-83). Swiss mathematician, Paurd, Giabriel Hrbain (1846-1924). Erench com¬
rememteed especially for his work in optics poser and teacher. His works Include chamber
, <>*’'lS.ulus of variations. He was called music, imoturnes, and barcarolles for piano, an
by Catherine I to St. Petersburg, where he was wera Penelope, some esaulslte songs, and
professor, 1730-41,_ and by Erederick the Great ^gmem.E. Eavel was among his pupils. See
Section
w Berlm,
— ^ttI V
where he remained
x^tiAOiLuou from
truiu 1741
J-Y-Ii tiU
liUL oeCtiOU Ej.
work. ^ became blmd but continued
- - lus Eawcett,
3-wubbuucu his reformer and Garaett
MlUieent leader (1847-1929).
of the movement for
work. educational
Euripides (480-406 B.O.). Greek tragic dramatist, women’s suffrage; one of the foimders of Newn-
who IS known to have written about 80 plays, of ham College, Cambridge, She was the wife of
wmch 18 .are preserved, including Alcestis, tbe blmd Liberal politician and economist,
Fiedea, Iphtgenia, and Orestes, He displayed Henry Fawcett (1833-84).
a sceptical attitude towards the myths Fawkes, Guy (1570-1606), a Yorksbii'e catholic,
Eusebius (264-340). ecclesiastical historian. His Who mth Catesby and other conspirators
Ecelesnskcal E%pory gives the history of the planned the Gunpowder Plot. Although
Christto churck to 824. He also wrote a warned, he persisted and was captured and
general history, Ohronicon. hanged. See L61.
Mchaeologist, known for his excavations at ni6). archbishop of Cambrai and author of
Telemachus.
^^Saelfo^^tao^ôi^his llcavatî*
Knossos In Crete and his discovery of the pre- (1661-
Phoemoian script. Ferdinand V of Aragon (1462-1616). who married
Ev^, Dpie Edith Mary (b. 1888). versatile Eng¬ Isabella of Castile, and with her reigned over
lish actress who made her tot appearance as bpam, saw the Moors expelled from Spain,
Cressida in Trmliis and Gressida in 1912 equipped Columbus for the discoveries that led
Evelyn, John , (1620-1706). cultured English to Spain s vast colonial possessions, and institu-
dianst who gives brilliant portraits of contem- ^ ted the Inquisition
.
afbSriefflture:
Siete ^ JaSbeing (1^76).
a shepherd-boy, educated
Scottish him-
astronomer
Eyck, Jan van (c. 1389-1441), Flemish painter, self m astronomy, mathematics, and portrait
whose hest-knovm work is the altarpiece hi painting.
brother Hubert (e. 1370- Ferto, Enrico (1901-54), Italian
1426) IS associated with him. whose research contributed to the nuclear physicist
harnessing of
atoimc enew and the development of the
atomic bomb. He postulated the existence of
the neutrino and discovered the element Nep-
_.tunium. Nobel prizewinner 1938.
Fiohte, Johann GottUeb (1762-1814). German
philosopher of the nationalistic Eomantio
Fabius, the name of an ancient Eoman family who school who
over many gmeratioM played an important tarianism. prepared the way for modem totali¬
Wsh composer of noc-
Pabre, Jean Henri Casimir (lS23-i9ifii Wranoi, “ Tm Jones, Joseph Andrews , and
Paed, name oftwb Scottish genre painters Thomas physi-

(1826-1900). and John <1819-1 Mpy ’ a '^ho established an institute for Ught thera-
brother, &renCTaTCd S’ ^ the Finsen ultra-violet Imnp.
Faffbair
S.rrsi“»“'
Falrbairn,
n, Sir wiulam ““
William (1789-18
(1789-18741
74), •‘“™ ,,3®
.8pnt-,Hoi,
Scottish (Geoffrey
^ 1887), archbishop Francis
of Canterbury.
lead in using )
tton in shipbuilding. 1940-61; Headmaster of Eepton School, 1914-
““''
3îSprtSS“
whose music is highly individual with a strong the philosophy of experimentation byfoimdlnk
^ folk-song element. See Section E, mathematical statistics.
magnetism. He was the son of a Yorkîre Khayyam

FiT-FRE prominent people
B24
fof brief periods between

1770 and 1806
parliamentary reform), and^was on?of tiio

Flatêed, Jolin (1646-1719). the flr^ FnrîicT,
astronomer royal, for whom oTarl
(1676? ^n I?
an
Otoer’^?orta^“were^??^ umemitting effort.

Fi™i Join (1755-I826h EnS sculntor
Fleeter;
wood’^^ H?fh2n®f nnf Josiah
France. Anatolethe
^GardelLmd Id 1924)
(1844-
^®P??r M the“pete&4?t®°~?®2#’ ^“Slish
gowir 0, Short rto'^^ ■ ISf
Sir Alexander (1881-105'5) ^nnttnon pSfent
Mctenologist who discovered
the antibacterial
“
"taf aLhttS'Sli ?■'^'“i
enzyme lysozyme in 1922 and
ISf
penicillin in 199S
FuU recognition came duriii
tlm wa?
Florey separated the drug nw mid fnr when
tJw
Florey
W from the origi^pSuif
A^mllfd s.«£iY«
S?, £®s ^"‘“2
si.oSrs„“)SSi,s,‘“2>‘!£^«-s
*wi;S ss.“nfcs
'SfirltriCS’sHI*
thiM led to broadcasting and tele^^n ’ “
of Christ’s teachi^’ "'"Fi“'’rvance
|ai»Sgsri3‘iS
wL?oltobmated^Slrmcf
s^^^
m writing many pieces for tte stale “ •'
kks™ “““"Bta ss'iuS’

Foci, ^ foi- orgaMst. b at iSil^lf;^’ composer and
wmkFer^n
M wiiS
d {1861-1929), French genenl Tt.
ss#f4ll^.ss lfki:sssra«w?
^.SSSlllifSr
commander of the British, ^r^h^MASfeH®
«mles and dictatel’tK^^^f^f^
ss.„?i
Comp^ (leoir of Ford Motor

'ig„*“iSsasL'ais,?i“^
'pSSSSs
Is « /Sê to ^?fSaed“BlMfros°sk Emperor.

defeated t SÎan?
^ (5n“to*
liat ory pok
U7H?f ^ y?iS?V
^ and ^ctm Venice
j'.s“as’]sssa»s'r''?
;i^^gsss
Fox, Charles James (174 on crusade:
^1806). English TOiig
FHE-GAR
B25 PROMINENT PEOPLE
a -W °f
Frederiek 11 (tke Great) (1712-86). King of Prussia. S. ‘ f'ir
Hfl/Ving inherited fro^ Ills f&tbor Si wGll-drillsd G&insboroush., "Xlioiiias fi72,7—
T?nfyHQV» t« t
K;fo?l?H“-ASa£aS"S e:«^l„”S?g,£Vt
SweS“S»£SlteMllto\rf^ !*■
g^TbSss* -“■
Freud, Sigmund (1866-1939), psychiatrist and
founder of psychoanalysis: b. Moravia, studied
■” *“« Spam
of the Into ^ricSTtook
Mediterran ean by Hia™ las
Carttogal
his piratened
SMked :^me m 465. He was a bigoted Arian.
coS?S
fleets, and
medicine ^ yiciLuoi, where
In Vienna, wAicic nche uvtJu uudu lyoo
Uved rritii 1938 GaiSu HuSh TMflWa^f^rn.fnA^^^^T^^^^-
when the Nazi Invasion
invasion of Austria sent him into into poMtid an
T^nlif.?f>iQn economist. He wrote 3j0Ôlir
exile in London where he died. His theories of and Every^V Ufe (1939). He represented
the mind, based on years of investigation, Lee^ South ftom 1946: was chancellor of the
lUimuned the way we think about ourselves, excheauer 1960-1: and leader of the Labour
and had immense influence upon modem opposition 1965-63.
thought. See Psychoanalysis, Section J. Galb^tb, John Kenneth (b. 1908), American
French, Sir John, 1st Earl oi Ypres (1862-1925). muversity professor of economics, b. Canada;
first British oommander-in-chief in the first author ^ y/m AMuent Society (1968), The
world war: replaced by Sir Douglas Haig in mrna (1960),^ The New IndustHal State
lyl5.
Friese-Greene, William (1866-1921). English Galddl r. 5?® ambassador to India 1961-3.
— - - ^ _ ^’***^’*■****'^>^0* J Slip LLLOi/ - ,
Beiflto Kêz j oivioiu, U, JTtSiitU*
was shown m 1890. He died m poverty. mum (Asia Minor) of Greek parents. He syste¬
Frobisher, Su; Martin (1535-94), first British matised medical knowledge with his idea of
navigator to seek the north-west passage from
the Atlantic to the Pacific throu^ the Arctic pô^ve creation by the will of God: and
thus discomaged original Investigation. Many
seas. He is commemorated in Frobisher’s Strait. of his treatises survive, and his influence lasted
He ô fought against the Spanish Armada. for more than a thousand years.
IFroebel, Friedrich Wilhelm baoi r.„vf S' taousand years.
German educational reformer, founder of tbe expernme
. - -ntal-mat
I 1 hematica tMjlCiaUiOU WllUSC
l methods
German educational
Kindergarte n system. reforme^'^ntirtlr nf^+lo pursmt of scientific truth ■’■^S^Sa scientist in, the
. whose
laid the foundations of
Frcteart, Jean (1337-1410), French author of mo^m science. He became professor of
Ghromclea covering the history of Western mathematira at Pisa university when he was
Europe from 1307 to 1400. one of the chief 25 and lecteed at Padua for 18 years. He
sources for the history of the first half of the made a number of fundamental discoveries, e.g
Hundred Years war. ,
m regard to the hydrostatic balance, thermo-
Frost, Robert (1874;d963), American poet, author .^fsnet, telescope, and foreshado
OT Stoppir^ by Woods on a Snowy Evening, Nemon s laro of motion. He detected the four wed
Birches, iim Beam of the Hired Man. After major satelhtes of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn,
, z. and the spots of the sun. He proved the
Apple -Pick
Frpude, James Anthony (1818-94). ing.English superiority of the Copemican over the Ptolemaic
torten and biographer of Carlyle. his-
theow, aud wm Imprisoned for so doing. He
Fry, rai^toiêr (b. 1907). , English poet and dra- med the year Newton was bom.
o-ixuiiui uj. j. lie jjuay s
Not for Burmnd, Venus Obs&rvea, aud The Bark . , author of a jauBJUBn
series ofnoveust
novels
IS Enough, See Section L ^^kÎife'^^MsIrilnglish noyelist
Fry, Hlizabetb (1780—1846), Hnglisli prison re- deal^Nobelbe prizewinner
family.^ history of an 1932.
upper middle-class
to the n
1 Society
t L of Friends.x’lUAwiuii miu otjiongea - ’ . xtixxy, LUUiAUtJi OE
&Soct^SA^“ eêmes, cousm of Darwin. His early founder work.of
Fry, Roger .(1866-1934), English art critic and Meôrographim meZ). contains the basis of the
pamter ; mtroduced the work of Odzaime and modem . weather chart. He also devised
the post-impressionists into England: author of finger-print identification, and was one of the
Vision and Design. first to apply mathematics to biological prob-
Puota, Leonard
- — (1601-66),
WV/, German
VaCAJXUUl- naturalist IfiTnq ----- or
™S"'IK3‘S.S «,4
Fuchs, Sir Vivian Ernest (b. 1908) Brifciab ffenlnffiaf 1460-1624), Portuguese
and explorer: leader of the British danmon- i?® /f®®*
„ wealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition 1987-8, the Hime ^ doubhng the Cape of Good
■n tet
« to
Mcross theuxxw Antarctic
AUU£hL(;iHU continent.
UOillUieiUi. Gandw Tnsirn n, -imw ^ i.*. »
FuUer,
Fuller, ThomM
Thomas (1608-61).
(1608-61). English
English antiouarian and of Nehru,
of Worifties of antiquaria
England nandanda
Church History of Britain,
Fulton, Robert (1766-1816). American: engineer
who experimented in the application of steam
to nav^tion. tod in 1807 launched the
to navigation,
Clermont
Olemorei and in 1807 launched S
Hudson.
on the Hudson. ^^rom 1893 to 1914 he lived
dismimlnatlon In
against
Pumiss. Ha^
Fu^. Harry (1864-1925).
(1864-1925). caricaturist,
caricaturist b. b ^ I’lbian Inde-
Wexford. He came to London as a young man,
Wexford.
served on theHeoameto Londonasayoimaman’ 1®!^. be dominated Congress,
served the staff
works ofon Dickens
of
of Punch
staffand P«S mB.
and illustrated
Thackeray, UliSSffi the S^^tlMence m T^T°®i^*®®‘
work, or ftcke., „4 fbe co-operation
|K’°‘ of all IndiansSoK?.
but was gJSSS
assassina¬
ted on his i;£;i SA‘Si
way to a prayer meeting. Histeach-
non-violence has had influence outside
. India. , ' : ■, '■ ^
fi Garbo, Greta (b. 1906), Swedish film actress of
qu^ty. Her films included Queen
■mi. *1 1 11 i_rr“ ^ -t-'onuBu uuuixjuHtsr. Vicente (.1775-1832),
yîle studying at X<eipz!g he met Mendelssohn, Jtoanlsh tenor, composer, and singing master.
■ whom he succeeded as conductor of the Gewand- His son Mtouel Patricio Rodriguez (]I;806-1906)
haus orchestra.
Gagarin, Y^ .Mexeyovioh (1934-68), Soviet cos¬ /SJ® Mallbrto
(Mme. and Llnfl.
or to J enny Both his daughters
Mme. Viardot) were opera¬
monaut. the first man to be launched into space
and brought safely back (12 April 1901). His tic sêrs. tod his grandson and great-grandson
flight was made in the front portion of a inuitii {Garda
iSma, Federico. See Lorca.
CfajtoM, Samuel Eawson (1829-1002)
a
-
period. English
chronicle drew on his Stive
ilagâtio;
Geoi-ge I (1660-1727), becSeT1?“ „Â
^
Britam in 1714 as descendant ojâmeaS ^ w?'*
oMef minist er was Sir Robert mS jr^®
self personally imdis tingu
returned political development: aSd lshpd ni?
in suite of n
“*i £%rj85f’srsKa''?rt£'s2
ta 1848 to iSd
G^kell, Mrs. Elizabeth Cleghoni

English novelist, author of w,,-..,,(I8in-fi"i^ His reign saw a clash with John*-CPoSo^’i?“
„ Oranford. and a JJê ofcfmloL Branif
Charles de (ISOO-iOToi. E^Mh
glneral and
f™ ieadJnasterof a JesSt WnSr 1®’ extension and the auestoteg ^
iqfi^Ro ?*'®®Ment of the Elfth Republic tea
„ SSSSaaS S5SM
ae“ E?ei“E?e™h
England *’ S^rateedlSd
l>6adauarters Min
unfortunate, and the monarchy wn? if ,
dM^for Of distress and
SS°n tê feS: a cadet in 1877 In isol i,„ the Navy as
|si4&„=scsHrS"? «t^ «"lrsTiS?
personal Qualities gained

tion of his elde? S|r?E&^fe''f*^-
S “'“»»»
S4‘£»aSS:l«“
“SfonSTh.,???®’-
fV”"
s ™ZTd“L>#j»srF8®s
EaSfPlSaiî (1879)
®S,^^
™ J^Togreas and JPoverlv
martyred ifftoH?'!* Sfi"?.;^ Copied

by Diocletian by
mMm^M a2ssw£€‘”C®r^^^ " “ ““
r* ^ •»» I'-uai or Due wno
and *1>®
in hol^
Elorence, were teorilS^wîo?
^thtS.\hWweWat^&îi2>-
their relative
relation to eachvSes^^Rr
other and^ ?!? gases combine
thn^S?® a&
product, if SoS tlieir sfoySK
the Bîst kSS »
o.£ "'M
£S.fnT toril Novllla^
began his appreiitieesidyTiSîkH®" Mcbelangelo

patented Btereol^hjg® ’ Printer who Giacometti, ,Mb™(l6mffiS Îjôrkshop.
^dVônît W°l«8ist painter, who worked ®®SJ»for aud
»»««“ ""
fflffissfaatoto
Hie Wren
the choir library
stalls ^st. PaWMd^he*e®
at oirinitv ’
™
Asia brin|i»^^tK^ Gibbons. Orlando (168
"S& h¥SSSa ^^^ s?= are his work 3-16 25), College,
J-nmty Cambridge,
English . composer
GID-GOR B27 prominent PEOPLE
|^Mn. "”s«e SeSnE
Gide, Andrd (1869-1961). Erencli writer of many Gluob, Cliristopli Wilibald
short novels m which he gives expression to his poser. Important In the (1714-87) German coin-
struggle to escape from his protestant upbr mg- developm^t^f oneS
He studied in Prague Vi^^Xi Tto w Wo
ing (Strait is ^ Gate, (ITie OmnterfeUerB). In tot OTS wem to the Itehl? t^^^^
his inemoir St te orain ns msurt he tells the story with Orfeo ed Euridice
of his life up to Ins i^map (1762) his style b^cê
The narratives more dramatic. There foUoi^d
Iê? lirlSiS
,ws— . ai;wji ttjju pro- jjura umei justice Of England. 1946-68

ducer, member of the Terry family, to whom the Godirey
present popularity
present popularity of
of Shabespeare
Shakespfi.a,rA is inrfFpiT,— S
in largely -,T- Otof
oi
— .
th,. first
toe e™* J^tice (c.
Bouillon 0™^^^
crusade, was IMl^lOO)
vtJ. xxvu/, VyAUBa,Ut51’ uu
proclaimedCrusader
King onof
due. See Section I, Part I. Jerusalem, but declined the title for that of
Gigli, Beniamino (1890-1967), Italian operatic Protector of the Holy Sepulchre.
tenor. Gotova, Itody (1040-80). English benefactress.
Gilbert, Sir Alfred (1854-1984), English sculptor According to tradition, she obtained from her
and goldsmith. His sculptures include JSros to hushed Leofric, Earl of Chester, concessions
Piccadilly Circus. tor the people of Coventry by riding naked
Gilbert, ™Sir Humphrey (1687-83), English uaviea- naviga- through the town.
blixougu tue cown.
vw.. ^ V KfJ VtlAWVXX XUlXgiOik/OUXl iUl West ôns (d, lQ53),was the
service to Ireland. In 1583 he discovered New¬ father of Edith, wife of King Edward the Con-
foundland.
1 but was drownedu-iwwxTCJu the
oojo same
Bbiiuc year.
yeur. fessor. and
lessor, ana ofor Harold,
Jiaroia last Saxon king.
laafi SaTon ititiw
xywu/, oaiiijXlOM tfliy tUMiUdJi kA} - xoc»w/, AliUBUBil JJUUWOai
Queen Elisabeth. His book On the Maffnet, writer and philosoper, author of FoliticalJustice
Ou^nÊ&‘th."°X°!i^nWf
published in Latin to 1600, was the tot major (which criticised many contemporary political
(1156-1836). Engtoh' institu-
original contribution to science published in tions) and a novel Gul^ Williams. He married
England. WoUstonecraft (1759-97), author of A
Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck (1830-1911), y tndicamn of ths Bights of Women : and their
English humorist and librettist of the Gilbert daughter, Mary WoUstonecraft Godwin (1797-
and Sullivan light operas. Eirst known as 1851) wrote Eranlcenstein and married BheUey.
-oiTfi,™
— — . ^ » 77 .5 V
AXVXU XU4X JIAO LUUCb- wrore M'mMcenstein and married Shelley,
borated
boated with Sir Arthur SuUivan, his wit and Gema,n/°lS51_F?“Sng.
poet and thinker. ™B. at . (W49~1832),
'Skanlcfurt-
satire finding appropriate accompaniment to on-M^n, his first notable work was a romantic
Sullivan’s music. Their operas include H.ilLS. play, GOtz von Berlichingen, followed by a novel
Pinafore, Patience, lolanthe. The Mikado, The Werthers Leiden. In 1770 he became privy
Gondoliers, and The Yeoman of the Guard. counciUor to the Duke of Weimar, whom he
GUI, Eric (1881-1940), Engli^ sculptor and en¬ prved for many years. He had wide-ranging
graver. whose works Include the Stations of the Interests, and made discoveries in anatomy and
Cross (Westminster Cathedral), Prospero and to botany. Among his later writings are the
Ariel (Broadcasting House), Christ Driving the play Iphigenie and the novel Wilhelm Meister.
Money-changers from the Temple (Leeds Uni¬ and he wrote many lyrics. His best-known
versity). He also worked as a designer for work however is Faust, which was composed
prmttog (GiU Sans type), and the George VI over many years: its theme is man’s search
stamps were his designs. for happiness. In later life he was a friend of
GUlray, James (1767-1816), ioxi77, English
jEiUBuaji caricaiunsc
caricaturist SchUler.
DCniuer.
jLVUSBiau
^
cartoons.
produced upwards of a thousand poUtical Gogol, Nikolai VasUievich (1809-62), Eussian
nôveliet and dramatist. Hia comedy, T7ie
Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337). Elorenttoe artist. Go^&rmnent InsMctoT^ satirised provincial
A pnpU of Clmabue. he continued the develop¬ brnreaucracy; and his novel. Dead Sends, deals
ment away ftom Byzantine tradition towards ’With
greater xia<»jujL«iUDAu.
fexuoiuox naiuraJisin. xuBHis XX13HUUBB
frescoes Burvive
survive in
to the dead malpractioe
serfs. in tlie supposed pureliase of
line aeaa sens.
designed
de^ the western front of^l
the cathedral at and novelist. The son ofIrish
(^28-74), a poor âmatjst
poet, curate, he
Elorence and the campanile. came to London to 1756, and eventually Joined
Gissing, George Robert (1867-1903), toe circle of Dr. Johnson. He is best known for
noveUst whose works deal with the degrading his novel The Vicar of Walcejleld and his play
effect of poverty. The best known is Nem She Stoops to Oonguer.
Grub Street. Gonoourt, Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de (1822-
QiiiUo Romano or Qiulio Rippi (c. 1492-1646), 96) and Jules Alfred Huot de (1880-70), French
Italian artist, was a pnpU of Raphael. He was brothers, remembered for theii Journal des
also an engineer and ajohlteot. Goncourts, an intimate account of Parisian
Gladstone, WUliam Ewart (1809-98). EngUsh society spanning 40 years, and of dociunentary
interest.
Liberal statesman. B. at .uivcipoui,
Liverpool, he entered
uB euiereu mieresi.
parliament to 1832 as a Tory and held otoe Gdngora y Argote, Luis do (1661—1627) Spanish
imder Ped. From 18M he _ served seyerai poet. b. Gordova. IjaPoUfemoaiadSoiedadeshe
attempted to express the core of poetry in new
Lroral prune ntoster 1868-74, when Ins legis- experimental forms.
latlon toduded the education act tof 1870, the Goodyear, Charles (1800-60), American inventor
baUot act, the di^tablistoent of the Church who discovered the art of vnlcaniaing rubier,
rflretod and m Irish land act. In 1874 when Goossi^ Sir Eugene (1893-1962), EnfriiiA con-
of Belgian de^nt.^ His
tow, but made a come-back in 1876 with his compositions include the operas Jtidith and Don
Mid-Lothian campaign. He was again prime Jmn de Mamm; brother of Won, oboe vir¬
minister 1880-6, 1886 and 1892-4: he carried tuoso.
harpists.and of Sidonie and Marie Goossens,
a i/oixucuxLisuvaj.o'
a parUamentary xciwiu refom act, suKLand advocated
iKivocaifea narpists.
home for Ireland but was not able to carry Gordon, CJharles George (1888-85), Scottish soldier
Iii. ±1.1R
it. IlfA was
His long life wnA nriA nr moral
one of -m/irai stature
ctfAfniKAand < ^ter
A-r<Â«.
service to the Grimea _ _ and_ .a China,
y^.* _ to.. 1873
tocreastog advocacy of lllaeral causes. He was he was made governor of the Equatorial prov¬
also a clasaical scholar and a writer on church inces of Egypt: and he was a notable governor
matters: ■ : - of tlm Sudan, 1877-80. When a rising was led
Glazunov, Alexander Constantinovich (1866-1986), by the Mahdl, he was sent out to 1884 to the
Eussian composer, pupil of Eimsky-Korsakov. garrisons in rebel territory and was killed at
The first of his eight symphonies was composed lEhartoum.
when he was 16.
Gorfon, Lord George (1761-93). agitator, led No-
Glendower, Owen (o. xuuu-u 1860-c. 1416), . Welsh uniei,
chief. Popery Tioos
ji-opery riots to
to Jjondon
London in 1780.
in 1780.
who_condu<rted guernUa wâre on the English Gorky, Maxim _ (Alexey VkjmVAW J* Maximovich
LTAOUSAJUAUViVUM Peshkov)
XCBUUUV;
norriAr. .A,rkn ftfrurAiSt - In nVinlrMaruxAVA^ci tl/tnrmn, /-loao' ..n aoa\ Tt..#....! _ _ XX _ Tx - .. ’i« ' .
bwder, and figures in Shakespeare's Henry (1868-1986), Eussian writer; From the age- of>
ten he worked at many trades from scallion on
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich (1804-^67), Eussian a Volga steamboat to railway guard, while
composer, first of the national school, best learning to write: see ASy OhUdhood, His
known for hie operas. A Life for the Tsar, and early work was romantic. He spent many
SOR-
SUE
g
ss^sssr:
^s.sr
'^F^'ss.iSisSfgt-g*-
„ over SOO runs to In “ade Grey, Lady Jane (1687-64) Q„«>r, nf n- ^ .
“fr)5'agrLua«£‘5s' £«5§£g‘'sSflr1M“‘
6SS-^“aSaS79%S'™?r
®5ftoeer. the first r-
b„*ft™So“e'W‘lSi'r ^
and^xecmted^ ^ claimant. Mary
GraI?'*°Tn ®®rtiflcate, 1909. ^ Cfrieg, Edvard Hagernp (1843-i907i -nt™
Grant, Ulysses SHmcpson (i829-aKi av.,„ • composer, b. Benieri i^:™^®Sian
States from 1869 to 1876 ™ accentuation. He te Sit ^ .strong

Ch^vnie-Barker, . Harley (1877-1 Him u-vM! ^ dental mudc to Pei fo^ Ida toci-
„ the God; beSto ^t^ is?.^ «» »s fc<£ ‘"ai, Sa’>as,'s? ,f?»«if'y™»-

Îôrof
CTa«cK«s
‘"S:P!!5S? im«i). emim. »o.t. ,«»™ ... PM»i<»>n md fciS?i,‘t?“tS'?i.S!!”»>
Id Ode phUoli^c^ notable
Green, Joto^lhM The brothers^ ™ “is.nv'ttss
^rmimatik.
author of Short E
Ben (1864).
■“ M sS:iffiSSL'iPi™w»b«e
jomnallst, whosenovela^7^^Rw“?X®^|f
Gregory, St, (o. 240-832). convert,bn Tr,-.„teôtot^

„ KteSs^*i&ii£"|“tj m,.,.:..
VUilAiUU,, - W -«fcju.aiAVUiiaJLi
®’604^wfli‘?n *^f®at), St. (c. 640-604). Pone son-, n cf’afflstw^/îce-™®™^ historian;
clerical marriage). “d author of^^ Ên«hsh historian

the W ^ Sundmji(^F^^ ^mre. faVmertson. and
{toM?.W<£oS:‘'gR;afe^P ^^K‘afe,"p»ya-wi.R.M»«on..,
Argentine for “ chum ”.) °0P®‘ ' Ohe *' is

GUI-HAR PROMINENT PEOPLE
B29
Gmdo Rem (1676-1642), Italian painter of the Enîsh
wrote politicia n of changeable views who
Bolognese schwl whose works are characteristic Character of a Trimmer.
of the Itahan haroaue of his period and include Henry (1777-1869), English historian
the jlurora fresM m the Rospigliosi palace at Constitutional History. He
Rome, md Ortictjixzm of St. Peter (Vatican). A® ®f -^bur Hallam, friend of Tenm-son.
Hall^ Sir Charles (1819-96),
Guâ^ Adolphus (1694-1082), King
-^ter of Sweden.
a campaign in o.onductor, who settledGerman- bom pianist
in Manchester and
Poland he entered the Thirty Years’ war in sup^ OTgani^d an orchestra of high-class talent. He
port of Swedfah mterests and Protestant distress. marri^ the vlolimst Wilhehnine Nerada.
F.9P- battle of Breitenfeld in 1631 and was
killed in action the next year.
Gutenberg, Johann (^ 1400-68). German printer, t ®^® DUbhshed
comets, observations
being the first mer
to pre-
astrono on
^yS ^72^ 9
b. Mipz, the tet European to print with mov-
able types east in moulds. The earliest book *J^®w®*'¥^,°^ ®' comet
® work (see I<26). He
on gravitation, W-
setting
printed by him was the Masarin Bible {see L76) aside tos own researches. He made the first
Guy, Thomas 11644-1724), English philanthropist.
• money by speculation; and S^fS^D® of the oceans His
,1888-1700. frommeteorologi-
the naval
in Southwark.
^ observations led to his publication of the
Nell (c. 1660-87), mistress of Charles II tot map of the winds of the globe (1686).
of England. Of Hereford origin, she sold
Mges in London and became a comedienne or- at ® tronomer, toer rP®'\ whom is named American
(1868-1936). the 200-ineh as-
Drury Lane.
rafle^mg telescope on Mount Palomai-.
1580-1666), Dutch portrait pain¬
ter, b. at MecMn. He is best known for bis
LawMng Camlwr m the Wallace Collection, and
toother portraits in the Louvre and at Amster-
H
slatemiian •Alefander (1765-1804). American
md economist. With Madison and
(1872-1057), King of Norway, was a Jay he TOote the Federalist (1787). As secre¬
Damsh înce and elected on the tary of the Treasuiy (1789-96) he put Washing¬
Norway from Sweden in 1906. He separati on of
resisted the ton s government on a firm financial footing and
nji. plaimed a national bank. He was the leader of
Nazi occupation.
Hêy, George (1685-1768). He developed the
was fedei^sts. a party hostile to Jefferson. He
lajled in a duel.
HaUey s theory of the trade winds by taking into
^count the effect of the earth’s Hamilton, Emmm Lady (n6e Lyon) (o. 1765-1816)
tropical rotation and
heat (1786). a beauty of humble birth who, after several
Hadmn (76-138). Roman emperor. An able gen¬ tosons, wfis married in 1791 to Sir William
eral, he Biippressed revolts, and he was also a &milt<m, Britigh ambassador at Naples.
"Visited Britain and in
.cbe met Nelson, and later bore iiim a
JJifl® Horatia.
child,
^ from the Diets
protect it Mohammed Haimnarskjfild, Dag (1906-61), world statesman.
Md’ Scots (d. Mter an academic and poUtieal career in
c. 1388), Persian lyrical poet. His principal
7^® ®oU®ption of short sonnets
ot the TTmted Nations,
^ 1^8^ he became
and aimedsecretary -general
at extending
called ffliasa^s. _The sobriQuet Hafiz, meaning ffs influence for peace, especiaUy by Initiating a
one who remembers, is applied to anyone who ^ t^® Middle East. He
has leêd the Koran by heart. crash whUe attemptin g to
German chemist and mediate te a dispute between the Congo and the
Phj'sicist, chief discoverer of uranium flaainn Meessionis t province of Katanga. Posthumous
the phenmenon on which nuclear power and Nobel peace pnze.
the atom bomb are based.
Samuel Christian Friedrich (1765- Haônd, John lavreence (1872-1949). Engiiaii
tostori^ of social aiM industrial history, whose
1843). carman physician who founded homoe- works (with hi^fe Barbara) include The Town
opathyAtr^tment of disease by small doses of Labourer md The Village Labourer.
m liealth produce similar symptoms). Harden, John
I®t Earl o£ Bermersyde (1861-1928). (1694-1648), English parUamen-
toian and oiyilwar leader.
British field-marshal, b. Edinbmgh. He re- Charles I s illegal ship money Hein refused 1636. When
to pay
commmider-in-ohief in France. be raised a regiment and
1016-19, leading the offensive in August 1918: was kiUed on Clialgrove Field. Pedersen
Legio^^^ the war presided over the British (1869-:to52), Norwegian author who in his
youth straggled for existence , visited America
smee 1930. y?- ISMkEmpei'or
He spent the years of oftheEthoipia
Italian ^®®/®b
Hte Martegearned
Grade his Hving by casual labomr.
(Growth
1936-41 in England. ■^''‘“an of the Soil) gained
occupation
Haklu^, Richard (1553-1616), English writer on him the Nobel prize in 1920.
maritime discovery. B. in Herefordshire, he Handel, George Frederick (1686-1769), German
spent some tune in Paris. From 1682 (when composer, son of a barber-surgeon to the Duke
Divers Fovoffes appeared), he devoted his life to Of Braony; bom the same year as Bach. He
collection and publishing accounts of English ênt much of his life in England composing
operas and oratonos. His operas, of which
dtecuTO^*' thus giving further impetus to ttiere are oyer 40. include Atalmta, Berenice and
HWdMe, John IBurdon Sanderson (1892-1964), Ms oratorios, of which there are 32,
biologist and geneticist, noted not only for his memdd Saul, Israel m Bgypt, Samson^ Messiah,
work in mathematical evolutionary theory but Ju^s Maceabmus, and Jehjifha, Eight years
science to the layman. He
ûgrated to India m 1967. He was the son ^®«^® .blMd and relted upra
a copyist John Christopher
^tie effect
7®®®F 1?^^® of industrial
(1860-193 occu¬
6), b. Edin-
pations upon health. Hannftal B Fee
(^7-182 to paper.
® Haldane) longht two wars B.O.),
Sutton
Me Ms “lusic
Carthagin
against Rome. ian general.
In the tot
Liberal statesman. As he conauered southern Spain. In the second
overran Gaul, crossed the Alps, and defeated the he
^ i‘®oreauised the army
iffld founded the Territorials. ^mans m sucwssiye battles, especially at
Haievy, Ludovio (1834--1903) French playwrig Caamae. laere^ter his forces were worn down
ht, by Roman delaying tactics; he was defeated
„ imhbretti for Offenbach and Bizet. Meilhae in writing later poisoned himself. by
Hamax, 1st Earl of (Edward Frederick Bindley Hotcc^, to William
Wood) (1881-1969), British Conservative politi¬ _Ltoral politlolan who revised Vernon (1827-1904),
death duties.
cian. foreim secretary during the period of ' Hsêwute (101^42), son of Canute, and
appeasement of Germany; as Lord Irwin Dpish jking of England. last
„ viceroy of India 1926-81. ’ H^dte, James Kelr (1866-1916), Scottish Labour
Halifax, 1st Margness of (George Savile) (1638-96), .l6ad6r, one of the fbundeTe of the: lijabour par by.
HAR-HEN
1 T , ” prominent people
pacifist, he opposed the Boer WOT. ' ^ (Edward Hawke) (1706-81).

ft?,. Bng^ and
architect noveUst and f^mc*at
practtod lir Jfe^ defeated the
for some time, but became known in 1871 with slave-trader^^^ i Ksoûn® ’ sailor and
Pu^lihel“lo1lTufeh*^
£*, uramawc poem. Trie Dvnnsf^ ovôojbiu \i.YiSZ-ibUo). AliafcriaTi ormy.

classical period of Ba^
ôse central figure is Napoleon. His mS- been given the
iying theme is man’s struggle against neutral
title father of the symphony ”. Much
■pTsSlS^®’ depicts the Wessex countrraide. Me was spent as musical director to of bis
J®“®s .(172^78), English inventor, Hungarian house of Esterhazy. InmTpit aceN
1791 and
ted
fp'rt in 1764 and became widely used, was though
own ir, was broken by
spim^-jenny inven¬
his
^cted M
invention brought him spinnersno profit.
in 1768 and his Salomon symphonies. His two
great oratorios, TOe Creation
Stephen (1874-1940). American and The Seasons
**, Jziuwtua otepiien (lo74— 15)40) Amar^n^-n J-Tiix a û. 1/16 Sseasmi^
DflPK6r flJlfi nhllRTl+.lirnnfo’f- wTii-v <■« ir»o/\ _
banker and philanthropist, who in 1930 founded tt!^?u+ Section E.
S Section
the PUgrlm Tnist in Gt. Brito ^ffl^T^S-lSSO). Ei^sh essayist and
Harley, Koberfc, 1st Earl of Oxford and MorHmAr wntinge include The CJiaTacters of
(1661-1724) Engltoh state^^M Ûeffif f H&- ^d îlsviril
pS. He held office under Queen toe md Wi“*®'“iCarewHakitt
brought a European war to an end with the 'Writer-
treaty of Utrecht. After the HanoverianmecM (1S63-1951). American
retirement, and formed theMSS. paper ^®ws-
SSg&kS. ” “““ HaSSS'feloiM 0„.se ,1,. „i6) l»d„ o,
SS V “ d§S«M “'ofciiSS^y a8M-j[952). Swedish explorer
Wmiam tto Conaueror of Normandy ^ of Westminster

wh“na^Lticooisu pmiosopner, n. Stuttcrfirf
l1?is associated
whose name
Sf oS.““hIT^“ aMr^Vo
method
“Seta ^lrieMcffi° a?7(iîsil)
with the ffiSeto
presidents’^ eêci^y™! of reasoning with its sequence of thesis
He studied theology
Chandler (1848-1908). American
•^Jl’tesen with his friend Schelling He
Stêol'rSiir'’
Derg, ana .Derlin. He produced an abstrarf.
fn NeOTS“to?™^® md ®fftein which Nurember g, Heidel-
was influenc
''|
Sôrv
&„ând
Se.
TlwPhU
nloo ed by
''S osophy
S» ofMX
GorZwn
‘5Smse
fitSSS^£ff i^he Wth loti^
P£ftr wnt. and led his Pronto
to modern totalltar
*®Wte ian-
hfthe 1 w.' r-nS® influential
aSS’Ti;:' ?!?»>«•. H«dr
was however too complicated ta nuStim ft ncR ®®*^?P®tem, Vemer von (1869-1940). Swedish
by others, taking its present iS” N&prtt^\?ll™“‘®
HOTty, Sir Hamilton (1880-1941). ^mposer and StaSS.'SkfflLfass" before a personffiTp-

hwS:ftJ,J?'“ft^®*®^*°^®'teputatloninEng^d
al-Rasbld (Aaron the TT'DTiH’bf') (X797‘^1856), Germn.-n lyriG TKifif b

5th. Abbasid caliph of Baghdad om?rf Jewish parents- He livedôfilv
a centre^ for art learning, but he governed of his ôw writings ex^ beauty and
profound
plainly through his vizier until the laffpr inaf of thought, but the satire and some-
^several centuries laten ^ collected Hetataltz, Hermann von (1821-94) German nhvs
^JTiSSS
“ S
<-■>
jjatin in XDZtt-
of new technique and wide lnfl.uence
hbT Jr/rf’ His
iAo»o-*iyDi;. American nove-
®SS'-in"K »«?•
^*^*9 England he was taâXS of;

PROMINENT PEOPLE
weather-reporting system he setb title of kmg of Judaea m 31 b.o. The massacre

up at the Smithsonian Institution led to the3 of the Innocents reported in the New Testament
creation of the U.S. Weather Bureau. is to keeping with Ms historical character.
Henry 1 (1068-1135), ’ King of Eoând. The3 Herodoto (c. 486-425 b.o.), Greek historian, called
youngest son of William the (Conqueror, he3 by Cioero the father of history. He travelled
ascended the throne during the absence on1 widely collecting historical evidence.
crusade of his elder brother Eobert of Nor¬ - Hîck, Eobert (1691-1674)
mandy. His long reign brought order and pro¬ His poems mclude Gather , yeEnglish lyric poet.
rose buds. Cherru
gress, not entirely destroyed by the anarchy '■ npe, and Oheron's Feast.
imder Ms successor Stephen. Herriot, Menard (1872-1967), Preneb Eadlcal-
Henry 11 (1183-89), King of England. He was s Soeiahst statesman. A scholar, mayor of Lyons
son of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, and Geoff¬ for more than a generation, three times prime
rey Plantagenet, count of Anjou: and his lands } mmister, he resisted the German occupation, and
stretched to the Pyrenees. He was a strong r was president of the National Assembly 1947-
ruler to whom we largely owe the establishment ) 54.
of the common law system (see D?) and perma¬ ■ Herscbel, Sir Joto (1792-1871), British astrono-
nent administrative reforms. His conflict , mer who eontmued his father’s researches and
with the caiurch brought about the murder of also pioneered photography, a term introduced
his archbishop Bechet, a man of resolute > by Mm.
character: and his later life was troubled by Ms 1 Hersohel, Sir William (1738-1822), German-born
unruly sons. astronomer who eame to England from Hanover
Henry HI (1207-72), King of England, succeeded as a musician: father of the above. Unrivalled
his father John In 1216. Himself devout and as an observer, and with telescopes of Ms own
simple, his long reign was troubled by a partly
factious baromal opposition. m the fililkyin-TOtigated the distribution of stars
Way and concluded that some of
Henry IV (1367-1413), grandson of Edward HI the nebulae be could see were separate star
and heir to the Duchy of Lancaster, became hing systems external to the Milky Way. He dis¬
of England in 1399. More solid and practical covered the planet Uranus in 1781. Piis sister.
than Ms cousin Eichard II, whom he had sup¬ Carolme Luoretia (1760-1848). compiled a
planted, he consolidated the government. catalogue of the clusters and nebulae discovered
Henry V (1887-1422), son of Henry IV, succeeded by Mm.
his father as king of England in 1413. A suc¬ Hertz, Heinrich EudoU (1867-96), German physi¬
cessful commander, he renewed the Prench cist, whose laboratory experiments confirmed
war and won the battle of Agincourt, but died Maxell’s electromagnetic theory of waves and
young. yielded useful information about their be¬
Henw VI (1421-71), son of Henry V. succeeded his haviour.
fether as king of England in 1422 as a baby. Herri. Theodor (1860-1904). foimder of modem
Gentle and retiring, he inherited a losing war political Zionism, was b. Budapest. He con-
with Prance. He founded Eton, and King’s vened a congress at Basle In 1897.
College, Cambridge. The Torkist line claimed Hesiod (fl. c. 736 b.o.) Greek poet, author of Work
the mown from^ (the Lancastrian) line, and ■_ and Fays, wMeh tells of life in the country.
the Wars of the Eoses led to Ms deposition and Hill, Octavia (1838—1912), English social reformer
death. concerned with the housing conditions of the
Henry VH (1467-1509) succeeded Eichard III . poor, a pioneer in slum dearauce in London.
as king of England after defeating him in 1485. Hill, Sir Bowland (1796-1879). originator of the
The first Tudor Mng, he was firm and shrewd, penny postal system. He was secretary to the
even avaricious: he buUt Henry VII’s chapel in Postmaster-General 1846-64, then cMef secie-
Wesimmster Abbey, and encouraged John tary to the Post Office until 1864.
Cabot to sail to Nortb America. Hindemith, Paul (1896-1963). German composer
Heiw and viola player. He is associated with the
, ed Msyinfather(1491-1647). King of England, sueceed-
Henry VII in 1609. A prince of movement for Gehrauchsmusih, wMch regarded
the ^nalssance. skilled in music and spofts. he music as a social expression. He incurred Nazi
loved the sea and built up the navy. His hostility and his later life was spent abroad.
minister Cardinal Wolsey feU when Henry, 1^ numerous and varied works mclude sonatas,
seeking divorce to obtain a legal heir, rejected chamber works, songs, operas, ballet music, aytn-
papal supremacy and dissolved the monasteries. pboMes. and the oratorio Fas GnauMUdhe.
ItotMess and ostentatious, he executed Sir See Section B.
Thomas More, spent his father’s accumulation, Hlndenburg, Paul von (1847-1934), GSerman
md in spite of six marriages left a delicate son Md-marshal. In 1914 he defeated the Eus-
to succeed. aans at Tannenberg. In Ms old age a national
Hemy TV ol France (Henry of Navarre) (1663- hero, he was president of the German Seieh,
1610). Prior to becoming king, he was the 1925*~S4*
leader of the Huguenots: and althou^ on Htaêdwood, Sir Cyril Norman (1897-1967),
being crowned he became a Caiholic, he protec¬ BnglMi chemist. He shared with Prof. Seme-
ted the Protestants by the Edict of Nantes. nov of Enssla the 1966 Nobel prize for chemistry
He then became a national king, but was later for Mseaiches into the mechanism of chemical
^ assasâted by EavaiUac. a religious fanatic. rations. Pres. Eoyal Society, 1956-60.
Henry the Navigator (1304-1460). Portuguese Hinton ol Bankside, Baron (Christopher Hinton)
promoter of discovery, son of John I. His (h. 1901), as managing director of the industrial
^ sailors discovered Madeira and the Azores. group of the U.K. Atomic Energy Authority he
Henschel, Sir George (1850-1934). singer, composer, pMyed an important part in the building of
and conductor. B. in Breslau, he became a Calder Hall. Chancellor University of Bath.
naturalised Englishman in 1890. Pounder and ;Hippocrates of CMos (fl. c. 430 b.o.), Greek mathe¬
London Symphony Concerts matician, the first to compile a work on the de¬
(looo). ments of geometry.
HepplewMte, George (d. 1786). English cabinet- Hippocrates : ol Cos (469-399 b.o.), Greek physi¬
mêr whose name is identided with the style cian. whose writings are lost, but who is believed
^ wMch followed the Chippendale period. to have established medical sdaools in Athens
Heraohtus ot Ephesus (c. 640-476 B.o,). Greek and dsewhere, and to have contributed towards
philosopher. a soientlflc separation of medicine from super¬
world (he livedH3s discovery
in an of a revolution
age of social c~ha,Tiging
stition, Traditionally be is the embodiment of
when Ahe_ ancient tribal aristocracy was begin- the ideal physician.
m^ to give way to democracy) influenced the HlroMto, ] Emperor ol Japan (b. 1901), acceded to
phflosopMes of ParmeMdes, Democritus, Plato, the throne in 1926. In 1946 he renounced Ms
and Aristotle, and later, of Hegel. legendary dlviMfcy.
Herbert, George (1693-1633). the most purely de- )Hirier, Adoll (1889-1946). German dictator, foun¬
votional of EngU^ poets. der of National Socialism, b. In Austria, son of
Hereward the Wake, the last Saxon leader to hold a customs official. He worked in lênna as an
out against the Normans. His base in the fens artisan and already held antisemltlc views. In
was captured in 1071 but ho escaped. His 1912 he oame to MuMch: enlisted in Ovarian
exploits were written up by Kingsley.
(c- 73-4 B.O.). At first governor i^mantry
the end atof outbreak
the war ofconditions
the Kaiser’s
in war.
Germany At
of Galilee under the Eomans, he obtained the favoured the growth of a fascist movement
i-rc«ivimENT
noB-HOW people
u
ipder his leadership the National
Wa^l) party climbed to power. He Socialist
bSamc
®^**i?®Uor in 1938 and on the death
of
Wehrmacht 1935. Under his Stoe “s
s
trn™?? ^ opimne
si?®® ntsnts
moveme — commun ruthlesoclaUs
were ists sslyêts
s-
Jews— were persecuted miSer afSSS'MIla
ed Bv ''S!
propag anda the German ‘stSe
Poôrful machine for aggres-
“v?s
s*
MBtory of the co-^^Mve mOTe .Sf
mSt
„ runeiand (1936), the annexation ofn Anstris
of the Holypake, Keith Ja4a (b 1904)
and n<faM°
Czechoslo
Rhtoel^ (1938-9).occupatio
vakia Ti? the invadon of potoician and farmer: Prime ’iton
, ,
invasion of Russia (1941) istef^S
andFran?f rn 1946: on 30 April heBritafn
com-
Berl^ ®Pioide as the Russian troops closed in on
^fhiv
sa e »e
ZToi
teSkS^
ei IM tt S5f“‘
Hobbes, Thomns (1588-1679), English £fs|
In 1651. Hephiloso nliPr
floure d
lllaCS
man Ol tu6 Slitlt'St t)Ufc llis a,rglimf>T>t.ci nmncA/-!
T-ôf FPPorted the snpre- British admiral who iii i7Qit^nJ 1816).
chiWS rovS f
eûh/.^ ™ enthusiasm for scientific of Eîffene Aram and Tlie Bfidap nf
®°S®\«asS. *>«»". -a
Sg“SX SliS'S WM aEo a humourist Md Ster^ ^
(1892-1969). leader of the Vietn
am
wnicn strutted for mdepend
during and after the secondence from ErantiB
world ^
mam purpose was to weld together the nationa^
hsticpresiden
arid communi stic Vietnam
t of North elements he
to fSt
lêtnamto
'
the UtoM State Vietnam, defyi^

Dimng the second world wai he wotS
™
nf Dept, of Molecular Biophysics thltyôf

Xf me ineory of alternating current and
^n;^
Hogarth, William (1697-l7fi4.r i?}™ to dynZosTe mve
^
Hoppner, John fivfiaXiaim V*
7.?/^!.
" ffiS power, especially
SwhSSS
idS"ind'’27lJM«
to his Unr
?£“'• ‘ ™SS’’ „f"gS.riSi)
Horatius Elacciis) (65-8 b c
toi to
tecnnic Institution m 1882 and tiirnfwi

it
AuiStus,'^■^^>toe
* ^ Elizabe
^ to become poet cka
th Frederi laureat to
(isqn-
e“t
ate 15te wfs V£?J“V^ education at moder- PhtoOTl' b?t hv’S^tof’h*^® r%ubii(^*sld
is«
»"ss
JSS3
Hott
wently investigated English prlsoM spcniw

Offices: Of a-onffiS
commanded the fleet which

^»|gfasa.=ia'Si‘‘is£S!
Of tte
liaaoT uBieaiea tne Spanish
^diz “(1696)® ® ’ captme of
pSUSSSSS^*-
&?.Wh?asaa.sf7sl‘
HOW-JAC
William Dean (1837-1920). AmericaT"" PROMSNENT peopue

HoweUs,
m a. iS- SS^te^'S SL“«S« S

“SSafted S £ >(.‘“-“11),
diKovery of BnslW. ttivlsatop
the Hudson river ^ Sed^GabUr and the poetic drmaJ>e«r
(1841-1922), naturalist, RalPb (1860-1964), Ennlish divine

m iiingi^d (1900). His books include The »dp^n tI*‘ books include Called
His “the
Ouhôlcen glComy
^0??^ ,4^0. Etrde Park bird sanctuary, con- ^nrJ?n!?’ (1833^9).

orator and lawyer, known A^San
as “ tlip crvAnf
tammgitimory
mem by Epstein, was estetoSed in Ms
ms âgnostic.”
T."'’?;*, «uifusiio ^
juomnugue (1780-1867)
memo ry. -.. i.aouBneu mut ms j^g^gg historical and Dominioue
classical painter.
Hxigglni Sir William (1824-l9inf PriWoT. oo. Erench ^ Auguste
historical and nv«ru-iQp-,His
,
^’tfmpf' (1824-1910). British as-
aaxu was neinea by his wife
Emm’^ grande odalisque “ the
in ‘he
P=aphrWT^"Telpe^ ««
ughes, (1848-1915).
Thomas (1822-96). ’asserted the
(e. 1160-1216),
TVItVAr QTirl Pope 1198-1916
Wirt^pvl TTp^
.Td-v-,-.^ *f^ II
-«d thel
papacy over =XrS^S"®
the Emperor Otto IVof PhUin it IT
encouraged the crusade
„SS2WS.^Kf‘ French poet, drama-
tisB, and novehst, who headed the Eomantip the^»h“X^2^ Of England, iSed
S'fn? ® i ‘he Albigens ian heretics, and held the
movement in France in the Siily zemtn ot the mediaeval papacy.
His dramas uniiuue
mclude aemani I9thn™„7„
cent
Bemnni. Miere-ce Borgia.
s’amuse. Of Ms novels zeMtôTfhp'’n?“r*'‘
^
nian
pontificate
Aoo^fcj, xuTinsh
He was leader of the Sib
marks
soldier and tlie
statpR-
TramitoUeurs
Ms early period, Les
de la mer, and
S
living he was by Kemal Atatilrk;

living min Pviip
iiv^Tey? exile
lXrr
In n
in .,p^
Guernsey. Less ’«'hile
^^'‘$®“
"^hile he
well knownwas
is , ô6i
1961-5.
premier
1961^5
r and president
i9S?gs^°'fnrt®‘‘ 1938-50
president 1938-50 am
am
and
Him® ^^Phic igtist. J^fihal, Sir Dtoammad
proseTin (1875-1938), poet-pMIoso
nh PF 1, atin
S5ff’ in '^c(0-iy3»),
Urdu, Persian
. tP^stan), He, poet-pMIOSO-
and
wrote both
Bnglisl L
wnn iTbcS locnT "emrion Alexander, Baron ekna?“ V^T *.T

U87y-i962),
lh? Englishnation
Me comuospr
aJisi^
•,{!?- German naturalist andBaron
ex- ^®“n« flS^S^f
Popularly known for his setting of IVIaapfipM^
de Humboldt et Bonpland (23 vols 1805-34) music and sonatas for pianoforte and
ploier whose
whole rlear&X
rescMches are recorded In Foyotfg Sea Fever, but also “®p®^«L^„5„“eW’s
a compo.ser of^lmhpS
and Kosmos (6 vols., 1846-62) Irving, Sir Henw (1838-ftnKi Wnîi^
(1711-76). Sottish philosopher who Lyceum theatre from 187lffater ^thÊllen
sMutMiS^ Locke into the he gave notable Shakespearean per-
™5
Hunt, Hoh^ ./Sir*™- *■
(1827-1910), EngUsh artist , |Si.tSKS,1£‘‘SS.S£^"'’“"“'‘
one of ^?hella of Castile (1451-1604) retoed ioin+iv with
ffs WSf Fre-Kaphaellte movemeM. her h^band. Ferdinand V oSioô^ver^
^^êst-known picture is The Light of me J^^hi. from wMch the Ho?mâ^d1he
and ,b. 1,101. when ,

b,.b. 1®®^.*!
.e.d„Tenzing “ of “■•=” ‘1>»
aSt, poto H« ®^®®^’“op Pasha (1830-96), CTandson Mehempf-
the
tte Duke of Edmburgh
Wdf dlrec”! £hi^f
independent of
of Egy^.“®aM
s Award Scheme. 1966- the Sultan. becê
H^r ^
Mm
toprisoned
and Imprisoned for , owS^
for abdica tion. dTs.s
s.r&Ss'.So'M ti uib
T53?a’«s‘i*“,
irulif-
liMlirS thp fined ",“‘ “■= “»«■
^w^n*fr1p^^nP®Tr?®t®®“‘
jae was a iriend of Heats and Pi-, ^
ShellevEîaminer. (Hastings
1966), British general who Lionel Ismay) (1887-
was chips nt otow
„ H^wâ
Huxley, frieS^SfK?“d
Thomas Henry fissfi-osiShX^“^
wSJ i„h Sir Winston GhnSTum J; thr?? ®“FT_?‘®'ff *«
‘he TOblication*ôf* I)S'^\
^rson uyw not

J^bo does null know
jcnow whetber
wneiiiier Ood
<4od exiRts
ftviof.a »
• «na to
©nd do Tartar
xartar rule.
rule.
Qod^**
Qod^** atheist wbo asserts there is no ^rrlble (1630-84), crowned Tsar
as first Tsai
?ssas’iS32d‘ga‘s,fSS
®“‘®h mathemati-
Poracist, and astronomer, son of the
nnet
^Mtantiln SMygens (1696-1687):
cUsTOvered
inÂnnûiS®^®!®®?? ‘he theory of light J

Hewt
Hei^ om
n. corpusoiuar theory of 4 uaou-i966), iSnEflisb
Hyae,Douglas(1860-ifl40) e corpuscula r
T.iphD.h.,i„- theory of Ja^,
Unitarian philosopher.
Lawrence Pearsall His wnrVo
1^1—''“^*“? <1860-1949). Irish irisn scholar,
scholar, histori
historian
an I PhilMopher. His (1860-1966
works ), English
include an
poet, and folk-lorlst; Aral. r,rpDis„,Tr’.ii- -Kr... ?• ■ *»*xux.ovif Amencan irenprnV
‘h® Suited States.
matin
ay'osf
Hroatia fi» AlATra„s,.i„
cSa
of Alexandr .*Vt -rr?“‘
U the only .. “ Who was twipp T,rpaMAn+ VvTFT.tJbr., >.cHcrai
aSifwoman mathemn.
ia,* Jonathan (1824-63), “Stone-
waU J ackson, was general on the
Southem side
^&® ®*citc" “totTof
Snsf ner, hp/ and agitaLn
againsn she was murdered in a, d. 416,
JorsvUl^®'^’^**’^ hilled at CShancel-
»'«oivilNENT PEOPLE
Sh if tL^^Grl^k iStto
of iT
Prttl*'|î ofhlf bhth*“®^^ amLded the

“ >'«"1 mw„r M
ffigfsasslfiS&?K
T„J®09“i»S its first goyemox-SS
'°ssai;si '™™>. nSiia.
She believed
^gUsh her^lf callpf7+^ ?l™*-rP°“™my),
domination: and bfherêfforte OhaH?^
tat canonised in 1920. ^ ^ keretie:

younger son of Ch'iriPQ t ^ciitrai. iie was commajirlpr-in n>»i*of «i- xi ^
and Sa abfâ^raffe Lkef ^°Sneraf®®K?w?p ® (1862-1981). French
French army in the 1 wS war ™ ^
James, Hemy (iIIITqi m a country apostles ofJe.<S^Cte^*^’a'GaliiP^ the twelve

brother of WflHam son of Zebedee andtoothP? of fisherman.
innri -crtt, vvmiam. jie hyecl mainlv noyellst,
hi 'Rtip'.
K o7iSd’'ftSg1
and arbitraryr he tot i9T
H'orm^’rtl
TP
logrfst an™i<;Sr ®b?U
if of
êloped*by°^*^ frjeM ‘>™«M to “S
^SSSaSlJfvKi
succSSnr hS ™
Section J. Pragmatism,
a?oSgflWtothl^nrn^r^'“f^^
toctoi“fs rF^
'^%raductol°®an| of^f°|L°°“Ppser and John, Augustus (1878-1961) TirifSa-h .,o- j.
ofTSatiS sty1e"“lt ™crto
P®st-toown opera is etcher, b. in Wales- nnf-Pri bs^mter and
Jenufa. See Section ^
^pS ^?Sof of s“f “'”S &”&,£
JelSgf&fS?H£l^M s& isx'jr ftS ss, “s rt ™»«
|a?ty. bfwlSchfhe fedMte She lost her Itff serê?^^fn?'*A^° Australia.
td Auxiliary in the seeS^woSdwIr^^ Transport
sTato'^96s‘*’9 i’êsident of
and mm of lettL ^ h®’l^^*®îMooCTapher

piciionary
lowed was publlshef?‘iTi
by tossfiZM ^l-|ôbfieid.
Top r/jS.V®®’ was His
foi-
1:® Sîôdicalhand
Johnston, Sir Harry fe^.pircle.
Jenner, Edward (1749— iroqi'*^^,- , ,
b. in Glos,. Dunii Physician,
gffs s
j-a«ffioi
Jdk^r^Mo^ of ^lil&y 4^’sSaro.’' novelist.
munology oundations of modern iin-
IrtuMitsf^S^^^^îf snd his wife
covered attlflcto ’radloaoHTHfS^* dis-
winuers 1936/ JoltofonrS^?^’
coverers of nuclei? ôbel prize-
a>®-
daughter
' of Fierrp n-nri Mfl*??/-!
Engh-sh was the
Chartist
■ S
communists
oSa and both Both were
_ by theto WOTt oancer caused
the standard use. became for centuries
“tro^to f “^t
stronomer
boi^'^'rT^H i®2’ fo™P6r of Chris- ^<S^h/tK?th
criticsd’ pS-lod “ J'jda«a to a ftom
bom of hto moHiPr history. The flrst-
âculously conceived ^sJnfi h?® f*®
father. jaS home was Vo^ bemg hia foster- miles. "0“ *^0 mm. 03.004.000
but when he wS atoit ^ âJêe.
mission. JE^ ,•?® ,a S-yea^
Sermon on the Aioim}^ J® Pmnmansed in the mwhere
Whiteh
hisall
buildings
aS^^thtobi^ tn*7if *o London,
e auseu’n
loye. especi^y to Se n^r theme E
He was later ^Sfled *^r2i downtrodden. wJch. He alsoiStrodu^^fS,! Green-
1. a. fe'SKe.r'ste'ifasfft Jons
andon.movable
Ben a57 3~IontheFr.SfiTî®''™
scenery eT7)?^S^^ ôfi
JOS-
KEY
ggg
ai,““g3lS'Sai'K“ H. BS/J3'S‘a,SS“ai ““
Joseptoe, Empress (1768-1814), wife of Nanolerm von (1805-74), ‘German nain
wori.’-ote-s
feni3'fe''«afa-ar?r"«
j.2SSS'’F'SS,i"“Ss“ioo)“riiffl mto
■"
“Saif*' °' “■> or 2ioSS
Sa sn,te? ptaM- ^since“Mependen^^lS%“64'’^"®'^"“‘ ^‘“bia
rnairneHHm
Cist, W Of .nip X?SrcKf electro-
elS- Ke^ Bamr»loe“r^
manager , in
Tree and sontheof Edmrad -tor.
kS W 1850s plSred He'^rr led Ellen
‘"t™5'^ scholar. He
Bieehanical with hS to Sec
^ eTS?aofhfatf
1 ® i)2«toff«es, and he was an
-„™.flpential Master of BaUlol Collefre O-^fowi
(William_ Allen Jowitt) (1886-1
British Lajtour politician
967)
He TOote The Strange Case and lord chancellor’
ofto
toiagmMf
ation and
n
beauty Prin c^^^’^Me:
of thought Thev
Joyce. .TamfiH nsQ€>_io<i\ of Alger S
■“*»£; . _
Wia TTufoi'l„ ■ author, b. Dublin
to
lA aJt eCfiEeTtS
thotefÎ^TtS?“?!°0P*9 SSSS
»i°tare Of a dS^ ass(5ciate^w4n clergîan’
i''2««eo
Porima of ^ n'.««’s include Walce. icm .gpptlon f Tractarian-
FSS’ .Sfs - ‘feffi
to^ Rart I.
m, Alphonse (1888-1 0fi7i^ B’re nch gene
innegan
■ii',.Q.,„T, _s ralWalce.
_ who author Helen
, Kelley (Wind
and lecturer
mdlec Adams
tm^whwho f^TrOrAOWlo.
and^^S^^
deaf before
(1880-1968),
S"^^^ American
the
^ age of
^ -P?*, and useful life.

(WilUam ^
Thomson) “
+1 « ’ D, Belfast, known for Ins work on heat and
TTni^n’
cifr b contributions foand
mathematician electrifai
physi-
science and submarine telSSaph
f fomir nunn tsyehiatrist. domain of heat he stands
to Jotoe L
y ^ tifi
his o£^,S o1
« boW-fP
SSS ‘mSfal, “■' KS%7JSSS
ssvfhSftrS'
or A‘So te°s?if
memberSis
"■
Md =»
Migtoal s ofssr
the jai
Orderfig 'js
of Merif-
,«
wayfari ng(Ufe insthesMiddle Kemble , Fanny (1809-98), Engfish
Roman s iês
l
empero r i ss
in the alreL
Bast cme of a noted theatrical Sir
He ^d his wife Theodora beautified GouQtanH* hlf ‘father
to wIV'^He codiftfSf?®*'®*’'’)*"® succassM

JuymaneoTtotw rSmd ‘stoic‘ m ^ Mm StodoSsr ™ "'“it.
beredforhisSalirm
uno!^ ship s company oif Suit-
J^^sh^Xv ^883-1924). ^German-speaking

thThuft of whose introspectivl
o r i '^cctou irom cuoercmosis, has had o/cMst. iSlo^
IîUation
o/ Christ.
aafter ’hise early
notabl influen ce onfrom
death
later schools esneciaiiv
of the TT 8 A President
S.?°o“S»a“S ",;.!!!7.'. T'Sl-
Section mTS !’ pose to?emeet

and“ga themerio
theÂ chaUm
Sanstoit liters
m ^s of aa sSifl
people seMe“crpu“
IsioTmL mftaoTO atoit
ta°Ea£
J0»«cl"aoa wf?“**l“S“'’ MtiiSiI
iKU‘^ «g3 «nS
K5.SS '» -Me «SSiS is

for
^ the residency wmie •campaigning
Kant, Immmuel (1724-1804). German nhilosn ^rd BurlWon! wCe btold
astronomer
^ cb oiiui'b wme assistant to
measu rementime Tvcha
^^rrl'^^^heraiii ffe was infltiennpd ‘hir +’ka for a short ts he used to tnworki
assistant npTr/»Viri
ng
laws of planetary motion, which
neightom H^Si Rom^- measuremente he SS'to arc-
™ ??*«Rousseau
fflf Selton %>“ and Hume 1. Planets move round the sun
imd his own work was of immens not to cirrfet'
e influence in but in ellipses, the sun being
Shaping future liberal th^t/ moves not uniformlyonehutof inthesuch foci’a
m the freedom of man to make He
his own decision « w that a line drawn from itto th^sm
out equal areas of the ellipse sw^ns
in eaS tlmM
the period of revolu
woref^r^^T^ *1® eimloitatton Of mi^^l^s'thl tion round
a worldJdemionTstafes^*"^^ advocated o^hMe^faw was

^»ed»„iic^
ftba ||fLM^
logyr ^ aeath-blow to
ISM®- ,,^«l la5ie
on Zeehmg ge "ormd
in 1918.
PROMINENT PEOPLE
key-
lag
g
Maynard Keynes) (18S3-
1946), British, economist, who was a Treasnrv
m T7ie JSconamir
‘^siriko'sti.TK
am^rnbmhed^hû VersaiU^ peace conference^ i.gfsatssfr
Kosci ô, Tadeiisz (1746-1817).
SoVSoff Polish
« nifriat
£&p.‘”iAâf.^‘’STi S'S? £
KLrashohev, Nikita Sergeyevich (b. 1894) issssss.&&issisiibl^^
“
2)?™became Kiisisinn
leS an019(
statesm who leader of the Soviet
lucc&.
paltlof toTpanfo X^
temporary
^creta “of the Sovtet CoiS^mift llrty^’igfs-
larf'oTtKSil^^^ Kosygin, Alexei Nilcolayevicli ni

those with China bwame stramedT i on/i \
Advances
scientific achievement, notabl y in
the field of space research. In 1964 his Scll^'f MiStem^°f®thf K i sT" 1“^
were taken over by Leonid Rnio
secretary) and Ale.vei Kosy Brezto ev minister) in iflha- (prmie
gmlSI
Gfosplan. - -
Sjng, Marto Luther {1929-68 ).«>**'“ “'>■».

America His
n clerow
.SSmrkgSSô"’'
cne j.yb4 iNObel peace prize fnr hia
the“l964
snppor ™^âtion. leader: awarded
t of the Prinefe le oFnoT-vMeMe in the Kropotkin,
anarchist, Peter, Prince (wapiioo?!®!®- •
™Pnso ned geographer
for favouimgand
thellplorej
pSi ’ Son
whS®w^?
of
graphi
En calgl êd Yo“ escape to
anffsiav. nTiarfoc nom “tv *?• subjec!^
ts. E?tim° Rîa®d to
Sê7ard ^TT f Sok
KlPtog, RudyMd (1865-1936). English ^S’lefctopreside
who nt. When the^r(1825-1904).
fn ilS?®®
writer h of 189^'
Krupp, Alfred (1812-87). founder nf +>,«,

anl"£
Nfbg prize in iwf itfnctadef±^"LSftof i S SS,S““ >» Sij'siS;
IgiMiilli
Krylov, Ivan Andrsyevioh (l76S-i8aai

ta im *rled as a war crtoinal
s,53 bJ^n^failMe &

JI#Sa
»nf
a^g^ ag“
e^ -
a^^Mch tet'near Prague^ô at“tf ^
iliif to P"bfc. mfs®on

®^rss artist, whose
his way to Kia. drowned on
paint-
|2fe
„taKj
KIS' reformer, b. near

Influenced ™ exile at Geneva he was
Mary, Queen of ^^rming party against

_ " ôte a mstory of Sd to
him unpopular When , °p made
S ‘^““PoMtioM
the orchestralCM
ffle suite Sungartous,
Dhony^^f^S inTa'a/^T’ ^^d the sym-
Kokosohka, fh issm®!; Section E.
iHlsfeBs
SSafex^€ISs agrange, Joseph Louis,
Comte (1736-1818)
t-AU-LEN
„ , B37 prominent people
S’rGBCli matlieiiiiitiGiain, of Turin and 3?arfs
oann i
“ astronomy led Mm to (UsTim md lxec& subseauently tried
âer®“ portrait
on^?’ Jerome LeFraueais de (1732- faet^^n+^V.?™^’ ^5"“ AJ'st to establish the
• ievolution
of V , was
»v«-s> that
uiici.u new
new oS^
orKans are bronGfht. LeS^ss?vs^l“^“»»“Sk.
^ tou^t
's&Sgf.fgS'iSsaithSis&tS
into temg
teme by the needs toed toi XHULDB.,(1885-1930).
mterpret emotio
English
a Ulmer s son. Tif^
by
its the needs of
environment of the organism in
the orgaS^ tr fe nd on a deeper level of
and that the new He
fecihties cm te passed on to the offspring MMcmt ^ness
mde influen.ce, His works,
includ e IkewMch White hav“^ had
Peacock
toough here^ty. See The Evolution
Organisms, Section F, Part IV. of
and® LMv°Sh^^’ Rainbow, Women in Love,
Sections laid M(Pkrt I). ' ’ ««
LondorÂ^lerktatheB^fa^^^
j|®TOted his.life to Ms sister Mwfwh®^ of St°Mer™°“^ (1769-1830). English por-
LaSrsf & Zl
If acoiittas^&îSaMm humorist
"““■“‘■““I' ^J.uuo-DjL}, jiingusn comnoser
M^h mciuae tM
composer "^X’ef j/.B Crrea( Tradition', H. R. Laiorenop
baUef”w*Hfe^tu ânde jazzSadler’
conductoisr m of idiom. s^VeL “orS
Sc&^f
Landor;-
jw ter, bl^ter
Warwick. SaVê He (mW86« English
is chiefly rimeSed f^-oT. auwuA-u aarcpoiealJd OmS’
(1838~1903)
,(1838-1903
ioeiS: Conversations and forliS historian, mit.nn. „r ,. „
lor his Imaginary
poems. wi AXiLhoi
Of L-uttuic ne
iTitra,nf-.nMA lived iL"
tor
al y. îvcu lor
some years in It(1M2-78). English animal ted a Eree Erench
force m (HJnhppe Comte de
. the second
Africa in
Haute eloourt
o He painted the Monarch M ^ WrBA
world war and liberated French general. He
Paris in 1944 He
Square^“ designed the lions in Trafalgar J^®^'^~t965), pseudonym of ne
Lane, Edward William (1801-76). EngUsh Arabic plane cra .iwaa.
Charles
died m a ,*^Baim sh.
eret, Swiss arcMtect whose
°f the Arabian Nights. books and work (especially his
Lanfranc (c. 100o-89), ecclesiastic. B. at MMseilles and the new UMtl d’HaWt^
Punjab canital
Pavia
^ ™ Normandy, and in 1070 widely influenced town-
energSte°® (Canterbury, in wMch Scottish

office he man
was
‘•a ss,?
? sns
D®f? output includes Myth,
iStto poems, fairy-tales, aud
Baron (Ctosmo Glordon Lang) (1804- Edw^ (1807-70),
“ ■“ Ooa-
Ainerina.Ti
“““
1946), WM archbishop of Canterbury, 1828-4?’ niMtortSa3,S°”‘
Xangland. William nss?n9— i4nn9\ Tc»i!iijS,®— ry; i
Wiffi^'TlloT-S)“S«^^ BurrenderrtAppomatto^^^^ war. wno made the
Lai»
—Langton, uwifutju
Stephen uj.oj.-j.a
(1161-1228) arehiiioTierv
i5o), arclibish oT) nf I —
r «raptj^.
O^terbury, and advEer to the insurgent barons i artist, D. J-iOndon
iioibiutz, (Jottfried Wilhelm (1646-1716)
la^bury, George (1869-1940), British iSm- German
Leibn^ t?Vrit fft?®a’
5P<1 “uthematician, Punch.
who
pohtieian, founder of the Daily Rerald TTp the differential and integral
mdependently of Newton whose calculus (1684)
previous work
A® ^°!?.S^l°Bo»her) (c. 600 n.o.), traditional ^fuue subject was not published until
r oniôPierto
LasÎace, ^Ûofui bi China. See Section J.
Simon, Marquis de (1749-1827)
T.a4/tAoÂn Ac . _ a-
of Gehstial Mechanics (1799-1826), H^ ad- ^Êîfah °* ®°bert Dudley) (1538-88)
w®An
had bpotheste
condensed oufc oi a that
vast the soiar'^tem n-nd
thTfetoarw’fL ?i»5SlHu8rlish troops to
nebul a.rotating gaôuafeiiocuus ana. in success,
m 1688 commanded forces fl«<«a^WAd
Erancois, Duo de (1613-80) Armada. He w^ husband fflfX^y
^^<^ciionsmaM0Tal Lel| Ericôn (fl. looo), discoverer
Lasker. EmanuFlmannal (1868-
Mono 1A4,, .
ofVlnlandon
the nOrth-east cnaaf. nf 4fTYQ..iAo.V® UU
Lasker , el 1941) German nheoa the north-east coast of America: h. Tcnianri mr,
^ player, world chaiiipion. 189449^ hlorer. Eric the Bed, wRiom
(iSBe-ffith sopteiisf t .^1*1
Geânmovement cu, waocoion
LassaUe,took Ferdinand
part in the revolutionary (Bobert Leighton) (1830-96)
for MM Tw.: pupmaiicy, whose works
McM v.,wv«. a.*toXAuo,
«¥hts .”“* *® 1 ^ciude Pdoto cjjid Ffducesccir, He was also a
-mT , r“® v-Aja-s«u, unanao oi). (c. 1632-
Minporary
temnSfl^^®îf ®?®f writer
of Palestrina^ choirmaster, con-
of chansons mtoten®^ ?®Ûf6l8-80),
La^m*?r^^,«S“/^ ®" Sacred
1^86-1666), Protestant ’
Bee Seetio^.”
mnsic.English
martjT. became bishop of Worcester to ixom loUd to 1917 he worked underffroimd
1636 Russia imd abroad for the revoluti in
a'lchblshop of Canter¬ ’ Dming this time the Soclal-D^S onary cause
™der Queen Itey'
r bury and adviser to Charles I. His attemnts
to was fomed: within it developed an^ pSy
church poUcy made pronnsh® revolutionary group, the Bolshevi uncom^
ks
^^^»opular and he was Impeached anê- and of tlto_^ôf^®
up Lento
bis was
fellowtheexiles
leading sniilt’
returned :
(187^1950). Scottish comic after the November revolution he headed
smer of TOde popularity. He also wrote new goverênt. having to face boto wm the
MamM in flrn Gloarnin’. and
anarchy
politician who somewha.^ In 1922
t minified his “new econM p^w ”
the intensive drive towards
Goixaporated mth the German occupat planned industrial development.
ion in He was born
UEO-LOM
l_
ia Simbirsk (now TTlvanoTOH PROMINENT PEOPLir
g wssss I ■" - ™
iag to Lodovico Sforza, Duke of ^ Keatucky, he became^ln*^^ President.
f=£rSM«:
IfonaDisaintheLouvre peort^by the “soyemment

T^’asaassmateainlges -
and, Jenny nfi5>o-Bi7\ cîSFJi;
uSSS^5lSA'8)“LSr??
lisSfffiaMrS'i bered for system oTrt^S- remem-
s'rjwa,2;te'‘gSS%“ "
lavSW &e'h"y^lt^'3
toshed Masaccio’s fres^®^^ f
wLre lefeu““ Pass of Thermopylae'!
=*xuuui,ov, ammazl Yurevich (iRia-aii Morence, and executed otuLJ o,™® Carmine,
poet and novelist, exiled to the t • ®anta Marla NoveUa instance in
winner 1908 ‘'“^•'“siapay. j>(ol)el prize-
fî?’ Sir Thomas

^.TriSunerilk^S. Johnstone
^ (lasn-ioa
Yorkn Hemld
a ^
'P>S#S“SS‘sa tish business man nnn ^cot-
Glaagow he emiSn£.,s d Philanthropist. B
i..SS£Mia£l, &id. nsotl^t ““
across the Suez istPmno- tirf“® a canal aS!Vs™S2”t
Pieted in iSRQ ^™PS. the work was eom- ,S=H&fr
hsh surgeon, son of J. ib lister (l7fiff\a flQ?“^'
amatetiT microqmniaf '^Tc an
T^hlch Îd.*^® original
DeSSIêffiif surgery (1866)°whteh^£rrpSiTr^°'^?*^®^, antiseptic
, in hospltol: reduced mortality
ifji “a3s''ss™^
SMk”“ ■“'«“>«! fi» a ffi If ad7&“;°Kg»M«»a5gsi';:‘
°g;â8»ym5};°a.i,‘gg.,.Ba«th LiSjSnSa’fgsSrif & # St "

ffir£a‘bjL%s-sr
cal eraonent of indu^M S/rr
Y-ake Ihdawi)? aid (now
I-aacaster House to hhe n^nl ^®’ trade. At one the
v.^v«.ucMv;c ui cn6 Planet

NentiTi
existence of the nlanet '^JP’^ted the
- |vealed by
Levl-Strauss,
T So“c
tiy Claude s^^^®
telescopicfK 'tSo\
sea rch-r, ," ““ later SaffiSidS ja.!tf«fflssuy
2?tto^t0glstf b
“fTK ™
SS£5:SlalW conference. In the peace
s
lYee State. %iadaS^j,to^'®®^®'*„ the^ “sh
J&snftLsSF'
PhM a^ foTOder eiwWolL”’?^^ Philoso-
paFi&li-^P
;Hobel prizewinner 1981 ’ ■tinier Gantry .
Ration, Treatises onTJ^^,

>T^riaSrSsags mf%LZ
mufh «.Xb2S?S K KSS.‘t “™» _ from the normal * distinguishable

toume.
talb Japan in 1896 ^ iTormosa
John (i6i4-57). English agitator and
fS'^phuKlfand''p»'^
Russian grammir and ortlmgrllhy.^ 11711-65).
®““^**®®^
LON-M ' prominent
AC g PEOPUE
Iiondon, Jack (1876-1916), American
aênture tales such as Call of the Wmauthor of
Iiongfellow, Henry Wadswo tr^llsof “to;’ wjMTOjjeflw iteaiism (1946. Ens.
can noet. noDiiln.r vyaaswortn
!n jiia rth (1807-82),
(1807-8
lift,*?,-,, , Ameri-
2) Ameri¬ 1962h ’ ^ SistoTical jMovei (1955;
Novel (1955: Eng.
Eiig. tr
te!
EeS ^^whofipSw ®°otMsh geologist

'*ni58 s«ISi
vuw earner ones nistoricah the J-oyo/. Jtcusaian biologist wha

.
«S“JmS
naaintai th&t „5S
neii r;« onviroiuiiental GsroerieiKsefi mn
sti
are ff dealing
lost everyday life!
with everyday most ^^^tainS^nf^;iJi!Sl' « Ruîan biologist
life: but most who
Loroa^, S^derico Garcia (1899-1936), Spanish by Iiamarclc
somewhat
. After irtKa“eS
the death nf ^tÛn
uioiuaiitsi, or Anaaiusia. ATnnTi/p poet hio -^ter une aeatb of Stalin
works are ilawto par Ignacio Sdnehez Mejias «tt4.uu ^Jiiuwara ueorge
criticised,
iyarie T.v^tnn
^ thwri^
BSêr- were ^yerely 2’he
4i4i^®d
an unforgettable lament on the death of a hull ' ^ Lytton ) (Edward
(1803-73), Gteorge
E^lif h Bll
Earle Tof
Lvtton
noS
fighter. ^dOnncm«de J?«ete®itshaSn^^^ (1803-73), Englifh novIS
far, away and KT ^ lazst NavTof
’ivasErut^y murdered by Eranco sympat
at the outbreak of the civil war hises
Louk IX (1214-70), St. Louis, King
Of saintly character (as described in of Erance
Joinê’s
despotic nilerf^brSder ^êrmUlS^^h^'alm (1756-1836). Scottish in"

but’he sowed re^pak^°^*^® “âdamising " system of road
âiistii^
Nantes which WMS?^°He° revoked freedom
had given religious ^hÊ(uSto the
^f defended (1880-1964),
the PhilippinesAmerican
against
Huguenots since 1698. iioê ver, reheved of his commasecond
however nd in world
1951 inwana^dwls
theXrS
and selfdndSigent.^lelCTSa*ed a*SS2g Bothiey, 1st Baron (Thomas Bab

periodtfor the monarchy, but produced so
me mL'cfKM'^ HE po^X'
break of the Erench revolution 1 VRO m EngUsh. ^
hi. husa. MM. AhtoiMte i'S
Lo^, Joe (Joseph Louis Barrow) (b 1914) morm^r of Moray,m succee married Gruoch
ding Ihmcan
fair fighk ttk K in
“Se,s Shsss; s,”s.„2i “«,ii
dSSffila Montgom ery a.^ —“in
(1888-1966). '
British
tei'
worked in varied fields, including Mll
mJn wfDuncan was prosper
s son, ous, butInhe1057
Malcolm, wS
a1pM&““- anti-aircraft and S

^bD. ’ riew
New Zealand , associate with theCartoonist. '“‘‘ “ "•=
zeaia Jl®®/-!®-®?)*, Euenhin „iKsffSoCha'
Snel Btoo Ouardianx creator of
^well, Robert (b. 1917), American poet, heroine who saved the life of Ifrtooe
Glory, and Lifeauthor
Studiesof Edward after the defeat at Oulgt Charl^
o Moor in
Iss and prose! Macdonald, Sir John Alexander (1816-9
founder 1) Oann-
„a£?a.r
Hamsay (1868-1937) Labour
(99-66 B.C.), :^man poet, author premier 1924 and
He natura ferum, a long phUoso of ■*■“•^9 31 , also of a coahtion 1931—6 iTfs notinn
nhlcfti rim.™
W31
adov^
wcuci.ting moral trSfh uAxtj Jxutuiuiai crisis Of 1v)HJ rllTrlrlA/l 1i?o
Lugard, 1st Baron (Erederick John Dealtrv ^P’^®®®PfatIve in Africa ’

British Nigeria
strator in Africa, especially coffl auri
fcK o-c S S settled (Wl-WSSirBSti^psyeho-
in America. He ounnanri
ponent of the system of indirect ruin throueli works Include Intro-
native chiefs. mmecc rme through d^tm to Social PsyOtohay aM OmHiW or
Luther, Martin (1488-1546) norruo,, -d ^ Psychology. uumne of
reformer. After spend^’tS^^monS^* Maohiavelli, Niccol6 (1467-1527), Elorentlne Ee
S'^.^scisrksHss
v ''1 “ .concerned with
sssScM’iXi th.'gi."Kf??i.Sma°;
the realitv
retafn now nT nuuâ
er rnust doWitt
to
S« Sis- .S’ 1
Mor Of 8=;: aM teSated thê Sn ^d
„can andSal.^ HfeccMrses Eis more republi-
German Protestantism culminated to the Aiml'
'—rp''""*’-’* «-u, William (1869-1946), British class!-
vuxjupiuu ID. loba) 'JBritiSii Writer
s f - ”
, isK
tram accident.. Nobel prize for waee 1960 “ ?®rbert Marshall (b. 1911), Canadian
LutyeM, Edwin Landseer (1869-1944) English a number of books on contemporarv
arcMtect both of country houses and rmhiir> ^®PiP®Pâtions, including Phe Chttenbera
expounded m mstory and Glass Gonsoiousn

ess CtoUorTo.xfoiÛi;fêiX
MCM-MAR B40 prominent PEOPCE
McMillan, Margaret (1860-1931), Scottish educa¬ Promessi Sposi (Tlie Betrothed) won Eiu-opean
tional reformer, b. New York, and pioneer reputation.
(with her sister Eachel) of child welfare work in Mao Tse-tung (b. 1898), Chinese national and
liondon and of open-air nursery schools. Conmnmist leader. B. in Hunan, of rural
Maeneioe, Louis (1907-63), British poet, play¬ origin but rmiversity training, he understood
wright, and translator. See Section M, Part II. how to win peasant support for a national and
Maoready, William Charles (1793-1873), British progre-sslve movement. Attacked by Chiang
actor and manager, especially associated with Kai-shek, he led his followers by the “ long
Shakespearean roles. march ” defeat
to N.W.
Maeterlinck, Matirioe (1862-1949). Belgian man of Issued to bothChina, whence
Japanese later they
and Chiang and
letters, whose plays include La Prineesse proclaim a People’s Republic in 1949, and later
MaXeine, PelUas et Melisande, and L’Oiseau to promote the “ great leap forward ”. He
Bleu. Nobel prizewinner 1911. He also did resigned the chairmanship of the republic in
scientific work on bees. 1959, but came to the fore again in 1966-S
Magellan, Ferdinand (c. 1480-1621). Portuguese leading the cultural revolution.
navigator, and commander of the first expedi¬ Marat, Jean Paul (1743-93), French revolution
tion (1519) to sail round the world. leader, largely responsible for the reign of terror,
Mahler, Gustav (1860-1911), Austrian composer and assassinated by Charlotte Corday.
and conductor; a writer of symphonies and Marconi, Guglielmo, Marchese (1874-1937),
songs, a claasic-al romantic, much influenced by Italian inventor and electrical engineer who
Anton Bruckner and Wagner. See Section E. developed the use of radio waves as a practical
Mahavira, Vardhamana Jnatriputra (6th cent. means of communication. In 1895 he sent
B.C.), Indian historical (as opposed to legendary) long-wave signals over a distance of a mile,
founder of Jainism, which teaches the sacred¬ and in 1901 received in Newfoundland the first
ness of all life. See Jainism, Section J. transatlantic signals sent out by his station in
Maintenon, Franooise d’Auhlgne, Marauise de Cornwall, thus making the discoyery that radio
(1635-1719), second wife of Louis XIV. Her waves can bend around the spherically-shaped
first husband was the poet Scarron. On the earth. Nobel prizewinner 1909.
Marco Polo. See Polo, Marco.
king’s
which death
she hadshefounded.
retired to a home for poor girls
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-80), Roman
MakariosHI (b. 1913), Greek Orthodox archbishop emperor and Stoic philosopher of lofty char¬
and Oypriot national leader. Deported by the acter, whose Meditations are stUl read.
British to the Seychelles in 1956, he returned in Marcuse, Herbert (b. 1898), political philosopher.
1957 to become president of the newly inde¬ B. Berlin, he emigrated to the H.S. during the
pendent republic in 1960. Nazi regime. A critic of Western industrial
Malibran, Marie FeUcite (1808-36), Spanish mezzo- society, he sees the international student pro¬
soprano. test movement as the agent of revolutionary
Malik, Yakov Alesandrovleh (b. 1906), Soviet change.
diplomat: permanent representative at U.N. Marla Theresa (1717-80), Empress, daughter of
1949-52, 1967- : ambassador to Britain 1063- the Hapsburg Charles VI. Able and of strong
60 ; deputy foreign minister 1960-7. character, she fought unsuccessfully to save
Malory, Sir Thomas (c. 1430-71), English writer. Silesia from Prussian annexation. She pro¬
From earlier sources and legends of King Arthm moted reforms in her dominions. She married
and the Knights of the Bound Table, he com¬ the Duke of Lorraine and had 16 children.
piled Maiie Antoinette (1755-93), Queen of France, was
1485. the Morle d’ Arthur printed by Caxton in daughter of the above and wife of Louis XVI:
Malraux, Andrd (b. 1895), French novelist whose accused of treason, she and her husband were
works Include La Condition htimaine, L’JEspoir, beheaded in the French revolution.
and Psydioloffie de The
I’arl Creative
(tr. in 2 Act).
vols.. Museum, Marie Louise (1791-1847), daughter of Francis I of
ivifhout Walls, and Austria, became the wife of Napoleon and bore
Malthus, Thomas Robert (1766-1834). English him a son (Napoleon II).
clergyman and economist who In his gloomy Marius, Caius (167-86 b.o.). Roman general who
essay The Principle of Pox>ulaHon contended defended Gaul from invasion: later civil war
that population tends to Increase faster than forced him to flee from Rome, and on his retm-n
the means of subsistence and that its growth he took terrible revenge.
could only be checked by moral restraint or by Mark Antony. See Antouius, Marcus.
disease and war. Marlborough, 1st Duke oi (John Churchill) (1650-
Manet, lEidouard (1882-83), French painter. His 1722), English general, victor of Blenheim,
Impressionist pictures include Olvmma and Ramillies, Oudenarde and IMalplactuet. His
Tin bar aux FoUes-Bergire (the latter at the wife, Sarah Jennings, was a favourite of Queen
Courtauld). Anne.
Mann, Thomas (1875-1966). German writer who xjiunvwvi vmisiuujLiui ii£5/, jiiDijiisn arama-
won world recognition at the age of 25 with his tist and precursor of Shakespeare. His plays
novel Buddenbrooks. His liberal humanistic include JDr. Faustus, Tamburlaine the Great,
outlook had developed suflioiently by 1930 for Edward II, and Tie Jew of Malta. His early
him to expose national socialism. He left Ger¬ death was due to a tavern brawl.
many in 1933 to live in Switzerland, then settled Marryat, Frederick (1792-1848). English author
in the H.S. Other works are The Magic of sea and adventure stories, including Peter
Mountain, and the Joseph tetralogy. Nobel Simple, Mr. Midshipman Easy, and Masterman
prizewlimer 1929. Beady. He was a captain in the Royal Navy.
IMtann, Tom (1856-1041), British Labour leader Marshall, George Gatlett (1880-1959), American
for more than fifty years. general. He was H.S. chief of staff 1939-46,
Manning, Henry Edward (1808-92), English car¬ and originated the Marshall Aid plan for
dinal: archbishop of Westminster 1865-92. European reconstruction. Nobel prize for
He was an Anglican churchman before he peace 1953.
entered the church of Borne. MartW, Marcus Valerius (c. 40-104). Roman poet,
Mansfield, Katherine (1890-1923), short-story b. in Spain. He is mainly remembered for his
writer, b. Wellington. New Zealand, whose work epigrams.
was influenced by the short stories of (jhekov. Marvell, Andrew (1620-78), EngUsh poet and
Her second husband was John Middleton poUtical writer. He was Milton’s assistant and
Murry, literary critic. ^ wrote mainly dining the commonwealth.
Manson, Sir Patrick (1844-1922), Scottish physi¬ Marx, Karl (1818-83), German founder of modern
cian, the first to formulate the hypothesis that International communism, b. Trier of Jewish
the malarial parasite was transmitted by the parentage. He studied law, philosophy and
mosauito. His joint work with Sir Bonald history at the universities of Boim and Berlin,
Ross rendered habitable vast areas of the earth and later took up the study of economics. In
hitherto closed. conjunction with his friend Engels he wrote the
Manuzio, Aldo Pio (1460-1516), Italian printer, OoffinMtWMfibrawi/esto of 1848 for the Communist
foimder of the Aldine press in Venice, which for League of which he was the leader. Because
just over a century issued books famed for their of Ids revolutionary activities he was forced to
beautiful type and bindings. leave the continent and in 1849 settled in Lon¬
Manzoni, Alessandro (1786-1873), Italian novelist don. Here, mainly while living at 28 Dean
and poet, b. Milan,i Whose historical novel I Street, Soho, he wrote Das Kapital, a deep
MAR-MER B41 PROMINENT PEOPLE
analysis of the economic laws that govern Mazarin, Jules (1602-61), cardinal and ministeT
modem society. In 1864 he helped to foimd of Prance was b. in Italy. In spite of opposi¬
the first International. He ranks as one of the tion from
most original and influential thinkers of modern work of the nobles,uphe acontinued
building strong Richelieu’s
centralised
times. He was buried at Highgate cemetery. ; monarchy.
See Marxism, Section J. Mazeppa, Ivan Stepanovich (1644-1709), Cossack
Mary I (1516-58), Queen of England, was daughter : nobleman, b. Ukraine (then part of Roland,
before E. Ukraine passed to Russia, 1667). He
of
EomanHenry Catholic,
'VIII andsheCatherine
reversed ofthe
j4xagon.
religiousA : fought unsuccessfully for independence allying
changes made by her father and brother, and himself with Charles XII of Sweden against
about SOO Protestants were put to death. She Peter I of Russia (Poltava, 1709). According
married Philip of Spain. to legend he was punished for intrigue by being
Mary II (1662-94), Queen of England with her tied to the back of a wild horse and sent into
husband the Dutch William III. As daughter the steppes. Byron wrote a poem about him
of James 11, she was invited to succeed after the Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805-72), Italian patriot. B.
revolution of 1688 and expelled her father. (3enoa, he advocated a free and imitcd Italy,
Mary Stuart, Queen o! Soots (1542-87), daughter of and from Marseilles he published a journal.
James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise, she Young Italy. Expelled from the continent,
laid claim to the English succession. She was he took refuge in London in 1837. In 1848 he
hnprisoned in England by Elizabeth and be¬ returned to Italy, and became dictator of the
headed. Her husbands were the dauphin of short-lived Eoman republic, which was put
Prance (d. 1560), Lord Darnley (murdered down by Prench forces. His contribution to
1566) and Bothwell. Italian unity was that of preparing the way.
Masaryk, Jan Garrigue (1886-1948), Czech diplo¬ Meflawar, Sir Peter Brien (h. 1915), British zoolo¬
mat. The son of Thomas, he was Czech mini¬ gist, author of The AH of the Soluble and The
ster in London 1925-38, and foreign secretary Future of Man: president of the British Asso¬
while his government was in exile in London ciation 1969. Nobel prizewinner 1960.
and after it returned to Prague, 1940-8. MetUoi, Plorentme family of merchants and
Masaryk, Thomas Garrigue (1860-1937), Czech bankers who were politically powerful and who
statesman and independence leader. He was patronised the arts. Cosimo the Eider (1389-
the first president of Czechoslovakia, 1918-85. 1464) was for over 30 years virtual rider of
Mascagni, Pietro (1863-1946), Italian composer Plorence. His grandson, Lorenzo the Magni¬
of Gavalleria Faisticana. ficent (1449-92), poet, friend of artists and
Masefield, John (1878-1967), English poet. His scholars, governed with munificence. His
best-known works are Salt-Water Ballads (as a grandson, Lorenzo, was father of Catherine de’
boy he ran away to sea), and Bernard the Fox. Medici, Queen of Prance {q.v.). A later Cosimo
He became poet laureate in 1930.
(1519-74)
then was an of
Grand-Duke ableTuscany,
Duke' ofwhich
Plorence
title and
the
Maskelyne, John NevU (1839-1917), English lUu-
sionist. He also exposed spiritualistic frauds. Medicls held until 1737.
Massenet, Jules Emile Preddrio (1842-1912), M6hnl, Etienne Nicolas (1763-1817), Prench opera¬
Prench composer of songs, orchestral suites, tic composer. Joseph is his masterpiece.
oratorios, and operas, among them Manon and Meitner, Lise (1878-1969). co-worker of Otto
Hahn {g.v.) who Interpreted his results (1939)
as a fission process. A Jewish refugee scientist
Massine,’ Leonide (b.
of Dlaghilev’s 1896), Russian In
choreographers. dancer,
1944 one
he ! from Germany, she became a Swedish citizen
became a IJ.S. citizen. in 1949.
Masters, Edgar Lee (1869-1950), American poet Melanchthon, Philip (1497-1660). German reli¬
remembered for Tm Spoon Biver Anthology. gious reformer, who assisted Luther, and wrote
Matisse, Henri (1869-1954), Prench painter, the first Protestant theological work, Loci
member of a group known as ies Fames (the communes. He drew up the Augsburg con¬
wild beasts) for their use of violent colour and fession (1630).
colour variation to express form and relief. A Melba, Nellie (Helen Porter Mitchell) (1861-1931),
number of his paintings are in the Moscow Australian soprano of international repute, b.
Museum of Western Art. near Melbourne.
Matsys (Massys), Quentin (1466-1630), Plemlsh Melbourne, 2nd Viscount CWilliam Lamb) (1779-
painter, b. Louvain, settled Antwerp; he 1848). English Whig statesman, was premier at
worked at a time when Italian influence was the accession of Queen Victoria.
gaining ground. His Money-changer and his Mendel, Gregor Johann (1822-84), Austrian
Wife is in the Louvre. botanist. After entering the Augustinian
Maugham, William Somerset (1874-1966), British monastery at BrOnn he became abbot and
writer, b. Paris. He practised as a doctor till taught natmal history in the school. His main
the success of Liza of Lambeth (1897), followed interest was the study of inheritance, and his
hy Of Human Bondage. He was a master of elaborate observations of the common garden
the short story and his work reflects his travels pea resulted in the law of heredity which bears
in the Bast. In both world wars he served as a his name. His hypothesis was published in
British agent. 1866 but no attention was given to it rmtil 1900.
Maupassant, Guy de (1850-93), Prench writer See SeoUon P, Part IV.
whose novels and short stories show penetrating Mendeleyev, Dmitri Ivanovich (1834-1907).
i-ealism. H3s stories include Boule de Suif, La Russian diemist, first to discover the critical
Maison Tellier, and La, Peur. temperatures. He formulated the periodic
Manrlac, Prancois (1885-1970), Prench writer law of atomic weights (1869) and drew up the
whose novels deal with moral problems and periodic table, predicting the properties of
include Le Baiser au Lipreux and the play elements which might fill the gaps. Element
Asmodde. Nobel prizewinner 1962. 101 is named after him.
Maurois, Andr6 (Emile Herzog) (1886-1967), Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix (1809-47). German
Prench writer whose works include lives of composer, grandson of Moses Mendelssohn,
Shelley and Disraeli. philosopher. He belongs with Ghopin and
Maxim, Sir Hiram Stevens (1840-1916), American Schumann to the early 19 th cent, elasslc-
inventor of the automatic uuick-flring gun, roinantio school, and Ms music has delicacy and
perfected in London. melodic beauty. He was conductor of the
Maxton, James (1885-1946), Scottish Labour Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig for a time and
politician and pacifist: entered parliament 1922; often visited England. See Section E,
chairman of I.L.P. 1926-31, 1984-9. Mendfes-Eranoe, Pierre (b. 1907), French politician,
Maxwell, James Clerk (1881-79), Scottish physi¬ premier 1964r-6, but defeated on his North
cist. He wrote his first scientific paper at 15, African policy. He was a critic of de Gaulle.
and after teaching in Aberdeen and London MemiMn, Yehudi (b. 1916). American violinist,
became first Cavendish professor of experi¬ b. New "York of Jewish
mental physics at Cam'bridge. His mathe¬ appeared as soloist at the parentage.
age of seven Heand first
has
matical mind, working on the discoveries of international repute.
Paraday and others, gave physics a celebrated Menzies, Sir Robert Gordon (b. 1894), Australian
set of equations for the basic laws of electricity Liberal statesman, premier 1939-41, 1949-66.
and magnetism. EHs work revolutionised Mercator, Gerhardus (Glerhard Kremer) (1612-94).
fundamental physios. See Section F, PartH. Flemish geographer who pioneered the making
f'«OIVHNENT PEOPLE
MER-NION
naTigational maps. He worked
to dra^âf aa*££s!zi“»r!‘Si^^
.roiTsmoiitu. His novels include Tits Ordsni
nf
“«»* ss
jfiam Of jfte Crossways, and The Ama^nn W. P. H^hy discovered the curatiTC promr
^farnam. His poetry ha^ had renewedSn^
wain works are Modern Love and '^“tor Riguetti, Comte
Toevtis oMd Lyrics of the Toy of Lo/rth
Mesmer, Friedrioli Anton (17S3— isi'i) Anafr-in-n Prench revolutionary lender
wesmeriam, or animal magnetism
(1S83-19G2). Yugo.sl
Mesmerism, Section J. av magnet
sculptoism.
r of Mistral, Pr6deiie (1830-1914) Rrench r»naf „ i
mvoluti&1789.®^“°^ contributed to the
®®
MeStô^pLSiS LondSm™!^
.S d rc. Handel, ’
«/rmX. iu-oza
e st &-^SL£SS to stadies tend to
t
f blood cells are capable
, ^SSS anSpiifl^L^
w^te ■‘'“
of ingesting haim- dSSlS'g.
me aiOM, Section P). For Ills work on fTnmTiT>j
theK^%e%nn°Pi^® bacteria (g«e cSeas^
TWT'iS^ ngelo
“^^cbela silked (Michelag
the 1908niolo
Nobel prize fortbmedicine
Bnraarro
1564), Kalian painter, sculptor and (14%-:
poet Of s.asii.? “ “"»5
a poor but genteel Tuscan familyVh aa m aSvffi'nSS'ESs'
Medmas.s
^fc 622, ’’’‘°
fetet to- from which date ae mX™?
medan era opens. Bytil®hisone
consta
andnt oSy
preach ing
^Wtf
■ijome
^ a “ton^ter""^ mirst round him a small and loval
Domer
mco umrlandaio.
dcn H®Like apprenticed
Leonar dowil-
to
Tm
studi^ anatomy , but instead of spreading bis hard “fighting band of followers and
years later, m was
IXiownhiB
-
ledged conqiieror. The sacred book
of Islam
the .Rora »—
Miginal revelathough presenthe
ted angel
by him a®s an
tion from ^briel—
^“pres.sive work is the ceili^ may in the main be traced to Steal
sources. See Islam, Section L and Mh
souait^flsH surface of about 6,000 MWitre (Jean Baptiste Poquelin)
Prench playwright. B. to Pa^ (1622-vai
ehanrf pPnt ’ behind the he
Sw of ’rSl® f (St- Peter’s) the »!!pK
wt iSi. %‘,s Sg^fs‘,o^"as*ô?ffi

a,ss %i££s- g
"1?"““ ^
SXSo^'t experiment to deteriSne chief representative of the Soêt flTdon
numerous post-w ar conferenpes 3+
from the Communist PartTigeL
He hSfei
Scriabin to Molotov (the cSSG
Ancestors and Pa»
Mffl, John Stuart (1806-73), T?.on-iiaP philoso Moê Hetanf^ ff f til® imperiaSce
A member of Bentham’s utKia^So nbor
later niq^fled some of its tenS S m^nl f,:
wn?v
pohtical
nnVtHraif^^^Â
freedom^Melr
and advocates socialtheastviann-o-
warns against well as
wU"o?terSen’sÎ
gS»
Trinciplesof Political He^wasôd®
to Bertr^d Russell. ^
bnier-Wilhms. sto“kStoer
“âseS’.saMf
iK'Jssasii
M
s™ =,‘
^ss
Mtoe, A^ Alexander (1882-1956) WncfUon
a‘s&’&“‘ ''>■« ™ A%ais
“S“.asnsavT„*-ai;
(Mssriby^ôiShnuSte SffiS'
«.e»r5
SSl^r
mimitj r, ofasS™!
which he was president 1962-6
.
MON-MUR B 43 PROMINENT PEOPLE
Monroe, James (1758-1881), president of the TJ.S. financier who built the family fortunes into a
He negogiatecl the purchase of Louisiana from vast industrial empire.
Prance in 1803, and propounded the doctrine Morland, George (1763-1804). English painter of
that the American continent should not be rural life. His Inside of a Stable is in the
colonised by a European power. (At that time National Gallery
however the U.S. could not have enforced it.) Morley, 1st Viscount (John Morley) (1838-1923),
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley (1089-1762), Eng¬ English biographer and Liberal politician. He
lish writer. Erom Constantinople where her held political oftlce, but is mainly remembered
husband was ambassador she wrote Letters of for his life of Gladstone. He also wrote on
which a complete edition was published 1985-7. Voltaire, Eousseau, Burke, and Cobden.
She Introduced England to the idea of inocula¬ Morley, Thomas (c. 1657-1603), English composer
tion against smaUpos. of madrigals, noted also for his settings of some
Montaigne, Mchel de (1683-92), French essayist of Shakespeare’s songs. He was a pupil of
of enquiring, sceptical, and tolerant mind. Byrd,
Montcalm, Louis Joseph, Marquis de (1712-59), Elaineorganist of St. Paul’s
and Easie cathedral,
Introduction to and wrote
Practicall
French general, who unsuccessfully commanded JllMSic (1597) which was used for 200 years.
the French at Quebec against Wolfe. : Morris, William (1834-96), English poet and
Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de la craftsman.^ His hatred of 19th-cent. ugliness,
Brede et de (1689-1755), French philosopher. his belief in hmnan equality, and in freedom
His works include Lettres persanes, a satire on and happiness for all, combined to make him a
contemporary life: and L’ Esprit des Lois, socialist, and he accomplished much for the
his political philosophy. The latter was giving
based improvement of domestic decoration. He was
largely, but to some extent mistahcnly, on a popular lecturer, founded the Socialist League
English practice, and its influence led the H.S. and the Kelmscott Press.
constitution to separate the executive (Presi¬ Morrison of Lambeth, Baron (Herbert Morrison)
dent) from the legislature (Congress). (1888-1965), British Labour statesman. From
Montessori, Maria (1860-1962), Italian education¬ being an errand-boy. he rose to become leader
ist, who developed an educational system based of the London Coimty Council. During the
on spontaneity. war he was home secretary, and he was deputy
Monteverdi, Claudio (1567-1643), Italian com¬ prime minister m a period of notable legislation,
poser who pioneered in opera. His chief 1946-51.
dramatic work is Orfeo (1608). See Section E. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (1791-1872),
Montezuma II (1466-1620), last emperor of American pioneer in electromagnetic telegraphy
Mexico when the Spanish imder Cortes invaded. and inventor of the dot-and-dash code that
Moutfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester (c. 1208-65), bears his name. He was originally an artist.
English statesman. He led the barons in revolt Mountbatten of Burma, 1st Earl (Louis Mount-
against the ineffective rule of Henry III, but he batten) (h. 1900), British admiral and states¬
differed from other rebels in that he summoned man. In the second world war he became
a parliamentary assembly to which for the first chief of combined operations in 1942. As last
time representatives came from the towns. He viceroy of India, he carried through the trans¬
was killed at Bvesham. fer of power to Indian hands in 1947 and was
Montgolfier, the name of two brothers, Joseph the first governor-general of the dominion. He
Bliohel (1740-1810) and Jacques Etienne (1746- became first sea lord in 1056 and was chief of
99), French aeronauts who constructed the first defence staff 1959-66.
practical balloon, which flew 6 miles. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1756-91). Austrian
Montgomery of Alamein, 1st Viscount (Bernard composer. B. Salzburg, he began his career at
Law Montgomery) (b. 1887), British field- four and toured Europe at six. In 1781 he
marshal: commanded 8th Army in Horth settled in Vienna, where he became a friend of
Africa, Sicily, and Italy, 1942-4: commander- Haydn and where his best music was written.
in-ohlef, British Group of Armies and Allied His genius lies in the effortless outpouring of all
Armies in Horthem France, 1944. He served forms of music, in the ever-flowing melodies, in
as Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe the consistent beauty and symmetry of his
(NATO), 1961-8. His memoirs were published compositions, and in the exactness of his
in 1958. method. Among the loveliest and grandest
Montrose, Marquess of (James Graham) (1612-60), works in instrunrental music are his three great
Scottish general. In the Civil War he raised symphonies in E flat, G minor, and 0 (called
the Highland clansmen for Charles I and won the "Jupiter”), all written in six weeks in
the battles of Tlppermulr, Inverlochy, and Kil¬ 1788. Three of the greatest operas in musical
syth: hut was finally defeated and executed. lustory are his Marriage of Eigaro (1786), Eon
He was also a Poet. Qiomnni (1787), and The Magic Flute (1791).
Moody, Dwight Lyman (1837-99), American His last compasition, written under the shadow
revivalist preacher, associated with Ira D. of death, was the Requiem Mass, a work of
Sankey, the “ American singing pilgrim.” tragic beauty. See SecHou E.
Moore, George (1852-1933), Irish novelist, author MiiUer, Sir Ferdinand (1826-96),' Gerinan-born
of Confessions of a Yonng Man, Esther Waters, botanist who emigrated to Australia, where he
and Evelyn Innes. was director of the Melbourne Botanical
Moore, Henry (b. 1898), English sculptor in semi¬ Gardens, 1857-73, and whence he introduced
abstract style, son of a Yorkshire coalminer. the eucalyptus into Europe.
Examples of ids work are to be seen in the Tate Muhiford, Lewis (b. 1896), American writer on
Gallery, town-planning and social problems. His works
the HnescoSt. building
Matthew’s Ohurch,
in Paris, and Northampton,
on an outsidh include a tetralogy: Technics and OiviUsatlon,
site opposite the House of Lords. O.M. 1963. The Culture of Cities, The Condition of Man,
Moore, Sir John (1761-1809), British general, who and The Conduct of Life: The Myth of the
trained the infantry for the Spanish Peninsular Machine, md The Urban Prospect.
campaigns and conducted a brilliant retreat to Munkaosy, Michael von (1844-1900), Hungarian
Corunna, where he was mortally wounded after painter of historical subjects.
defeating the French under Soult. Munnlngs, Sir Alfred (1878-1069), English painter;
Moore, Thomas (1779-1862), Irish poet, author of especially of horses and sporting subjects.
Irish Melodies, Lalla Rooleh (oriental stories), Murdock, William (1764r-1889), Scottish en^neer
and The Epicurean (novel). He also wrote a and inventor, the first to make practical use of
life of Byron. coal gas as an lUuminating agent (introduced
More, Sir Thomas (1478-1536). English wu-iter and at the Soho works, Birmingham. 1800).
statesman. In 1529 he succeeded Wolsey as Murillo, Bartolomd Esteban (1617-82), Spanish
lord chancellor, but on his refusal to recognise painter, b. Seville, where he founded an Aca¬
Henry VIII as head of the church he was exe¬ demy. His early works, such as Tibo Peasant
cuted. His Utopia describes an ideal state. Boys (Dulwich) show peasant and street life;
He was canonised 1935. his later paintings are religious, e.g., the Im-
Morgan, Sir Henry (c. 1036-88). Welsh buccaneer maculate Conception in the Fi&do.
who operated in the Caribbean against the Murray, Gilbert (1866-1967), classical scholar of
Spaniards, capturing and plundering Panama Australian birth who settled in England. A
in 1671. Knighted by Charles 11 and made teanher of Greek at the universities of Glasgow
deputy-governor of Jamaica. and Oxford, he translated Greek drama so as
Morgan, John Plerpont (1837-1913), American to bring It within the reach of the general pub
PROMINENT PEOPLE
M US-NEW B44
lie. His interest in the classics was begun by Nash, Paul (1889-1946), English painter and de¬
an Englieli master’s enthusiasm at his country signer. oflicial war artist In both world wars.
school at Mittagong. New South Wal^. He Best kno%vn pictures are The Menin Boad of
was a strong supporter of the League of JSatione 1918 and Totes Meer of 1941.
and the United Nations. „ . ^ ^ Nash, Walter (1882-1968), New Zealand Labour
Mussolini, Benito (1883-1946). Fascist dictator of politician: prime minister 1967-60.
Italy 1922-43. From 1935 an aggressive Nasmrth, James (1808-90), Scottish inventor of
foreign policy (Abyssinia and Spain) was at first the steam-hammer, wMoh became indispensable
successful, and in June 1940 he entered the war in all large iron and engineering works.
on the side of Hitler. Defeat in North Africa Nasser, Gamal Abdel (1918-70), leader of modern
and the invasion of Sicily caused the coUapse Egypt and of the Arab world. He led the 1962
of his government. He was shot dead by army coup that deposed King Farouk, becoming
partisans whUe attempting to escape „ to. Switzer¬ president of the first Egyptian Republic in 1966
land. ^ . and of the United Arab Republic in 1968. His
IMussorgsky, Modest Petrovich (1839-81), Russian nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956 precipi¬
composer whose mastenieice is the opera tated a short-lived attack by Britain and France.
Boris Godunov after the play by Pushkin. His Israeli-Arab hostility led to the June war of
piano suite Piciures at an BodiibUion was 1967. He carried out reforms to bring his
orchestrated by Ravel. See Section E. people out of feudal backwardness, including the
building (with Russian help and finance) of the
Aswan High Dam.
Needham, Joseph (b. 1900), British hiochemist,
historian of science, orientaUst, author of the
N historical work Science and Civilisation in China
Nanab (14G9-1688), Indian guru or teacher, who (7 vols.,
Nehru, 1964- Jawaharlal
Pandit ). (1889-1964), Indian
tried to put an end to religious strife, teaching national leader and statesman, first prime
minister and minister of foreign aflaira when
that “God is one, whether he be Allah or
Rama.” His followers are the Sikhs. See India became independent in 1947. He studied
Sikhism, Section 3. at Harrow and Cambridge, and was for many
Nansen, Fridtjof (18(51-1930). Norwegian explorer. years a leading member of the Congress Party,
In 1893 his north polar expedition reached the during which time he was frequently Imprisoned
for political activity. He played a part in the
highest
published latitude till then attained—
an account 86° 14 North.
called Farthest . He final negotiations for independence. Under
He was active in Russian famine relief, 1921. his leadership India made technical, industrial,
Nobel peace prize 1922. and social advances. In world affairs Ms in¬
Napier, John (1550-1617), Scottish mathematician, fluence was for peace and non-alignment.
b. Edinbtu-gh, invented logarithms (published Nelson, 1st Viscount (Horatio Nelson) (1758-1805),
1614) and the modern notation of fractions, English admiral. Son of a Norfolk clergyman,
improvements in the methods of mathematical he went to sea at 12 and became a captain in
expression which helped to advance cosmology 1793. In the French revolutionary wars he lost
and physics. Ms right eye in 1794 and Ms right arm in 1797.
Rear-admiral in 1797, he defeated the French at
Napoleon I (Bonaparte) (1769-1821). French em¬
peror and general, of Corsican birth (Ajaccio). Abouldr Bay in 1798. He wa.s also at the bom¬
Trained in French military schools, he became bardment of Copenhagen in 1801. In 1806 he
prominent in the early years of the revolution, destroyed the French fleet at Trafalgar, in
with uncertainty at home and war abroad. In wMch battle he was killed. His daring and
1796 he became commander of the army in Italy decision made Mm a notable commander.
and defeated the Austrians, so that France ob¬ He loved Emma Hamilton.
tained control of Lombardy. He then led an ex¬ Nenni, Pietro (b. 1891), Italian socialist politician.
pedition to Egypt but Nelson destroyed Ms fleet. He became secretary-general of his party in 1944,
Alter further Italian victories, he made a coup and was deputy prime minister, 1968-8.
d’etat in 1799, and in 1804 became emperor. Nemst, Walther Hermann (1864-1941), German
Against continnlng European opposition, he scientist who established the third law of ther¬
defeated the Austrians at Austerlitz. and his modynamics that dealt with the behaviour of
power in Europe was such that he made Ms matter at temperatures approaching absolute
brothers Joseph, Louis, and Jerome kings of zero. Nobel prizewinner 1920.
Naples, Holland, and Westphalia: but in Spain Nero, Claudius Caesar (A.n. 37-68), Roman em¬
he provoked the Reninsular War, and Ms ar¬ peror, the adopted son of Claudius. He was
mies were gradually driven back by the Spanish, weak and licentious and persecuted Christians,
helped by Wellinôn: while Ms invasion of in Ms reign occurred the fire of Rome.
Russia in 1812 ended in a disastrous retreat from Newcomen, Thomas (1663-1729), English inven¬
Moscow: and in 1814 the Allies forced him to tor, one of the first to put a steam-engine into
abdicate and retire to Elba. He emerged again practical operation. In 1705 he patented his
in 1816 to be defeated at Waterloo and exiled to invention, wMch was the pumping-engine used
• St. Helena. His government at home was firm in Cornish mines untU the adoption of Watt’s
and promoted some reforms (e.g., legal codifica¬ engine.
tion), but the country was weakened by Ms Newman, Ernest (1868-1969), EngUsh music critic,
wars. In Europe, in spite of the suffering whose chief work is the Life of Richard Wagner.
caused by war, there was some spread of He also wrote, j4 Musical Critic’s Holiday.
French revolutionary ideas, and equaRy a reac¬ Newman, John Henry (1801-90). English priest
tion against them on the part of authority. and writer, who became a cardinal of the Roman
The imperial idea lingered In France, and Napo¬ church in 1879. and was a founder of the Oxford
leon’s remains were brought to Paris in 1840. Movement. He is best remembered by his
He married first Josephine Beauharnais and Apologia pro Vita Sua xa wMch he described the
second Marie Louise of Austria. development of Ms religious thought. He
Napoleon 11 (1811-82), son of Napoleon I and wrote Lead, kindly Lighk set to music 80 years
Marie Louise. later by J. B. Dykes, and The Dream of Qeroii-
Napoleon tins, set to music of Elgar. See Traotarianisin,
brother in (1808-73),
Louis. He returned son of Napoleon
to France I's
in the Action J.
revolution of 1848, and in 1851 came to power by Newton, SU‘ Isaac (1642-1727), English BCientist, h.
aIffis
coup d'etat. In his Woolsthoriie, Lines, (the year (jlallleo died).
foreign policy was reign Paris was (the
adventurous remodelled.
Crimean He studied at Cambridge but was at home
war, intervention in Mexico, war against Austria during the plague years 1666 and 1666 when he
and Italy): but when he was manoeuvred by busied himself with problems concerned with
Bismarck into the Franoo-Prussiau war and optics and gravitation. Through Ms tutor
defeated at Sedan he lost his throne and rethed Isaac Barrow he was appotated to the Lucasian
to England. His wife was the Spanish Eug6Me chair of mathematics at Cambridge in 1669 and
deMontlio. remained there until 1696 when he was appointed
Nash, John (1752-1835). English architect who Warden, and later IMaster of the Mint. He was
a secret Unitarian and did not marry. His three
planned
enlarged Regent Street, laid
Buckingham out Regent’s
Palace, Park,
and designed great discoveries were to show that white light
Marble Arch and the Brighton Pavilion. could be separated into a sequence of coloured
NEY-OLI B- 5 PROMINENT PEOPLE
components forming the visible spectrum: to North from 1762.) His incomiietent foreign
use the calculus (invented by him independently policy led to the American war of independence.
of Leibnitz) to investigate the forces of nature in Northcliffe, 1st Viscount (Alfred Charles Harms-
a quantitative way: and to show by his theory worth) (1866-1922), British journalist and news¬
of gravitation (for which Copernicus, Kepler and paper proprietor, b. near Dublin. He began
Galileo had prepared the way) that the universe Answers in 1888 with his brother Harold, (later
was regulated by simple mathematical laws. Lord Rothermere). In 1894 they bought the
His vision was set forth in the Philoaojihwe Evening News, and in 1896 the Daily Mail. In
NaturaUs Princima Mathematica of 1687. 1908 he took over The Times.
usually called the Principia. It was not imtil Northumberland, John Dudley, Duke of (1602-53),
200 years later that Einstein showed there English politician who attempted to secure for
could be another theory of celestial mechanics. ids daughter-in-law Lady Jane Grey the succes¬
Ney, Michel (1769-1816), Erench general who sion to the throne after Edward VI.
served xmder Napoleon, especially at Jena. Nostradamus or Michel de Notre Dame (1603-66),
Borodino, and Waterloo. French astrologer and physician, known for his
Nicholas 11 (1868-1918), last emperor and Tsar of prophecies in Centuries.
Eussia, son of Alexander III. His reign was Novalis, the pseudonym of Baron Friedrich von
marked by an unsuccessful war with Japan Hardenherg (1772-1801), (Serman romantic
(1904-5), and by the 1914-18 war. Ineffective poet and novelist, whose chief work is the un¬
and lacMng ability, he set up a Buma in 1906 finished Heinrich von Ofterdingen.
too late for real reform. Eevolution broke out Nuffield, 1st Viscount (William Richard Morris)
in 1917 and he and his family were shot in July (1877-1963), British motor-car manufacturer
1918. and philanthropist, and untU he retired in 1952
Nicholas, St. (4th cent.), bishop of Myra, is asso¬ chairman of Morris Motors Ltd. He provided
ciated with Christmas under the corruption of large sums for the advancement of medicine in
Santa Claus. the university of Oxford, for Nuffield College,
Nicholson, Sir William (1872-1949), English and in 1943 established the Nuffield Foundation,
artist known for his portraits and woodcuts. endowing it with £10 million.
His son. Ben Nicholson, O.M., (b. 1894) is noted Nyerere, Julius (b. 1922), Tanzanian leader. He
for his abstract paintings. became first premier of Tanganyika when it
Nicolson, Sir Harold (1886-1968), English diplo¬ became independent in 1961 : and president in
mat, author, and critic. His works include 1962. In 1964 he negotiated its union ivith
King Georae V: and Diaries and Letters. His Zanzibar.
wife was the novelist Victoria Sacfcville-West
(1892-1962).
Niemdller, Martin (b. 1892), German Lutheran
pastor who opposed the Nazi regime and was
conftned in a concentration camp. He was
president of the World Council of Chinches in
■ 0
1961. Oates, Lawrence Edward (1889-1912), English
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844-1900), German autartie
philosopher, in his younger years influenced by of 1910, explorer.
and was oneHe joined
of the Scott’s
five to expedition
reach the
Wagner and Schopenhauer. His teaching that south pole: but on the return journey, being
only the strong ought to survive and his doc¬ crippled by frost-bite, he walked but into the
trine of the superman are expounded in Thus blizzard to die.
spake Zarathuatra, Beyond Goad and Evil, and Oates, Titus (1649-1706), English informer and
The Will to Poioer. - agitator against Roman catholics.
Nightingale, Florence (1820-1910). English nurse O’Casey, Sean (1884-1964), Irish dramatist whose
and pioneer of hospital reform, who during the plays mclude Juno and the Payoock, The Silver
Crimean war organised in face of considerable Tassie, Bed Boses for Me, and Oak Leaves and
official opposition a nursing service to relieve Lavender.
the sufferings of the British soldiers, who called Occam (Ockham). William of (c. 1270-1349),
her “ the lady with the lamp.” Her system was English scholar and philosopher and one of the
adopted and developed in all parts of the world. most btlglnal thinkers of all time. He belonged
Nijinsky, Vaslav (1892-1960), Busslan dancer, one to the Order of Franciscans, violentiy opposed
of the company which included Pavlova, the temporal power of the Pope, espoused the
Karsavina and Eoklne, brought by Diaghilev cause of nominalism aind laid the foundations of
to Paris and London before the 1914-18 war. modern theories of government and theological
In Lea Sylphidea, Spectre de la Bose and L'AprAs- scepticism. See Occam’s razor. Section J.
midi d’un Paune
male dancers. he won a supreme place among O’Connell, Daniel (1776-1847), Irish national
leader. A barrister, he formed the Catholic
Niklsch, Arthur (1865-1922), Hungarian conduc¬ Association in 1823 to fight elections: his
tor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, 1889- followers aimed at the repeal of the Act of
93. He was piano-accompanist to the Lieder Union with England, and formed a Repeal
singer, Elena Gerhardt, Asaoffiation in 1840: but the formation of the
Nimitz, Chester William (1886-1966), American Young Ireland party, the potato famine, and
admiral, commanded in the Pacific 1941-5: fll-health undermined Ms position and he died in
chief of naval operations 1946-7.
Nixon, Richard Milhous (b. 1918). Republican O’Connor, Feargus (1794-1866), working-class
president of the U.S., 1969- : elected to Con¬ leader in England, of Irish birth. He presented
gress, 1946: to Senate, 1961: vice-president, the Chartist petition in 1848.
1962: re-elected, 1966: received Republican O’Connor, Thomas Power (1848-1929), Irish na¬
presidential nomination in 1960 when Kennedy tionalist and journalist, sat in parliament 1880-
won with a narrow majority, 1929 and founded the Star.
Nknunah, Kwame (b. 1909). Ghanaian leader, Oerêd, jBans Christian (1777-1851). Danish
first premier of Ghana when his country physicist who discovered the connection be¬
achieved independence in 1967 and president in tween electricity and magnetism.
1960. Btis government was spectacular and he Ofla (d. 796), Mug of Mercia (mid-England), was
promoted the Pan- African movement: but the leading English king of his day, and built
unsound finance and dictatorial methods led to a defensive dyke from the Dee to the Wye.
his overthrow In 1966. Offenbach, Jacques (1819-80), Geiman-Jewish
Nobel, Allred Bernhard (1888-96), Swedish in¬ composer, h. Cologne, settled at Paris, and is
ventor and philanthropist. An engineer and mainly known for Ms light operas, especially
chemist who discovered dynamite, he amassed Tales of Eoffmami.
a large fortune from the manufacture of explo¬ Ohm, Georg Simon (1787-1864). German physicist,
sives: and bequeathed a fund for annual prizes professor at Munich, who in 1826 formulated the
to those who each year have contributed most
to the benefit of mankind in the fields of physics, law
one ofof the
electric current,
foundation known
stones as Ohm’s
in electrical law,
science,
chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature SeelM.
and peace. Nee L186-8. Olivier, Baron (Laurence Kerr Olivier) (b. 1907),
North, Frederick (1732-92). favourite minister of British actor and director, especially in Shake¬
George HI who held the premiership from 1770 spearean roles. He has also produced, directed,
to 1782. (He held the courtesy title of Lord and played la flhns, including Henry V, Hamlet,
PROMINENT PEOPLE
OMA-PAR B46
and Richard III. In 1962 he was appointed 1 Paganini, Niccolo (1782-1840), Italian violinist and
director of the National Theatre and in 1970 virtuoso who revolutionised violin teohniaue.
received a life peerage. „ . ! Paine, Thomas (1737-1809), English-hom radical
Oman, Sir Charles Wiiliam (1860-1946). English political writer. He spent the years 1774-87
historian, especially of mediaeval warfare and in America helping the American revolutionary
of the Peninsular War. He also wrote memoirs. cause and holding various offices. On his re¬
Omar ibn al Khattah (681-644), adviser to Ma¬ turn to England he wrote The Bights of Man,
homet, succeeded Abu Bakr as 2nd caliph. Inhis was condemned for treason, and had to flee to
reign Islam became an imperial power. He France. There he entered French politics, was
died at the hands of a foreign slave. sent to prison, and wrote The Age of Reason,
Omar Khayydm (c. 1050-1123), Persian poet and advocating deism. His last years were spent in
mathematician, called Khayydm (tent-maker) poverty in America.
because of his father’s occupation. His fame as Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (c. 1625-94),
Italian composer of unaccompanied church
a scientist has been eclipsed by his Rubaiyat.
made known to English readers by Edward music and madrigals. See Section E.
EltzGerald in 1869. Palgrave, Sir Francis (1788-1861), English his¬
O’Neill, Eugene Gladstone (1888-1963), American torian and archivist, an early editor of record
playwright who, after spending his adventurous series. His son Francis Turner Palgrave
youth in sailing, gold-prospecting, and journ¬ (1824-97) was a poet and critic and edited The
alism. first won success in 1914 with the one- Golden Treasury, while another son, WiUiam
act play, Thlfat. His later plays include Gifford Palgrave (1826-88) was a traveller and
Anna Ohristie, Strange Interlude, Mourmng diplomat.
Becomes Mlectra, The Iceman Cometh. Nobel Palissy, Bernard (c. 1610-89), French potter fvho
prizewinner 1936. See also Section I. discovered the art of producing white enamel,
Orchardson, Sir William Quiller (1836-1910), after which he set up a porcelain factory in
Scottish painter, b. Edinburgh, best known for Paris which was patronised by royalty.
his Napoleon I on board S.M.S. Bellerophon Palladio, Andrea (1608-80), Italian architect, b.
and Ophelia. „ . ,. , , Padua, whose style was modelled on Roman
Origen (c. 186-264), Christian philosopher and architecture (symmetrical planning and har¬
Biblical scholar, who taught at Alexandria and monic proportions) and had wide influence.
Caesarea, and was imprisoned and tortured m Palmer, Samuel (1806-81). English landscape
the persecution of Decius, 260. He drew on painter and etcher, follower of Blake whom he
Greek philosophy as well as on the Hebrew met in 1824. His Bright Oloiid and In a Shore-
scriptures inhis exposition of Christian doctrine. ham
Museum. Garden are in the „ Victoria and „Albert , .
Orpen, Sir William (1878-1981), British painter of
portraits, conversation pieces, and pictures of Palmerston, 8rd Viscount (Henry Jolm Temple)
the 1914-18 war. ^ (1784-1865), English Whig statesman. At first
Ortega y Gasset, Josd (1883-1965), Spamsh philoso¬ a Tory, he was later Whig foreign secretary for
pher and essayist, known for his Tema de many years, and prime minister 1855 and 1869-
Nuestro Tiempo and La Bebelion de Las Masas. 65. His vigorous foreign policy wherever pos¬
Orwell, George (Eric Arthur Blair) (1903-60), sible took the lead and bluntly
rights. . ,asserted
. English
English satirist, b. India, author of Ammal
Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four. Pancras, St. (d. 304), patron samt of children, was
Osier, Sir William (1849-1919), Canadian physician (according to tradition) baptised in Rome where
and medical historian, authority on diseases of he was put to death at the age of fourteen in the
the blood and spleen. „ , persecution under Diocletian.
Ossietssky, Carl von (1889-1938). German pacifist Pandit, Vijaya Lakshmi (b. 1900), sister of Nehru,
leader after the first world war; sent by Hitler was India’s first ambassador to the Soviet
to a concentration camp. Nobel peace prize TJnion (1947-9), and to the XI.S. (1949-51), and
1935. . the first woman to be elected president of the
Oswald, St. (e. 605-42), won the Northmnbnan
ir.N. General Assembly (1964),
throne by battle in 633 and introduced Chris¬ Panizza, Sir Anthony (1797-1879). Italian bibho-
tianity there. grapher and nationalist. Taking refuge in
Otto I (the Great) (912-73), founder of the Holy England after 1821, he became in 1866 chief
Roman Empire (he was crowned king of the librarian of the British Museum, undertook
Germans in 936 and emperor at Rome in 962). a new catalogue and designed the reading
The son of Henry I, he bunt up a strong position room.
in Italy (as regards the papacy) and in Germany Faukhurst, Emmeline (1868-1928), English suffra¬
where he established the East Mark (Austria). gette who, with her daughters Christahel and
Otto, Nikolaus August (1832-91). German engineer Sylvia, worked for women’s suffrage, organising
and inventor of the four-stroke cycle that bears the Women’s Social and Political Union.
his name. Papin, Denis He(1647-1714), French physicist and
inventor. invented the condensing pump,
Ouida (Louise de la Eamde) (1939-1908). English
novelist of French extraction, whose romantic and was a pioneer in the development of the
stories include Under Two Flags. ■ . .. steam-en^ne. Not being a mechanic, he made
Ovid (43 B.O.-A.D. 18), Latin poet (Pubhus Ovidius all his experiments by means of models.
Naso), chiefly remembered for his Art of Love Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bomhastus von Hohen-
and. Metamorphoses. He died in exile. hehn) (1493-1641), Swiss physician whose
Owen, Robert (1771-1868). Welsh pioneer socialist, speculations though muddled served to reform
b. Montgomeryshire. As manager, and later medical thought. He criticised the estahilshed
owner, of New Lanark cotton mills he tried to authorities, Galen and Aristotle, and experi¬
put his philanthropic views into effect; other mented and made new chemical compounds.
communities on co-operative lines were founded Btls earliest printed work was PracHea (1629).
in Hampshire and In America (New Harmony, Park, Mungo (1771-1806), Scottish explorer in west
Indiana) but although unsuocessfiil they were A&lca, where he lost Ms life. He wrote Travels
influential in many directions. He challenged in the Interior o/ Africa (1799).
the doctrine of laiss6«-/oii-e, inaugurated socia¬ Parker, Joseph (1830-1902), English Congregation¬
lism and the co-operative movement, and fore¬ al preacher, especially at wbat later became the
saw the problems of industrial development. City Temple.
PameU, Charles Stewart (1846-91). Irish national
leader.
lems, he To useddraw attention intoparliament.
obstruction Ireland’s prob¬
He
was president of the Land League but was not
implicated la crimes committed by some mem¬
bers. His party supported Gladstone, who
became converted to Home Rule, Has citation
Faohmanu, Vladimir de (1848t'1938), Russian in divorce proceedings brought Ms political
pianist gifted in the playing of Chopin. career to an end.
Paderewski, Ignace Jan (1860-1941), Polish Parry, Sir William Edward (1790-1866). English
pianist and nationalist. He represented his explorer and naval commander in the Arctic,
country at Versailles and was the first premier of where he was sent to protect fisheries and also
a reconstituted Poland. He died in exile in the tried to reach the north pole.
second world war. Parsons, Sir Charles Algernon (1854-1931).
PAS-PET B4.7 PROMINENT PEOPLE
English inventor of the steam-turbine, who statesman, b. in Lancashire, son of a manufac¬
built the first turbine-driven steamship in 1897. turer. He first held office in 1811. With
Pascal, Blaise (1628-02), Erenchman of varied WeUington he enacted toleration for Roman
gifts, b. at Cilermont-Eerrand. At first a catholics in 1829. As home secretary he re¬
mathematician, he patented a calculating organised London police. He developed a new
machine. His Leltres wovineiales influenced policy of Conservatism, and in 1846, largely as a
Voltaire. In 1654 he turned to religion, and result of the Irish famine, he repealed the corn
his incomplete religious writings were published laws which protected English agriculture. He
posthumously as Pensdes. See also Jansenism, died from a riding accident-
Section J. Peirce, Charles Sanders (1839-1914). American
Pastemah, Boris Leonidovich (1890-1960), Russian philosopher, founder of the theory of pragma¬
poet and writer. B. Moscow, he published his tism which was later developed by hie friend
first poems in 1931. For some years his time William James. See Pragmatism, Section J.
was spent in translating foreign literature, but Penfleld, Wilder Graves (b. 1891). Canadian brain
in 1958 his novel Hr. îvago, which describes surgeon, author of The Cerebral Cortex of Man,
the Russian revolution and is in the Russian Epilemv and the Functional Anatomy of the
narrative tradition, was published abroad,
though banned in the Soviet Union. He was Penn, William (1644-1718), English Quaker and
awarded a Nobel prize but obliged to decline it. founder of Pennsylvania. The son of Admiral
Pasteur, Louis (1822-95), French chemist, whose William Penn, he persisted in becoming a
work was inspired by an interest in the chemis¬ Quaker, a and
try of life. His researches on fermentation led services crownon grant
receiving for his
In North father’s
America he
to the science of bacteriology and his investiga¬ foimded there Pennsylvania. He wrote No
tions into infectious diseases and their preven¬ Gross, No Crown.
tion to the science of immunology. The Penney, Baron (William George Penney) (b. 1909).
pathological-bacteriological Import of his re¬ British scientist. After 23 years in atomic
searches came about mainly through his disci¬ research and development he returned to acade¬
ples (Lister, Roux, and others) and not directly, mic life in 1967 to become Rector of Imperial
though all founded on his early non-medical in¬ College. His nuclear research team at A.B.A.
vestigations on organisms of fermentation, developed the advanced gas-cooled reactor
etc., which were of great importance in industry, (A.G.R.) chosen for the Dungeness “ B ” and
and fundamentally. He spent most of his life Hinkley Point “ B ” power stations.
as director of scientific studies at the Ecole Pepys, Samuel (1633-1703), English diarist and
Normals at Paris. The Institute Pasteur was naval administrator. His diary, 1660-69, was
foimded in 1888. See also Immunology, kept in cipher and not deciphered till 1825.
Section P. It gives vivid personal details and covers the
Patmore, Coventry (1823-96), English poet. The plague and fire of London. (The first complete
Angel in the Souse deals with domesticity. and unexpurgated version of the diary was
Later he became a Roman catholic, and The Issued in 1970.)
Unknoimi Eros is characterised by erotic mysti¬ Pereda, Jos6 Maria de (1833-1906), Spanish re¬
cism. gional novelist (aroimd his native Santander).
Patriolc, St. (c. 389-c. 461), apostle Of Ireland, was Perez Galdds, Benito (1843-1920). Spanish novelist
born in Britain or Gaul, and after some time on and dramatist, who has been compared to Bal¬
the continent (taken thither after his capture by zac for his close study and portrayal of all social
pirates) went as missionary to Ireland, where classes, especially in the series of 46 short
after years of teaching and a visit to Rome he historical novels Episodios nadmales. His
fixed his see at Armagh. He wrote Gonfessions. longer novels, Novelas espafiolas contempordneas,
Patti, Adelina (1843-1919), coloratura soprano, some of which are translated, number 31.
b. in Madrid of Italian parents, and of interna¬ Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista (1710-36), Italian
tional repute. composer, best known for his humourous opera
Paul, St. (c. A.D. 10-e. 67) , Jew to whom was mainly La Serva Padrona and his Stabat Mater.
due the extension of Christianity in Europe. Pericles (c. 490-429 b.o.), Athenian statesman,
B. Tarsus (in Asia Minor), he was a Pharisee, general, and orator, who raised Athens to the
and became converted about a.d. 87. BHs mis¬ point of Its fullest prosperity, and. greatest
sionary journeys took him to the Roman pro¬ beauty, with the Parthenon, Erechtheum, and
vinces of Asia, Macedonia, and Greece (Rome other buildings: but he died in the plague
had already had Christian teaching): and his which followed the outbreak of the Peloponne¬
epistles form nearly half the New Testament and sian war.
were written before the gospels. He helped Perkin, Sir William Henry (1888-1907), English
to develop both the organisation of the early chemist, b. London, who while seddng to make
church and its teaching. The date order of his a substitute for auluine discovered in 1856
epistles is to some extent conjectural. It is the first artiflolal anfliue dye, mauve. His son,
believed that he was executed In Rome. His W. H. Perkin (1860-1929) was an organic
Hebrew name was Saul. chemist of note.
Paul VI (Giovanni Battista Montini) (b. 1897), Perrin, Francis (b. 1901), French scientist and
elected Pope in 1963 on the death of John socialist: succeeded Joliot-Curie as High
3CXIII. He was formerly archbiôp of Milan. Commr. of Atomic Energy, 1951- : professor of
He visited the Holy Land in 1964. Atomic Physics, Gollfege de France, 1946-.
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849-1986). Russian Nobel prizewinner 1926,
physiologist, known for his scientific experi¬ Persius Elacens Aulus (a.d. 84-62), Homan satirist
mental work on animal behaviour, particularly and Stoic philosopher.
conditioned reflexes and the relation between Fenîno, Pietro (1446-1624), Italian artist. He
psychological stress and brain function. Nobel worked In the Slstine Cihapel at Rome and he
prizewinner 1904. taught Raphael.
Pavlova, Anna (1886-1941), Russian ballerina, Pestalozzl, Johann Heinrich (1746-1827), Swiss
b. St. Petersburg, exceUing in the roles of educational reformer whose theories Md the
Giselle and the Eying Swan. foundation of modem primary edneation. His
Peabody, George (1796-1869). American philan¬ teaching methods were far in advan(» of his
thropist, a successful merchant who lived mainly time. He wrote Sow Gertrude Educates Her
in London. He supported exploration and Children.
education. Pdtaln, Henri Philippe (1866-1961), French general
Peacock, Thomas Love (1785-1860), English novel¬ and later collahorator. In the first world war
ist, b. Weymouth. His work, which is mainly he was in command at Verdun, and between the
satirical, includes Headlong Sail aaxd Nightmare wars he sponsored the Maginot line. In the
Abbey. second world war, when French resistance
Pearson, Lester Bowles (b. 1897), Canadian politi¬ collapsed, he came to terms with Gennany and
cian, served as minister for external affairs headed an administration at Vichy. After the
1948-57, and prime minister 1963-8. He has war he was sentenced to life imprisonment.
supported the United Nations. Nobel peace Peter I, the Great (1672-1726), emperor of Russia.
prize 1967. Son of Alexei, he succeeded bis brother after
Peary, Robert Edwin (1856-1920), American arctic some difficulty. He reorganised the army, and.
explorer, discoverer of the north pole (1909)., after coming to Deptford to learn shipbuilding,
Peel, Sir Robert (1788-1850), English Conservative he created a navy. To some extent he western-
PET-POiL PROMINENT PEOPLE
B48
ised Eussiaji social life, and created a new Pitt, William (1769-1806), English statesman
Xoimger son of the Earl of Chatham, he entered
capital ^ St. Petersburg (1703). In war with
phples XII of Sweden he was at first defeated, parliame nt ^ 21 and ^came
but later victorious at Poltava (1709). He 24 m _1788 when parties
AiMncan war had been lost. were prime minister
divided and the at
married a peasant. Catherine, who succeededhim He rose to the
Peter the Her^t (c. 1060-1116), French monk who posiUon, and held office with scarcely a break
preMhed the First CriBade, originated by pope tiU li death. An able finance minister he
Urban 11 at the council of Clennont. He went introduced reforms, and would have gone fm-
on the crusade himself, but gave up at Antioch. Napoleon’s meteoric rise obliged him
Petrarch, Prôesco (1804-74). Italian poet, son ^lead European alhes m a long struggle against
of a Florentine exile. He is chiefly remembered worn out by his efiiorts.
tor his poems To Laura, but he was also a scholar Pi^, Xn U876-1968), elected
Pope 1939 Ag
.n paved the way for the Eenaissanee. Eugenioand Pacelli,
many he was papal ofnuncio
Petrie, Ste Plmders (1858-1942), British egyptolo- later papal secretary state. in'It Ger¬
has
gist. He excavated in Britain (1876-90), teen Mêd that, as Pope in wartime, he could
Era^t j(1880;-1924
^ ^ and JLPalestine
), Wiict O-lCBOUiC 1927-38)
crimes*'*^^° a stronger line against Nazi war
PMdias (5fcli cent, b.o,), Greek sculptor especially Pizarro,
m go d, ivory aud bronze, worked at Athens for toe? Bâncisco
im (c ’ - « i
es
crb T?Sjmo ffto
for firm government, the recovery of Normandy majtical formifia to account for some pronerties
the teautifying of Paris. of the thermal radiation from a hot body wMcb
Phihp n of Macedonia (382-336 n.o.), a successful has since pêd an important role In physics.
commander, made his the leading military king¬
dom
Great.m Greece and was father of Alexander the Plato ^ P^’^sewinn
P13 (427-347 1918. See Quantum theory,
er Atherdan
B.o.),
PhUip II of Spain (1527-98), succeeded his father of Socrates, teacher of Aristotlphilosop her, pupil
e, He founded
Charles iii Spain and the Netherlands, also school at Athens under the name of the Acade¬a
in tapamsh interests overseas. In the Nether¬ my. where he taught philosop ^ hy hisand Dialogue
mathe-s,
lands Ins strict Homan catholic policy provoked
^revolt which ended in 1679 in the independence wMch includes ihaJUpublic, the longest and
most celebrated. His known writings have
m
Tudor Provinces. He married Mary
of England: and after her death sent the come d<^ to us and contitutes one of the
most mftaenti ai bodies of work in history.
„¥l.-f^tted .^mada against Elizabeth in 1688. See also mnd and Matter, Section J,(1818-98), a
Phihp V of Spmn (1683-1740), first Bourbon king,
sucTOeded hisjmcle Charles II and was grandson
Of corns XIV. Bjb accession provoked Euro¬ far-sighted Victorian who stood for the greater
pean war. recogMtion of science in national life. , He for-
Pl^p, Amim (1738-1814), first governor of New profession as professor of chemistry at
South Wales. Under his command the first Edinburgh to enter parliament. Pres. British
fleet of 717 convicts set sail from Britain to
, foimding of Sydney in PlÛ, fonner, Samuel (1824-98). English social re-
-“hkihu
‘^®™ation of the whole country began. Association b. Bristol.
1886 He realised
. the evil of
Philbps, Stephen (1868-1915). English poet who overloading unseaworthy sMps, and as M.P for
WTOte verse dramas, including Paolo and Fran¬ Derby he procured the passing of the Merchant
cesca. SMppmg Act. 1876 which imposed a line (the
Piast, first Polish dynasty in Poland until the 14th
cent, and until the 17th cent, in Silesia.
Piaa^, Qnrseppe (1746-1826), Italian astronomer Pliny the Elder (a.d. 23-79), Homan naturalist sink
who discovered Ceres, the first of the asteroids to author
wMe loaM^ôf a Natural which noHe sMp
aboveHistory. died niust
of fumes
.te seen by man. a^d exhaustion while investigating the eruption
Pic^so, Pablo Buiz (b. 1881) Spanish painter, b.
MAlaga; received Ms early training in Catalonia
and settled _m Paris m 1903. He f the for
notable Younger
their
were the originators of Cubism (c. and Braaue
1909). His
a
ch^ and the insight they give into Roman
inflTOnoe over contemporary art is comparable
with that exercised by Odzanne {q.v.) over the Plotous^ (c. 208-^.^262
the foimder of Neoplatoni ) Greek philosopher , con-
was
sm,Christian
which had thought.
artists of Ms time. Perhaps the best-known
single work is Ms mural Guernica, painted at the See also God and Man, Section J.
time oi the Spanish civil war, expressing biographer, whose
artist s loathing of fascism and the horrors the historical figures (in
war . Bus genius has also fomid scope in sculp¬ of Greek and a Roman whose careers were
ture, ceramcs, and the graphic arts, and he has similar). Although based on myth Ms Rife of
designed decor costumes for the ballet. L<imrons about life in Sparta had a profound
Piccard, _Auguste (1884-1962), Swiss physicist, iûence on later TOlters, e.g., Rousseau educated at
noted for balloon ascents into the stratosphere and the
and for submarine re.searcb. In 1960 Ms son Athens but visited Rome.
JMques made a descent of over 7 miles in the
Mananas trench in the western Pacific In a story- writer, h. Boston, Msss. His poems
bathjracaphc designed and built by Ms father. mclude T%e Banm and To Helen, 4P®rican
and hispoet and
stories,
Pilra&ki, Joseph (1867-1935), Polish soldier often weird and fantastic. Include Tales of the
statesman who in 1919 attempted by forceand to
motesqiie and Arabesque.
restore Poland s 1772 frontiers but was driven PomcOTA RayiMnd Nicolas (1860-1934), French
back. From 1926 he was dictator. stetesman. He was president 1918-20. and as
Pmdar (522-443 B.o.), Greek lyric poet. priiM minister occupied the Ruhr in 1923.
Pinero, Sir Arthur Winff /issfi i „ the Ttuhr M 1923.
dramatist; whose plays inoluae Dandy DicK bury. carMnal of the Romaychureh and
draniat%V^?«lp^^ TlawgMcragincEuak**
and Mid-Ghannel. onist of the refoimation. He opposed Pf Carter-
Henry
Pir^deUo, Luigi (1807-1936). ItaUan dramatist Vlll s diyo^ and went abroad in 1532, writing
and novebst whose plays include Six Characters DeUnmU Bcclestaslica', as a result of ivhlch his
mother. Countess of Salisbury, and other rela-
1034^^^^^ Nobel prizewinner «VM were executed. . Under Queen Mary
Piaairo, Ca^le (1830-1903). French impres-
Corot h®™ter of landscapes; studied under Pollard, did ” Albert Fredericarchbisho p and died when
k (1869-19
Mstorian, especiafiy of the Tudor 48). EngUshshe
Isaac (1813-97) b. Trowbridge, period, and
of the Institute of Historical Re-
^^btend ^ system of phonograpMc
t9 PROMINENT PEOPLE
Polo, Marco (1256-1328), Venetian traveller, wlio English by 0. K. Scott Moncrieff. See Section
made journeys through China, India, and other
eastern countries, visiting the court of Kubla M, Part Pierre
Prud’hon, I. Paul (1768-1828), French portrait
Khan, and publishing an account of his travels. painter, a fayonrlte of both Napcdeon's em¬
Pompadour, Jeanne Antoine Poisson, Marquise de
(1721-64), mistress of Louis XV of Prance, who presses. o! Alexandria (Claudius Ftolemaeus)
Ptolemy
exercised disastrous political influence. (fl. A.D. 140). astronomer and fonnder of scien¬
Pompey (106-48 b.o.), Homan commander, who tific cartography. In the Almagest he attemp¬
cleared the Mediterranean of pirates, and be¬ ted a mathematical presentation of the paths
came triumvir with Caesar and Crassus. along which the planets appear to move in the
Pompidou, Gfeorges Jean Eaymond (b. 1011), heavens. His other great work was his
French administrator and politician who suc¬ Geographical Outline.
ceeded de Gaulle as president of France in 1969. Puccini, Giacomo (1868-1924), Italian composer,
Pope, Alexander (1688-1744), English poet, b. b. Lucca, whose operas include Manon Lescaut,
London, of a Homan catholic family, and largely La BoMme, Tosca, Madam Butterfly, and
self-educated. His brilliant satire was fre¬ Turandot (completed by a friend).
quently directed against his contemporaries. Purcell, Henry (1668-95), English composer, b.
He is especially remembered for The Sape of the Westminster, son of a court musiclaa. He be¬
LoeTce, The Dundad, Essay on CrUicism, and came organist of the chapel royal and composer
Essay on Man. , to Charles II. His best works are vocal and
Pound, Ezra Inomis (b. 1885), American poet and choral. He also wrote for the stage. See
writer on varied subjects, a controversial figure. Section E.
He te noted for his translations of Provencal, Pusey, Edward Bouverie (1800-82), BngUsh theolo¬
Latin, Chinese, French, and Italian poets. gian. a leader of the Oxford or liaotarian move¬
Poussin, Nicolas (1593-1665), French painter. ment with Keble and at first also with Newman,
He lived in Home 1624-40, 1642-65. His Gol¬ tfil the latter became Homan catholic. The
den Calf is in the National Gallery. movement aimed at revival. See Traotarian-
Powys, John Cowper (1872-1964), English writer, ism. Section J.
best known for his novel Wolf Solent and his Pushkin, Alexander (1799-1837), Hussian writer,
essays The Meaning of Gulture and A Philosophy h. Moscow, whose place in Hussian literature
of Solitude. His brothers, Theodore Francis ranks with Shakespeare’s in English. He wrote
(1875-1963) and Llewelyn (1884-1939) were also in many forms— lyrical poetry and narrative
original writers. , , verse, drama, folk-tales and short stories.
Prasad, Rajendra (1884-1963), Indian statesman, Musicians have used his works as plots for
first president of the Eepublic of India, 1960-62. operas — ^the fairy romance Busslan and Lud¬
Praxiteles (4th cent, b.o.), Greek sculptor, whose milla was dramatised by Glinka; the verse
main surviving work is Hermes carrying Diony¬ novel Eugene Onegin and the short story The
sus. Queen of Spades were adapted by Tchaikovsky,
Preece, Sir William Henry (1834-1913), Welsh and the tragic drama Boris Godunov formed the
electrical engineer, associated with the expan¬ subject of Mussorgsky’s opera. Like Lermon¬
sion of wireless telegraphy and telephony in the tov, who too was exited, he was inspired by the
United Kingdom. He was connected with wild beauty of the Cfaucasus. He was killed
Marconi and introduced the block system. in a duel defending his wife’s honour.
Prescott, William Hickllng (1796-1859), American Pym, John (1684-1643), English parliamentary
historian, especially of Mexico, Peru, and of leader In opposition to Charles I. He promoted
some European subjects. the impeachment
Prichard, James Cowles (1786-t1848), English Strafford and Land. of the king’s advisers.
ethnologist who perceived that people should Pythagoras (c. 682-600 b.o.), Greek philosopher,
be studied as a whole. His works Include Be- b. on the island of Samos, off the Turkish main¬
searches into the Physical History of ManMnd land, which he left c. 630 to settle at Croton, a
and The Natural History of Man. He practised Greek city in southern Italy. He was a mystic
medicine. and mathematician, and foimded a brotherhood
Priestley, John Boynton (b. 1894), English critic, who saw in numbers the key to the under¬
novelist, and playwright, b. Bradford. His standing of the universe.
works include the novels The Good Companions,
Angel Pavement, and the plays Dangerous
Comer, Time and the Conways, I Have Been
Here Before, and The Linden Tree.
Priestley, Joseph (1733-1804). English chemist
who worked on gases, and shared with Scheele
the discovery of oxygen. A presbyterian Quasimodo, Salvatore (1901-68), Italian poet of
minister, he was for his time an advanced humanity and liberal views whose works
thinker. In 1794 he settled In America. include La vita non e sogno. Nobel prizewimer
Biography: Adventurer in Science and Champion 1969.
0/ rrath by F. W. Gibbs (1966). Quesnay, Francois (1694-1774), French economist,
Prior, Matthew (1664^-1721). ]^llsh poet. In founder of the physiooratic school who be¬
early life he was a diplomat. He was a neat lieved in laizzez- fairs and influenced the thought
epigrammatist and writer of occasional pieces. of Adam Smith. See Physiocrats, Section J.
His works include The City Mouse and Country Qufller-Couch, Sir Arthur Thomas (1863-1944),
Mouse and Four Dialogues of the Dead. English man of letters, b. Bodmin, known as
Prokofiev, Serge Sergeyevich (1891-1963), Hussian “ Q.” He edited the Oxford Book of English
Verse and his works Include From a Cornish
composer, whose music has a strong folk-song windmo.
element, rich in melody and invention. He has
written operas: The Love of Three Oranges,
The Betrothal in a Nunnery, War and Peace;
hsHeta: Borneo and Juliet, Cinderella: symphon¬
ies, chamber music, and the music for Eisen-
stein’s AIttih Alexander Nevsky, Ivan the Terrible.
See Section E, Rabelais, Francois (c. 1496-1658), French satirist.
Protagoras (o. 480-411 b.o.), Greek philosopher, At first in religious orders, he late studied medi¬
chief of the Sophists, noted for his scepticism cine and practised at Lyons. EHs works , mainly
and dishelief in objective truth, and for published under a pseudonym, are fall of
his doctitoe that '‘man is the measure of aU riotous mirth, wit and wisdom. The main ones
sse Gawantua smd. Panlagruel.
things."
Proudhon, Pierre Joseph (1809-65), French Rachel, (Elisa Felix) (1821-68), Alsatlan-
socialist. In 1840 he propounded the view that Jewish tragic actress. Her chief triumph was
property is theft. His main work is SysUme des in Racine’s P7t^dre.
contradictions iconomigues (1846). He was Rachmaninov, Sergey Vasilyevich (1878-1948).
frequently in prison. Russian composer and pianist, h. Nljni-
Proust, Marcel (1871-1922). French psychological Novgorod (now Gorki), best known for Us
novellat, author of a series of novels known piano music, especially Ms Prelude. After the
under the title of Ala recherche du temps perdu. Hussian revolution he settled in America, See
His works have been admirably translated into Section E.
RAC-REU BSO PROMINENT PEOPUE
hook The Disinherited Family set out the case

Eacine, Jean (1639-99), French tragic poet whose
dramas include Andromame, Iphiginie and for family allowances.
PMdre. An orphan, he was brought up by Ravel, Maurice (1875-1937), French composer,
grandparents who sent him to Port Eoyal pupil of Faur6, one of the leaders of the im¬
school where he acauired a love of the classics. pressionist movement. He wrote chamber
In Paris he became a friend of Molifere, whose music, piano pieces, songs, and ballet music,
company acted his first play', and of Boileau, mcluding Daphnis et Chloi, specially commis¬
with whom he became joint historiographer to sioned by Diaghilev. See Secfion E.
Louis XIV. Esther and Athalie were written Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke (1810-96), English
for Madame de Maintenon’s schoolgirls. diplomat and archaeologist. He made As¬
Rackham, Arthur (1867-1989), English artist and syrian collections now in the British Museum
book-illustrator, especially of fairy tales. and translated the Behistun inscription of the
Radhakrishnan, Sir Sarvepalli (b. 1888), Indian Persian king Darius. He also wrote on cunei¬
philosopher and statesman, vice-president of form inscriptions and on Assyrian history.
India 1962-62, president 1962-7. He was at Ray, John (1627-1705). English naturalist. A
one time a professor at Oxford, and was chair¬ blacksmith’s son, he went to Cambridge,
man of IJnesco in 1949. His works include travelled in Europe, and produced a classifica¬
Indian Philosophy. tion of plants. He also mote on zoology.
Raehum. Sir Henry (1766-1823), Scottish por¬ Rairieigh, Srd Baronmathematician
1919), English (John William and
Strutt) (1842-
physicist.
trait painter, whose style was founded on that He studied sound and the wave theory of light:
of Reynolds. His sitters included Scott.
Raffles, Sit Thomas Stamford (1781-1826), English and with Sir William Ramsay discovered argon.
colonial administrator who founded a settlement Nobel prizewinner 1904.
at Singapore in 1819. He was also a naturalist, Read, Sir Herbert (1893-1968), English poet and
and art critic. His writings include Oollected Poems,
dent. founded the London Zoo, being first presi¬ The Meaning of Art, and an autobiogi’aphy.
Annals of Innocence and Experience.
Raikes, Robert (1735-1811). English educational
pioneer, whose lead in the teaching of children Reade, tJharles (1814-84), English novelist. , His
at Gloucester on Sundays led to an extensive chief work is The Cloister and Vie Hearth. He
Sunday School movement. also wrote Peg Woffington, It is Never too Late to
Mend, and Griffith Gaunt, aimed at social abuses.
Raleigh, Sir Walter (1562-1618), adventurer and He tried unsuccessfully to write plays.
writer. He found favour at the court of Eliza¬
beth I, helped to put down the Irish rebellion of Bdaiuuur, Rend Antoine Ferchault de (1683-1757).
1580. and in 1684 began the colonisation of French naturalist who invented a thermometer
Virginia, introducing potatoes and tobacco to of eighty degrees, using alcohol.
the British Isles. At the accession of James I Rdcamier, Jeanne IBkanooise (nie Bernard) (1777-
he lost favour and was sent to the Tower, where . 1849), French beauty and holder of a noted
he wrote his History of the World. Released in salon. Her husband was a banker.
1616 to lead an expedition to the Orinoco, he Regnault, Henri Victor (1810-78), French chemist
was executed when it failed. - and physicist, who worked on gases, latent heat,
Raman, Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata (1888-1970), and steam-engines.
Indian physicist whose main work has been in Reith, 1st Baron (John Charles Waisham Reith)
spectroscopy. For his research on the diffusion (b. 1889), Scottish civil engineer, first director-
general of the British Broadcasting Corporation
of
(a light and discovery
phenomenon of the light
of scattered “ Raman
rays) effect
he was” 1927-38. (Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn)
Rembrandt
awarded the 1980 Nobel prize.
Rameau, Jean Philippe (1683-1764). French eom- (1606-69), Dutch painter and etcher, b. Leiden,
l)oser and church organist whose works on a mlUer’s son, one of the most individual and
musical theory influenced musical development prolific artists of any period. His output in¬
in the 18th cent. cludes portraits, landscapes, large groups,
Ram6n y Cajal, Santiago (1852-1934), Spanish etchings, and drarrings. He settled In Amster¬
dam establishing his reputation with The
histologist who made discoveries in the struc¬ Anatomy . Lesson, painted in 1632. In 1634 he
ture of the nervous system. Shared 1906
Nobel prize. married Saskia,wasa burgomaster’s daughter.
Night Watch painted in 1642; it wfis The
not
Raây, Sir William (1852-1916). Scottish well received and Saskia died the same year,
chemist, and discoverer with Lord Rayleigh of
argon. Later he discovered helium and other leaving the infant Titus. The path from rela¬
inert gases, which he called neon, krypton, and tive wealth to lonely old age is depicted in his
xenon. Nobel prizewinner 1904. self-portraits. Caring little for convention or
Ramsey, Arthur Michael (b. 1904), archbishop of formal heaiity, his work is characterised by bold
Canterbury, 1961. His previous career was: realism and spiritual beauty, Ijy vitality and
simplicity. His understanding of the play of
professor of divinity at Cambridge 1960-2: colour, and the effects of light can give Ms pic¬
bishop of Durham 1962-6: archbishop of York tures a mystical beauty, as in the atmospheric
1966-61. In 1970 he preached In South Aftlca.
Ranke, Leopold von (1796-1886), German historian, painting The AJilt. His figures, even for reli¬
one of the first to base his work on methodical gious pictures, were taken from real life, the
research, ffls chief work is a History of Vie Jews in the etcMng Christ Healing from the
Popes. Jewish quarter where he lived. He met the
Raphael (Eaffaello Santi) (1483-1620) of Urbino misfortunes of later life by withdrawing from
was the youngest of the three great artists of the society and it was during this period of detach¬
High Renaissance. He was taught at Perugia ment that he produced his greatest works in
by Petugino, and then at Florence he came portraiture, landscape, and biblical story.
under the influence of Leonardo and Rlichalan- Renan, Ernest (1823-92), French writer who,
gelo. Raphael’s Madonnas, remarkable for though unable to accept the orthodox view¬
thek simplicity and grace. Include the Madonna point. wrote much on religious themes, especially
of the Grand Duke (Palazzo Pitti, Florence), the si Life of Jesus. v
S-laline Madonna (Drteden), the Madonna with Rent Guido. See Guido Rent.
the Goldfinch (Ufflzi, Florence), and the Ansidei Rennie, John (1761-1821). Scottish civil engineer
Madonna (National Gallery, London). He who built the old Waterloo and Southwark
painted the frescoes on the walls of tho Stanza bridges , and designed the granite London
della Segnatura in the Vatican, tho.se in the bridge which stood tmtil recently. He also
adjoining rooms, and elsewhere, and his finest designed docks at London, Liverpool, Leith
portrait is that of Castlglione. After the death Dublm, and Hull; constructed Plymoutli
of Bramante he was appointed architect in breakwater: made canals and drained fens.
charge of the rebuilding of St. Peter’s. Renoir, Pierre Ai^tuste (1841-1919), French im¬
Rasputin, Grigori Yefimovich (1871-1916). Russian pressionist painter, h. Limoges. His works
peasant monk, who at the court of Nicholas II include portraits, still-life, landscapes, and
exerted a malign influence over the. Tsarina groups, including La Logs, Les Parapluies, La
rinrough his apparent ability to improve the premiire Sortie, La Place Pigalle. He was
health of the sickly Tsarevich Alexis. He was ■ later crippled with arthritis.
murdered by a group of nobles. r Beuther, Paul Julius, Freiherr von (1816-99),
Rathhone, Eleanor (1872-1046), social, reformer <3erman pioneer of telegraphic press service,
who championed women’s pensions and in- her who in 1861 fixed his headauarters in London.
hey-rom B51 prominent peopue
Eevmont. Vladislav Stanislav (1868-1925), Polish timate with Verlaine and at 18 had completed
novelist, author of The Teasants. Notoel prise- his memoirs. Une saison en enfer. He died at
winner 1921, Marseilles.
Eeynolds, Sir Joshua (1723-92). English portrait Eimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Andreyovieh .(1844-
painter. b. Plympton. Devon. His portraits. 1908). Eussian composer whose
who^ works include
mctade
which include Mrs. Siddans, are remarkable for the operas TJie Maid of Tskov, The Snow Maide n,
expressiveness and colour and he was a sym¬ Le Coa d'or, and the symbolic suite Schehere-
pathetic painter of children. He was first zade. He was a brilliant orchestrator and re-
president of the E.A. from 1768 tm his death. scored many works, including Borodin’s
Ehodes, CecU John (1863-1902). English empire- lOor. . .Trincej
builder. B. at Bishop’s Stortford. he went to Eizzlo, David (1533?-66). Italian rausician and
South Africa for health reasons and there pros- secretary of Mary. (Jueen of Scots. He was
pered at the diamond mines. He became prime murdered in her presence at Holyrood by her
minister of what was then Cape Colony and se- jealous husband. Darnley,
cured British extension in what is now Eho- Robbia. Luca Della (1400-82), Elorentine sculptor,
desia. He withdrew ftom politics after the . who introduced enamelled terracotta worir. .
failure of the fil-advised Jameson Raid of 1896 Roberts of Kandahar, 1st to! (Frederick Sleigh
into the Transvaal. He beaueathed large sums Roberts) (1882-1914), British general. He took
to found scholarships at Oxford for overseas part in the suppression of the Indian Mutiny, in
students. the Afghan war (relieving Kandahar), and
Ricardo, David (1772-1823). English political put in command in South Africa in the Boer War
economist of Jewish descent. By occupation he relieved Kimberley and advanced
toria. ^ to Pre¬
a Inndon stockbroker, he wrote a useful work,
. Princivles of Political Economu. Robertson. Sir William (1860-1933). the only
Richard I (1167-99). succeeded his father Henry 11 British soldier to rise from private to field-
as king of England in 1189. A patron of trouba¬ marshal. His son, Brian Hubert, 1st Baron (b.
dours and a soldier (Lion-heart), he went on the 1896) served in both world wars and was chair¬
third Crusade and took Acre, but could not man of the British Transport Comnoission, 1953-
recover Jerusalem from Saladin. On his return 61. ■ . . . „
journey across Europe he was imprisoned and Robeson, Paul Le Roy (b. 1898), American Heap
ransomed. He was killed in war with France. singer, b. Princeton, is especially known for ms
Richard H (1367-1400). son of the Black Prince, singing of Negro spirituals, and hM appeared m
succeeded his grandfather Edward III as king works ranging from Showboat to pthello.
of w.T'gifl.-nfi in 1377. Artistic and able, but Robespierre, Maximihen Marie Isidoho de (1768- .
erratio and egocentric, he personally at the age 94). French revolutionary. A comtrr advocate
of fomteen met thepromises.
Peasants’ Latterly
Revolt in_1381, b. Arras, he was in 1789 elected to the States
making untenable his rule General and in 1792 to the Convention. He be¬
became increasingly arbitrary, and he was de¬ came a leader of the Jacobins, the more ex¬
posed and imprisoned in 1399. treme party which came to power under stress
Richard IH (1462-86). King of England, succeeded of war and after the king’s execution in 1793.
his brother, the Yorkist, Edward IV, in 1483. In this crisis, the Committee of Public Safety,
and is believed to have murdered his two of which he was a member and whioli used his
nephews in the Tower. Shortly afterwards he reputation as a cloak, sent many to the guillo¬
was defeated and klUed at Bosworth by the tine. He opposed the cult of Reason and in¬
invading Earl of Richmond, who as Henry VTI augurated the worship of the Supreme Being.
brought to an end the Wars of the Roses. In the reaction from the reign of terror he was
Richard’s character is disputed, but he was denounced, tried to escaiie, but was guillotined.
able and might have been a successful ruler. Robinson. William Heath (1872-1944). English
Richardson, Sir Albert Edward, (1880-1964), cartoonist and book-illustrator, especially
British architect, author of Georgian, Architec¬ known for his fantastically humorous drawings
ture. of machines, „ ,
Richardson, Sir Owen Williams (1879-1959), i Roh Roy (Robert McGregor) (1671-1734). Scot-
English physicist who worked on thermlonics, tish freebooter who helped the poor at the ex¬
or emission of electricity from hot bodies. pense of the rich, and played a lone hand in the
Nobel prizewinner 1928. troubled times of the Jacobite rising of 1716.
Richardson, Sir Ralph David (b. 1902). English Robsart, Amy (1532-60), English wctun. (it is
actor who has worked at the old Vie. on the believed) of murder. The wife of Robert Dud-
West End stage, and at Stratford-on-Avon, and ley. Earl of Leicester, she was found dead at
appeared in films. Including Soitth Riding, Anna Cumnor Place. Her death was used by Scott in
Karenina, wad. The FaUen idol. Kenilioorth.
Richardson, Samuel (1689-1761). English author Rockefeller, John Davison (1839-1937). American
of Pamela. Clarissa, and The Eistory of Sir philanthropist, b. Eichford. N.Y. Hesêd in
Charles Grandison, exercised considerable tar Cleveland. Ohio, and with his brother William
fluence on the development of the novel. founded the Standard Oil Company, making a
Riohelieu, Armand Jean du Hessis, Due de (1686- fortune. His philanthropic enterprises are
1642). French statesman, cardinal of the Roman carried on by the Rockefeller Foundation.
church. As minister to Louis XIII from 1624 Nelson Rockefeller, elected governor of New
till his death, he built up thepower of the French York, 1968, 1962. 1966. is his grandson.
crown at home in central government, and by Bodta. Auguste (1841-1917), French scifiptor, b.
his military preparedness and active foreign Paris. His best-known works include JLe
policy gave France a lead ta Europe. Penseur, Les Bourgeois de Calais, the statues of
Ridley. Nicholas (1600-66), English Protestant Balzac and Victor Hugo, and La Porte d" Enfer,
martyr, bishop of Rochester and later of a huge bronze door for the Musde des Arts
London, was burnt with Latimer under Queen D6coratifs, which was stUl unfinished at his
Mary Tudor. , . , , death. ,
Rienzl, Cola di (1313-54), Italian patriot, b. Rodney, 1st Baron (George Rodney) (171^92).
Rome, led a popular rising in 1347 and for seven English admiral, who served ta the Seven Years
months reigned as tribune, but had to flee, was War and the War of America Independence;
imprisoned, and eventually murdered. ta the latter war he defeated the French fleet
Rilke, Rainer Maria (1872-1926). German lyric under de Grasse. „ ,
poet. b. Prague. His work, marked by beauty Boland de la Platibre, MEwon Jeanne (1754r-98). a
of style, cutaotaated in the Ltiino Elegies and leading figure ta the French rôlutlon. ^r
Sonnets to Orpheits, both written ta 1922, Tvhloh husband Jean Marie (1734r-98), belonged to the
gave a new musioaUty to Germian verse. BUs more moderate or Girondist party, and when
visits to Russia ta 1899 and 1900 and his admira¬ threatened escaped; but she was imprisoned and
tion for Rodin (who hadcareer.
been his wife’s teacher) execute. She wrote Letters and Memoirs.
influenced his artistic Bolk^, Romata (1866-1944), French author,
Bhnbaud, Jean Nicolas Arthur (1854-91), French whose main work is a ten- volume novel, Jscf'rt-
poet. b. OharlevUle, on the Meuse. In his Ohrislonhe, the biography of a German musician,
brief poetic career (4 years from about the age of based on the life of Beethoven, and a study of
16) he prepared the way for symbolism {Bateau contemporary French and German civilisation.
wre, Lee llliminatAms) and anticipated Nobel prizewinner 1916.
Freud {Les deserts de I’amour), He became ta- 1 Romilly, Sir Samuel (1767-1818). English lawyer
^D (SOthEd.)
ROM-RUS Bs2 prominent people
and law-reformer, wlio aimed at mitigating the Rousseau, Henri (1844-1910). French " Sunday ”
severity of the criminal law. painter,
Rommel, Erwin (1891-1944), German general. weekdays called
he was “Le Douanler”
a customs official.because
Accordingon
He took part in the 1940 Invasion of Erance, and to him, he had served as regimental bandsman
was later suecessfnl In commanding the Afrika in Mexico which may account for his exotic
Korps till 1944. He committed suicide. settings and jungle scenes.
Romney, George (1734-1802), English artist, b. in Boussean, Jean-Jacgues (1712-78), French politi¬
Lancashire. He painted chiefly portraits, cal philosopher and educationist, h. Geneva,
especially of Lady Hamilton, and lived mainly herald of the romantic movement. After a hard
in London, but returned to Kendal to die, childhood he met Mine de Warens who for some
Rontgen, Wilhelm Konrad von (1846-1923), years befriended him. In 1741 he went to Paris
German scientist who in 1895 discovered X-rays. where he met Diderot and contributed articles
Nobel prizewinner 1901. on music and political economy to the Enoyclo-
Roosevelt, Frankhn Delano (1882-1945). American pidie. La nouvelle EdMse appeared in 1760,
statesman, a distant cousin of Theodore Emile, and Le Gontrat Social in 1762. Emile is
Roosevelt. During the first world war he held aprinciples
treatise on
ofSce under Wilson, and though stricken with andeducation
Le Gontrataccording to main
Social, his " natural
work,”
poliomyelitis in 1921 continued his pohticai sets forth his political theory. It begins, “ Man
career, becoming governor of New York in 1929 is bom free and everywhere he is in chains.”
and IJ.S. president in 1933 (the first to hold Both books offended the authorities and he had
office for more than two terms), till his death. to flee, spending some time In England. Later
A Democrat, he met the economic crisis of 1933 he was able to return to France. His views on
with a in
policy conduct and government did much to stimulate
strove vain for
to award
“ Newoft Deal
war. ” Towards
{see Ii83).other
He tbe movement leading to the French Revolution.
American cormtries his attitude was that of See also Education, Section J.
“ good neighbour”. After Pearl Harbour, he Rubens, Sir Peter Paul (1677-1640), Flemish
energetically prosecuted the war, holding meet¬ painter. B. in exUe, his family returned to
ings with Churchill and Stalta, and adopting a Antwerp in 1587. He studied in Italy and visi¬
“lend-lease” policy for arms. He kept con¬ ted Spain. His range was wide, his composi¬
tact with his people by “ fireside talks ”. His tions vigorous, and he was a remarkable colour¬
wife Eleanor (1884-1962) was a public figure in ist. Peace and War, The Bave of the Sabines,
her own right, and was chairman of the ir.N. and The Pelt Hat are in the National Gallery.
Human Rights Commission 1947-61. He was knighted by Charles I.
Roosevelt, Theodore (1858-1919), American Eubenstein, Anton Grigorovioh (1829-94). Rus¬
president. Popular because of his exploits in sian pianist and composer, who helped to formd
the Spanish-American war, he was appointed the conservatoire at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) :
Republican vice-president in 1900, becoming as did his brother Nicholas (1885-81) at Moscow.
president when McKinley was assassinated, Biicker, Sir Arthur (1848-1916), English physicist,
and was re-elected 1906. He promoted the who made two magnetic surveys of the British
regulation of trusts; and his promotion of peace Isles, 1886, and 1891,
between Russia and Japan gained the Nobel Ruisdael, Jacob van (e. 1628-82), Dutch painter of
prize, 1906. landscapes, b. Hharlem. Several of his works
Hops; Pelicien (1833-98), Belgian artist, known for axe in the National GaUery, including Coast of
his often satirical lithographs and etchings. Scheveningen and Landscave with ruins. He
Ross, Sir James Clark (1800-62), Scottish explorer was also a fine etcher.
of polar regions, who accompanied his uncle Rupert, Prince (1619-82). general, son of Frederick
Sir John, and himself discovered the narth of Bohemia and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of
magnetic pole in 1831. He commanded the James I of England. He commanded the
£lrebm and Terror to the antarctic (1839-48), Royalist cavalry in the BngUdd civil war, hut
where his discoveries included the Ross icebarrier. was too impetuous for lasting success. At sea
Ross, Sir John (1777-1856), Scottish explorer of he was defeated by Blake. He Improved the art
polar regions, uncle of the above. He searched of mezzottatlng and was the first governor of the
for the north-west passage and discovered Hudson’s Bay Company.
Boothia peninsula. Rusk, Dean (b. 1909). American politician, who
Ross, Sir Ronald (1857-1932), British physician, has held vaiioiB posts especially in connection
b, India, who discovered the malaria parasite. with foreign affairs; a former Rhodes scholar.
He was in the Indian medical service, and later Ruskiu, John (1819-1900), English author and art
tau^t tropical medicine In England. Nobel critic, b. London. BQs Modern Painters In 5
prizewdnner 1902. volumes was Issued over a period of years, the
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (1828-82), English poet first volume havhig a strong defence of Turner.
and painter, son of (itebriele (1783-1852). an He helped to establish the Pre-Raphaelites,
exiled Italian author who settled in London in Other notable works Include The Seven Lamps
1842. With Millais. Holman Hunt and others of Architecture, The Stones of Venice and Prae-
he formed the Bre-Raphaelite brotherhood lerita. Unto this iosi develops his views on
which returned to pre-RenaissanCe art forms. social problems, and he tried to use his wealth
His model was often his wife. Elizabeth Slddal. for education and for non-profltmaJdng enter¬
His poems include TM Blessed Bamozel. His prises. Buskin College at Oxford, the first
sister CShristhia Georgina (1830-94) wrote poetry, residential college for working people, is named
isxolnTtag BoUim, Market, after him. In 1848 he married Buphemia Gray,
Rossini, Gioacchino Antonio (1792-1868), Italian hut in 1864 she obtained a decree of nullity and
operatic composer. See SecWon E. later married Millais.
Rostandj Edmond (1868-1918), Erenoh dramatist, Russell, 8rd Earl (Bertrand Aithur William Russell)
whose Cyrano de Rewerac created a sensation in (1872-1970), English philosopher, mathemati¬
1898. cian, and essayist, celebrated for his work in the
Rothenstein, Sir William (1872-1946). EngiiBii field of logic and the theory of knowledge, and
portrait painter. His son. Sir John (b, 1001), remembered for his moral courage, belief in
is an art historian and until 1964 was director human reason and his championship of liberal
of the Tate Gallery; he has written an auto¬ ideas, He published more than 60 books.
biography. Including Tfte Principles of MathemaMes (1903),
Rothsohlia, Meyer Amsohel (1743-1812), German Prinoipia MathemaMca (in collaboration with
financier, founder of a bankhig family, b. A N. Whitehead: 8 vols., 1910-18), The Prob¬
Frankfort. His five: sons controlled branches lem of PhUosophv (1912), Mystv^sm and Logic
at Frankfurt, Vienna, Naples, Paris and Loudon (1918), The Analysis of Mind (1921), An In-
.(Nathan Meyer, 1777-1836). Nathan’s son, miry into Meaning and Truth (1940), History
Lionel (1808-79). was the first Jewish member of of Western Philosophy (1946), and a number on
the House of Commons. ethics and social questions. His Autobiog¬
Roubiliac, Louis Francois (1696-1762), French raphy (3 vols.) appeared 1967-9. He was the
sculptor who settled in London and carved a grandson of Lord John Russell and John Stuart
statue of Handehfor Vauxhall gardens and one MU! was Ms godfather. Nobel prize for litera¬
of Newtonfor Trinity College. Oambridige. ture 1960; O.M. 1949.
Bonget de Lisle, Claude Joseph (1760-1836), Bussell, 1st Earl (John RusseU), (1792-1878),
French poet, author of words and music of the English statesman, third son of the 6th Duke
JHarseilloise, revolutionary audnational anthom. of Bedford. He had a large share in carrying
i3 PROMINENT PEOPLE
the parliamentary reform bill of 1882. He rm (1830-1903). English Conservative statesman,

prime
Whig also minister 1846-62 and 1866-6. He prime minister 1886-6, 1886-92, 1896-1902,
mainly remembered for his conduct of forei^
was a historian and biographer.
Bussell oi Killowen, 1st Baron (Charles Bussell), affairs during a critical period, culminating in
British lawyer, b. Ireland: lord chief justice the Boer War. His grandson, Bobert Arthur,
1894-1900. He defended Parnell. _ 5th IVtaretuess (b. 1893), has led the Conservative
(1871- opposition in the House of Lords.
Butherford, 1st Baron (Ernest Eutherford)
b. New Zealand,
1937), British physicist, Samuel, 1st Viscount (Herbert Samuel) (1870-1963)
eminent in the field of atomic research. His British Liberal statesman of Jewish parentage.
experiments were conducted at Manchester and He published
Practical Ethics. philosophical works,. including,
irom rmîcui
scientisrs ftom
Cambridge and attracted young scientists
all over the world. In 1911 he_âôimc^d^l^ Her uubUem
nuclear theory of the atom and in 1918 suc¬ rvriter Armandine Lucie Dupm. Her publica¬
ceeded in splitting the atom. His work pre¬ tions are extensive and varied, and Include the
pared the way for future nuclear research. novel Mauvât, rural studies, and an auto¬
Buysdael, Jacob van. See Buisdael. ' JJULUH, , biographywjujLi Histoire
uittijcu with
ciated nodeMusset
xiitxcLi de
Alfred nia vie.
and She was asso¬
Chopin.
nvtfir Micmel
Buyter, Adrianszoon ue
Michiel AdTianSZOOn de Iiou/-Yo),
(1607-76), Hutch
SrM iX rS^with Nelson.
caused He fought
alarm by Sandow. Eugene (1867-1926).
an Germ^
Institute of - stroi^
Health m
against England
against and in 1667
England and in 1667 caused alarm by man who opened
sailing up the Medway as far as Bochester and
.1 o, tb.
Art,® wounded
Sankey, Ira David (1840-1908), American evan¬
gelist and composer, associated with Moody.
San Martin, Jos§ de (1778-1850).independence
South American
from
fi national leader in securing
” Spanish rule to his native Argentina, Cmde and
'a IhoSer, S wote ovm\oo6 Santeyma, George (1863-1962). American philoso-

|S?oêiatllthevery^^^^ ?r“ t
(including JHe Witteniergisehe Namtigall) He was professor of philosophy at Harvard.
inspired by the Eeformation. v i. • ^ 1907-12. His books include The Sense of
Sachs, Julius von (1882-97). German botamst, Beauty,
Bdna. The Life of Reason, and The Realms of
founder of experunental
founder of plant Physiology.
experimental plant physiology. Jie He AihArin /i 878-1 932) Brazilian
demonstrated that chlorpphyU is formed m San^-Dmont, ^^berto (1873 1932).
chloroplasts only in light (see P28). aeronaut who in 1898 flew a cylmdrical baUoon
Sadi or Saadi (Muslih Addin) (c. 1184-1292), with a gasoline
monoplane. engine. In
, 1909 he ,built
n ,a
Persian poet, b. Shiraz, best known for his
IIW.), i;r..cb I
critic, b. Boulogne. He studied medicine, popular in bis day. Sarab Berzihairdt created
abandoning it for journalism, and after attempt* famous in Fddorct,
parts ojid Thiodota La Tosca ",
and for
critic!^.
turned to literary criticu^.
ing to write poetry, tumea Bobespierre Lante were written Irving,
wnrir rfiveals tbe wide range of
JDLJa WUiii, ACSYCUdS UJUIA/ »rAv*v. *c***ov/
TTia x.... his m* Sargent, John Singer (1866~1922). Aiuericim
tellectual experience and includes Causeries du du jpainter, b. I'lorenc e, mainly m
experience
tellectual Mistoire and Includes Causeries sime-
was some-
lundi and Sistoire dede Port- Royal. He
Port- Royal. He w^ _ E^lfnd. Bjitigh conduc-
Saint- Tiist. Antoine (1767-94), French revolu- Concerts from 1960 till hia death, and sucM^^
M contactor of the BBC
SSm Robespierre and executed
Saint-Saens. Charles 0amfle (1836-1921)^ Fr^ cbaw/yiBu tiiiiu xivroijuju.

essayist ^dmojlfat His mator PM^PP^cal
composer, for 20 years organist at the Made¬ work is L’Etre et le Niant and his plays include
leine. His compositions include symphomo and Les Moudhes, Huis Clos, Grime passionel. La
chamber music and the opera Sotosoji et Ralila., Putain
winch was produced by Liszt at Weimar in He was respeclueuse,
awarded (though and Les heSdQuestrds
declinedd’AlUma.
it) the
1877. See Section E. _ , ■ __ _ 1964 Nobel prize. See Section I. ,
SatotMf Comte do
who in his L’lnduslrie and writer with a hatred of war. He is mainly
French socialist,
Nouveau christianisme prepared the way for knoivn for The Memoirs of a Eoxhunhm Man,
much later thought. the first part of the Memoirs of George Sherstm.
SaS^,|^S?_Edvmra (1845-1983). English Savonaâ. ^
critic and literary historian. ■ . preacher and reformer, a Homimcan friar, wbo
denounced vice and corruption not only _m
Sala, George Augustus (1828-96), English journal¬ society but also in the Church Itself, especially
ist who contributed to (among others) Howse-
hold Words and was a notable foreign oorres- attacking Pope Alexander VI. He was exeoin-
mnm'eated, hnprisoned. and with two of his
companions hanged In public. His passion for
Safadin^lSalah-ad-dln)
and Syria and founder (1187-93)
of a .dynasty,
sultan of who EgyptIn reforna made him impatient of opposition and
1187 defeated the Christians near Tiberias and incapable of compromise, yet he was a notable
Jerusalem.
took Thirrt This IngaveWmCn the unsuccess¬
rise to JcLlCiiara figure and commands the respect of later ages.
fill
ful (jTiisade
Third Crusade. In which Biohard IXof vjreuitio jhiiiwu o
George Eliot’s Bowolfl portrays him. ■
England joined. Hjs, great-CLuaUtte
mired by his opponents, and his administration oian who founded the NeopoUtan school of
left many tangible signs in such matters as roads opera. He composed over 100 operas. 200
masses, and over 700 cantatas and. oratorios.
Salazar, Antonio d'OUveira (1889-1970), Portu¬ His son Domenico (1686-1767) was a harpsi¬
guese dictator, having first been premier in chord virtuoso whose work influenced the evolu¬
1932, anew constitution being adopted m 1933. tion of the sonata. The chief years of his life
He gave Portugal stability, but refused to tow were spent at the Spanish court in Madrid. See
to nationalism min Portuguese Africa and
Fortugueê Atrica ana inaia. India. Section E.
- ,n_o«v Swedish chemist
ciciiSn wrnntifiAk 11867-1937). Czech critio, essay- Soheele, Carl Wimeun ii74.i-»o),âweuiHn i4iomiai;,
Salisbury, 3rd Marquess (Bobert Arthur Salisbury) planet Mars which he called canals.
SCH-SHA B54. PROMINENT PEOPLE
cathedral at Liverpool and planned the new
ScliiBer, Johann Christoph Friedrich von (1769- Waterloo bridge,
1805), (Serman dramatist and poet, b. Marbach
in Wtirttemberg, began life as a military sur¬ Scott, Robert Falcon (1868-1912), English antarc¬
tic explorer. He led two expeditions; one
geon. His play The Sobbers with a revolution¬ 1901-4 which discovered King Edward
ary theme was successful in 1782 in Mannheim.
After a stay at Dresden, where he wrote Don Land: and another in 1910 which reached the
Carlos, and at Jena, where he wrote a history of south pole and found the Amimdsen records:
the Thirty Years War, he became the friend but whUe returning the party was overtaken
of Goethe and removed to Weimar, where by blizzards and the survivors died from starva¬
he wrote Wallenstein, Mary Stumt, The Maid of tion and exposure 11 miles from a depot. See
Orleans and William Tell, but died young. He also Antarctic exploration, L6. Bas son, Peter
is a leading flgme in the European romantic Scott (b. 1909), Is an artist and ornithologist,
movement. founder of the Severn Wild Fowl Trust.
Sohtrrmann, Eiohard (1874-1961), German ori¬ Scott, Sic Walter (1771-1832), Scottish novelist
ginator of youth hostels. A schoolmaster, in and poet, b. Edinburgh. He was educated for
1907 he converted his schoolroom during holi¬ the law, but came to know and love the Border
country and his interests were literary: and in
days to a dormitory. The Verband ftlr deut-
sche Jugendherbergen was founded in 1918, and 1802-3 he issued a collection of ballads. Border
the International Youth Hostels Federation in Minstrelsy. Poems such as Marmion and The
1932, with Schirrmann as first president. Lady of the Lake followed. His novels appeared
Schlegel, Friedrich von (1772-1829), German critic, anonymously, beginning with Waverley In 1814:
b. Hanover, prominent among the founders of and continuing with Guy Mannering, The
German romanticism, whose revolutionary and Antiquary, Old Mortality, Rob Roy, and the
germinating ideas influenced early 19th cent, Heart of Midlothian. From 1819 he turned also
thought. His brother, August Wilhelm (1767- to English history, with Ivanhoe and Kenil¬
1845). made remarkable translations of Shakes- worth. In 1826 he became bankrupt, largely as
speare (which established Shakespeare in the fault of his publishing partner, and worked
Germany), Dante, Oalderdn, and Camoes. heroically to clear off debts.
Schliemann, Heinrich (1822-90), German Scott-Paine, Hubert (1891-1954), pioneer in the
archaeologist, who discovered Troy and exca¬ design and construction of aircraft and sea-craft.
vated Mycenae. See H3. Scriabin, Alexander (1872-1915), Russian com¬
Schnabel, Artur (1882-1951), American pianist of poser and pianist, who relied to some extent on
Austrian birth, regarded as a leading exponent extra-musical factors such as religion, and in
Prometheus tried to unite music and philosophy.
of Beethoven’s pianoforte sonatas.
Schoenberg, Arnold (1874-1961). Austrian com¬ See Section E.
poser of Jewish parentage who in 1933 was exiled Seeley, Sir John Robert (1834-96), English
by the Nazi regime and settled in America, historian, author of a life of Christ, Hcee Homo.
teaching at Boston and Los Angeles. Among Segovia, Andr6s (b. 1894), Spanish concert-
his works are the choral orchestral Gurre-IAeder guitarist. He has adapted works hy Bach.
and Pierrot Dunaire, a cycle of 21 poems for Haydn, Mozart, and other classical composers
voice and chamber music. See Section E. to the guitar.
Schopenhauer, Arthur (1788-1860), <3erman philo¬ Selfridge, Harry Gordon (1858-1947), American-
sopher, b. Danzig, important historically for his born merchant who in 1909 opened a new style
pessimism, and his doctrine that will is superior of department store in Oxford Street.
to knowledge. His chief work is The World as Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp (1818-66), Hungarian
Win and Idea. He regarded his contemporary obstetrician, a pioneer in the use of antiseptic
Hegel as a charlatan. methods, thus reducing the incidence of puer¬
Schubert, Franz Peter (1797-1828), Axistrian com¬ peral fever.
poser, b. Vieima, the son of a schoolmaster, and Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (o. 4 b.c.-a.d. 66), Roman
a contemporary of Beethoven. He wrote not stoic philosopher who was tutor to Nero, but
only symphonies, sonatas, string uuartets, lost favour and was sentenced to take his own life.
ohoral muslc and masses, but also over 600 songs Senefelder, Alois (1772-1834), Bavarian inventor
of unsmrpassed lyrical beauty. He might of lithography about 1796.
almost be called the creator of the German lAed Severus, Lucius Septimius (146-211), Roman
as known today. He died in poverty in Vienna emperor, and a successful general. On a visit
at 31 before his musical genius could reach its to Britain he suppressed a revolt, repaired
full flowering. See Section E. Hadrian’s waU, and died at York.
Schumann, Robert Aleicander (1810-56). composer SSvignd, Marie de Rabutin-Ohantal, Marguise de
of the early Iflth cent. (3erman romantic school. (1626-96), French woman of letters. Her
He wrote much chamber music, four sym¬ letters to her daughter Franeoise written in an
phonies, a piano concerto, and choral music, hut unaffected elegance of style give a moving pic¬
it is his early piano pieces and songs that give ture of fashionable society in 17th cent. France.
constant delight. h6 wife Clara (1819-96) was Sgambati, Giovanni (1841-1914), Italian pianist
one of the outstanding pianists of her time, (pupil of Liszt), composer and teacher, who re¬
especially as interpreter of Chopin. See vived interest in classical instrumental music in
Section E.
Schweitaer, Albert <1876-1066), Alsatian medioal Shaokleton,
^ê of Sir Ernest Henry (1874-1922), British
opera.
missionary, theologian, mnsiolan and philoso¬ explorer, who made four antarctic expeditions:
pher, b. at KAyersberg. After publishing that of 1909 reached within 100 mUes of the
learned works, he resigned a promising European south pole. He died on his last expedition.
; career to found at Lambardnd hi French Eaua- Shaftesbury, 7th Earl of (Anthony Ashley Cooper)
torlal Afirica a hospital to fight .leprosy and (1801-86). English pManthroplst largely re¬
sleeping sickness and made it a centre of service sponsible for legislation reducing the misery of
to Africans. His funds were raised by periodic the Industrial revolution. He was for 40 years
organ recitals in Europe. His motivation was chairman of the Ragged Schools Union.
not patronage but atonement, Nobel peace Shêspeare, William (1564-1616), England’s
prize 1962. O.M. 1966. . greatest poet and dramatist, b. Stratford-on-
Soipio, Publius Cornelius (237-183 n.o.), Roman Avon. Little is known of his career up to his
general in the second Punic War, known as eighteenth year, when he married Anne Hatha¬
Scipio Africanus the elder. Scipio Afrlcanus way. He came to London at the height of the
the younger (186-129 B.o.) was an adoptive re¬ English renaissance and soon became connected
lative and an implacable opponent of Carthago with the Glohe theatre as actor and playwright.
(destroyed 146). . Thirty-eight plays cbmpfise the Shakespeare
Scott, Charles Frestwich (1846-1031). EngUsh canon. Thirty-six were printed in the First
newspaper editor. Under his editorship (1872- Folio of 1623 (the first collected edition of his
1929) the Manchester Chuardim became a leading dramatic works), of which eighteen had been
journal, published during his lifetime in the so-called
Scott, Sir Gteorge Gilbert (1811-78), English archi¬ Quartos. Love’s Labour's Lost and The Comedy
tect hi the Gothic revival. He restored many of Errors seem to have been among the earliest,
ehurebes and designed the Albert Memorial and being followed by The Two Gentlemen of Verona,
the Martyrs’ Memorial at Oxford. and Romeo and Juliet. Then followed Henry
Scott, Sir Giles Gilbert (1880-1960). English archi¬ VI, Richard III, Richard II, Titus Andronicus,
tect. grandson of above, designed the Anglican The Taming of the Shrew, King John, The
SHA-SME B SS PROMINENT PEOPLE
Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer Night's Sibelius, Jean (1865-1957), Finnish composer,
Bream, All’s Well that Ends Well. Henry IV, imbued with national feeling. His works in¬
The Merry Wives of Windsor, Henry V, Much clude seven symphonies, a violin concerto, and
Ado about Nothing, As You lAlce It, Twelfth several tone poems, notably Finlandia, and
Night. Then came some of Ms greatest plays, some based on the Finnish poem Kalevala.
Julius Ocesar, Hamlet, Troilus and Gressida, See Section B.
Othello, Measure for Measure, Macbeth, King Sickert, Walter Richard (1860-1942), British artist,
Lear, Timon of Athens, Pericles, Antony and, b. Mtinioh. He was Influenced by Degas, and
Oleoyatra, Coriolamis, Cymbeline, A The
Winter’s has himself influenced later painters. His
Tale, The Temyest, Henry VIII, and Tim Ennui is in the Tate Gallery.
Noble Kinsmen. In mastery of language. In Siddons, Sarah (1766-1831), English actress es¬
understanding of character, and in dramatic pecially in tragic parts. She was daughter of
perception, he has never been surpassed. Sêsh the manager Roger Kemble and her reputation
interpretation of his work continues. See was almost unbounded.
Section I. Sidgwlck, Henry (1838-1900), English philosopher
Sharp, Granville (1735-1813), English abolitionist who wrote Methods of Ethics, and who also pro¬
of slavery, and founder of the colony of Sierra moted women’s education, especially in the
leone. foundation of Newnham and GIrton colleges.
Shastri, Shri Lai Bahadur (1904-80), Indian poli¬ Sidney, Sir PMUp (1664-80). English poet and
tician who became prime minister of India after writer, best remembered for Ms Arcadia.
the death of Nehru in 1964. He died of a heart Apologie for Poetrie, and Astroyhel and Stella.
attack at the end of the Soviet-sponsored Tash¬ all published after Ms death. He was killed at
kent talks. the battle of Zntphen, where be passed a cup of
Shaw, George Bernard (1856-1950), Irish dramatist water to another, saying “ Thy necessity Is
who conquered England by Ms wit and ex¬
posure of hypocrisy, cant, and national weak¬ greater than
Siemens, mine.”
Sir William (1823-83), Oerman-born
nesses, and whose individual opinions found ex¬ electrical engineer who settled in England and
pression in musical criticism, socialist pampMets constructed many overland and submarine
and plays. His plays include Man and Super¬ telegraphs. He was brother of Werner von
man, Heartbreak House, Back to Methuselah, Siemens, founder of the firm of Siemena-Halske.
Sairit Joan, The Apple Gart, and Buoyant Sienkiewioz, Henryk (1846-1916), Polish novelist
Billions, and most have important prefaces. and short-story writer: best known of Ms his¬
In 1884 he joined the newly-bom Eabian torical novels Is Quo Vadis7. Nobel prizewinner
Society. Nobel prizewiimer 1925. 1905.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1792-1822), English poet, Sikorski, Vladislav (1881-1943), Polish general
b. Horsham. He was a master of language and and rtatesman, prime minister of the Polish
of literary form, and a passionate advocate of government in exUe (1989) and commander-in-
freedom and of new thought. Sent down from cMef of the Polish forces. Killed in an aircraft
Oxford for Ms pampMet The Necessity of accident at Gibraltar.
Atheism, he came imder the influence of William Simpson, Sir James Young (1811-70). Scottish
Godwin: and, after Ms first marriage came to an otetetriclan who initiated the use of cMoroform
in childbirth.
unhappy
Mary end, marriedherself
WoUstonecraft, the latter’s
a writer.daughter,
In the Sinclair, Upton (1878-1968), American novelist
same year began Ms friendsMp with Byron. whose dociunentary novel The Jungle on the
His works include The Kevolt of Islam, the CMeago slaughter yards caused a sensation in
1906.
Masme of Anarchy (an indictment of Castle-
reagh). The Genet (a play on evil), and Prome¬ Singer, IsaacMerritt (1811-76), American mechani¬
theus Unbound, brides lyrics such as To a cal engineer who improved early forms of the
Skylark and Ode to the West Wind. He was sewing-machine and patented a single-thread
accidentally drowned while sailing near Siiezzia. and chain-stitch macMne.
Sheppard, Hugh Eichard (Dick) (1880-1937), Sisley, Alfred (1839-99), French impressionist
Anglican divine and pacifist. He made St. painter of English origin, who painted some
Martin-in-the-Eields a centre of social service enchanting landscapes, such as Meadows in
and also founded the Peace Pledge Union. Spring in the Tate Gallery. He was influenced
Sheraton, Thomas (1751-1806), English cabinet¬ by Corot and Manet.
maker, b. Stockton, whose Gabinelmaker’s Book Sitwell, Edith (1887-1964), English poet, a great
promoted neo-classical designs. experimenter in verse forms. Gold Goast Cus~
Sheridan, Bichard Brinsley (1761-1816), British toms. Facade (set to music by WUUam Walton)
dramatist, b. Dublin. He was a brilliant writer and Slill Falls the Sain are probably best known.
of comedies, especially The Bivcds, The Buenna, She had two brothers. Osbert (1892-1919) and
The School for Scandal, and The Gritic. He Sacheverell (b. 1900), both poets and critics.
acauired and rebuilt Drury Lane theatre, wMch See aZso Section M, Part 11.
reopened in 1794, but was burnt down in 1809: Slim, 1st Viscount (William Slim) (1891-1970),
and this, with Ms lack of business sense, brought British general. He commanded the 14th
him to poverty, in spite of parliament
Ms friends’ where
efforts he
to Army in Burma, was cMef of the Imperial
help Mm. He was also in (General Staff 1948-62, and governor-general
made some notable speeches. of Australia 1963-60.
Sherman, William Teoumseh (1820-91), American Sloane, Sir Hans (1660-1768), British collector, b.
general, who served especlaEy in the CivU War. Ireland. He practised in London as a physician.
He took part in the battles of Bull Eun and His library of 60,000 volumes and his collection,
SMloh, was appointed in 1864 to the command of MSS. and botanical specimens were offered
of the, southwest, and with 66.000 men marched under his will to the nation and formed the
across Georgia to the sea. In 1866 he accepted beghming of the British Museum.
Johnston’s surrender. SlowacM, Julius (1809-49), Polish romantic poet,
Sherrington, Sir Charles Scott (1875-1962), English a revolutionary, he lived in exile In Paris. His
scientist, an authority on the physiology of the work includes the poetic drama Kordto.
nervous system. His research led to advances Balladyna and LUH Weneda, written, in the style
In brain surgery. His principal work is of Shakespeare: and the unfinished poem King
Integrative Action of the Nervous System (1906), Spirit which reveals Ms later mystical ten¬
Shared with E. D. Adrian the 1932 Nobel prize. dencies.
Shirley, James (1696-1666). English dramatist. Smeaton, John (1724r-92), English engineer: he
His tragedies include The flYoifor, and his rebuilt Eddystone lighthouse (1766-69), im¬
comedies Hyde Park. Hjs death was hastened
by the Great Fire. proved Newcomen’s steam-engine, and did Im¬
portant work on bridges, harbours, and canals.
Sholokhov, Mikhail Aleksandrovlcb (b. 1905), He also invented an improved blowing appara¬
Eusslan novelist, author of And Quiet Flows the tus for iron-smelting.
Bon. Nobel prizewinner 1965. Smetana, Bedfich (1824-84), Czech composer,
Shostakovich, Dmitri (b. 1906), Busslan composer, creator of a national style. He was principal
whose music Is complex, profound, and deeply conductor of the Prague National Theatre, for
significant of the Soviet age in wMch he lives. which he wrote most of Ms operas, including
His works include operas, ballets, symphonies, The Bartered Bride and The Kiss. Best known,
chamber music, and music for films. Hero of of his other compositions ore the cycle of sym¬
Soviet Labour 1966. See Section E. phonic poems Mi/ OoMwtn/ and the string qnar-
PROMINENT PEOPLE
SMI-SP! B56
tets From My Life. He became totaUy deaf Solon (638-558 b.o.), AtheMan lawgiver, who in a
in 1874, suffered a mental breakdo-vm, and died time of economic distress canceUed outstanding
in an asylum. See Section E. debts, and introduced some democratic changes
Smiles, Samuel (1812-1904). Scottish writer, b. Solzhenit Alexande
Haddington, in early life a medical practitioner Russian syn,novelist, r Isayevlch
author of One Bay (b
in the1919)'
Life
remembered for Self Help (1859), and Ms bio- of Ivan Eenisovich, a documentary novel depict¬
grapMes of engineers of the industrial revolution. ing life in one of Stalin’s prison camps where he
SsMth, Adam (1723-90), Scottish economist, b. spent many years of his life. He was expelled
Enkcaldy. In Edinburgh he published Moral from the Soviet Writers’ Union in 1969. Nobel
Sentiments. Later he moved to London, and prizewinner 1970.
his Wealth of Nations (1776) is the first serious Somerset, Duke of (Edward Seymour) (1506-52)
work m political economy. lord protector of England in the time of the
Smith, Six Grafton Elliot (1871-1937). Australian young Edward VI, but he fell from power and
anatomist who did research on the structure of was executed.
the mammalian brain. His works include The Sophocles (495-406 B.C.), Athenian dramatist, who
Evolution of Man. was awarded the prize over Aeschylus in 468
Sniith, John (1580-1631), English adventurer who Of over a hundred plays of Ms, the oMy extant
in 1605 went on a colonising expedition to ones are Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Oolonus,
Virginia and was saved from death by the Red Antigone,
tetes. Electra, Trachiniae, Ajax, and Philoc-
Indian Pocahontas.
SiMth, Joseph (1806—44), American founder of Sorel, Georges (1847-1922), French advocate of
the Mormons. He claimed that the Book of revolutionary syndicalism, author of Reflections
Mormon was revealed to him. In 1838 feeling m Violence (1905). The irrational aspects of
against the Mormons culminated in a rising and Ms philosophy (derived from Bergson) appealed
Smith was murdered. He was succeeded by to Mussolini and the Eascists.
Brigham Young. See Mormonism, Section J. Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dien (1769-1861), Erench
Snutb, Sydney (1771-1846), Anglican divine and general who fought under Napoleon in Switzer¬
Doupallst, who founded the Edinburgh Review land and
sular War.Italy, at Austerlitz, and in the Penin¬
„ SAd supported Catholic emancipation.
Smith, William (1769-1889), English surveyor and Sousa, John PMUp (1854-1932). American band-
geologist, the first to map the rock strata of master and composer of some stirring marches.
Englmd and to Identify the fossils peculiar to Southey, Robert (1774-1843). English poet and
each layer. Mstorian. In 1803 he settled near Coleridge at
SrMth, Sir William Alexander (1864-1914). Scottish Keswick, and in 1813 became poet laureate.
founder of the Boy’s Brigade (1883), the oldest His best work was in prose: Mstories of Brazil
nationM organisation for boys in Britain. and of the Pemnsular War: lives of Nelson.
Smth.. William Robertson (1846-94), Scottish Wesley, and others.
biblical scholar whose “ Bible ” contribution to SouthweU, Robert (1661-96), English poet and
the 9th edition of The Encyclopaedia Britannica Jesuit martyr, beatified 1929. His poems in¬
rented in an unsuccessful prosecution for heresy. clude The Burning Babe.
Smollett, Tobias George (1721-71), Scottish novel- Spaak, Paul Henri (h. 1899), Belgian statesman,
ist whose worh is characterised by satire and first president of the U.N. General Assembly in
^âxse humour. His main noyels 1946, and of the Assembly of the Council of
Pic/cZe, and are Roderick
Europe, 1949-51; secretary-general of Nato,
1967-61.
Smuts, Jan Christian (1870-1960), South African Spartacus (d. 71 b.o.), Thracian rebel. A Roman
statesman and soldier. B. in Cape Colony, slave and gladiator in Capua, he escaped and
during the Boer War he fought on the Boer headed a slave insurrection, routing several
side. He became premier of the Union in 1919 Roman armies, hut was defeated and killed by
and worked for cooperation within the (Common¬ Cmssua.
wealth and in the world, hut Ms party was Speke, John Hanning (1827-64), British explorer.
defeated
Malan. in 1948 by the Nationalists under In 1868 he discovered the Victoria Nyanza:
and in 1860 with J. A. Grant traced the Nile
fiowing out of it.
Smy^, Ethel Mary (1868-1944), English composer
s^ragette. Her main works are operas Spence, Sir Basil Urwin (b. 1907), Scottish arcM-
(Tm Wreckers md The Boatswain's Mate) md tect, mainly known for the new Coventry cathe¬
a. Mass in E. She studied at the Leipzig dra], and for Hampstead civic centre. He has
Conservatory. brought a new approach to imlversity
Snow, Baron (Charles Percy Snow) (b. 1905), hmldlngs. O.M. 1962.
Enghsh physicist and novelist, author of the Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903), English pMlosopher.
essay The Two OuUures of the Scientific Eevolu- B. Derby, he was at first a civil engineer, then
tion, and a sequence of novels Strangers and Bro- a lournalist (suh-edltor of the Economist), when
thers (11 vote.). See Section M, Part I. he wrote Social Statics. His Principles of
Snyders, Eraus (1697-1667), Elemish still-life and Psychology (1866), published four years before
aiumal painter who studied under Breughel. Darwin’s Origin of Species, expoimded doctrines
Soane, Sir John (1763-1837), English arcMteet of evolution. His ten-volume System of
who designed the Bank of England. He left Synthetic Philosophy was issued over a period of
tne nation hia house and library In Lincoln’s tMrty years.
Inn Fields (Soane Museum). Spencer, Sir Stanley (1891-1969). English artist of
Sohieski, John III (1624-96), elected king of visionary power. His two pictures of thcResur-
reatwn ate in the Tate Gallery. He also painted
Turks. 1674, deiended Ms country from the
Poland
Cookham regatta.
Socinus or Sozzini, Laelins (1626-62), Italian Spengler, Oswald (1880-1986), German Mstoricist
founder of the sect of Socinlans, with Ms nephew who held that every culture is destined to a
01639-1604). TihelrteacMngs resemble
Justusof Umtarians. waxing and waning life cycle and that the West
those European culture was entering Its period of
Sopratos (470-899 b.o.), Greek philosopher and dechne. Hte principal work is The Beeline of
intelleotu^leader. was the son of a sculptor of me West. His views prepared the way for
Athens. He distinguished himself In three national socialism.
campaigns (Potidaea, Helium, and AmpMpolte). Spenser, Edmund (1662-99), English poet. b.
Returning to Athens, he devoted himself to London and educated at Cambridge. Hte
§"^^7 intellectual enciuin% attracting many Shepheards Calender appeared in 1679. In 1680
foUpwers: through these, especially Xenophon he went to Ireland as the lord deputy’s secre¬
and Plato,; we taow of Ms teachings, for he tary, and later acquired Kilcolman castle, where
mote nothing. _ In 399 B.o.he was charged with he wrote most of hte main work. The Faerie
unpiety and with corrupting the young, foimd Queene. Hte castle was burnt in an insurrection
pUty, and accordingly died by drinking hem- in 1698. when he returned to London. He is
look: see Plato’s ArmlAOii rsniin called “ the poet’s poet.”
_ lock: ê Plato’s Apology, Onto, axid Phaedo.
Soddy, Erederick (1877-1966), English chemist, Spinoza,
who m Glasgow about 1912 laid the foimdation Bamoh (1632-77), Dutch pMlosopher, b.
Amsterdam, whose parents came to Holland
of the isotope theory, before the physicists from Portugal to escape the Inquisition. An
became promment in that field, Nobel prize¬ independent thinker, Ms criticism of the Scrip¬
winner 1921. ■ tures led to Ms being excommunicated from the
!7 PROMINENT PEOPLE
synagogue. He supported himself by grinding National Biography (1882-91), and was the
and polishing lenses. He owed much to Des¬ father of Virginia Woolf.
cartes but was mainly concerned with religion Stephenson, George (1781-1848), English engineer,
and yirtue. His philosophical theories are set inventor of the locomotive, b. at Wylam near
out in the Ethics which was published posthu¬ Newcastle, a colliery fireman’s
mously. In the light of modern science his wright at Killingworth coUiery son. As his
he made engine-
first
metaphysic cannot be accepted but his moral locomotive in 1814 to haul coal from mines. In
teaching has enduring validity. See also God 1821 he became engineer to the Stockton and
and Man, Section J. Darlington Railway, which opened in 1826 with
the first steam passenger train, travelling at 12
Spoft'orth, Reginald {1770-1827), English yvrlter of miles an bom’. His Rocket at 30 miles an hour
glees, including Hail, Smiling Morn.
Spurgeon, Charles Hadden (1834-92), English won the prize of £500 in 1829 for the Liverpool-
Baptist who preached at the vast Metropolitan Manchester Railway. He also discovered the
Tabernacle. London, from 1801 (burnt down principle on which Davy’s safety lamp was based.
1898). Stephenson, Robert (1803-59), English engineer,
Stael, Anne Louise, Baronne de Stael-Holstein son of the above, engineered railway lines in
(1766-1817), French writer. Daughter of the England and abroad, and built many bridges
finance minister. Necker, she married the including the Menai and Conway tubular bridges
Swedish ambassador, and kept a salon. Her and others overseas.
Letlres snr Eousseau appeared in 1788. After Sterne, Laurence (1713-68), English novelist and
the revolution she lived partly abroad, partly humorist. His main works are Tristram Shandy
in France, and after a visit to Italy wrote her and A SentwientalJourney. Ho led a wandering
novel Corinne (1807). and imconventlonal life, dying in poverty.
Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Djugashvlli) (1879- His work helped to develop the novel.
1963), Soviet statesman who for nearly 30 years Stevenson, Adlai (1900-65), American politician,
was leader of the Russian i>eople. He originally an efficient governor of liltnois, 1949-53 : and
studied at Tiflis for the priesthood, but became ambassador to the U.N., 1960-5.
an active revolutionary and took part in the Stevenson, Robert (1772-1850), Scottish engineer
civil war after 1917. After Lenin’s death, he and builder of lighthouses, who invented “ in¬
ousted Trotsky and became the outstanding termittent ” and “ flashing " lights.
flgiue. He modernised agriculture on socialist Stevenson, Robert Louis (1850-94), Scottish
lines by ruthless means, and his series of five- author, h. Edinbixrgh, He suffered from ill-
year plans from 1929 made Russia an industrial health and eventually settled in Samoa. His
power. On the German invasion in 1941 he main works are Travels loiih a Eonkey, Treasure
assraned military leadership : and later attended Island, Kidnapped, Er. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,
Allied war conferences. After his death some of and The Master of Ballantrae.
his methods and the “ personality cult ” vrere Stinnes, Hugo (1870-1924), German industrialist
denounced by ILhrushchev, and this had far- who built up a huge coahnmlng, iron and steel,
reaching results in other Communist coxmtries. and transport business, and later entered politics.
In his attack on “official” Marxism, George Stoker, Bram (Abraham Stoker) (1847-1912).
Lukdes says Staliir “ turned Marxism on its Irish author of the horror story Eracula and
head ” by making it into theories and strategies Fersoml Reminiscences of Henry Irving.
which fi.tted his own tactics of the day. Stokes, Sir George Gabriel (1819-1903). Irish
Stanford, Sir Charles Villlex's (1862-1924), Irish mathematician and physicist to whom is due
composer of instrumental, choral, operatic, and the modern theory of viscous fluids and the dis¬
other music. covery that rays beyond the violet end of the
Stanley, Sir Henry Morten (1841-1904), British spectrum (the ultra-violet rays) produce
explorer, b. Denbigh. He fought for the Con¬ fluorescence in certain substances.
federates in the American Ciyil War. He then Stopes, Marie Carmichael (1880-1958). English
became a correspondent for the New Yorl: pioneer advocate of birth control. Her
Berald, was commissioned to find Livingstone, Married Love appeared in 1918, and she pion¬
and did so in 1871 at XJjiji, and with him ex¬ eered birth control clinics.
plored Lake Tanganyika. In 1879 he founded Stowe, Bterriet Beecher (1811-96), American
the Congo Free State rmder the Belgian king. authoress of Unde Toni's Cabin (1852), written
His works include Through the Eark Contment to expose slavery.
and an Autobiography. Strachey, John St. Loe (1901-63), English Labour
Steele, Sir Richard (1672-1729). British essayist, b. politician and writer. He held office under
Dublin. He founded the Tatter (1709-11), to Attlee, 1946-61, and his publications include
which Addison also contributed, and later the The Menace of Fascism.
Spectator (1711-12) and the Guardian (1713). Stradivari, Antonio (1644-1787), Italian maker of
He also wrote plays and had a minor political violins, h. Cremona, first in his art.
career. Strafford, 1st Earl of (Thomas Wentworth) (1593-
Steen, Jan (1626-79), Dutch genre painter, b. 1641). English statesman. He supported
Leiden, son of a brewer. The Music Lesson and Charles I with a “ thorough ” policy, both as
Skittle Aliev are in the National Gallery, the president of the north and as lord deputy in
Lute Flayer in the Wallace collection. Ireland, where he introduced flax. His effi¬
Steer, Philip Wilson (1860-1942), English painter, ciency made him a special target when parlia¬
especially of landscapes and of portraits. ment met, and he was Impeached and executed.
SteJansson, Vilhialmnr '(1879-1962), Canadian Strauss, David Medrioh (1808-74), German theolo¬
arctic explorer of Icelandic parentage; his gian, whose Life of Jesus attempted to prove
publications include Unsolved Mysteries of the that the gospels are based on myths.
Asdic. Strauss, family of Viennese musicians. Johann
Stein, Sir Ani'el (1862-1943), British archaeologist, Strauss (1804-49). the elder, was a composer of
b. Budapest. He held archaeological posts dance music, who with Joseph Banner estab¬
imder the Indian government and explored lished the Viennese waltz tradition. His son,
Chinese Turkestan. Johann Strauss (1826-99), the younger, although
Stendhal, pseudonym of Marie Henri Beyle (1783- not so good a violinist or conductor as his father,
1842), French novelist, h. Grenoble. He was was the composer of over 400 waltzes, which
include The Blue Eanube and Tales from the
with Napoleon’s army in the Russian campaign Vienna Woods. Two of his brothers, Josef
of 1812, spent several years in Italy, and after
the revolution of 1880 was appointed consul at Strauss (1827-70) and Eduard Strauss (1836-
Trieste, and afterwards at Civitavecchia. In his 1916) were also composers and conductors.
plots he recreates historical and social events Strauss, Richard (1864-1049), German, composer
with imaginative realism and delineates charac¬ and conductor, the son of a horn player in the
ter with searching psychological Insight. His opera orchestra at Munich. He succeeded
main works are Le Rouge et le Noir, and La von Bfllow as court musical director at Meiniu-
Oharbeeuse de Fame. ■ ■ gen. Eds works include the operas Salome,
Stephen (1106-64), usurped the crown of England Eleldra, rxcM Eer Rosenkamliet. iffie symphonic
from Henry I’s daughter in 1185: and, after poems Eon- .Tuan, Till Eulenspiegd, mA Eon
anarchy, retained it till his death. Quixote, and many songs of lyrical beauty. See
Stephen, Sir Leslie (1882-1904). English writer, Section E.
critic, and biographer. He edited the Gornhill ; Stravinsky, Igor (b. 1882), Russian composer and
Magazine : (1871-82), and the Eidionaru of i conductor, pupU of Rimsky-Eorsakov. His
B58 PROMINENT people
STR-TED
ballets, pie Fire Bird (1910) PetrusJiJca (1911). Symonds, John Addington (1840-93), English
representative of bis early romantic style, and author who wrote on the Italian Benaissance
the revolutionary The Bite of Spring, which Synge, John MiUington (1871-1909), Irish poet and
caused a, furore in 1918, were written for the playwright, author of Biders to the Sea and The
ballet impresario DiaghUev. He adopted a Playboy of the Western World. He was a direc¬
neo-claîcal style in later works, for example, tor of the Abbey Theatre.
m the ballets Pulcinella and Apollo Musagetea Szymanowski, Karol (1882-1937), PoUsh composer
and the opera-oratorio Oedipm Bex. He and director of the Warsaw conservatoire.
brought new vigour and freedom to rhythm and
younger composers have been much influenced
by Ins music. He became a Prencli citizen in
1934 and a TJ.S. citizen In 1945. See Section E.
Strindberg, Johan August (1849-1912), Swedish
writer of intense creative energy. His work is
T
subjective and reflects his personal conflicts. Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius (e. 55-120), Roman his¬
He married three times but never happily. He torian. BOs cMef works are a life of his father-
produced some 65 plays as well as novels,
stories, poems, and critical essays. Lucky m
Taft, Bistories and
WiUlam Howard (1867-1930), Annals.
United States
Peter, Gustav Adolf. Till Pamascus. The Father, president, 1909-13.
Miss Jtdie are some of his plays. Tagore, Sir Rabindranath (1861-1941), Indian
Suckling, Sir John (1609-42), English poet, author poet and philosopher who tried to blend east
and west. His works include the play Chitra.
of^hy so pale and vjan? He invented crib Nobel prize 1913 (first Asian recipient).
Sudemann, Hermann (1867-1928), Gierman writer Talbot, William Henry Fox (1800-77). ETipiiaU
of plays and novels, including Frau Sorge pioneer of photography wMch he developed
(translated as Dame Care). mdependeutly of Daguerre. He also deciphered
Siflaiman the Magnificent (1494-1606), sultan of the cuneiform inscriptions at Nineveh.
Turkey, conauerer, and patron of art and learn¬ TaUeyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de (1754-
ing. who dominated the eastern Mediterranean 1838), French politician and diplomat, led a
but failed to capture Malta. mission to England in 1792 and was foreign
Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour (1842-1900). Irish nnnister from 1797 until 1807. He represented
composer, mainly known for the music he wrote France at the Congress of Vienna.
for light operas with W. S. QUbert as librettist, TallE, 'ômas ic. 1610-86). English musician,
especiaUy The Pirates of Penzance, Patience, vith Bn-d mint organist to the chapel rojml
The Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard and The tmder Ehzabeth. He composed some of the
Gondoliers. He also wrote sacred music which finest of our chiu-ch music.
was poprflar at the time. He and a friend dis¬ Tamerlane (Timur the Lame) (1336-1405), Mongol
covered Schubert’s lost Bosamunde music. conaueror. Euler of Samarkand, he conquered
Sully, Maximilien de B^thune, Due de (1560-1641), Iran, Transcaucasia, Iraq, Armema, and
French statesman, finance minister to Henry IV. Georgia, and invaded India and Syria. He de¬
He also left Memoirs. . feated the Turks at Angora, but died marcMng
Sun Yat Sen (1867-1925), Clflnese revolutionary, towards CMna. A rutMess conqueror, he was
idealist and humanitarian. He graduated in also a patron of literature and the arts. The
medicine at Hong Kong, but after a rising failed hne of rulers descended from Mm are the
m 1895 he lived abroad, planning further at¬ Timurids. He is the subject ofaplayby Marlowe.
tempts, which succeeded in 1911 when the Tar^gton,
Manchus were overthrown and he became presl- of MonsieurBooth (1869-1946). American author
Beaucaire.
.1°°^ resigned in favour of Yuan TarquiMus: two kings of Eome came from tMs
Shih-kai. His Three Principles ” were Etmscau family: Lucius the Elder (d. 578 b.c.):
nationahsm, democracy, and livelihood. and Lucius Superbus, or the proud, (d. 610
Sutherland, Graham Vivian (b. 1903), British B.o.) whose tyranny provoked a successful ris-
JHe painted the 80th birthday portrait Ing and brought an end to the monarchy.
of Sir Winston Churchill for parliament, and Tarto, Giuseppe, (1692-1770), Italian violinist,
who wrote TnUo del Diavolo. He discovered
dedgned^(the tapestry for Coventry cathedral the third soimd ”
Swedenborg, Emanuel (1689-1772), Swedish soimded together, a resulting from two notes
scientific explanation of
author of Arcana Coelesiia, The Apocalypse wMch was later given by Helmholtz.
Bevealed, Four Freliminary Doctrines, and The Tasman, Abel Janszoon (1603-69), Dutch navi¬
True Christian Beligion. He claimed that Ms gator despatched by Van Diemen. He dis¬
soul had been permitted to travel into hell, covered Tasmania or Van Diemen’s Land, and
purgatory, and heaven. His works became the New Zealand, in 1042.
scriptures of the sect named Swedenborgians. Tasso, Torquato (1644-96), Italian epic poet, b.
Sweelinok, Jan Pieterszoon (1562-1621). Dutch Sorrento, aumor of Oerusalew/tne Liberata, He
organist and composer of sacred music. In Ms also wrote plays. Aminta and Torrismondo.
fugues he made independent use of the pedals, Taêy,,
^ and prepared the way for Bach. See Section E. historian,Richard Henrypioneer
h. Calcutta, (1880-1962),
of adult FngiiHh
eduea-
Sma, Jonathan (1667-1745). English satirist, b. tion, and feader of socialist thought— the first
Dublin of English parents. He crossed to critic of the aifiueut society. His works iu-
E^land m 1688 to become secretary to Sir oladu The AcguisUive Society, Fguality, Beligion
Wilh^ Temple, and took Anglican orders, and the Bise of Capitalism.
obtain promotion. His Tale of a Taylor, Sir Geofeey , Digram (b. 1886). British
Tub and T/ic Battle of the Books appeared In scientist, noted for his work on aerodynamics,
1704. At first active in WMg politics, he he- hyôdâmi
eanm Tory m 1710, writing powerful tracts such U.JV1. 1969. es, and the structure of metals.
as Gondud of the Allies (1711). In 1714 he
Cambridge, author ,,<1^13-67),
of many IngllBh
religious divine, h.
retired to Ireland as Dean of St. Patrick’s. His works, of
deyoted women friends followed him— Hester m
Johnson (d.. 1728). the Stella of Ms Journol, and Tchaikovsk y,chief ate Boly
Peter Living miBolv Dying.
Ilyich (1840-93). Eussism
Esther Vômrigh (d. 1723). the Vanessa of Ms composer. His musio is melodious and emo-
poetry. Here he TOote his best work. In- tional and lie excelled in seYeral branches of
auding Gulliver’s Travels (1726) and The imposition.. Among his works are the operas
Eugene^ Onegin and The Queen of Spades (both
SwMhTOne, Algernon Chai'les (1837-1909), EnpUaw fi-orn stories by Pushkin), symphonies, Includ¬
poet a^ critic. He first won attention with a ing the B:msian md the Path^tigue,
play, Atcdanta in Gah/don, in 1866. followed by ballets, mcludlng Swan Lalte, The Sleeping
Poerns and: BdUads, Eater followed jSnwgs before Beawfe, and The NuierOcker, the fantasies Borneo
Sunnse, Bofhwell, and Mary Stmrt. His and Julieti amd Francesca da Bimind, the piano
gritlciam includes an essay on Blake, ^ncerto in B flat minor, the violin concerto in
Siîn, St. (d. 862). EngUsh saint, bishop of D, and nêrous songs. See Section E.
vmchester. Violent rain for 40 days feu in Wilfiam Tedder) (1890-
971 when Ms body was to he removed to the 1967), British air marshal. From 1940 he
new cathedral; hence the superstition as to rain reorganised the Middle East Air Force and later
on 16 J uly. became deputy supreme commander imder
9 PROMINENT PEOPLE
Eisenhower for the invasion of Europe. He Pendennis. Esmond, The Newcomes, The Vir¬
wrote an autobiography. ginians, Philip, and Level the Widoicer. He
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre (18S1-1055), French edited the Cornhill Magazine from the first
paleontologist and religious philosopher. He mmiber in 1860, his most notable contributions
went on pateontological expeditions in Asia, being Itoundabout Papers. He also wrote
but his research did not conform to Jesuit Tellowplush Papers, The Book of Snobs, and
orthodoxy, and his main works were published The Pour Georges (lectures given in the United
posthmnously. The Phenomenon of Man and States).
Le Milieu Dinn. Thales of Miletus (c. 624-566 B.o.), earliest of the
Telemann, Georg Philipp (1681-1767), German Greek scientists, he created a sensation by his
composer, b. hlagdehurg. His output in all prediction of an eclipse of the sun, which was
fields of music was extensive: and his vitality visible at Miletus in 686 b.o. He looked upon
and originality of form are appreciated today water as the basis of all material things, and
after a long period of neglect. He held appoint¬ in his mathematical work was the first to emxn-
ciate natural laws. See also God and Man,
ments hi several German to'ivns. Section J.
Telford, Thomas (1757-1834), Scottish engineer,
originally a stonemason. He built bridges Thant, Sithu U (b. 1909). Burmese diplomat:
(two over the Severn and the Menai suspension secretary-general of the United Nations since
bridge), canals (the Ellesmere and Caledonian 1962.
canals), roads, and docks. Themistocles (c. 523-458 b.o.), Athenian soldier
Tell, William, legendary Swiss patriot, reputedly and statesman. He fortified the harbour of
reauired by the Atistrian governor Gessler to Piraeus and created a navy, defeating the
Persians at Salamls in 480 B.o. He prepared
shoot an apple from his son’s head, and the
subject of a play by Schiller. The story is late, the way for later greatness, but fell from power
but the Swiss confederation did first arise in the and died in exile.
14th cent, with Schwyz, Uri. and Hnterwalden. Theocritus (c. 310-250 b.o.), Greek poet, especially
Temple, Frederick (1821-1902). English divine. of pastoral subjects. His short poems came to
He was headmaster of Eugby, 1857-69, and be called Idylls.
archbishop of Canterbury, 1897-1902. He Theodoric the Great (465-626), King of the East
wrote controversial Essays and Revieios and Goths, who conquered Italy. Himself an
supported Irish disestablishment. Arlan, he practised toleration, and his long
Temple, William (1881-1944), English ecclesiastic, reign was peaceful aud prosperous.
son of above, was a leading moral force in social Theodosius the Great (346-95), Eoman emperor of
matters and a worker for ecumenism. He was the East (the Empire being divided in 364).
headmaster of Eepton, 1910-14, and became He was baptised as a Trinitarian, issuing edicts
archbishop of Canterbiury in 1942. against the Arlans, and after a judicial massacre
Temple, Sir William (1628-99), English diplomat at Thessalonlca he did penance to (St.) Ambrose.
and writer, was instrumental in bringing about Theophrastus (c. 372-287 b.o.), Greek philosopher,
the marriage of Princess Mary with William of who succeeded Aristotle as teacher at Athens
Orange. He married Dorothy Osborne, the and inherited his library. He is best known
letter-writer, and Swift was his secretary. for his botanical works and his Characters
Templewood, 1st Viscount (Samuel John Gurney (moral studies). ....
Hoare) (1880-1959), British Conservative poli¬ Thihaud, Jacques (1880-1963), French viohmst.
tician. He piloted the India Act through the killed in an air crash.
Commons while secretary for India. 1981-5: Thierry, Augustin ( 1796-1866). French historian,
and as foreign secretary he negotiated an abor¬ known for his Sistory of the Norman Conquest.
tive pact with Laval. He was an advocate of Thiers, Louis Adolphe (1797-1877). French states¬
penal reform. man and historian. After a varied political
Teniers, David, the elder (1582-1649), and the career, he became president in 1871, helping
younger (1610-94), Flemish painters of rural to rexdve France after defeat. He wrote a
life and landscape. The elder lived at Antwerp history of the Eevolution.
and the younger at Brussels. Thomas, Dylan (1914-53), Welsh poet, whose
Tenniel, Sir John (1820-1914), English book higMy individual Eighteen Poems (1934)
illustrator, especially for Alice in Wonderland broxxght him instant recognition. There fol¬
and Punch. lowed Twenty-five Poems and Deaths and En¬
Tennyson, 1st Baron (Alfred Tennyson) (1809- trances. Under Milk Wood, a play for voices,
92), EnglMi poet, b. Somersby, Lines. He had has more general appeal. See Section M, Part
a mastery of language, and his publications
extended over 60 years, mirroring much of his Thompson, Sir D’Arcy Wentworth (1860-1948),
age. In Memoriam reflects his grief for his Scottish zoologist whose On Grmcfh and Porin
friend Arthur Hallam. Apart from his lyrics, (1917), written in lucid and elegant style, has
his longer works include The Princess, Maud, Inflxxenced biological science. He was also a
Idylls of the King, and Enoch Arden. Interest classical scholar.
in his work is retvunlng. Thomson, Sir George Paget (b. 1892), Engbsh
Terence, Pnblins Terentins Afer (c. 184-159 B.o.), physicist, sou of Sir J. J. Thomson: author of
a Latin poet and dramatist, an African (Ber¬ The Atom, Theory and Practice of Electron
ber). who rose from the position of a slave. Diffraction, The Inspiration of Science. Nobel
Teresa, St. (1615-82), Influential Spanish reh'gious prizewlimer 1937.
reformer and writer, b. Avila, a woman of Thomson, James (1700-48), Scottish poet who
boundless energy and spiritual strength. She wrote The Seasons and The Castle of Indolence.
entered the Carmelite order about 1634, estab¬ Thomson, James (1834-82), poet and essayist, b.
lished a reformed order in 1662 (St. Joseph’s, near Glasgow, who wrote The City of Dreadful
Avila), and also founded, with the help of St. Night. ^ ,
John of the Cross, houses for friars. Her Thomson, Sir Joseph John (1860-1940). Enghsh
writings which rank high in mystical literature I physicist and mathematician, leader of a group
include The Way of Perfection and The Interior of researchers at the Cavendish laboratory.
Castle. She was canonised 40 years after her Cambridge. He established in 1897 that
death. cathode-rays were moving particles whose
Terry, Ellen Alice (Mrs. James Caiew) (1848- speed and specific charge could be measured.
1928). English actress, especially in Shake¬ He called them corpuscles but the name was
spearean parts with Sir Henry Iriving, and in changed to electrons. This work was followed
the plays of her friend Bernard Shaw. up by the atixdy of positive rays which led to .the
TertuUian, Quintus (c. 160-220), Carthaginian discovery of isotopes, the existence of which had
theeflogian whose works, especially Avologeti- earlier been suggêd by Soddy. Nobel prize¬
eurih have profoimdly inflixenced Christian winner 1900. See also Section P, Part II.
thought. Thoreau, Henry Daxdd (1817-62), American essay¬
Tettrazzini, Luisa (1871-1940), Italian soprano, ist and natxire-lover, who rebelled against
especially successful in Lucia di Larrmemiodr. society and lived for a time in a solitary hut.
Tetzel, John (c. 1466-1519), <3erman Dominican His dbief work
■'Emerson. ^ is Walden. He was a friend of
preacher, whose sale of indulgences for St.
Peter’s building fund provoked Luther. Thorez, Maurice (1900-64), French commxmist
Thackeray, William Makepeace (1811-63), Eng- leader from 1930 and especially after the second
hsh novelist, b. Calcutta, author of Vanity Pair, world war.
THO-TRU
Beo PROMINENT PEOPLE
Tliomdike, Dame Sybil {b. 1886), Euglisb actress. occupied witb social problems, be freed Ms serfs
She made ier ddbut in 1004, and has played in before this was done ofllclally. and refused to
Greek tragedies, in the plays of ShaJcespeare and take advantage of Ms wealth. His later works
Shaw, and in Grand Guignol. Her husband melude The Kreideer Sonata and Resurrection
was Sir Lewis Casson. .
Tooke, John he
By many Horne a moral teacher ‘
regarded ),as English
was (1730-1812
Thoniyoroft, Sir William Hamo (18.50-1925), politician
English sculptor, whose works include a statue and pamphleteer, was a supporter of Wilkes and
of General Gordon in Trafalgar Square. later of Pitt._ He was tried for Mgh treason
Thorpe, Sir Thomas Edward (1845-1925). English
chemist who researched in inorganic chemistry Toole,
but wasJohn
acq Lawrence
uit (1832-1906
ted ),.Enplish ’
and with his friend Arthur Hacker made a mag comedian.
netic survey of the British Isles. Torquemada, Tomas de (1420-98), first inquisitor-
Thorwaldsen, Bertel (1770-1844). Danish sculptor general of Spain.
whose works include the Cambridge statue of Torricelli, Evangellsta^l608-47). Italian physicist,
Byron. pupil of Galileo. He invented the barometer
and miproved both microscope and telescope
Thucydides (c. 460-399 n.c.), Greek historian,
especially of the Peloponnesian War in which he Tosea^, Arturo (1867-1967), Italian conductor
himself fought. He was not merely a chronic¬ b. Parma. He had a remarkable musical
ler, but saw the significance of events and tried memory, ^d was at the same time exacting
to give an impartial account. The speeches and self-effiacmg. He spent the second world
attributed by him to leaders include the beauti¬ war in exile.
ful funeral oration of Pericles. Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de (1864-1901), French
Tiberius, Claudius (42 b.o.-a.d. 37), Roman em¬ painter, whose pictures portray with stark real¬
peror who succeeded Augustus. His early ism certain aspects of Parisian life in the
reign was succeesful but his later years were nineties, especially the Moulin Rouge series
marked hy tragedy and perhaps insanity. He Many are in the Musde Lautrec at AIM.
IS the Tiberius of Luke 3.1.
Tovey, Sir Donald Francis (1875-1940), Engiisr.
Tillett, Benjamin (1860-1943), English trade- piamst and compo.ser. His compositions in¬
clude chamber music, a piano concerto, and an
union leader, especially of a dockers’ strike in wera The Bride of Dionysus; and Ms wilting, s
_1S39 and a transport-workers’ strike in 1911. Essays in Musical Analysis.
Tillotson, John (1630-94), English divine, a noted
preacher Toynbee, Arnold (1852-83), English Mstorian and
in 1691. who became archbishop of Canterbiuy social refoi-mer. The settlement Toynbee Hall
Timur. See Tamerlane. was founded in Ms memory.
Tindal, Matthew (1655-1733), English deist, Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (b. 1889), nephew of
author of Ohristianitv as old as the Creation. above. English Mstorian, known mainly for Ms
Tintoretto (1518-94), Venetian painter whose aim 10-volume Study of Sistory. He was for 30
it was to imite the colouring of Titian with the years
Affairs.director of the Institute of International
drawing of Michelangelo. His numerous paint-
mgs, mostly of religious subjects, were executed Traherne, Thomas (c. 1636-74), English religious
with great speed, some of them on enormous poet, b. Hereford: author also of Centuries of
canvasses. His Oriam of the Milky Way is in Meditations.
the National Gallery. His name was Jacopo Trajau (c. 63-117), Roman emperor, was a success-
Robusti. and he was called II Tintoretto (little M general and flnu administrator. He was
dyer) after his father’s trade. bom In Spain.
Tippett, Sir IVHchael Kemp (b. 1905), English com¬ Tree. Sir Herbert Beerbohm (1853-1917). F.nfriiah
poser whose works Include the operas The Mid¬ actOT-manager of the Haymarket theatre until
summer Marriade, Kina Priam, and Knot Majesty’s theatre.
Garden, and the song-cycles Boyhood's End and Sir Max Beerbohm was his half-brother.
The Heart's Assurance. Bee Section E* Treaohmd, 1st Viscount (Hugh Montague Tren-
Titian (Tlziano Vecelli) (c. 1487-1676), Venetian ohard) (1873-196(5), British air-marshal. He
painter. He studied under the Bellinis and was served with the Royal Flying Corps in the first
influenced hy Giorgione, for example. In his world wm aM became the iirst air marshal of
frescoes at Padua. His mature style is one of me R- A.F. He was largely responsible for the
dynamic composition and full colour, as in his R.A.F. college at Cranwell and was also con-
Bacchus and Ariadne {National Gallery). cemed in establishing Hendon police college.
Aniong Ws principal works are Sacred and Trent, 1st Baron (Jesse Boot) (1860-1931), British
Profane Love (Borghese Gallery, Rome), and drug manufacturer, b. Nottingham. He built
some in the Prado, Madrid. up the largest pharmaceutical retail trade m the
Tito (Josif Broz) (b. 1892), Yugoslav leader, b. world, and was a benefactor of Nottingham
near Klanjee. In 1941 he organised partisan and Its umversity.
forces against the Axis invaders. In 1946 he Trevelyan, George Macaulay (1876-1962), EngUsh
became the first commmiist prime minister and historiau, known for Ms History of England and
“ in 1963 president. He has successfully pursued English Social History.
an independent line for Ms coimtry. TreyelyM, Sir George Otto (1838-1928), English
Titus (A.p. 39-81), Roman emperor, son of Vêspa- liberal politician, father of above. He wrote a
sian, brought the Jewish war to a close with the hfe of Ms tmcle Lord Macaulay.
capture
Colosseum.of Jerusalem. He completed the Trevôk, Eictod (1771-1833). English mining
enmeer and mventor. b. near Redruth. Com-
Tlzard, Sir Henry Thomas (1885-1969). English waU, His most important invention was a
scientist and administrator. He was chairman high-pressure steam-engine (1801),
of the Seientlflo Survey of Air Defence (later Trôpe,
known as the Tizard Committee) that encour¬ His earlyAnthony
life was (1816-82).
a struggle, English novelist.
the family being
aged the birth of radar before the second world supported by his mother’s writings. His own
war and turned it into a successful defence car^r was in the pi^t office, but by strict in-
weapon. He was chief scientiflc adviser to the au^ry he produced many novete especially
government, 1947-62. portraying clerical life (the Sardfiester series)
Tooaueville, Alexis, Comte de (1806-59), Prench _ and political life (the Phmeas Finn series).
liherail politician and historian, author of
^ Bemocracy in America, still relevant reading. , Russian revolutionar
1940). Davidovichy, Bronstein)
h. of Jewish(1879-
par-
Todd, 1st Baron (Alexander Robeitus Todd) (b. gits to the XJtoaine, one of the leaders of tlie
1907), Scottish biochemist, noted for Ms work JMsheylk revolution. As commissar of foreign
on the structure of nucleic acids. Nobel prize¬ affairs mider LeMn he led the Russian delega-
winner 1967. tlra at the Brest-Lltovsk conference. He
Tolstoy, Leo Nikolayevich, Count (1828-1910), êred flrom Stalin on policy, believing in
Russian writer and pMlosopher, b. Yasnaya peimanent revolution,” according to which
Polyana. Of noble family, he entered the army socialism could not he acMeved in Russia with¬
and fought in the Crimean War. Beginning out rerolutions elsewhere, and was dismissed
with simple, natural accounts of Ms early life from office in 1925 and expelled from the Com-
{GMtdliood and Boyhood), ho proceeded to mgust party in 1927. In 1929 he took up
articles on the war, and so eventually to perhaps exile in Mexico where he was assassinated.
Ms best work, the long novel War and Peace, Trudeam He™ lEaiott (b. 1919). Liberal prime
followed by Anna Karenina. Increasingly pre- minister of Canada since 19(58.
TRU-VEN Bei PROMINENT PEOPLE
Truman, Harry S. (b. 1884), U.S. President, 1945- Undset, Sigrid (1882-1949), Norwegian novelist,
63. He inherited the presidency on Eoosevelt’s daughter of an antiauary, author of Jenny,
death in 1945 when he took the decision to drop Kristin Lavransdatter, and Olav Audunsson.
the first atom bomb, and he won the election of Nobel prizewinner 1928.
1948. He intervened in Korea, dismissed Unwin, Sir Raymond (1863-1940), English archi¬
General MacArthur, and aimed at raising tect of the first garden city at Letchworth.
standards in underdeveloped coimtries. Ursula, St., said in late legend to have been killed
Tulsi Das (1632-1623), Indian poet Whose master¬ by Hnns at Cologne with many companions
piece Ram-Gharit-Mdnas (popularly known as while on pilgrimage. It took rise from a 4th
the RMmavana and based on the Sanskrit epic cent, inscription which simply referred to virgin
of Valmiki) is venerated by aU Hindus as the martyrs.
Bible is in the West. Usher or Ussher, James (1581-1656), Irish divine
Turenne, Henri de la Tour d’ Auvergne, Vioomte de who in 1625 became archbishop of Armagh,
(1611-76), French commander who was suc¬ and whose writings include a long-accepted
cessful in the Thirty Years’ War. chronology,
B.C. which placed the creation at 4004
Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyvich (1818-83), Russian
novelist, fi-iend of Gogol and Tolstoy, who spent
part of his life in exile. His works include
Fathers and Children, Smoke, and Virgin Soil.
He coined the term nihilist. V
Turner, Joseph Mallord William (1776-1861),
EnglishHelandscape painter, Valentine, St., was a Christian martyr of the reign
son. entered the Eoyalb. London,
Academy a and
barber’s
was of the emperor Claudius II (d. a.d. 270). The
at first a topographical watercolourist. Later custom of sending valentines may be connected
he turned to oU and became a master of light with the pagan festival of Lupercalia.
and colour, achieving magical effects, especially Vanbrugh, Sir John (1664-1726), English architect
in depicting the reflection of light in water. and playwright. His buildings include Blen¬
His works include Grossing the Brook, Dido
building Carthage, The Fighting Temeraire, heim Palace and his plays The Provok'd Wife.
Vancouver, George (1758-98), British navigator
Rain, Steam and Speed. He also made thou¬ who served under Captain Cook, also doing
sands of colour studies. He encountered survey work, and who sailed round Vancouver
violent criticism as his style became more Island.
abstract which led to Euskin’s passionate de¬ Vanderbilt, Cornelius (1794-1877), American mer¬
fence of him in Modern Painters. He be- chant and railway speculator who amassed a
aueathed his work to the nation (National and fortrme and founded a university at Nashville.
Tate Galleries, and the British Museum). His son, William Henry Vanderbflt (1821-85),
Tussaud, Marie (1760-1860), Swiss modeller in inherited and added to it.
wax who learnt from her rmcle in Paris, married Van Dyck, Sir Anthony (1699-1641), Flemish
a Frenchman, and later came to England where painter, b. Antwerp. He studied under Rubens,
she set up a permanent exhibition. travelled in Italy, and then settled in England
Tutankhamun (d. c. 1340), Egyptian pharaoh of with an annuity from Charles I. He excelled
the 18th dynasty, son-in-law of Ikhnaton, in portraits, especially of Charles I and Hen¬
whose tomb was discovered by Howard Carter rietta Marla, and of their court.
in 1922, with the mummy and gold sarcophagus Vane, Sir Henry (1613-62), English parliamentary
intact. He died when he was 18. leader during the civil war period, though not
Twain, Mark (Samuel Langhome Clemens) (1835- involved in the execution of Charles I. He was
1910), American humorist. His Innocents executed in 1662.
Abroad was the result of a trip to Europe. His Van Gogh, Vincent (1858-90), Dutch painter of
worlcs include A Tramp Abroad, Tom Saioyer, some of the most colourful pictures ever created.
Huckleberry Finn, and Pudd'nhead Wilson. With passionate intensity of feeling he painted
Tweedsmuir, 1st Baron (John Buchan) (1875- without pause whatever he found around him —
1940), Scottish author of biographies, historical landscapes, still life, portraits: his was a tnfly
novels, and adventure stories, including Mont¬ personal art. His life was one of pain, sorrow,
rose and Thirty-nine Steps. He was governor- and often despair, and in the end he committed
general of Canada 1935-40. suicide.
Tyler, Wat (d. 1881), English peasant leader. He Van Loon, Hendrik Willem (1882-1944). Dutch-
was chosen leader of the Peasants’ Revolt of born American popular historian who in 1922
1381 (due to various causes), and parleyed at published 27ie SfoJT/ o/ Man/cmd.
Smithfleld with the young king Richard II, but Vauhan, Sehastien de Prestre de (1633-1707),
was killed. French military engineer, whose skiU in siege
Tyndale, William (c. 1494-1636), English religious works (e.g., at Maestrict 1673) was a factor in
reformer, translator of the Bible. He had to the expansive wars of Louis XIV. He pro¬
go abroad, where he visited Luther and his New tected France with fortresses and also invented
Testament was printed at Worms. When copies the socket bayonet.
entered England they were suppressed by the Vaught Williams, Ralph (1872-1968), English
bishops (1626). His Pentateuch was printed composer, b. Gloucestershire. After Charter-
at Antwerp, but he did not complete the Old house and Cambridge he studied music in Ber¬
Testament. He was botrayed. arrested, and lin under Max Bruch and, later in Pafis, under
executed. Unlike Wyclif, who worked from Ravel. He wrote nine symphonic besides a
Latin texts, he translated mainly from the number of choral and orchestral works, operas
original Hebrew and Greek and his work was (including Hwh (he Braver, Riders to (he Sea),
later to become the basis of the Authorised ballets, chamber music, and songs. He showed
Version of the Bible. great interest in folk tunes. See Section E.
Tyndall, John (1829-93), Irish physicist whose Velasguez, Diego (c. 1460-1624), Spanish con-
wide interests led him to research on heat, light, aulstador. first governor of Cuba.
and sound, and on bacteria-free air and sterilisa¬ Velasguez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y (1699-
tion. He discovered why the sky is blue (Tyn¬ 1660), Spanish painter, b. Seville, espeolaily of
dall effect) and pioneered popular scientific portraits at the oomt of Philip IV, and also of
writing, e.g.. Heat as a Mode of Motion. classical and historical subjects. He made two
visits to Italy (1629-81, 1649-61), studying the
Venetian painters, especially Titian, which
hastened the development of his style. Among
his masterpelces are The Maids of Honour, The
Tapestry Weavers (both ln the Prado), theEokeby
Venus and a portrait of Plfllip IV (both in the
Unamuno, Miguel de (1864-1936), Spanish National Gallery), the landscape views from the
philosopher, poet, essayist, and novelist, Villa Medici (Prado) and Juan de Parma (sold
author of El Sentimiento Trdgico de la Vida (The in London in 1970 for £2-25 million).
Tragic Sense of Life). Venizelos, Eleutherios (1864-1936). Greek states¬
Ulanova, Galina (b. 1910), Russian ballerina, who man, b. Crete. He became prime minister in
made her ddbut in 1928, is a leading exponent 1010 and held this office intermittently. He
of the art. She danced in Elorence in 1961 and promoted the Balkan. League (1912). forced the
'
London in 1956. __ U
'
king’s abdication (1017). and brought Greece
VER-WAt. B63 PROMINENT PEOPLE
into the wai* on the Allied side, securing terri- followed by bis Georcrics. His best-known work
torial concessions at the peace conference, but the wanderings of Aeneas
Ins eânsionist policy in Turkish Asia failed. Mter the fall of Troy tiU his establishment of a
Verdi, Giuseppe (1813-1901). ItaUan composer,
b. near Busseto in the provuice of Parma. His Vto, St., Homan
kingdom in It Catholic is associated
mai-tyr, who livedwith
ina
al y.
^rly worto include Nabucco, Ernani, I Due
JPoscani^ and Machetli\ a middle period is repie- phTOical health, and he is invoked against con¬
vulsive disorder.
Mnt^ by Rigolette, II Trovatore, La Traviata,
Un Ballo in Masdhera, and Doti Carlos', to the Vivaldi, Antonio (c. 1675-1743), Venetian com-
last period of his life belong Aida, Otello, and ^ser,output
yioHn ofmaster at the Ospedal deUa Pieta.
Ealstaff (produced when he was 80). See His orchestral works was prolific
Section E. Bach arranged some of his violin pieces for and the
Verlaine, Paul (1844-96), Prench poet, one of the harpsichord. _ His reputation, long disparaged
ni’st of the sjunbolists, also known
memoirs and confessions. His works for his
include
Eoemes saturniens, Fiks mlantes, Sagesse, and Volta, Aless^dro (1745-1827). Italian physicist
Momances sans %>aTole8. He was imprisoned Sectim*^
Pavla, ™vm6nsely in recent years. See
)^ work^
who.
of
on the results of Galvani,
for two years in Belgium for shooting and mvented the voltaic pile, the first instrument for
wounding his friend Eimbaud. He died in producing an electric current. It provided a
poverty m Paris. new means for the decomposition of certain
Vermeer, Jan (1632-75), Dutch painter, b. Delft. substances. His name was given to the
His main paintings are of domestic interiors, the umt of electrical potential difference. volt
makes into works of art, as in Lady Volraire (Francois Marie Arouet) (1694-1778)
at the Virginals (National Gallery). His reputa Ikench philosopher and writer. His first essays
tion has grown during the last century. authorities, and he spent the years
Veme, Jules (1828-1906), Prench wi-Iter of science 1726-9 m England, where he wrote some of Ms
fiction, including Five Weeks in a Balloon, dramas. Eetm-ning to
Iwentv , Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Ms Philosophical Letters,France, he published
which aroused the
Round the World in Righty Rays. enmity of the priesthood. At tMs juncture,
Vernier, Pierre (15S0-1G37), Prench inventor of the Marqmse du Chatelet offered Mm the
the small sliding scale which enables readings asylum of her e^tle of Cirey, and for the next
on lo
OX aa division.
graduated scale to be taken to a fraction he made this his
his Dtscourees of Man, Essayhome, 'writing there
on the Morals and
Veronese, Paolo (1628-88). Italian painter of the Spirit of Nations. Age of Louis XIV, etc. The
Venetian school, whose works include Marriage marquise was a mathematician and taught Mm
Jôast at Cana in Galileet The Reast i7i the Souse pme science, thus helping Mm in his interpre¬
of îmon, and The Tresentation of the Ramily of tation of Newton’s Frincipia. To Voltaire we
Darim to Alexander. Mis Adoration of the Magi owe the story of the faUing apple, also the
is m the National Gallery. dictum that Admiral Byng was shot “pour
Veronica, St., legendary woman who was said to afifres.” He spent the years
hand her kerchief to Christ on the way to Cal¬ ®®rlm at the invitation of Frederick
vary, to wipe his brow, and his impression was the Great. In challenging accepted beliefs and
Jett on the lierchief. In its present form her traditions he prepared the way for the French
legend dates from the 14th cent. revolution.
Verwoerd, Hendrili Pi-ensoh (1901-66), South Vondel, Joost v^ den (1687-1679), Dutch poet
xurican politician, b. Amsterdam, exponent of who lived at Amsterdam. Most of his dramas
the pîcy apartheid; prime minister 1958- Me on bibUcal subjects, and the two most
66. He wasof assassinated. famous are Jephtha and Lucifer.
Vespasian, Titus Flavius (a.d. 9-70). Homan em¬ Voroîlov, Klimentiv Biremovich
peror. He was sent by Nero to put down the Soviet general who commanded the(1881-1969) Beningrad
Jews and was proclaimed by the legions. He defeMes in 1941, and was H.S.S.H. president,
began the Colosseum.
Vespucci, Amerigo (1451-1612). Plorentine ex- V^htaskv, .Andrei Yanuarievich (1883-1964),
Plomr, naturalised in Spain, contractor at Soviet jurMt and diplomat; conducted the pro¬
Seville for Columbus. He later explored secution of the Moscow treason trials, 1936-8;
Venezuela. The use of Ms name for the con¬ reêsented Eussian interests abroad and at
tinent arose through a mistake,
Victor lEmnûel II (1820-78), first king of Italy.
King pf Sardinia, he was proclaimed king of
Italy _m 1861 after the Austrians had been de¬
feated and Garibaldi had succeeded in the south.
Horne was added in 1870. w
Victoria (1819-1901), Queen of Great Britain, was Wade, George. (1678-1738). English general and
granddaughter of George III and succeeded an military e^meer. who, after the rising of 1716,
mcle m 1837. In 1840 she married Prince PMifled the Scottish MgMands, constructin g
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. who died in ^tarôad s ^d
1861. Conscientious, hardworking, and of Prmce Charles’ forcesbridges.
evaded In
Mm.the 1746 ristoi
strict moral standards, she had by the end of a Wagner, BlchMd (1818-83). German composer.
long life (juhUees 1887 and 1897) won the affec¬ D. Eeipzig. He acMeved a new type of musical
tion and respect of her subjects in a unlg,ue egression m Ms operas by the complete union
degree. Her reign saw industrial expansion, of music and drâ, He made use of the Leit¬
gro^g humanltarianlam, literary output, and motif WM Ms own librettist. His original¬
m the mam prolonged peace; and by its close ity and modernism aroused a good deal of op¬
the British empire and British world power had position, and he was exiled for some years,
reached their Mghest point.
Villeneuve, Herre de (1768-1806). French ad¬ Ludwig of Bavaria,
miral who was defeated by Nelson at Trafalgar w
andthe loyal fWends. Inolud-
pMraopher Nietzsche. He began
h^^vired along with Ms sMp, the Bucentau/re, mnslo of the Hw des Nibelungen in 1863. butthe
ViUon, Francois (1431-?1468). French poet, b. vTOs not until 1876 that the whole of the dramaIt
Parw, w]to lived at a turbulent time at the close (Ehemgold, Valkyrie, Siegfried, Gfitterdilm-
of the Hundred Years War. After fatally menmg) was performed at Bayreuth under the
stabbing a man in 1465 he joined the conguil- Eiohter._. Other operas are
lards, & criminal organisation. They had a The Flying Dvichman, Buen&i, Tannh&user,
secret language (the iargon) and it was for iham Lohengrin, Tristan umd Isolde, Die Meisler-
that he composed Ms ballads. EUs extant singer voiyNUrnberg. and Parsifal, a religious
wo^ consist of the PeUt Testwnmd Mama. He married Liszt’s daughter Cosima,
origtaally called Le Lais, sgxd ths Grcmd Testa- formerly wife of Ms friend Hans von Billow.
wwt (1461), masterpieces of mediaeval verse. See Section E.
Virgil (Publius Ver^ûs Maro) (70-19 b.oJ. WMey, Arthur (1889-1966), English orientalist,
Hom^ poet, b. at Andes near Mantua, he known for Ms translations of Chinese and Japan¬
went to (^me to obtain redress for the military ese poetry and prose, being the first to bring the
confiscation of Ms farm. He was patronised literature of those ooimtries to the western
by Maecenas, and wrote Ms pastoral .îogwes. worla.
WAU-WEI B 63 PROMINENT PEOPLE
Walker, George (1018-90), hero of the siege of Watson- Watt, Sir Robert (b. 1892), Scottish physi¬
Londonderry in 1688, who kept the besiegers at cist, who played a major part in the develop¬
bay for 105 days. ment of radar.
Wallace, Alfred Eussel (1823-1913), British Watt, James (1736-1819), Scottish engineer and
naturalist, b. ITsk, Monmouth, joint author inventor, b. Greenock. He made important
with Darwin of the theory of natural selection. Improvements to Newcomen’s steam-engine by
In 1868, while down with illness in the Moluccas, inventing a separate condenser (applying
he sent a draft of his theory to Darwin in Eng¬ Black’s discoveries (1761-4) on latent heat)
land who was amazed to find that it closely and other devices based on scientific knowledge
agreed with his own theory of evolution which of the properties of steam. He was given sup¬
he was on the point of publishing. The result port by Matthew Boulton, a capitalist, and
was a reading of a joint paper to the linnean settled do-wn in Birmingham with him. He
Society. defined one horse-power as the rate at which
Wallace, Edgar (1875-1932), English noveUst and work is done when 38,000 lb are raised one foot
playwright, known for his detective thrillers. in one minute. He also constructed a press for
Wallace, Sir Bicbard (1818-90), English art col¬ copying manuscripts. The watt as a unit of
lector and philanthropist, whose -widow be- power is named after him.
uueathed his collection to the nation (Wallace Watteau, Jean Antoine (1684-1721), French
Collection, Manchester Sauare, London). painter. He painted pastoral idylls in court
Wallace, Sir William (c. 1274-1306), Scottish dress. His works include Embarg.uement pour
patriot. He withstood Edward I. at first suc¬ Cythire in the Lou-yre.
cessfully, but was defeated at EaDdrk and Watts, George Frederick (1817-1904), English
painter of allegorical pictures and portraits.
Wallenstein, Albrecht von (1583-1634), German His works include Love and Death, and Hope.
soldier and statesman during the Thirty Years Watts, Haao (1674-1748), English hymn-writer,
War. An able administrator of his own estates, author of 0 God, our help in ages past.
he sought the miity of (Sermany, but was dis¬ Watts-Dimton, Walter Theodore (1836-1914),
trusted and eventually assassinated. English poet and critic, friend of Swinburne
Waller, Edmimd (1606-87), English poet of whom he looked after until his death in 1909.
polished simplicity, author of Qo, lovely rose. His works Include The Coming of Love and
He was able to agree with both parliamentar¬ Aylmin.
ians and royalists. Waugh, Evelyn (1902-66), English satirical
Walpole, Homce, 4th Earl of Orford (1717-97), -writer, author of Vile Bodies, The Loved One,
younger son of Sir Robert Walpole, English Brideshead Bevisited, Life of Edmund Campion,
writer, chiefly remembered for his letters, his The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold, and an autobio¬
Omtle of Otranto, graphy, A Little Learning. See Section M, Parti.
Strawberry Hill. and his “ Gothic ” house at Wavell, 1st Earl (Archibald Percival Waved)
Walpole, Sir Hugh Seymour (1884-1941), English (1888-1950), British general. He served in the
novelist, b. New Zealand. His works include first great war on AUenby’s staff and In the
Fortitude, The Doric Forest, and The Herries second he commanded tu the Middle East
Chronicle. 1939-41, defeating the Italians; and la India
Walpole, Sir Robert, 1st Earl of Orford (1676-1746), 1941-3. He was viceroy of India 1943-7.
EngliMi Whig statesman, who came to office Webb, Sir Aston (1849-1930), English architect
soon after the Hanoverian succession and is who designed the new front of Buckingham
considered the first prime minister — a good Palace, and the Admiralty arch.
finance minister, a peace minister, and a "house Webb, Mhtthew (1848-83), English swimmer, the
of commons man.” first to swim the EngUsh Channel (1875).
Walter, Bruno (1876-1962), German-American Webb, Sidney James, Baton Passfleld (1869-1947).
conductor, especially of Haydn, Mozart, and and his -wife Beatrice, nie Hotter (1868-1948).
Mahler. English social reformers and historians. They
Walter, John (1776-1847), English newspaper combined careful investigation of social prob¬
editor. Under him The Times, foimded by his lems (their books Include Sistory of Trade
father John Walter (1789-1812), attained a Unionism and English Local Government) -with
leading position. work for the future: they were members of the
Walton, Izaak (1693-1683), English -writer, es¬ Fabian Society, laimched the New Statesman,
pecially remembered for The Compleat Angler, and helped to set up the London School of Eco¬
He nomics. He held office in Labour governments.
and also -wrote
George biographies of Donne, Hooker,
Herbert. Weber, Carl Maria Friedrich Ernst von (1786-
Walton, Sir William Turner (b. 1902), English 1826), German composer, who laid the founda¬
composer, whose works include concertos for tion of German romantic opera. His reputation
string instruments, two symphonies, two rests principally on his three operas, Der Freis-
coronation marches. Facade (setting to Edith chiltz, Buryanthe, and Oieron. He was also an
Sitwell’s poem), and an oratorio, Belshazzar’s able pianist, conductor, and musical dSector.
Feast. O.M. 1967. See Section E.
Warbeok, Perkin: (1474-99), Blemish impostor, Webster, Daniel (1782-1852), American states¬
b. Toumai, who claimed to be the younger son man and orator. He held office more than
of Edward LV -with once and negotiated the Ashburton Treaty
but failed and was French and Scottish backing,
executed. which settled the Malne-Oanada boundary.
Warwick, Earl of (Richard NevUIe) (c. 1428-71), Webster, Noah (1768-1843), American lexico¬
“ the kingmaker.” At first on the Yorkist side grapher, who published an American dictionary
in the Wars of the Roses, he proclaimed Edward of the English language.
rv king: but later changed sides and restored Wedgewood, Dame Cicely Veronica (b. 1910).
the Lancastrian Henry VI. He was killed at English historian, author of William the Silent,
Barnet.
Thomas Wentworth, The Thirty Years’ War, The
Washington, Booker Taliaferro (1868-1916), King’s Peace, The Trial of Charles !: a member
American Negro educationist, author of Up of the Staffordshire pottery family. O.M. 1969.
from Slavery. He became principal of Tuskegee Wedgwood, Joslah (1730-96). English potter, -who
Institute, Alabama. at his Etruria works near Hanley produced from
Washington, George (1732-99), first IJ.8. presi¬ a new ware (patented 1763) pottery to classical
dent. B. in Virginia, of a family which orl^- designs by Flaxman, and gave pottery a new
ated from Northamptonshire, he served against impetus.
the French in the Seven Years War. When the Weill, Kurt (1900-60), German composer of
dispute between the British government and satirical, sm-reallst operas, including Die
the Americans over taxation came to a bead, Dreigrostdienoper (librettist Brecht), and musical
he proved a successful general, and GomwaUls’s comedies, including lady in (he Dark and One
surrender to him at Yorkto-wn in 1781 -virtually Touch of Venus. In 1936 he settled in the
ended the war. In 1787 he presided over the United States. ;Sss Section E.
Philadelphia convention which formulated the Wetngartner, Pelts (1863-1942), Austrian con¬
constitution, and was president 1789-97. He ductor, also a composer and writer of a text
was both a general and a leader of men. book on conducting.
Watson, John Broadus (1878-1968). American Welsmann, August (1884-1914), German biologist.
psychologist, an exponent of behaviourism.
See Behavloiirism, Section J. He worked
abillty on the'anestion
in evolution, stressing,ofthe
individual
continuityvajri-
of
PROMINENT PEOPLE
WEl-WIJu B64
tlie eerm plasm and rejecting tie idea of inheri¬ White, Sir George Stuart (1836-1912), British
tance of acquired characteristics. general \ô defended Ladysmith in the South
African War.
W^mnann, Chaim (1874-1062). IsraeU leader, b. WMtefleld. associated with
Pinsb. He came to England in 1903 and (leorge (1714-70). EngUsh evangelist
taught biochemistry at Manchester. He
helped to secure the Balfour Declaration (1917). the Wesleys, but differed from them on pre-
promising a Jewish national home, and was for destination. His supporters built him a
many years president of the Zionists. In 1948 Tabernacle ’ in London,
he became first president of Israel. chapels elsewhere, but foundedandno he had other
lasting sect
WeUesley, Marquess (Eichard CoUey WeUesley) WMtgift, toy John (1530-1004) archbishop of Cante'r-
(1760-1842), British administrator. He was a in the time .
of Elizabeth I (from 1688).
successful governor-general of India, and was ms policy helped to clarify and strengthen the
brother of the Duke of Wellington. Anglican church.
Wellington, 1st Dube of (Arthur Wellesley) WMtman, Walt (1819-92). American
Long Island. He led a wandering life poet, and did
b.
(1769-1852). British general. B. in Ireland, hospital work m the Civil War. He aimed at
he joined the army and gained experience in
India. In the Peninsular War he successfully fomiing a new and free American outlook
wore down and drove out the invading French. His works include Leaves of Grass, Drum Taps
When Napoleon escaped from Elba, Wellington
defeated him at Waterloo. Thereafter he took WMttier, John c Greenleaf
and Democrati Vims (1807-92),.American '
some part in polities as a Tory, but in the last Quaker poet. b. HayerhiU, Mass. He wrote
resort was capable of accepting change. EgtHOSb slavery {tfusticB und JSxpediefict/), turn¬
Wells, Herbert George (1866-1946), English ing to poetry after the Civil War, especially
author. B. Dondon. he was at first a teacher. remembered for Snow-bound, ffls religious
He believed in progress through science, and poems have become hymns, including Dear
became one of the most influential writers of his Lord and Daffier of Mankind.
time. His long series of boobs includes Whittington, Richard (c. 1358-1423). English
romances of the Jules Verne variety (The Time merchant. Son of a Gloucestershire knight, he
Machine, The Island of Dr. Moreau, The Invis¬ became a London mercer and was mayor of
ible AXnn), sociological autobiography {Love and London 1398. 1406, 1419. He left his fortune
Mr. Lewisham, Ki%i%is, Tono-Bungay, The to charity. The cat legend is part of European
History of Mr. Dolly, Mr. Britling Sees it folklore.
Through), and popular education {Outline of WMttle, Sir Frank (h. 1907), pioneer in the field of
History, The Science of Life, The Work, Wealth jet propulsion. The first flights of Gloster jet
and Happiness of Manldnd, The Shape of propelled aeroplanes with Whittle engine took
îngs to Gome, The Date of Homo Sapiens). place in May 1941.
He was an early and successful educator of the Whymper, Edward (1840-1911), English wood-
common man. He was also a founder member engraver and mountaineer. He was the first
of the Fabian Society. to climb the Matterhorn. His books include
Wesley, Charles (1707-88), English hymiiwi'iter. Scrambles amongst the Alps.
He was the companion of his brother John, and Wiggin, Kate Douglas (1866-1926), American
wrote over 6,600 hymns, including Love divine
smdJesu, lover of my soul. •rrrS,®
WUberfqroe, Wâmof Eeficcca of Sunnybrook
(1759-1833), Dann.
English pMlan-
Wesley, John (1708-91), Buglii9h evangelist and thrqpist, b. Hull. He was the parliamentary
founder of Methodism (at first a nickname leader of the campaign against the slave trade,
applied to friends of himself and his brother), abolished m 1807. He then worked against
b. at Epworth. After a trip to Georgia and slavery ptself, {but 'that further step was only
after encountering Moravian influence, he Xaken m the year of his death.
began to teach on tour, covering in over 60 Wilcox, Ella Wheeler (1866-1919). American
years more than 200.000 miles and preaching __ynter of romantic sentimental verse.
over 40.000 sermons. He made religion a live Wilde, Osqar PingaU (1864-1900). Irish author and
force to many ignorant folk of humble station dramatist, son of a Dublin surgeon and leader
who could only be reached by a new and direct of the cult of art for art’s sake. His works
chaflenge. He made a featiue of the Sunday mqlude poems, fairy-tales, short stories, and
school and increased the use of music (the TOtty comedies — Lady Windermere’s Dan, A
mothers’ first hymnbook appeared Woman of No Importance. The Ideal Husband,
He did not plan separation from the in 1789).
Anglican and The Importance of Being Earnest. In a
chm-ch, though it was implicit In his ordination hbel action he was convicted of homosexual
of a missionary, and it took place after his practices and imprisoned for two years, when
death. See also Methodism, Section J. he wrote The Ballad of Heading Gaol.
Westermarob, Edward Alexander (1862-1939), Wflder, Thornton Niven (b. 1897). American
Finnish sociologist. His worics include History playwright. Among his books are
of Human Marriage. Origin and Development The Bridge of San Luis Bey Ides of March.
of the Moral Ideas, and The Oedipus Complex.
Westanghouse, George (1846-1914), American Wês. Whig, John. 1727-97),
he violently English
attacked politician.
George III in hisA
engineer who invented an air-brake for railways paper the North Briton, and as a result of
(1868) called by his name, and pioneered the unsuccessful proceedings against him, general
use of high tension alternating current for the warrants were determined illegal. He waa
^ transmission of electric power. agam m trouble for obscene libel; Ms defiance
Westmacott, Sir Richard (1776-1866), English of authority brought Mm popularity, and he was
sculptor of Achilles in Hyde Park. tour times re-elected to parliament hut refused
Wharton, Edith (1862-1937), American noveUst Ms seat, until Ms opponents gave way. His
and friend of Henry James. Her works include motives were mixed, but he helped to establish
House of Mirth, and Gustom of the Country. freedom of the press.
Whatoly, MoW (1787-1863), English areh- Wlllcocla, Sir William (1852-1932), British eng¬
blshop_ of Dublin. He wrote treatises on ineer, b. Lidia, who carried out irrigation works
imelonc and Logie. m lodia. Egypt, South Airica, and Mesopotamia.
Wheatstone, Sir Charles (1802-76), English
physicist, one of the first to recognise Ohm’s wmett,
•nrS Wiu^ '^8'“ (1898-1902)
® (1866-1916) , English . advocate
law. In 1837 he (with W. F. Cooke) patented savings.” adopted after his death.
an electric telegraph. He also introduced the WUham I ol England (1027-87).
microphone. the "Conqueror
Duke of Normandy, claimed the English throne",
Wheeler, Sir Charles (b. 1892), English sculptor, as OTCCMsor to Edward the Confessor, and de¬
feated Harold II at Hastings in 1066.
^peci^y on Mldlngs. His autobiography is
High Bdief. P.R.A., 1966-66. commander and a firm ruler, he crushed AnSaxon able
Wtotler, James Abbott McNeill (1884-1903) resistance espeoMy in the north, transferred
êrlcan artist. B. at Dowell, he studied in followers, and
Paris and settled in England, He reacted toew ^ England ImdMto to Ms Norman
closer relations with the
against the conventions of his day, and Euskin's continent, as did Ms archbishop Lanfranc. He
uncomprehending criticism of his work resulted ordered the Domesday survey (see L32).
in a lawsuit. Among Ms main worte are William II of England (1066-1100). the Con-
stumes of the Thames, and a portrait of his ®hftis, succeeded in
- mother, now In the Douvre. 1187. Capnoioua and self-indnlgenti Ms reign
!B PROMINENT PEOPLE
was troubled, and be was shot {by accident or Wolf, Friedrich August (1759-1824). German
design) while hunting in the New Forest. classical scholar, a founder of scientific classical
William HI of England (1650-1702), King of philology.
England, Scotland, and Ireland (1689-1702), Wolf, Hugo (1860-1903), Austrian song-writer.
son of William II of Orange and Mary, daughter In his settings of over 300 German lyrics, in¬
of Charles I. He married Mary, daughter of cluding many of Morike and Goethe, he achieved
the Duke of York (later Janies II) while stadt- complete union of poetry and music. See
holder of Holland. In 1688, when Janies had Section E.
abdicated and iled the country, he was invited Wolfe, James (1727-59), British general, h.
to succeed and he and Mary became joint king Westerham. He showed early promise in the
and aueen. The revolution of 1088 brought to Seven Years’ War, and was given command of
England tolerance of Protestant worship, but the expedition against Quebec, which iu spite
William was mainly concerned with war against of its strong position he captured, but lost his
Prance, brought to an end in 1697. life.
William IV of England (1765-1837), third son of Wolsey, Thomas (c. 1476-1580), English cardinal.
George III, succeeded his brother George IV in A butcher’s son at Ipswich, he entered the
1830, and was called the “ sailor king.” In his church, becoming archbishop of York and
reign the parliamentary reform bill of 1832 and cardinal, while in the same year (1515) he be¬
other reform measures were carried without came Henry VIII ’s lord chancellor. He was thus
obstruction from him. powerful and wealthy, and he founded Christ
William I of Germany (1797-1888), King of Church (Cardinal) College, Oxford. But in
Prussia and first German emperor. He suc¬ spite of his ability he was unable to secure papal
ceeded to the throne in 1881 and continued sanction for the Idng’s divorce from Catherine
resistance to reform, appointing Bismarck as of Aragon, and fell from power and died.
chief minister, and supporting him through the Wood, Sir Henry Joseph (1869-1944), English con¬
Austro-Prussian andPranco-Prussian wars. His ductor, founder of the Promenade Concerts
personal character was simple and unassiuning. which he conducted from 1896 till his death.
William II of Germany, the Kaiser (1859-1941), Woodcock, George (b. 1904), English trade union
King of Prussia and German emperor from leader, T.H.C.of general secretary 1960-69. He
1888, was grandson of William I and of (Jueen is chairman the Commission on Industrial
Victoria. He was intelligent but impetuous, Relations set up by the Labour government In
and believed in military power. He dismissed 1969.
Bismarck. In 1914 his support of Austria Woodville, Elizabeth (1437-91), wife of Edward
helped to precipitate European war, and the IV. Her daughter Elizabeth married Henry VII.
resulting defeat brought his abdication, after Woolf, Virgmia (1882-1941), English writer,
which he lived in retirement at Doom in Holland. daughter of Sir Leslie Stephen and wife of
William the Silent (1633-1584), Dutch national Leonard Woolf with whom she founded the
leader. Prince of Orange, he led the revolt of Hogarth Press. Her works develop the stream-
the Protestant Netherlands against the rule of of-consciousness technique and include To the
the Spanish Philip II. The union of the Lighthouse, Mrs. Lallowav, The Waves, A Room
northern provinces was accomplished in 1579, of One’s Oim. See Section M, Part I.
and Spanish rule was renounced by 1584, in Woolley, Sir Richard van der Riet (b. 1906), suc¬
which year William was assassinated. ceeded Sir Harold Spencer Jones as astronomer
Williams, Sir George (1821-1905), fomider of the royal (England) in 1956.
Young Men’s Christian Association. Wootton of Ahinger, Baroness (Barbara Prances
Williams, Bmlyn (b. 1905), Welsh aetor-play- Wootton) (b. 1897), English social scientist:
^vright and producer, author of WigW must Fall. chairman Metropolitan Juvenile Courts 1946-
The Corn is Green and The Light of Heart. He 62; deputy speaker of the House of Lords 1966.
has also given readings from Dickens and Dylan Her works include Social Science and Social
Thomas. Pathology, Crime and the Criminal Lam, and an
Wilson, James Harold (b. 1916), British Labour autobiography In a world I never made.
statesman. He entered parliament in 1945 as Wordsworth, William (1770-1850), English poet,
member for Ormskirk and was elected for Huy- h. Cockermouth. He went to Cambridge, and
ton in 1960. He became leader of the labour in 1798 with Coleridge issued Lyrical Ballads,
Party in 1963 after the death of Gaitskell and a return to simpUoity in English poetry. He
was prime minister 1964-70. His government settled at Grasmere with his sister Dorothy
enacted a series of social reforms and succeeded (1771-1866), to whose insight his poems owe
in strengthening Britain’s international econo¬ much. Among his best works are his sonnets
mic position but courted impopularity by tak¬ and Ms Ode on (he Intimations of ImmortalUy,
ing the necessary restrictive measures. Paced besides his Prelude.
with Rhodesian H.D.I., he tried to keep open Wren, Sir (Jhristopher (1682-1728), English arcM-
negotiations without compromising on prin¬ tect. b. Wiltshire. After the great fire (1666)
ciple. He refused to send troops to Vietnam he prepared an abortive plan for rebuilding
and to supply arms to South Africa. He pre¬ London,
pared for entry into the European Economic more thanbutfifty
did other
in factcity
rebuild St. Paul’s
churches. and
Including
(iommunlty. St. Stephen, Walbrook, and St. Mary-le-Bow.
Wilson, Richard (1714-82), British landscape Other works include Chelsea Hospital, portions
painter, b. Montgomeryshire, who pioneered a of Greenwich Hospital, the Sheldonian theatre,
freer style than the old classicism. Oxford, and Queen’s College library, Oxford.
WUson, Ihomas Woodrow (1866-1924). American He had wide scientific interests (he was pro¬
statesman. He was IT.S. president 1013-21, fessor of mathematics at Gresham College,
brought America into the first world war and London, and professor of astronomy at Oxford)
advocated the league of Nations, but was not and helped to foimd the Royal Society.
a successful negotiator at the peace ,conference Wright, Frank Uoyd (1869-1969), American
and could not carry his country into the league. aroMteot, initiator of horizontal strip and all-
His administration introduced prohibition and glass design. His influence has spread over the
women’s suffrage. „„ world. His buildings include the Imperial
Wingate, Orde Charles (1903-44), leader of the Hotel, ToMo. and the Guggenheim Museum,
Chindit forces engaged behind the Japanese New York.
fines in Burma during the second world war. Wright, Orville (1871-1948). American airman
Winifred, St., the 7th cent, patron saint of North who with his brother Wilbur (1867-1912) In
Wales, said in late legend to have been killed 1903 was the first to make a controlled sustained
by her rejected suitor. Prince Caradoc. but flight in a powered heavier-than-air machine,
restored by her unde, fl^ng a length of 862 ft. at Kitty Hawk, N-0.
Wisenaan, Nicholas Patrick (1802-65), cardinal, b. Wyatt,
built James
PontMll(1746-1813),
Abbey. , English architect who
in Spain of an Irish family. In 1850 on the
restoration in England of the Roman Catholic Wyatt, Sir Thomas (1503-42). English poet who
hierarchy he became first archbishop of West¬ introduced the sonnet from Italy. He was also
minster, and reorpnnised and developed his a diplomat.
church in Great Britain. Wyatt, Sk Thomas the younger (c. 1620-54), son
Wodehouse, Pelham Grenville (b. 1831), English of above, imsuccessfuUy led a revolt against
humorist, creator of Jeeves in the Bertie Queen Mary on behalf of Lady Jane Grey.
Wooster stories. He is now an American citizen. Wycherley, William (1640-1715), EngUsh drama.
B66 PROMINENT PEOPLE
WYC-ZW!
tisfc of the Restoration period. A master of Young, Thomas (1773-1829), English physicist,
satiric comedy, his plays include Love in a physician and egyptologist, b. Somerset, of
Wood, The Plain Dealer, and (the best-lmoym) Quaker family. He established the wave
The Ooimtry Wife. theory of light and its essential principle of
Wyclit, John (c. 1320-84). English religious re¬ interference, put forward a theory of colour
former. He taught at Oxford, later becoming vision, and was the first to describe astigmatism
rector of Lutterworth. He insisted on inward of the eye. He was also largely responsible for
religion and attacked those practices which he deciphering the inscriptions on the Rosetta
thought had become mechanical. His fol¬ stone.
lowers, called Lollards, were suppressed, partly Yoimghusband, Sir Francis Edward (1863-1942).
for political reasons. The Wyclif Bible, the English explorer and religious leader. He ex¬
first and literal translation of the Latin Vulgate plored Manchuria and Tibet, and wrote on
into English, was mainly the work of his India and Central Asia. He founded the
academic followers at Oxford. W’’orld Congress of Faiths in 1936 (see Section J).
Wykeham, WBliam of (1324-1404), English Ypres, Ist Earl of. See French.
churchman. He held office under Edward III Ysaye, Eugtae (1858-1929), Belgian violinist and
and became bishop of Winchester in 1887. He conductor, noted chiefly for his playing of the
founded New Coliege, Oxford, and Winchester works of Bach and Cesar Franck.
School, and improved Winchester cathedral. Yukawa, Hideki (b. 1907), Japanese physicist,
Wyllie, William Lionel (1851-1931), English mar¬ who received the 1949 Nobel prize for predict¬
ine painter of The Thames Below London Bridge. ing (1935) the existence of the meson.
WyspiansM, Stanislav (1869-1907), Polish poet,
dramatist and painter. His plays The Wed¬
ding, Liberation, and November Night treat of
national themes.
z
ZatUael (angel in rabbinical lore), pseudonym of
X two astrologers: William Lilly (1602-81) and
Richard James Morrison (1794-1874).
Xavier, St. Francis (1506-52), “apostle of the Zadkine, Ossip (b. 1890), Russian sculptor in
Indies,” b. at Xavero in the Basque country. France, who makes play with light on concave
He was associated with Loyola in founding the surfaces. His works include Orpheus and the
Jesuits, and imdertook missionary journeys to public momunent The Destruction of Rotterdam.
Goa, Ceylon, and Japan. He died while plan¬ ZaharoS, Sir Basil (1849—1936), armaments mag¬
ning another to China. nate and financier, b. Anatolia of Greek parents.
Xenophon (444-359 b.o.), Athenian general and He was influential in the first world war.
historian. He commanded Greek mercenari^ Zamenhof, Ludwig Lazarus (1869-1917), Polish-
under the Persian Cjuus, and on the latter’s Jew who invented Esperanto. He was by
death safely marched the Ten Thousand home profession an occulist.
through hostile covmtry. His chief works are Zeno of Citium {?342-270 B.o.). philosopher,
the Anabasis, the Hellenica, and Cyropaedia. founder of the Stoic system. He left Cyprus-
Xei’ses (a. 619-465 b.o.). King of Persia, was son to teach in Athens.
of the first Darius. In 481 B.o. he started on an Zeppelin, Ferdinand, Count von (1838-1917).
expedition against Greece when, according to German inventor of the dirigible airship. 1897-
Herodotus, he had a combined army and navy 1900. It was used in the first world war.
of over two and a half million men. He de¬ Zeromski, Stefan (1864-1925), Polish novelist,
feated the Spartans at Thermopylae, but his author of The Hmneless, The Ashes, The Fight
fleet was overcome at Salamis. He reigned toUh Satan.
from 486 to 466 B.o. and met his death by Zhukov, Georgi Konstantinovich (b. 1896),
a-ssassination. Soviet general, who led the defence of Moscow
Ximffiies de Cisneros, Francisco (1436-1617), and Stalingrad and lifted the siege of Leningrad
Spanish statesman and churchman. He be¬ in the second world war. and accepted the
came cardinal in 1607: carried out monastic German surrender in 1946. He continued to
reforms ; and directed preparation of a polyglot he active till 1967.
bible, the Oomphdensiant but as inquisitor- Zhukovsky, Vasfly Andreyevioh (1783-1862).
general he was fanatical against heresy. He Russian poet and translator of (Serman and
was adviser to Queen Isabella: in 1606 regent English poets. For many years he was tutor
for Queen Juana: and himself directed an to the future Tsar Alexander II.
expedition to conquer Oran and extirpate Zola, Emile Edouard (1840-1902). French novel¬
phacy. ist, b. Paris, of Italian descent. His series,
Les Rougon-Macauart, portrays in a score of
volumes the fortimes of one famfly in many
aspects and in realistic manner. He had the
moral coinage to champion Dreyfus.
Zom, Anders Leonhard (1860-1920). Swedish
Yeats, William Butler (1865-1939), Irish lyrh sculptor, etcher, and painter.
poet and playwright, b. near Dublin, a leader oJ Zoroaster (Zarathustra) (fl. 6th cent. b.o.). Per¬
the Irish literary revival. His plays wen sian founder of the Parsee religion. He was a
performed in the Abbey Theatre (which witi monotheist, and saw the world as a struggle
Lady Gregory (1852-1932) he helped to found) between good (Ahura Mazda) and evil (Ahri-
and include Go(7i?ee}i Ni Houlihan, The Horn man). Zoroastrianism, SecMon J.
Glass, and Deidre. His poetry is discussed ir Zoshchenko, Mikhail (1896-1958). Russian writer
Section M, Part 11. A complete edition of the of humorous short stories, which include The
Collecled Poems appeared in I960. Woman who could not Read and other Tales and
Yonge, Charlotte Mary (1823-1901), English novel¬ The Wonderful Dog and other Stories.
ist. Influenced by Keble, she wrote noveh Zoslmus (fl. c. 800), the first known alchemist.
which faithfully reflect some aspects of Victor¬ He lived in Alexandria.
ian life : one such is The Daisy Chain. She alsc Zucoarelli, Bâncesco (1702-88), ItaUan artist of
wrote historical fiction such as The Dove intfu fanciful landscape. He spent many years in
London and was elected a founder member of
Young, Brigham (1801-77). American Mormon theR,A. (1768).
leader, and president in 1844 after the founder’s Zuckem^, Sir Solly (b. 1904). British biologist:
death. He was a main founder of Salt Lake chief scientific adviser to British governments.
Chty. He practised polygamy. See alsc His publications include Scientists and War and
Moimonism, Section J.
Young, Francis Brett (1884-1954), English novel¬ Frîers of Public and Private Science.
ist, author of Mv Brother Jonathan and- Dr. Zwingli, tniich (1484-1631). Swiss reUgious
Bradley remembers. reformer. He taught mainly at Zurich, where
Young, James (1811-83), Scottish chemist, b, he Issued a list of reformed doctrines, less
Glasgow, whose experiments led to the manu¬ extreme than those of Calvin.
facture of paraffin oil rmd solid paraffin on a Zwirner, Ernst Friedrich (1802-61), German
large soffie. architect who restored Cologne oathdral.
BACKGROtND
TO PUBLIOW
AFFAIRS
This section is in two parts. The

first is a narrative of political
events in Britain since the war
and of some significant events
around the world. The second
part explains the structure of om*

own political institutions and the
main international ones.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3-20
I. Narrative of Political Events
Britain: political background 3

11
Western Europe
9
Eastern Europe
The Middle East

12
Asia 19
13
Africa 18
17
The United States
The Threat of Nuclear Conflict
21-42
21
II. Political Structures and Institutions
How Britain Governs Herself 24
21
The British Constitution
21
Central Government
Structure
21
Reform of Goverimient 26
The Working of Govermnent 1970 25
Local Government
27
Local Government in Greater London 34
27
Proposals for Reform of Local Government
The Commonwealth
30
The United Nations 37
37
Western European Organisations 39
Introduction
Military Organisations
37
Political and Economic Organisations
The Development of the Common Market
Scientific and Technological Organisations
38
Other Groupings of States
41
Her Majesty’s Government
40
42
C3
BACKGROUND TO PUBLIC
AFFAIRS
This section is in two parts. The first describes some major events since the war and carries the story
to 1971. The second part describes our own political institutions, the Commonwealth, the United
Nations, Western and other International Organisations.
L NARRATIVE OF POLITICAL EVENTS

BRITAIN: POLITICAL BACKGROUND. I allow families to replenish their depleted stocks of
household goods, and of demand for exports to
Brief Historical Survey. ! meet the unfavourable turn in the terms of trade
The end of the Great War marked a watershed and to allow us to start paying off the debts
in British political life. The Representation of incurred in the war. Immediately the problem
the People Act of 1918 gave the vote to all men was an impossible one: without American aid we
over the age of 21 and to women over 30, the would have been bankrupt. But gradually as
tranehise being extended to women over 21 in production picked up demand began to come under
1928. Thus began a new era of mass participation control once more, and it did seem as if by 1950
in politics. The newly enfranchised working the most pressing Immediate problems had been
classes were catered for by a specifically working- successfully surmounted. There were stiU many
class party, the Labour party, and the next relics of the war — housing was still inadeauate.
decades were to see the yirtnal eclipse of the other the roads and railways were neglected, rationing
radical party, the Liberals. However, from the was still with us, prices were not yet stable, and
mud of Flanders Britain moved into the auagmire there were still shortages of many Important
materials.
of economic depression, each government, no
matter what its political hue, seeming to he in the
grip of economic forces beyond its control.
Effective demand for goods remained, year in, Attlee’s First Labour Government.
year out, far below the productive capacity of the The Labour party left the National government
economy, and as a result unemployment was after the overthrow of Germany in May 1945,
always high. Between 1921 and 1939 it never rejecting overtures from Churchill to continue the
dropi>ed below the million mark, and in the depths coalition. Faced with this re-emergence of party
of the world slump, in 1932, it nearly reached 3
million out of a total insured labour force of 12-6 politics, the “caretaker” government had no
choice but to call a general election to ascertain
million. One worker in four was out of a job. which party should lead the nation along the path
and in some of the depressed areas it was nearer to peace. The Conservative party campaigned
one in three. Even the rearmament drive of
on the slogan “Let ChurohiU finish the job,”
1937-8 failed to end the depression, though it did Labour on a vigorous programme of social and
bring some revival of demand for the products of economic reform. The electorate, remembering
heavy industry, and it was not until 1940 that the dismal thirties and perhaps intuitively recog¬
unemployment finally disappeared.
nising ChurchlU’s greatness as a warrior but his
In the inter-war period Britain had, considering unsuitability to lead in time of peace, as well as
its unemployment, not been too badly off, for desiring radical social changes, returned Clement
three main reasons. First, we had long been Attlee with a majority of 146 over all other parties.
industrialised, so that the chronic under-invest¬ The Labour party became the majority party for
ment of the period in the means of production had the first time in Its history (on its two previoxis
not the effects it would have had on a nation with¬ occasions in office, 1924 and 1929-31, it was
out our stock of capital goods. Second, although dependent upon Liberal support). The Conser¬
throughout the period we were losing groimd in vatives, with 213 seats, fell to their lowest ebb
overseas markets to our competitors, the terms of since 1906, and the Liberals, formerly one of the
trade grew more favourable for us, so that the two great parties, captured only 12 seats.
same volume of exports could par for a far higher The cabinet (of 20) Included Ernest Bevin
volume of imports than it could have done in (Foreign Secretary), former docker and leader of
1913 — or than it has ever done since the war. the Transport and General Workers’ Union.
That was not much comfort to those dependent Anenrin Bevan (Minister of Health), ex-miner
for their living on an exporting industry; hut It ftom South Wales, Herbert Morrison (Lord
did mean that falling exports brought no serious President of the Council and deputy Prime
balance-of-paymenta problems. And, third, in Minister). EUen Wilkinson (Minister of Education).
those days Britain was still the owner of vast Hugh Dalton (Chancellor of the Excheauer), Sir
overseas assets, which brought in a steady large Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade),
investment to pay for Imports, and which could, Harold Wilson and Hugh Gaitskell, junior
if necessary, be drawn on to finance any deficit in ministers at the Ministries of Public Works and
the balance of payments. Fuel and Power respectively, both Oxford
economists, were later to become leaders of their
The Effect of the War. party. The Prime Minister himself. Clement
Attlee, educated at Halleyhury and Oxford, had
The war changed aU this. The export trade was done social work in the East End of London,
slashed to a third of Its pre-war level, the overseas becoming Mayor of Stepney, before entering
assets were sold off, and large debts incurred in parliament in 1922. To these men fell the task of
their place. Investment in, and oven main¬ shaping post-war Britain.
tenance of, capital goods had to he put off. Although Britain emerged from the war with
Finally, the war brought to an end the favourable new Indnstrles ready for expansion and a much
turn in the terms of trade. In 1946 they were increased labour force, much of her pre-war
much worse than in 1938: and from 1946 to 1951 capital wealth had been destroyed and urgent
they steadily turned against ns. action was reotuired to replace worn-out capital
As a result, the first five years after the war were eaulpment and turn industrial resources to peace¬
years of chronic excess of demand — of demand for time production. To conserve vital resources,
more Investment to make good the neglect of a programme of rationing and austerity was
decades, of demand for more consumption to introduced. Both trade rmions and manu¬
bring to an end the austerity of wartime and to facturers cooperated m holding down wages and
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
POLITICAU BACKGROUND C4
prices, the former at least encouraged by the lapsed to give way to a new period in world polities
economic and social reforms of the new govern¬ dominated by tbe two great power blocs, the
ment. United States and the Soviet Union, and based
on nuclear deterrence. See also C41, C38.
In the Middle East. Britata was one of the
Public Ownership. guarantors of the new state of Israel carving out
land where the Jewish population could settle
The Labour party was dootrinally committed to The land was taken from the Arabs, with what
some degree of nationalisation, though the exact eonseauences the Arab-Israeli war of June 1967
amount was, and is, a matter of dispute within showed. See CIS.
the party. One of its first acts in 1946 was to Of our former colonies, India (1947), Burma
nationalise the Bank of England. This had (1948), and Ceylon (1948) received their inde¬
previously been subject to a high degree of central pendence. Burma, while maintaining the closest
control, and little objection was raised by the links with Britain, decided not to follow the
Opposition. The nationalisation of the coal example of India, and left the Commonwealth.
industry the same year excited more debate.
However, this industry, even before the war, had
been subject to governmental intervention, and Attlee’s Second Government and the Korean War.
during the war had been stripped of its capital,
worn-out machines not having been replaced. It By 1960 the electorate had lost much of its
is significant here that the form of public owner¬ enthusiasm for radical change and the govern¬
ship was not that of a government department, ment, having passed its most important measures,
nor control by workers, but responsibility was was running out of steam. This possibly explains
vested in a semi-independent pubUo board, the why a goyermnent which had not lost a single by-
National Coal Board. This showed the essentially election was returned with a majority of only six.
moderate, pragmatic nature of the nationalisation Among the new men returned for the Conservative
programme, which continued with the taking party in this parliament were Edward Heath,
into public ownership by 1951 of the electriclty- Iain Macleod, Reginald Maudling, and Enoch
and gas-supply serrices, the railways, the ports Powell, all four to become ministers and Mr,
and docks, a large section of road goods transport Heath, a prime minister. The government
and some road passenger transport, the canals, the struggled on, handicapped by its small majority,
major part of civil aviation, the cable and wireless and facing the problems of the Korean war. which
services, and the major part of the iron and steel put an end to any impression that the economy
industry. The Conservatives after their return was under control. Prices of raw materials and
to power in 1951 denationalised iron and steel food shot up, and a large favourable balance on
and the major part of the nationalised road goods international trade rapidly turned into a far
transport service, hut left the other national¬ larger unfavourable balance. A serious price
isations undisturbed, though they in certain inflation got imder way, and tbe policy of wage
respects altered the administrative structure > set restraint collapsed. On top of tha); came the
up by the Labour government. rearmament programme to meet the military
threat of communism. Gaitskell, who had
succeeded the dying Cripps at the Exchequer,
Building the Welfare State. Imposed charges on dentures and spectacles
supplied under the national health service, which
The immediate post-war years saw the laying of led to the resignation of Aneurin Bevan, the
the foundations of the welfare state. The provi¬ minister who had pUoted the scheme tteough aU
sions of the Butler Education Act of 1944 were piit Its stages in parliament, John Ereeman, later
into operation, greatly expanding facilities and to become British Ambassador to Washington,
Improving the opportunity for each child no and Harold Wilson, then President of the Board
matter what its background to enjoy the benefits of Trade. Attlee asked for a dissolution and an
of higher education. Child allowances were election in October 1951.
introduced along with a rise in old-age pensions,
Eor a long time doctors and others who had
studied the subject of medical care had felt that The Conservatives Regain Power, 1961.
a national medical service was essential in order
to make the best use of hospitals and to bring the The Labour party secured the highest total poll
full range of modem medicine within the reach of that it or any other party had received In a general
everyone. It was to meet these needs that the election — ^14 miUion votes. The Conservatives
National Health Service Act was passed in 1946. received a quarter of a million less: hut they
The new health service came into operation in secured _a majority of seats. This anomaly was
July 1948 and proved to be one of the greatest due to the peculiarities of the electoral system,
experiments in health care ever undertaken and which pUea up large (and raeless) majorities for
was watched critically by countries all over the both sides iu safe seats. The new cabinet was led
world. Eor the first time in our history every by ChurcMU and was mainly composed of his old
man, woman, and cMld in the country, was wax-time colleagues, with Sir Anthony Eden at
entitled to free medical care. the Eoreign OfiSce, Harold Macmillan at the
Ministry of Housing and Local Government,
Measures were also taken relating to the distri¬
bution of industry so as to avoid the pockets of Walter Monokton at the Ministry of Labom, Lord
imemployment in certain areas, idl this added Cherwell as Paymaster-General, and E. A. Butler,
up to a fundamental restructuring of British later twice to be denied the highest prize of the
society, comparable only to the Liberal reforms ofleadership, the new Chancellor.
1906-14. The balance-of-payments crisis which reached
its peak in the last months of 1961, just after the
defeat of the Labour govemment, was rapidly
Foreign Afiahs. brought under control, largely because the prices
of raw materials fell almost as quickly as they
When the war ended there was still an abun¬ had risen, but also through the Imposition of
dance of goodwill towards the Soviet TTnlon, but severe Import controls. The unannounced,
a number of political factors worked the other though very real, abandonment of the grandiose
way and it was allowed to evaporate. As rearmament targets also helped. Eor this control
CShmohiU put it in his famous speech at Mton, there was, however, a price to pay— a recession In
Missouri (1946): “ From Stettin on the Baltic to Industry, particularly in textiles, hut also in a
Trieste on the Adrlatle an Iron Curtain hM number of consumer durable industries, which
descended across the continent." The failure of brought the first serious, though limited, return
the nations to make treaties of peace or arrange¬ to imemployment. But, as import prices con¬
ments for general disarmament, and the continuing tinued to fall, the govemment soon felt able to
loss of confidence between the Soviet Union and take steps to re-expand demand. A more
the West led to an Increase of armaments and ambitious housing programme was underway, and
defensive pacts on botli sides. The United rationing was being abolished.
States and Western Europe formed the North George VI died in Eebruary 1962, He had
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the succeeded to the throne hi difficult circumstances
Eusslans on their side organised the commimlst when his elder brother, ELng Edward VIII, had
countries by a Warsaw Pact, The old system of abdicated in order to marry Mrs, WaUls Simpson,
a balance of power centred on Europe had col- an American. George VI had done much to
POLITICAL. BACKGROUND CS PUBLIC AFFAIRS
restore ttie high esteem in which the monarchy is mined by this and it led to the resignation of
held m Bntain, notably by his conrage in staying two ministers. Anthony Nutting and Sir Edward
m London during the Blitz and visiting the Boyle. The Prime Minister himself resigned
bombed areas. His death In 1952 was followed because of lll-health early in 1957. The new
by a period of national mourning — “He was leader of the party was Harold Macmillan, chosen
father to us aU both
tunes, showing ’ wasthea freguent comment
sense of loss at his of the by
death claima process
of E. A.ofButler.
consultation which
See also by-passed the
012(2).
and the degree to which the life of the royal family
has become identified with that of the tadivldual itn,. Mfli'Tnfflnn Voira
subject. The coronation of his daughter. Queen rears.
Elizabeth II, followed in June 1968. On the The struggle for national solvency continued,
same day as she was crowned, a British expedition In 1966 there had been a renewed balance-of-
climbed Everest and there were high hopes that a payments crisis, followed by another in 1956 and
new Elizabethan age was dawning. an even more severe one to 1957, and with each,
fresh measures of restriction on demand had to be
introduced. These stringent measures finally
The Eetirement of Churchill. brought the balance of payments under control;
On 5 April 1966 Sir Winston Churchill handed “ 1952 the control also brought a recession
over the great seal of office for the last time in a —rather more severe, but stfil mild by inter-war
career in politics spanning over half a century, stsmdards. Then, as in 1958, the government felt
during which he had served two great parties, ^ talre steps to re-expand demand, produc-
risen to high office, fallen, returned to lead his “on regonded fast and 1959 was a prosperous
country in her finest hour, been rejected, finally But there _ were darner signals. Wage
to return as a peace-time prime minister. The were beginning to mount* and, althou^
finest orator of his day. his bulldog stubbornness reserves were still rising, tbe balance of trade
had been an inspiration during the war. In 1964 more m^vourahle than in the crisis years of
he was accorded an honour uniaue in the annals of and 1967. . , . ,
British parliamentary history — the presentation . country went to the po^ in 1959 for the
by the Ciommons of a hook signed by all M.P.s and *5^® 1960s._ and for the third tune
a portrait by Graham Sutherland. Perhaps the “® Coperyatives won, this tunîth a handsome
best description of this man who held the stage of overall majority of 100 seats. There was despair
British politics for so long la provided by the words ^ recmmnatipns took
introdncing his work on the Second World War: GaitêU believed that the party's image
“In War: Eesolution. In Defeat: Defiance. outmoded, and m 1060 decided to fight for the
In Victory: Magnanimity. In Peace: Good- abandonment of Clause 4. the nationalisation
will.” BQs successor as premier was Sir Anthony olanse pf the party’s constitution, (ttisledtoa
Eden, who had resigned over a dlfl’erence with fi®H°® mternffi str^gle teên right and left,
Chamherlam in 1938, and gone on to he ChurchiU’s followed by a further c^paign to get
foreign secretary during the war. Eden had been Conference to adopt a motion making unilateral
tbe beir-apparent for a number of years, and was, tbe offidal pobcy ^ of tbe
In terms of the offices he had held, weU-eauipped promised to
to take over the reins of power. His first action i*®, r®7;er-
was to lead the Conservative party into tbe general decision, and succeeded tbe following
election of 1955, year«
In July 1961 the Chancellor of the Bxeheauer,
The „Eetirement
The
„
Eetirement . of„ Attlee.
.
of Attlee,
Selwyn Uoyd, called for a pay pause in wages.
salaries, and dividend payments. This was the
The Conservat,ivp« won tiiA PiP4>Mmi wu-ii an first Sign of a prices and incomes policy whtoh was
ovJmll a.‘g^
of tbe vote coiTiTiflrp/1 'xiHi’Ti 4ffi7 tiat* f»ATi4- 19608* Britain bad still not solved its central
TjflHAni**a
thoîrtherTwMafafiffi^SffiofneaS^^p; economic problem— how to reconolle the twin
cent. This gave the Conservatives a comfortable bffimiTC^nay^mte Prices with asatisfaotory
Edfn ta^^seTte
Street. dS
Wben parliament assembled four older toe®Sffi^f 1962 the government seemed
if 7^^ doubtiess
members, including Dalton, resigned because of Inp
their age from the Labour shadow cabinet, and
a^the end of the year Attlee resigned the leader- of aêrfttr a^d“ deSreê
part^whlS%0todTpertnt^^^^^ Aj&Stortu^!
SM 42 M J> 8 to thl mrty wM^ to 1945 Profiimo affair, involving the resignation of
formed toe goverSent ^d Sed tSouah a its war. minister. This did nothing to still toe
prSnme of ôS ^d rSf H toe Consemtive party that the Prime
COmrohlU stood for toe “ finest hour ” in onr ^
bistoipr. Attlee stood for toe
wbicb fobowod it TRfft Tfitirfid to social revolutionto tbo noxt election. . Tbls discordant
become a respected elder statesman until bis
death in iofi7 TTe ma >kir TTiwii Hiness, wmcb Compelled blni to resigii. By a
Galtskell as party leader, toe first Labour leader Ortober
horn in this century, a man determined to remodel conference
socialism to fit toe new age of technocracy and
** welfbre Capitalism bave caused a great debate in tbe party, but
■ ■ dropp^ BuddenS" into athe excitedHowatmosphere
of a conference it caused tmnnlt. confused
The Suez Adventure. toe situation was Is lUnstrated by toe fact that on
This
rn,!„oi^ned in 1956 with r , ofp-r.
4.4,refusal
•41, the ,4 - &®
Britain Home, Eoreignwhen
mfflming
'^®^then the Queen
Secretary, sent for Lord
the first headline in
pd toe united States, despite earlier pronuses,: TM Times was “ The Queen may send for Mr.
to flnanp toe huilding of toe Aswan High Dam Butler today.”
which President Nasser considered necessary for Among other Important events of Macmillan’s
toe developmpt of the Egyptian eebnomy. premiership were: the explosion of toe first
Nasser retallated.-by nationalising toe Suez British hydrogen bomb; toe settlement of toe
toal. Eden, phis own Infitlative,. and wltoout Cypras dispute; toe cancellation of the Blue
^ S’PProval of all his cabinet, acted In concert Skeak missile programme, and the agreement for
witb braucc to letabe the canal jsouo by force. TT.S. jPotoris submarines to use Holy Loeb, the
^ considerable pressure from setting up of the National Economic Development
“1® .rinited Nations led to toe withdrawal of Council: the legalisation of betting shops; toe
British tro9PB. but a parhamentary storm un- windlngupoftoe Central African Federation ; the
paralleled smee the days of home rule for Ireland nuclear test ban treaty; and tUA tMatuTiHanmiint.
blew up. (It was while we were bombing Egypt of a Federation of Malaysia. A number of Com-
toat Euîa stmpressed a revolt in her satellite monwealto countries became independent sover-
Hungary). Eden a position was severely under- eign states (see K 189).
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
POLITICAL BACKGROUND Liberate fluctu
Death ot Hugh GaitskeU.
The Labora party had just recovered
xi5V5uvcit5u from
jruiii the ating between
Paihament
five and was
a mere
dissolved
one. ItNotwasonly
, — — - — 7* ,r*
mtemal strife of the early 1900s and was unified
tiie thtd*
entirely
at the Prune Minister s own choosing. Such
“ a decade when Gaitskell died imexpected rourse of political events. is the
321 iJoo at the age of 67. A man of enonnous reasonably have been held, and was H^ght
passion for the nnderdog. he had begun the task indeed
of modemismg the Labour party and left his Întatoed by many, that no government. sSrt
a coalition, could exist with a majority of
successor a legacy of a united party ready to face than a dozen. But Mr. Wlteon goveroedof iess siv
the chauengea of a scientific and technoloical air of one commanding a secure majoritywith tYe
^Lere iirere three candidates for the succes- neither trimmed his controversial programm for he
sion: George Brown, a former trade unionist who sUghtest gesture towards a î«on e nor
had been very close to Gaitskell, and was deputy with Liberate. And he maintained this course
leader of the party i •James Callaghan, another economic circumstan-
former trade unionist; and Harold Wilson, an Wilson chose to appeal to the counfcrv
Orford eeraomist, who had served in Attlee’s on ol March 1966 and Labour’s
cabinet. Wilson won.
plete. ms party gained 47-9 perrecovery was com¬
LirceS
theofConseÎ
the vote
Election Year 1964. tives. On an average swmg of 3-6 per cent,
Labour majority in the House of Commons the
was 96. The Liberal party gained only 8 '6
1
1064 but there remained theexpired in the autumn of ront of the vote, though it increased its number per
question whether Sir of
• Lad renounced his title seats to 12. See General Election Results,
07.
m 1063, would go to the country in the spring or
in the autumn. Concealing his hand till the last
moment Sir Alec decided to wait till the autirnm. Unpopular Measures in National Interest.
Bor many months, therefore, the country dis¬
cussed the Issues Involved and thus went through iôst immediately tbe governmen
much of the emotions of an election, which, when vnth yet another run on sterling, tandwas faced
it came, seemed belated, the people being a Uttle adopted a package of deflationary cuts ininpublic
July
Introduced a prices and incomes
weary of worked-np turmoil by politicians, press,
of the fire of an election
industry
• the
i.,.measures
the cooperatio
worked for n of both sides
a time of
had thus been draivn prematurely, but no general sterhng comim under almost unremitting but with
pressure
election cm lack drama. The government's
dissolved and Wilson kept the lead in ?W,™‘^rioe-of-payments position deteriorated and
a photo-finwh. The resultant position can be by November 19^ the only alternative to massive
deflation and soaring unemployment was devalua-
seen m the_ table on a later page. Before leaving
this point m our story we must note the coincid¬ fron. (See potion G, Part IV imder International
ence by which, within the very two days on which Ugvaluation, by reducing the
price of our exports and making imports more
the rûlts came in. there occurred two events of expensive compared with home-produced goods
world-wide importance— the fall of Khrushohev
and the explosion by China of an atomic bomb. improved competiti
upon aecîon to office the new government theve wage-pric
position e in spiral
the'worid
cou-
tmned to rise, and in July 1968 statutory regula-
With a prospective balance-of-payments
£700-800 million for 1964. It was ptece ofAH'"*®?®
legMation
, incomes introduced.nailThis
was tooth
was fought
estimated that although there should be a oon-
siderable improvement in 1966 the deficit would tne trade unions, and the compulsory and bv
provisions
still be at an unacceptable level. The government ot 1969. The deflationary cuts and devaluation
therefore took measures aimed, first, to deal with plias6 in the*^®^
the icmediate deficit, and, second, to begin the of lom?* turnexpired
of publicat opinion,
the end
tMk; of dealing with the more intransigent under- ^d by the end of 1968 the polls Li thewere
lead. The
putting
economic problems. These measures are
beginnings of a turn-round
fosomseûnder Internal Developments, Section m the economic situation.
Changes-in the Conservative Party. Foreign Affairs. ,

The loss of the election was a cause of grave woblem in this field was
concern to the Conservative party, and as the obtaining a settlement vrith Rhodesia, and Mr.
opinion polls showed Labour Increasing its lead Wilson made two dranmtlo if unavailing attempts
and there were grumblings on the backbenches. to come to agreement with Mr. Smith. (This
Sir AIM resigned. One legacy from his brief 1? treated more fully in Part U.) In May
leadersWp was a new system of finding a leader of
the party. The undignified display at the Black¬ ^ ?®^ second application to join
tte ^mmon M^ket and although in the Deoem-
pool party coherence and complaints that some
sections of party opinion had not been consulted, membershiih the agal^t negotiations for British
application remained on the
led to deroauds for change. An electoral system table, la^defence. the government decided to
was introduced, the leader being chosen by two aMndon the East of Suez policy thus forcing
Dodies : first, the parliamentary party, and second Britam to come to terms with its true position
a fijoTO composed of Conservative members of to the world (though the decision was taken on
the Executive Committee of groimd of saving defence expendi-
the national Tlnion. The first leader chosen by sovepiment refused to supply arms to
the new method was Edward Heath, a man in
mrms of social background much closer to Mr. NatioM resolution of 1964. The government
w2,*?r P ac^rdance with a United
Wilson than to Sir Alec. Educated at Chatham which had
*2, interven Anguilla
e tounilatera a tiny
lly, seceded
House ^hool and Balliol College. Oxford, S
new leader of the Opposition had been a foremost w? *P® St. Eitts union in 1967: it was allegedly
proponent pf entry to the Common Market and
md becoming a Mafia haunt. ^
pUoted the Eesale Price Maintenance Bill
through parliament, which abolished the situation Labour Reforms.
whereby manufacturers could prevent retailers
from cutting prices If they so desired. This Bill measures were passed to
TOs flpaUy pa^d^dM the Eabour government,
put the fact that Mr. Heath was prepared to put it repealed the iUbour’s
Conservatê.
ive 1067
topiigh a measure which was highly unpopular a Rentsocial
On the Act front
and
provided for higher standards in housing, educa¬
with his own party showed something of the tion. anA the health service. It gave parlia¬
resolve of the new leader. mentary time from its crowded schedule to aboUsh
The 1966 General Election. 1967). members’

private blUs
homosexuality
OffencM Act. 1967), and divorce (Divorce
Against all the odds and expectations. Labour Reform Act, 1969). were carried through by free
had governed for seventeen months with a votes of parliament. The Children and Young
POLITICAL. BACKGROUNO PUBLIC AFFAIRS
C7
By-Elections 1945-70
—
1
Rise and Fall o£ the Parties, 1945-70
1970
330
1950 1955 1959 1966
1945 1964
1951 263
213 298
Conservative . . 321 365 303
345 268 317 287
295 277
Labour . . 393 315 363
Liberal . . 6 9 s 12 6
12
■ ■
Independant . . 14
■9 — — 1 — —
Others . 8 3 26 . 1
Speaker) O/
640 (The
Total . 625 625 630 630 630 680
630
* Includes Ilie Spealcer.
General Election Results, 1946-70
Electorate
and nist 7 ♦
ist Olliers
turnout Foies east Conservative Labour Liberal
National^
% % % % % Commu¬
/a %
1*8
100 9*0
/o
0-6 433,688
1945 38,240,891
72-7 26,086.978 9.988,306 11.996,152 2,248,226 188,416 102,760
0*4
89-8 47-8
0/
100 0*6
1960 84-0
83,269,770 12,602.667 13,266.692 9*1 117,067
0*4
28.772.671 4S-5 2.621,648 173,161
91,746
100 46-1 2*7 0*8
1961 2*6 0-6
146.621 0-1
82-6
84,645,573 28,596,668 13.717.638
48-0 13,948,605 780.656 21,640 31.808
0*1
lOO 48-8
226,691 0*1 0*2
62,447
1965 76-7
34,868,263 26,760,498 13.286.669
49*7 12.404.970 722,406 33,144
100 46-4
0*9
18.749.880 ■ '■44*1 5*9 0-2 ,
1959 36,897,080
78-8 27.869,241 12,216,588 1,638.671 182.788 30.897 61.619
49'4 43-8 0-6 0*1
. 77-1 100 02
1964 36,892,672 27.656,874 1 12,001.896 12.206,814 3.092.878 I 0*9 1 46.982
' 43-4-'''" i 316,431 1 0*2
. ■ 76-8 ■ 100 11*2
8*6
1966 35.964,684 27,263.606 11,418.433 13,064.951 2,327.633 1 249,866
1-2 62,112 ; 53.116
41-9 76,146
0-3
HKoevin 42*9 1
47*9
1970
7*6
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
POUITICAI. BACKGROUND
Persons Act, 1969, made extensive changes in theC8new faces included Anthony Barber who was
legal procedures governing young offenders and given special responsibility for negotiation ttith
provided for a comprehensive system of com- the ^mmon Market countries.andSir Mrs.
social security, KeithMcargare
mumty homes for children in care, and strength¬ Josenht
ened the law on private fostering {see D41-3). Tltooher m charge of education. Due to the
A constitutional change of some Importance came tragic early death of Iain Maeleod. so Ion the
witu the eniranchisement of the 18-year-olds in party s eTOnomic expert, and one of its best front-
1970. The Countryside Act. 1968, enlarged the bench debaters. _a few short weeks after achie’^
nmctions of the Countryside Commission, con¬ g
ferred new powers on local authorities and other 1^1 made. His pl^ was taken by Antlmy
^coming Chancellor, cha^s
bodies for the management of rural areas and BarW and m the reshuffle that foUow^ John
provided neater opportunities for leisure and Davies entered the cabinet to take over the newly-
recreational activities in the coimtryside. It created empire of Trade and Industry. gSpv
shifted to responsibility for Enron
otohpd every government department and public
authority to have due concern for amenity, These changes seemed about the only activiti
toe government were undertaldng over toe summer es
iumer. the government outlawed racial discrim-
matiOT m the Pace Kelations Acts, 1966, 1968 mont^, and they ran into severe criticis
m for
infl- industrial policy, the Transport inetlvi
Act. 19^.
ty m
There were sometoemovesface m offoreign
mounti ng inflatio
policy, n^
provided negotia-
road imd rail transportforand a better integration of
for higher standards
m road trôrt. In regional poUcy. the intro¬ I presence East of
at least a Suez,
partialandrestorat
explora-
ion
duction of investment grants was to aid the
up of new mdiMtry in depressed areas and setting reduce
I Africa. In restorat October, ion toeof arms supplies to
Chancellor intro¬
the diârity between the regions in terms of duced a mmi-Budget, curbing expenditure and
memploment. The setting up of the Law J^®<fuction in income tax as from Amfl
seenw to have done little to curb the
Commîon was on the initiative of Lord Gardiner mcreases, and December saw a
(Lord Chancellor), an enthusiastic reformer, and
many of its recommendations and fresh legis¬ strike of toe electricity workers, following
earlier one m which an
lation resulting from them, have been noted under the dustmen, pitted
them various headings in Section D, e.0.. the government, received most of what they^tot
Justice Act, 1967, Criminal Law Act, 1967.Criminal electricity workers* data \we wal
.by a court of inquiry (Wilberforce). but
at the tune of wntmg (February 1971) toe postal
The 1970 General Election. worters were out and toe motor car industry
was
Mance-of-payments position had aEo having labour problems. We have yet to sec
been transformed from a state of chronic deficit tlus the govermt's more short-term soK
turbulent problem, but its long-term policv to
to one of healthy surplus. The rise in economic 13 contamed in the Industria
prosperity was reflected in a swing hack to the l Eolations BIU at
pre^nt before parliament. This Is
government. This was very welcome to r. party Labour party and the tradebeing disputed
imion move¬
which h^ lost 16 of the 38 by-elections in the ment. In foreign affairs too toe governme
cour^ of the parliament, and made no gaim! nt is
T election results were also encouraginif tto In
sors. a line different
particular , thefrom that onof toe
its™ece
with Labom regammg some of the ground it had decision supply s?of
lost in earlier years when its representation had ar^ to SoutlitheAfrica remarto has ofcaused
Africananleaders
uproarat and
toe
been decimated, and it had lost control of strong-
Newcastle and ShefiSeld. as weU m lecent Commonwealth Prune MinEters’ Confer-
Smgapore. the future of the Common-
the Gfi eater l^ndon Council. In this
climate, the Prtoe Minister decided tofavourable hold an
ewiy election. date was set for 18 Jime--tto Part fw IV, imder
J?
^ Ihternal <Jcyernnient,
i Developments. H xmder
andPartSection G.
of
nFtu??™
the two eleîon this very
parties were centv^. The Mr. campaigns
almost dfeerent,
casual fashion, WilBon
and Northern Ireland.
Heath tey^ desperately
ate from Its muBions of whatto he bestir the elector¬
called “sham dong
Ireland went to the polE in June 1970
^^hme. The oMy fireworks wltb toe rest of Britain to elect its 12
I'uwell when in the camp^m
he wondered
immigration had been , Westmin12 ster.
seats with Ulster
The Arntrlm
fateifled deliberately, and Mr. Wedgwood
when he accused Mr. Powell of hWiii Bemi
otct
i ® tc tbe Eev. Ian Paisley of toe break-
Wolverhampton the flag that
took suspiciously like the one was “ beginning to
that fluttered over ImiSi party. Fermanagh and
Dachau and Belsen.” seemedOn certain.
the eve ofThethe oWon
pou! a
polls, with one exception (Opinion Eeiearch
gi.S’Hf.r -»-« S
Centre) were jiredieting a Labour victory by General Elections, 1936-70
gins varying from a 2 to a 9 per cent ma^
eventual resultlead wasovera the
4-7 10
Conservatives and their Unionist Others
reton to power with an overall majority
over ah other parties. The reason of 30 1935
last-tonute change are for what
complex 10
accepted argument is that the 1960
1946
publication of unfavourable trade figures lust 109
3 1961 12
Polflug day enaWed the S?vatoel 1966 9
to stir up amety about the cost of 1959
economy On 19 June a smiling Mr living and the
]Sth stood 1964
1066
12
This government will be 1970 11
M“^To^gowre
the service of all Downing^Street and dwl^d}
the people, the whole nation
• includes 1 Protestant Unionist.
create one reconciliation, to of toe parties, after the parliamentary

A New Style of Government. 29
^ of old and the Unionists
Independent Unionists
i were taken by the older Protestant UnionEts
JNatiohalists 8
I oreign Office,
PraetonDeginal d Maucllin
lor gof as
as ''H^®-,rfôu
Chancel glas-Home
theHome
at the
Seore- N. I. Labour
2
IsSh S. Eepubliean Labour
Jjord Hdilsham to become Lord Chance Independents
llor. The ! 9 ♦
WORLD EVENTS C9 !»UBLIC AFFAIRS
Unlike England, where an alternating-party A Crisis of Government, May-Jmie 1968.
system exists, ISTorthem Ireland has had a one-
party government for 60 years, a major factor in The student rising of May 1968 touched oif a
the present situation. See also C30{1). nationwide wave of unrest. The most violent
The United Kingdom government sent troops battles raged in the Latin Quarter between stu¬
to Northern Ireland in 1969 to curb the violence dents and riot police. An eye-'witness said it
between the Eoman Catholic and Protestant might have been in the days of the Commune
communities. Both Labour and Conservative Universities were occupied by militant students
governments have declared that there will be no and factories by workers. Mass strikes, involving
change in the constitutional relations between more than 2 miUlon workers, paralysed the
Northern Ireland and Great Britain without the French economy for much of May and part of
consent of the parliament of Northern Ireland, Jime.
that attempts to impose political views by gun The immediate aim of the French students had
rule will be crushed, and that the British been to force changes in the running of their uni¬
versities and their grievances were very real. But
government stands as guarantor of Stormont's this discontent in the academic field overlapped
programme of reform to redress commrmal
grievances. irith political and ideological discontents and gave
Although the underlying situation has improved expression to the dissatisfaction felt by thousands
and communal strife is less acute as the reforms of young people whether at universities or not.
agreed between Westminster and Stormont take They are discontented with present-day Western
effect, terrorist activity has continued. civiUsation, with paternalism, and demand the
Mr. Brian EauDmer heads the new Stormont right to question and dissent.
Cabinet following the resignation of Major
Chichester-Clark in March 1971.
Sweeping Guallist Victory.
On May 24 President de GauUe announced his
intention of holding a referendum asking the
WESTERN EUROPE.
people for a mandate to reform the nation’s
France and de Gaulle. economic, social, and educational institutions, the
reforms to include participation by workers in
In 1968 General de Gaulle, who had had a brief the running of the factories and by students in the
period of power in 1945-46, established a semi- running of the universities. However, after a
presidential system with himself as President, ■vdsit to the French forces in Western Germany on
taldng certain powers away from Parliament and May 29 (kept secret at the time) and a Cabinet
thus opening France’s Fifth Republic next year. meeting the next day, the President dissolved the
The President’s seven-year term ended in Decem¬ National Assembly and the referendum was
ber 1965 and although he had then reached the dropped. Instead a general election was held on
age of seventy-flve he submitted himself for re- May 31 and a new government imder the premier¬
election and won with 65-2 per cent of the votes. ship of M. Pompidou was formed. There was a
Dnring his first term of ofilee he steadily brought gradual return to work after demands for higher
the war in Algeria to an end, despite all the hopes wages had been met and by mid-June the student
reposed in him that he would suppress the in¬ occupation of the universities had ended. The
dependence movement. This was a tremendously
courageous achievement: and what was eauaUy revolutionary students’ organisations that had
taken part in the revolution — anarchist, Trotsky-
courageous he brought France through the threat
of civil war precipitated by those who were for ite, Maoist, Castroist. and Daniel Cohn Bendit’s
continuing force upon Algeria . The drive to “ Movement, of March 22 ” were dissol-yed under
a law of 1986. The elections resulted in a sweep¬
economic recovery had. it is true, commenced ing victory for the Qaulllsts. The Federation of
before he came to power. But on the political the Left and the Communist Party lost half their
side he reasserted French spirit and struck out seats in the Assembly. M. MendSs-France was
upou a lonely path, buib^g his nuclear force rejected by his parliamentary constituency of
without receiving techmcal knowledge from Grenoble. A new “Union of the Defence of the
America (as we had).
Republic ” was set up as the official GauUist
organisation.
The Right to Participate in Decisions.
Recovery having been accomplished by Resignation o! de Gaulle.
1968, de GauUe was determined that France
should “assmne its historic rdle in world affairs.” Early in 1969 de Gaulle decided to attack the
She could therefore no longer assent to delegating Erench Senate. Not by parliamentary means,
to the U.S. exclusive authority to make the vital but by his favoured method of direct appeal to the
decisions for the defence of the free world every¬ electorate through a referendum he sought to take
where in the world. He wanted not only the right away what were left of its decision-making powers
to participate but the official and public recogni¬ leaving it -with only consultative functions.
tion of that right by the creation of a three-power Under his proposals, if the office of President Of
organisation to take joint decisions on global pro¬ the Republic became vacant its functions would
blems. The United States declined. Next year be exercised temporarily by the Prime Minister
came de Gaulle’s next step — the withdrawal of and not by the President of the Senate, as laid
naval units from NATO’s Mediterranean Com¬ down by the Constitution. At the same time he
mand. The following year. 1969, de Gauhe an¬ sought to reorganise the country into regions.
nounced that France would proceed to build an The French people were asked to say “ Yes ” or
independent national atomic force. In 1962 when “ No ” to these two major constitutional changes
Kennedy proposed Atlantic partnership with and de Gaulle made it clear that a defeat in the
Europe, de Gaulle replied with a pian to group the referendum would mean his resignation. If the
Western European nations into “an organisation sweeping victory for de Gaulle in the 1968 election
that would he one of the three powem of the was due to the fear of civil war (as it was in 1958
planet.” In January to1963 de Gahlle rejected an and in 1061-62), in 1969 there -was no threat of
offer by Kennedy make American JPolaris chaos and the referendum took place in a period
missiles available to them but to be assigned to a Of calm. Contrary to most predictions, the French
multilateral Atlantic, force. Macmillan accepted people voted against the proposed reforms:
a similar offer at the Nassau Conference. The “Non” won by 11,945,149 (63-18 per cent) to
division between de Gaulle and Macmillan was 10.512,469 (46-81 per cent) . Paris and other large
thereupon wide open. At the beginning of 1963 cities showed large “Non” majorities. On the
the General slammed the door to the Common morning of 28 April 1969 de Gaxfile issued a
Market In Macmillan’s fade and refused to sigh the communique which read: “ I am ceasing to
atomic test-ban treaty. Exactly a year later de ! exercise my functions as President of the Ee-
Gaulle recognised Communist China which must i public. This decision takes effect from mid-day
'have angered the United States deeply. In
1966 de GauUe left SEATO, the South-east Ifresh
De Gaulle’s resignation led main
immediately
Asia Treaty Organisation: and next year NATO
today,”presidential
1 being elections, the contendersto
was asked to remove its headquarters from M. Pompidou (GauUist) , M. Poher (Centre.
France. I and aoting-President),andM. I)nclos (Communist) ,
am
PUBLIC
WOHL.O EVENTS
Cio AFFAIRS
Seats* Votes
thecS^telbstaS.°“ , 1969 Votes
Seats*
Death oi de Ga-uUe. CDH/
245
-- ^ _ perc2-0
General de Gaulle died on H age ent-
November iQvn csu percent' 202 1-6
49 9-5
■village where he was buried at ~
242 46-1 1965
DaTO%v?iSt ^ home at Colombey-le™ SPD
HDP 4-3 i „
was 79. De Gaulle minim NDP 224 42-7
He ^ was aumleader
of ceSiotmI
i^! — l-l
always an ofisolated Others 30 5-8
leader and Ins judgments were always 47-6
inmressive
feS"S5'„?f ariSfcpai
89-3
presenta-
tives^^*^™^ (uon-Toting) re
acMevement is that the con¬
stitution^ changes which he introduced
remfiin
ww publicity the extreme right.
miii°Tnqfntn?n-®^^*^
mamtatning power.WhichAndhe while
created to have
there assist hpev
hlni
changes (French hostility to Mtato’f
Common Market has been joSg the
revemed) bm|k occTO^ hi Octote we^^tn
remams a powerful political force. thfsPI^d
Adenauer and 'Western Germany.

s
^r.
&DfcS\rs-
and Herr Scheel, the FDP leadeVAmfen
Mrsonal achievement of the last two
^ October 1908
S', “Wall
respect. He “
committed SSFlsISSI?
Slnies.^™^® Two
ss'srs'i.axs§"T?^'‘2Vss- £TSSKfa'"s“A“4a?iS
ftKfat hir«?SKis°‘ fai¥Si
Place at all. rather than in a^tS
it nroduc^f
is^/v &”Jkr'stoi“KSiS5iri S^sr^mn meeting in Kassel to Slowed ttnt
SSffi'S'aKWofxSsS
± iricndship* wos Sr difnnsitic rnTifroaf
?tremv'’?ffr?i“l*^l’- ^raiice. culnSîn separllstaMttothfGema^^^^
whiih'he^tldlveF ®^*^y,^t\I'rance tln^^h
.^\smce
tor a more aImagmatl
solution S Kmd
ve successor ft reSid
to grapple -^th isrES?p.'s«aSiS>
SVaKi'S: *ffi
Erhard and Klesinger.

In September 1966, when financial ti.miw»=
S|rk»?se„g“,r«.,"ia Greece.
Power tSj^Ber"^
become Chancellor
politician In I9fi<5 ns tus'
in the couSry- he
«K^^?aas,Tg Sk
|f54fe ssffla-s iiSS
wftffiabftLetôftf *™ rSded
gf«?- «
The, End ol Christian Democratic

Buie, 1860
Greece withdrew from the

WORI-D EVENTS PUBLIC. AFFAIRS
by the council which described the Greek rdgime opinion or policy in an alternative "Sarty or group
as “undemocratic, illiberal, authoritarian and of men. It will be seen from the diagram of
repressive.” There is still no real sign of a return events that after Lenin’s death control was divided
to democracy and the regime of Mr. Papadopoulis between the Secretary of the Part:^^ and the Pre-
is still in control after four years. Mr. Papa- mler for seventeen years, until Stdlin combined
dopoulis managed to get the supply of heavy arms both posts. After Stalin’s death In 19&3 control
from the United States resiuned in 1970 without was again split (except for ten days) for another
naming a date for elections. But elections, as five years until, in 19B3, Khrushchev who had
stipulated imder the Greek constitution, would been Secretary for five years combined the two
be far from free; candidates would have to be posts again imtil 1964. The pattern repeated
approved and party programmes would have to be itself in 1964, Kosygin becoming Premier and
vetted by the constitutional court. Would poli- Brezhnev Secretary. A meeting of the Supreme
tioians, faced with these restrictions, stand? Soviet in 1966 confirm^ the principle of collective
Campbell Page, the Guardian’s specialist on leadership. At the 23rd Soviet Party Congress
Greek affairs argues (Peb. 1971) that “absen- held in April 1966 it was decided that the Praeai-
teeism never pays in Greek politics and only dlum of the Central Committee should go back to
guarantees
the deeper
emergence of obscurity.” One possibility
a party uniting is
all elements being the
shmdd Politburo
revert and Secretary.
to General the First The
Secretary
24th
opposed to Mr. Papadopoulis, which would have Party Congress held in April 1971 voted to enlarge
the prospect of sizeable electoral victories. The the Politburo from 11 to 15. which will make re-
stress of foreign pressure — ^the U.S. is likely to tirements possible over the next year or two
reappraise its diplomatic policy in Greece this without any high-level dismissals. The new
year — and his growing unpopularity among Politburo, in order of precedence, is as follows:
Greeks have
position. The weakened
auestion of the
how prime
long heminister's
will last Brezhnev ((3eneral Secretary), Podgomy (Presi-
dentoftheSovietUmon),Kosygin(PrimeMinister),
is now a serious one. Suslov (the Party’s theoretician), Kirilenko,
Pelshe, Mazuroy, Polyansky, Shelest, Vorono,
Shelepin, Grishin, Kimayev, Shcherbitsky, and
Kulakov. Brezhnev. Suslov, KirEenko and
Kulakov, by virtue of their joint membership of
EASTERN EUROPE. both Secretariat and the Politburo, appear to
ship.
form a powerful group within the Soviet leader¬
A Turning Point in Soviet History. » PoyrevM group within the Soviet leader-
In 1961 Khrushchev publicly and dramatically Tênin
completed the process which he had begun in „
1956, of drawing a line under the Stalin regime „ Premier.' Eykov 1924-30
and flnaUy rejecting the cult of Stalin. This Premier: Molotov 1930-41
change was symbolised by the removal of Stalin’s Secretary: Stalin 1922-63
body from the mausoleum at the Kremlin. At „ . L r, ,
the same time Khrushchev was confronted by an Premier ana Secretary
external challenge to his leadership of the Com- Stalin 1941-63
munist world— by China who believed that Russia _ _ ^_ I _ _
was moving steadily away from classical com- | | |
munist doctrine. Malenkov Beria
Beria Molotov
Stalin had made the Soviet Union a modern (Triumvirate)
1963
{Triumvirate)
industrial -society and a great armed power. But 1963
the arbitrary bureaucracy through which this had '— - y— - -— - '
Premier and Secretary
been achieved had. in Khrushchev’s
itself. Radical changes became essential and view, ovemrn Premier
Malenkov (10 anddays
Secretary
in 1063)
1963)
Khrushchev attempted various steps — the scaling Premier: Malenkov 1963-55 iokci nn
down of the secret police; the rebuilding of the
admiiiistratiye apparatxis: the opening up of « Premier: Bulganm 1955-68
Secretary: Khrushchev 1963-64
virgin lands: The a new of
and legacy theory that war erawas not Secretary. Khn^hchev 1963-64
inevitable. the Stalinist had Premier and w Secretary
been the concept of the “ monolithic ’’ party, that Klhriishchev 1958-64
which,
a partynerer however torn by inter nal Knrusncnev
Premier: I9&b-b4
Kosygin 1964
is to say, must
conflict, allow any open division of
opinion and fee debate, much less the formation Secretary Brezhnev 1964 1964 -
of any groups expounding distiactive views. In
the light of the trials of authors in 1966-7 the view
was bound to be taken outside Russia that the Russian Mflltaiy Intervention in Czechoslovakia,
process of deStalmisation had not gone auickly , , ,. , .
enough. In March 1968, when pubhc pressures had
secured the removal of President Novotny of
Czechoslovakia, it was thought that a genuinely
Khrushchev Leaves the Political Scene. Scene. democratic form of communism could be evolved
mi.., iu -a communist country and that the Czech
The CMeer of Niluta Khrushchev as Soviet example would encourage other
Communist
Countries to reform themselves. But the Soviet
C9iI110 XO ftll Cud' ' 'to vX16 SUrpnSS of XUS TTiiimi riifl tioI'. bw* f’i'hA nftw lihprflliRB.'lvinT’i Tx’vUf'v
that, but rather 88 preparation for a counter-
Md the struggle tor rocceîM then ooiEInued revolution leading Czechoslovakia back to
Capitalism. In July, Mr. Brezhnev said that the
OTpreme authority. Upon Stato s death a trium- goviefc Union could not be indiSerent to the
building of socialism in other socialist countries,
^nd referred to the Hungarian 1966 uprising.
Leaders of the Warsaw Pact countries sent a
hafeless outsider, or so he was darned by them, letter to the Ozechoslovaik party saying that
they
dccply disturbed by recent events In Czeoho-
^ a spy in 1963. Malenkov was forced ©ve up giovakia. The allegations were refuted by the
Czechoslovak Presidium and Mr. Dubcek broad-
he and^Molotw weie expeliwl irom the Central nation reaflirmiug that “we have no
Committee. Khrushchev thereupon . emerged alternative but to complete the profound demo-
oratio and socialist changes in our life, together
and jocular leaner
ana leader wnom
whom ine the woriu
world jcnew.
Icnew. wil.h the
with Wie people.’G
nfionlft.'G Talks
Talks between
lietween the the Czecho¬
Ozenlm-
slovak Presidium and the Soviet Politburo
iPKo -PAi-fA.n av in T-Alsaroiiin opcncd at Ciema at the end of July 1068 and at
The Pattern of Change m Leadership. yjg i^gginning of August another meethig was held
The student of alfairs may be puzzled
strains and dislocations which occur upon a television by the at Bratislava. Afterwards
broadcast, said thatMr.the' Dubcek,
meetings inhada
change of leadership in Russia. But this is less opened up new ecoiie for the revival process In
surprising when it is remembered that there is no Czechoslovakia. Then, without the knowledge
constitutional manner of embodying a change of of the President of the Republic, Russian forces.
WORLD EVENTS
Cl2 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
with contingents from Bast Germany, Poland. THE MIDDLE EAST.

Hungary, and Bulgaria, entered Czechoslovakia Nasser and the Nev/ Egypt.
on the night 20-21 August. The Czech Presidium
appealed to all citizens to maintain calm and not A new factor in the Middle Bast was introduced
to put up resistance to the invading troops. when the Egyptian Army revolted in 1952, over¬
The Soviet Union justified the military inter¬ throwing the monarchy, leading two years later
vention on the grounds that a departure from to the emergence of Nasser as Prime Minister
Marxism-Leninism by a communist country In that year Nasser secured the agreement where¬
affects all others. This view has been challenged by aU British forces were to leave the Suez Canal
by those who argue that Mars and Lenin accepted Zone by 1956. Egypt did not become a demo¬
the theory of different paths towards socialism. cracy in any Western sense but tbe government
runs all the basic enterprises of the country. In
1956 Nasser internationalised the Suez Canal
The New Policy. Company as a reply to the withdrawal by the
United States of its offer to finance the High Dam
Since the Soviet-led invasion of August 1068 at Aswan. The attack by tbe British and French
there has been a continuous growth of Bussian. on Egypt followed, causing serious disagreement
influence over Czechoslovak national affairs, with the United States, which inspired intema-
particularly thi-ough the removal from office of tional action to rescue Egypt. It was in obedi¬
the principal figures associated with the reform ence to a demand by the UN Assembly that
movement. In April 1069 Mr. Dubcek was Britain, France, and Israel withdrew from the
replaced as First Secretary of the Czechoslovak attack on Egypt and an international force of
Communist Party by Dr. Gustav Husak. At the about 6,000 men was organised to help avert
same time Mr. Smrkovsky lost his position as a further conflict. When, in April 1957, the canal
member of the Presidium. Speaking at the was cleared and in use Egypt not only insisted on
World Communist Conference, held in Moscow in fun control of the canal but on the right to bar
June, Dr. Husak described the new policy of his Israeli trade from the canal. Egypt and Saudi
country after January 1968 as seeking to effect Arabia said they would resmne blockading the
“ a transition from bureaucratic centralism to a Gulf of Aqaba (a N.E. arm of the Bed Sea), but
broader socialist democracy.” But in the process in fact Israeli ships subsequently got through to
the r6Ie of the Communist Party had been their previously blockaded port of Eilat. A small
weakened and a situation arose in which “ naivety line.
UN force remained on the Gaza-Eilat armistice
and romantic political ideas were prevalent as well
as cheap gestures and non-class slogans about The closure of the canal in the summer of 1967
freedom, democracy, humanltarlanism and the cost Britain’s balance of payments about £20
will of the people. . . .” During 1970, the party million a month, since oil had to be brought more
purge continued with the expulsion of Mr. Duhcek, expensively from non-Middle East areas. “ The
former party leader, and by September rougMy growth of big tankers,” said Mr. Wilson, " may
one fifth of party members had either resigned or very soon make the Suez Canal a rather pathetic
been expeUed. Yet, unlike Hungary in 1966, the irrelevance.” But all the same he declared it as
revisionists did not put former leaders on trial in intolerable that any nation should keep the canal
spite of pressure on Dr. Husak from party hard¬ closed to international shipping.
liners.
The Middle East War oi 1967.

World Communist Conference, 1969.
The third Arah-Israell war began on 6 Jime
After more than a year’s preparation the first
international conference of Commmiist parties 1967. In the words of The Times-. “ What began
since 1960 met in Moscow in June 1969. It was as the usual spring exercises of the Syrian army,
shelling Israeli settlements in Galilee, ended with
attended by delegates from 76 parties. Among the complete overthrow of the Middle Eastern
the countries not represented were China, North
Vietnam, North Korea, Yugoslavia, and .Mhanla: balance of power.” Israel destroyed the air
the Cuban and Swedish delegates attended as forces of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in a few hours,
observers only. The final document made no destroyed their three armies in six days, occupying
all Sinai to the banks of the Suez Canal (which
direct reference to Soviet criticisms of China nor was therefore closed), the west hank of the Jordan,
to the invasion of Czechoslovakia, although these and the Syrian hUls above Galilee. The war was
issues were no doubt in the minds of many dele¬ a disaster for Britain, who, with America, Was
gates. The conference dealt with the problem of blamed for a catastrophe which, in the view of
how to reconcile the principle of sovereign inde¬
pendence with the principle of proletarian inter¬ The Times, the Arabs had “ brou^t on their own
nationalism and mutual solidarity. Slfflior Enrico heads.” Among other results, the Bussians
Berllnguer for the Italian Communist party moved permanently into the Middle East,
backing tbe Arabs. The toll of human misery
emphasised the importance of ending the disagree¬ was, and remains, too immense to imagine:
ment with China. Account must be taken of the at least 800,000 new and old refugees fleeing
economic realities of Chinese society and China’s the occupied territories. And despite the cost
role in the world, “ The policy of peaceftd co¬ of this human and material loss and distress
existence and the anti-imperialist struggle need the problem of Israeli-Arab hostility remains
China’s great
positive contribution. . . . China obviously unresolved.
carries weight in the international situation.
That iswhy we think it necessary to make an effort
to understand the changes taking place in China.”
Signor BerUnguer went on to say that it is necess¬ UN Appoints Envoy to the Middle East.
ary to thrash out all problems frankly and freely,
and to recognise and fuUy respect each party’s Thanks to the efforts of Lord Oaradon, who was
independence in its search, for Its own way to then British Ambassador to the UN, the members
socialism. The most striking feature of the of the Security Coimoil in November 1967 reached
document was the assertion that “ there is no ! agreement, and unanimOnsly, to send a special
leading centre of the Comm\mist movement.” in i emissary to the Middle East, Mr. Gunnar Jarrhig,
contrast to the statement issued by the 1060 a Swedish diplomat, whose mastery of twelve
Moscow conference that the Soviet party was “ the languages includes Arahio. An active Arab
universally recognised vanguard of the world scholar, he was not known to have sympathies
Communist movement.” At the same time it one way or the other in the Middle East. Nasser
asserted that “ the- defence of sooiallsm is the criticised the Secmlty Council’s resolution to send
international duty of Communists.”- Jarring as inadequate and Syria rejected it.
Nasser repeated the formtila he had declared at
the Arab summit conference in September of “ no
Sino-Boviet Belatious. :peace, no recognition
chief obstacle faced byandthenoUNnegotiations.”
mediator was The
the
Daring 1970 there was some improvement in mistrust intentions.
by each side of the other’s motives and
Slno-Sovlet relations. There was an exchange of ultimate
ambassadors between Moscow and Peking and, in The Israeli case remains that peace can only be
the autumn, a new trade pact was signed. achieved through a negotiated settlement between
WORLD EVENTS Cl 3 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
the parties directly affected, which involves Indian Changes under British Buie.
recognition of Israel as a nation-state. Itather-
more, since neither the UN nor the four Powers The pattern
pendence of India’s
had been development
set during after inde¬
British rule. The
can of themselves guarantee a settlement, Israel, main features were: the concept of law and the
in the interim period, must rely on her own rule of law: a civil service superior to any known
resources to maintain her existence. The Arab before in Asia: a system of education introduced
govermnents have continued to insist that Israel
must first withdraw from the occupied areas before as far back as 1835: English as a common lan¬
a settlement can be considered and even before guage: and the growth of an intelligentsia (to use
recognition can be accepted. The Palestinian a word with
outlook and aresponsive
Eussian origin) with a humam’stic
to Western ideals and
fedmeen organisations, of which Al Fatah is the traditions. Important consequences followed
principal body, go further and refuse to accept the from these changes. They enabled Hindu society
state of Israel at all. to reform itself on the basis of modem ideas: to
create an educated leadership; to modernise
The Spread of Violence. Indian languages: and to introduce modem
science to India.
The fighting continued in 1970, until the U.S.
produced a peace initiative which led to a cease¬
fire between Egypt, Jordan, and Israel from 7 Leadership Since Independence.
August. On 28 September, the Arabs and Egypt That the dissolution of British rule was made so
lost their leader. President Nasser, who died of a peacefully, a miracle of modem times, was due
heart attack. Nasser was the first Arab leader principally to Gandhi who associated nationalism
to respond favourably to any Middle East peace with ethical concepts, summed up in the term
proposal ftom the West. The TT.S. offer was for a
three-month cease fire along the Suez Canal, and “ Gandhism ” and denoting pacifism, the value of
the individual soul and humane ideas. He made
mediation through Dr. Jarring on the implemen¬ India conscious of the social reforms which needed
tation of UN resolution 242 which calls for to be made and created the discipline to make a
Israeli withdrawal. Israel accepted this plan
after long consultations with Washington: so did democracy
ideal able to unity,
of religious carry them
thoughthrough.
disruptedGandhi’s
by the
Jordan and Lebanon. But peace hopes were partition into the two states, Pakistan and India,
shattered when Israel withdrew from the talks
after accusing Egypt and the Soviet Union of made it possible for the new India to be a secular
state, in which all religious and minorities had
moving missiles into the standstill zone. The equal rights.
charge was denied by Egypt, and both sides
Nehru, India’s first prime minister, symbolised
agreed to a further three months’ extension, with India’s highest aspirations. As a disciple of
ITesident Sadat (Nasser’s successor) warning that Gandhi he revered him: but his political outlook
Israel must produce a timetable for withdrawal had been different. He was an enlighteued liberal
from the occupied territories.
Palestinian guerrillas have been predictably working towards a modernised rational, demo¬
hostile to ihe proimsals which they feared would cratic. secular state enjoying both the benefits of
frustrate their plan to establish a democratic large-scale scientific organisation and the spiritual
good of Individual liberty. Under great strains
state of Palestine in place of Israel. This exacer¬ this way and that he maintained neutrality in the
bated the conflict between the guerrillas and
face Of world power blocs and embodied in his
Hussein’s army, the guerrillas having used politics characteristics from differing regimes. He
Jordan as the base for attacks on Israel. J ordan overtowered everybody in Indian public life and
has consistently borne the brunt of Israeli retalia¬ was one of the few great .figures on the world
tion. The Popular Eront for the Liberation of
Palestine (PELP), a small well-organised /edaj/«e» Shastri succeeded Nehru. Lai Bahadur was
organisation, attempted to break the cease-fire bom in 1903 into a caste lower than the Brahmins
and usurp
ship of the King Hussein’s
guerrilla rule from
movement and wrest leader¬
Al Eatah by but
is in equally
fact the dedicated
title of the to learning;
degree " ShastriHis”
he received.
hi-jacking 400 people in three aircraft to a disused air of gentleness was enhanced by his small size:
airfield in northern Jordan. This was in Sept¬
ember 1970. Most passeiêrs were released, but and even by his adversaries in India he was re¬
43 Europeans were held hostage after the aircraft garded as a good, kind, and tolerant man. He
had been blown up. After ten days of fighting, faced problems as complex as any statesman, in
in which there were up to 10,000 casualties. the world’s biggest, hungriest, and restless demo¬
President Nasser prevailed on King Hussein cracy. One of his biggest decisions was not to
foUow China in the nuclear weapons race.
and Yasser Arafat, leader of Al Eatah, to sign a hfrs. Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister of
peace agreement. The President died the next
day. IndiaTashkent
the in January 1966 upon Her
conference. Mr. father
Shastri’swasdeath
Nehruat
Subseuuently, the smaller guerrilla groups and she must be regarded as the only daughter
dwindled and Al Eatah has emerged as a moderate in history to have succeeded her father. She is
movement. The most hopeful sign in 1971 comes not a relation of Mahatma Gandhi. In Indian
from President Sadat who indicated for the first families women have always been very highly
time that Egypt would be prepared to sign a con- regarded and India is one of the very few countries
traotural peace treaty with Israel guaranteeing I where nothing stands in the way of a woman
her inviolability and independence within secure going to the very top. Mahatma Gandhi so
and recognised boundaries. He also said that far back as 1929 had been rmcompromising on
Egypt would recognise Israel’s freedom of naviga¬ women’s rights and after Indian independence
tion in the Suez (lanal. Israel’s reply at the tune Hindu law was changed to satisfy his requirements
of writing (March 1971) while likely to Include a bn the status of women. Thus it Was Gandhi who
rejection of a retreat to the borders before the took women into politics and paved the way for
Six Day war, may Include the first tentative offer
of a map-redrawing. Observers agree that Mrs. the election in 1986 of Mrs. Gandhi, the world’s
Meir may agree to cede that part of the Sinai most powerful woman. (Mrs. Bandaranaike of
Ceylon holds the distinction of being the first
peninsular west of a line from El-Arlsh to Sharm* woman Prime Minister in history.) Mrs. Gandhi
el-Sheikh. is more radical than both her father Nehru and Mr.
Shastri but clings to no *’ ism ” and will confront
each problem individually. Among those round
ASIA. Shastri who helped to guide India, she was by far
the most cosmopolitan. Educated hi Switzer¬
The independence and unity of India on the one land and at Oxford, she travelled widely with her
hand and the emergence in China of the Central father and as his hostess met many world leaders.
People’s Eepublio on the other form, with the Her family Is Hindu and there is no doubt that
Vietnam war, the three important political she shares her father’s devotion to the ideal of a
features of Asia. India and China have lived, secular state. She faced, on election, mairy
historically speaking, in different worlds : their diffloxilties : she promised to honour the agreement
experiences at the hands of the West have been with Pakistan reached only a few days earlier at
different; their recent developments and their Tashkent where Mr. Shastri died, and she an¬
present political systems are entirely dissimilar — nounced her willingness to negotiate with China
the one a democracy and the other authoritarian. if favourable conditions are created.
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
WORLD EVENTS Cl4.
Tile Indian Elections, 1967. Mssion of the new Indian Parliament. President
Gm said the government would immediatel
The monopoly of power enjoyed by the Congress launch schemes for the vjgoroiis implementationy
Party of Gandhi and Nehru over India for twenty of the land reform laws, and abolish the privy
years was dramatically broken in March 1967. purses and privileges of fonner rulers through
Between 60 and 70 per cent of the Indian electorate constitutional measures. Badical plans were dut-
of 240 million used their vote. Half Mrs, Indira hned to combat unemployment, and to increase
Gang’s production to public and private sectors. A mid¬
as three Congress Cabinet
of the most lost their
powerful seats, asParty
Congress weU
term reappraisal of the present five-year plan
leaders. Several State Governments were over¬ would be made.
turned. The result represented therefore an
enaphatic protest vote against continued Congress
rule rather than a positive choice of a clear alterna¬ Pakistan.
tive vote. The protest vote went to whichever
party seemed locally most capable of turning Pakistan’s economy is still based largely on
Congress out. The Congress Party was left with agriculture, the principal food crops being rice and
a very thin majority, but it remained the largest wheat, and the main cash crops being jute, cotton
single party in the country.
Industry — including cotton and jute
and tea.cement,
I textiles,
fertilisers, and oil and natural gas
production — ^has been developing fairly rapidly
A Congress Deeply Divided. and employment to manufacturing and other non-
agncultural occupations is rising. Economic
Differences on economic policies within the development has experienced a number of setbacks
Congress Party came to a head in July 1969 when in recent years. In 1966 the outbreak of hostilities
Mrs. Gandhi chose to revive the issue of bank with India led to a sharp increase to defence
nationalisation in sharp form. Two years earlier, expenditure and an interruption to the flow of
lu July 1967, the leadership, divided on outright foreign aid. thus drastically reducing for a time
nationalisation, settled on a compromise formula the funds available for economic investment.
and introduced “ social controls ” on both banking Immediately afterwards the country was faced
and insurance. On 20 July Mrs. Gandhi nationa¬ with two successive seasons of drought and flood
lised the country’s 14 large banka by ordinance, with consequent harvest shortfalls, so that scarce
relieved Mr. Desai of the jflnance portfolio, as he torelgn exchange had to be used for increased
differed with her on economic policy, and swiftly imports of food. The political unrest which led
piloted the bill through Parliament. In her
broadcast to the nation she said that the nation- to President Ayub Khan’s resignation and his
replacement by President Yahya Khan placed the
ahsation of the banks would herald in a new era economy under further strain.
to carrying out the Party’s policies. She em¬ A major political crisis had developed to Novem¬
phasised that this did not mean “ an era of ber 1968 following the arrest of Mr. Bhutto
nationalisation.” Mrs. Gandhi’s action was sup¬ (former Foreign Minister and leader of the left-
ported by Congress radicals, communists, and
socialists, and by the people at large. Big busi¬ wing People’s Party) and student demands for
educational reforms. On 3 February 1969 the
ness and the two right-wing parties, the Swatantra Opposition parties rejected President Ayub
Party and the Jan Sangh, condemned it as “ a Khan s oner of talks on constitutional reform
treacherous act against the constitution.” In an unless he first ended the state of emergenev (in
unexpected judgment the Supreme Court of being since September 1966) and released all
Incha to February 1970 restored the 14 national¬ political pnsoners. Faced with moimting agita¬
ised banks to their original owners. The court tion throughout the country Ayub Khan decided
found that the Government had excluded foreign to negotiate with the Opposition and from then
and minor banks from the scope of the Act passed on swift steps have been taken to restore parlia¬
to 1969 and said that this amounted to discrimi¬ mentary democracy to Pakistan. We give the
nation under the constitution. Two courses sequence of events:
seemed open to Mrs. Gandhi: to amend the con¬
stitution, for which she would need a two4hirds
majority, or to enact new legislation to comply 1969
with the Supreme Court’s objections.
The fiercely fought Presidential election in February 17. State of emergency revoked by
August 1909 marked a fui-ther stage in the conflict presidential proclamation.
between the Prime Minister and her opponents. Febniary 21. President Ayub Khan announced
Mr. V, V. Giri, the Acting President, defeated Mr. that he would not be a candidate to the next
N. _S. Beddy, the nominee of the " syndicate ” — presidential election.
an inner group of party leaders consisting of older
and more conservative elements in the Congress February 26. Opening session in Bawalpindl bf
party. The intention of the Indian constitution talks between President Ayub Kbn,n and the
was to make the President a figurehead but events leaders of the main Opposition parties,
aan working to make him more powerful. Mr. March 13. President Ayub Khan agreed to
Gin, who was 75 at the time, is a distinguished introduce legislation to restore parliamentary
trade imion leader.
government and tmiversal adult suffrage.
March 26. Ayub Khan announced his resignation
A New Direction. from the presidency and handed over adminis¬
tration to General Yahya Kba,Ti, c.-ln-O. of the
Indian democracy survived the split in Con¬ .^my, who proclaimed martial law. abrogated
gress during 1970. the year of Mi-s. Gandhi’s the constitution, dissolved the National Assem¬
supremacy. In spite of leading a minority bly and removed governors and ministers from
government she received larger votes of confidence office.;
from parliament than she did when Congress was March 31. General Yahya Khan assumed the
united. This surge of confidence led her to call
elections in March 1971, presidency, saying he would act as Head of
An alliance of four main opposition parties State nntU a new constitution had been framed
by the elected representatives of the people.
formed to prevent vote-splitting with the slogan
‘ Oust Indira ”. Its components were: Jan November 28. President Yahya Khnn announced
Sangh (Hindu Nationalist): the Opposing Con¬ that elections would be held on 6 October 1970.
fess: SSP (Socialist), and the Swatantra (Free
Enterprise).
^ There was no doubt that Mrs. Gandhi would win 1970
the election hut the margin was expected to be
narrow. In the event, she achieved a landslide In March, President Yahya Khan announced a
Victory which more than made up for the losses new provincial system for Pakistan which freed
sustained by the Congress Party to the 1967 elec¬ the pohtical parties and absorbed the coimtry to
tions, before it split into two factions in 1969. Of a long and violent election campaign. A new
an electorate of 280 million, more than 100 million 6-year plan was also annomiced
went to the polls. Mrs. Gandhi called her victory economic recovery. And the year to stimulate
saw also the
a mandate for socialism. Wlien opening the first worst floods of the century in East Pakistan. The
WORLD EVENTS Cl 5 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
fourth 6-year plan was launched on July 1, teaching: (4) it was intended to keep alive revolu¬
promising an outlay of 70,500 million rupees tionary fervour: (5) it thus engendered a sense of
with a growth target of 7 '5 per cent for ISast China’s special path of development: and (6) it
Paldstan and 5-6 per cent for the West. But this emphasised opposition to “ revisioniam ” leading
scheme Quickly suffered a blow when the Ald-to- to “ bourgeois decay ” as, it was said, had occurred
Pakistan consortium, meeting in Paris, postponed in Bussia. When Mao himself in December 1965
a reauest for 600 million dollars, making it depen¬ gave the first hint of a coming purge he styled it
dent on progress towards democracy. In spite a “cultural revolution” against bourgeois and
of this cold shoulder from the U.S.. Prance, and revisionist elements. Let us amplify the main
Britain, Yahya Khan was able to secure sub¬ elements in the movement.
stantial promises of interest-free loans and plant The organisation was directed to the under-25s
from China and the Soviet Union. who joined in mammoth demonstrations. Slogans
President KBan’s return from Peking coincided and portraits of Mao Tse-tung appeared every¬
with the floods which killed at least 200,000_in the where. Huge crowds of young people with red
Ganges delta area in Bast Pakistan. The disaster armbands thronged the streets in general excite¬
postponed to December the first national elections ment. Bed Guards took a prominent part.
in the country’s 23 years of independence. The This tremendous emotional support for Papa
result of the election (electorate 66 million; 26 Mao gave that leader (then 73) the assurance
parties fielded candidates) was not the expected that his choice of successor would be accepted
multiplicity of factions which would have allowed with confidence. Mao’s essential teaching was
Yahya to continue to rule. Two clear leaders disseminated by millions of copies of a little 300-
emerged. In East Pakistan, Shaikh Mujibur page book of his selected writings, in a red plastic
Eahman of the Awami League had a clear majority cover, carried by almost everyone and universally
while Mr. Bhutto of the People’s Party triumphed Quoted, discussed, and preached. An objective
in the West. However, disagreement on the of the movement was to stimulate tbe young who
status of the National Assembly led the President might otherwise take for granted the achieve¬
to postpone its first meeting in March 1971. ments of their elders made possible only by
Bangla Desh (Bengal Nation) was the name their past suffering and hunger. The revolution
chosen by Shaikh Mujibur Eahman for an inde¬ must be uninterrupted: the class struggle con¬
pendent East Pakistan but in April 1971 President tinued. This revolution was set upon a special
Khan sent West Pakistan Army units to crush the path, being opposed to the super- Japan western-
independence movement. The result was carnage. type technological society. At the same time the
cultural revolution emphasised opposition to
bourgeois attitudes and encouragement of revolu¬
China. tionary fervour. Beyond all this the young were
urged to show initiative, to make suggestions for
It is only in the last fifty years that the people improvements, not to he afraid to criticise. The
of China have emerged from centuries of exploita¬ upheaval was described as a militant and not a
tion. It is very difiicult for a Western observer militarist movement; the weapons being the
to appreciate the dramatic changes which followed tongue, the pen and the brush justified, it was
the overthrow of the repressive dynasty in 1911 argued, the description of the revolution as a
and the advent of the Bepublic next year. The cultural one. But it developed into violent
new leader. Sun Yat Sen, a great idealist and struggles between revolutionaries and reaction¬
humanitarian, pitted himself against the age-long aries and then between the revolutionaries them¬
combination of landlords, military men, and selves. Mr. Chou En-lai warned that industrial
reactionary scholars. Bor all his achievenients production was being seriously affected. The
Sim failed: or rather Sun’s party, the Kuomin- situation remained very confused until 1968 when
tang, failed him. Power passed to the military there was a gradual return to moderation. Of the
remnants of the old Imperial army and Sun did 17 surviving members of the Politburo elected at
not succeed in giving his party teeth for militant the eighth Communist Party congress of 1956.
action for reform. Unfortunately, two years after
Sun’s death in 1926 his successor General Chiang 13 werethe declared
during cultural "revolution.
bourgeois President
reactionariesLiu’’
Kai-shek opened an anti-Communist drive. Shao-chi was among those expeUed from the party.
Sun’s exhortations had been taken to heart by That era of turmoil is now over and Mao in order
a poet and a scholar. Mao Tse-timg, son of a yeo¬ to fulfil his dream of a powerful, industrialised
man farmer from Hunan in the heart of China. China has united the countiy once again.
Mao’s success in raising peasant armies established
his pre-eminence as a leader. The countryside
helped the Communists to develop honest govern¬ Ninth Party Congress.
ment. The peasants were ready to work in field
The ninth congress of the Chinese Communist
andallforge.
to They created
other armies a people’s
in Chinese history.army superior Party, the first held since 1968, took place in
Peking during April 1969.* It was held in condi¬
tions of great secrecy and was attended by over
Mao Tse-tung and Other Leaders. 1,600 delegates. " One remembers writing a
year ago,” wrote Mr. Biohard Harris in The Times
Mao’s reputation is based upon his ability first of 17 the
September
as a military theorist (of guerrilla warfare) ; second when dilatory 1969,
Chinese“ that
leadersaU finally
would got
be down
clear
as a political philosopher (adapting Marxism to to their ninth party congress. Well, if the ninth
Chinese needs) : and, third, as a more ardent congress revealed anything to the delegates it was
champion of world rti volution than the Kussian certainly not passed on to the outside world.
leaders, (fiiou En-lai, the premier of the State Unlike the eighth party congress which published
Council, is the best known of CMnese leaders in in due course all tbe reports and the main speeches,
the outside world and also knows the outside the ninth released only Lin Plao’s largely retro¬
world better than his colleagues. Until the
spective report and a flaccid communiqud.”
recent upheavals Mr. Liu Shao-ch’i was Mao’s
right-hand man and his heir-apparent. But now
the Defence Mhuster, Marshal Lin Piao. or Vice- Sino-Soviet Border Incidents.
chairman Liu, as he is called, is Mao’s chosen suc¬ Serious clashes took place in March 1969
cessor. This was foniiiUly stated in the new con¬ between Chinese and Bnssian troops on the Ussuri
stitution that came before the Ninth Party con¬ river boundary for control of the river islands.
gress in 1969. His devotion to Maoism is beyond The region was once Chinese, ceded to Bussia in
doubt. Mr. Tung Pi-Wu was appointed President 1868. Prom this far eastern extremity the fron¬
in place of Mr. Liu Shao-chi. tier with the Soviet Union runs for 4,000 miles
(almost 7,000 miles if one includes Mongolia) to
the great mountain chains of the Pamirs. China
China’s CulturalEevolution has wanted to renegotiate her borders ever since
1949 and amicable boundary settlements have
\VTiat were
revolution, as 11,the
was features
calledi of ofwhich
China’s cultural
so much was been made with Afghanistan, Burma, Pakistan,
heard in 1966 imd 1967? We first briefly indicate Nepal, and Outer Mongolia. Ohina entered into,
the main elements: (1) it was an organised demon¬ negotiatipns with the Soviet Union in 1964. being
stration of the young; (2) it was in favour of willing to take, the Treaties of 1858 and 1860 as
the basis for a settlement, but without success.
Mao Tse-tung; (3) it disseminated Mao’s essential
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
WORLD EVENTS Cl6
Steps to the Conflict. who set up a Democratic Eepublic in the northern
1969 part of Vietnam. France was bent upon restoring
her colonial empire in the south and next year
March 2. IFirst of a series of clashes over Daman- war broke ont between the French and Ho Chi-
sky (or Cben Pao) Island ort TTssnri river. minh. Headers will remember the dramatic
March 29. Soviet Note invited COiina to resume siege and capture by Ho’s forces of the fort of
frontier negotiations, broken off in 1964. Dien Blen Fhu In 1954. As a result of a 14-nation
conference on Indo-China at Geneva to the same
May 2. Clashes in Sinkiaug border area. year Vietnam was partitioned after a cease-fire
the country to be united after free elections.
May 11. China accepted Enssian proposal to Laos and Cambodia became independent.
resume regular meetings of Stoo-Soviet com¬ A declaration taking note of the agreement was
mission for navigation on border rivers. The signed by the foUowtog nations who took part:
conmussion was convened at Khabarovsk on U.K., France, China, Eussia, Cambodia, Laos, and
18 June.
North Vietnam. Unfortimately the United
May 24. China maintained that negotiations States refused to sign the agreement and South
should be held for the “ overall settlement of Vietnam refused to hold elections, but both
the Smo-Soviet boimdary auestion and the aSirmed that they would not use force to upset
conclusion of a new equal treaty to replace the the agreement. There was thus a crystallisation
old unequal one.” into two Vietnams — ^Ho Chi-mtah’s Hanoi
regime in the North and that of the Catholic
August 9. Sino-Soviet agreement on border river nationalist Ngo Dtoh Diem at Saigon to the
navigation announced. South. The Diem regime was corrupt but John
.September 13. Soviet troops reported to have Foster Dulles sent in men and materials to prop
crossed, frontier into Sinkiang and inflicted It up. By 1960 the Communist guerrillas in the
casualties. Soviet Union and China exchanged South, known as the Vietcong, had set up a
protest Notes. National Liberation Front. For eight or nine
years a civil war was waged in South Vietnam
September 80. Peking radio said China was against a very impopular dictatorship. All that
ready to settle the border dispute with the time it received United States military support
Soviet Union by negotiations.
and phrases like “ the defence of freedom ” in
Vietnam are to be construed in the light of that
lOTO fact. It is true, of course, that the North had been
helping the rebels in the South. The position
became increasingly untenable, and in 1963 the
There were no major border incidents during the Buddhists rioted against the ruling Eoman
year. Some observers detected a faint mellowing Catholic minority. The Diem regime which had
in the relations between the two countries, as savagely persecuted the Buddhists was over¬
evidenced by the exchange of ambassadors by thrown by the military, the first of a number of
Moscow and Peking. It is difficult to chart any military coups. In August 1964 two vessels of the
firm progress to the talks which have been going U.S. fleet were alleged to have been attacked in
on mtermittently to settle ideological differences.
the Gulf of Tohking (off the North Vietnam coast)
and American planes bombed North Vietnam
A Break to the Clouds. Installations as retaliation. This was the first
of a series of bombing raids. At first the U.S.
There were signs in the spring of 1971 of im- Government said that these were tit-for-tat raids
proiing relations between China and the West. hut this specific basis was superseded by unrelated
At a reception in Peking on 14 April for visiting attacks. In March 1965 the American Ambassa¬
pmg-pong” teams from the United States. dor to South Vietnam said that pressure against
Canada, Britain, Colombia, and Nigeria, the Hanoi would continue " imtil the enemy gives in.”
Ohmese Prime Minister. Chou En-lai, spoke of a In J une 1965 the State Department gave authority
new page in the history of relations between their to the American military commander to use troops
peoples and the Chinese people. On the same to offensive operations against the Vietcong. An
day, U Thant. UN Secretary-General, suggested inquiry conducted by the U.S. Senate Foreign
tnat tae tune aad come for a conference of the major Eelations Committee to 1968 made it doubtful
Powers, with China playing her full part: Presi¬ whether the alleged attacks on the two U.S.
dent Nixon issued a five-point plan for the re¬ destroyers to the Gulf of Tonktog had ever taken
sumption of contact between the U.S. and nuina., place. This put a question mark against the
embracing new links in trade and travel, with the constitutional legality of the war. as Congress
removal of many restrictions; and telephone had never declared war on North Vietnam.
services between London and Shanghai were There have been many attempts to bring about
reopened after a lapse of 22 years. peace negotiations. In December 1967 N. Viet¬
nam said peace talks would follow if the U.S.
stopped their bombing unconditionally. In
China Tests Nuclear Missiles. January 1968 President Johnson reaffirmed his
In October 1966 without giving details of the San Antonio speech of September 1067 to halt
weapon, China announced she had tested a guided bombing of N. Vietnam on condition that peace
missile with a nuclear warhead, thus conforming talks would foUow and no military advantage
roughly to the timetable for the development of would be taken of the pause. The San Antonio
her n^sile-nticlear capability anticipated by U.S. formula was dismissed by N. Vietnam as being a
Intelligence studies. The Chinese announcement delaying tactic. N. Vietnam again stressed the
reiterated the assurance that China would never necessity for the withdrawal of U.S. forces and
be the first to use nuclear weapons. China said peace talks would begin as soon as the U.S.
exploded her eighth nuclear: device to December really stopped imcon-
1968 and to September 1969 carried out her first dltipnally the bombings and all other acts of war
jmderground nuclear test and exploded a new against N. Vietnam.” Meanwhile the Tet (lunar
hydrogen bomb. In April 1970 China launched new year) Vietcong offensive developed into a
her first satellite (singing the song “ East Is Bed ”) môr campaign, covering practically the whole of
into orbit, a development which reinforces the S. Vietnam.
argument that China should be brought into arms
control discussions. m• 1968. He hadMâmara
become left as Defence ofSecretary
a counsellor coolness
ho rationed Greneral Westiiiorelaiiid
in the supply of troops: and he opposed some
Vietnam. Mcatotions, which happened, like the bombing of
Itonoi and Haiphong. General Westmoreland,
In 1941 the Vichy Government in France gave who took over as field commander to Vietnam to,
Japim, who was our fighting enemy to the Second 1964, w^r^êd to Washington to March 1968 to
World. War, permission to use French Indo-Chlna become U.S. Army Chief of Staff at the Pentagon.
as a base against ns. Besistance groups were A major^-riew of the
formed to win back independence and to over¬ place to Wamlngton madeVietnam
necessarysituation took
by the mili¬
throw both French and Japanese fascists. Japan tary, pohtioaJ and psychologloal impact of the
collapsed to 1-946, when the only organised troops WetTOiigÎet offensive. After being advised by
were controlled by Eo Ghl-mtoh, a Communist,- his officials that a military solution was impossible
WORL.D EVENTS Cl 7 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
and that the only possible political solution was a 1964 August 2. Gulf of Tongkiiig inoideat.
negotiated settlement. President Johnson in March Prompted Congress to give Pres. Johnson
1968 annoimced his partial bombing pause. authority to step up American military
Peace talks began in Paris in May. and by January intervention in S.E. Asia.
1969 the XJ.S.. S. Vietnam. N. Vietnam, and the
National Liberation Front (NLP) were sitting February. Large-scale air raids on N.
round a table, but because of fundamental Vietnam opened.
differences between the two sides little progress igge January. Major military operations by
has been made. H.S. in the south.
March 18. Hanoi bombed for the first
A Sketch, of Ho Chi KKnh. time.
Eelatively little has been written about Ho Chi 1967 February. Bombing of N. Vietnam in¬
ATinh who died on 3 September 1969. at the age of creased.
79. and this is remarkable of a man whose eountrv
has flgm-ed so dramatically and tragically in post¬ May. Fighting in the demilitarised zone
war history. Let us therefore take a brief look at running between N. and S. Vietnam.
him: first, by recalling some of the external facts August. Bombing near Chinese Border.
about kim and, second, by a wprd of toteroretation „
of his achievements and efforts. He had lên January-Februaiy. Tet oflensiYc: . co¬
President of Vietnam since 1945, and this innmgs ordinated Vietcong attack on cities in o.
must be in the nmning for a world record. In Vietnam, including Saigon.
1911, as a young man of 21, he went abroad and March 31. Pres. Johnson announced
for thirty years remained an exile from his native partial bombing pause.
lanH ■ In Prance, in England, and elsewhere he
studied the world-wide struggle against coloniahsm May. Beginning of peace talks in Paris
and saw the problem he was particularly interested between H.S. and N. Vietnam.
in — the oppression in Vietnam — as part of the jogg January 25. Full-scale peace talks open
widespread colonial exploitation. Thus the (H.S.. S. Vietnam. N. Vietnam. NLF).
Eussian Eevolution must have made a great
impression upon him, illustrating t^t great July 14. First major contingent of H.S.
changes were possible. Though for this rei^n troops began ^thdrawal from S. Vietnam.
he was sympathetic to conmunism his first September 3. Heath of Ho Chi Minh.
concern was the anti-colonial xevolutioii in
Vietnam. His main purpose therefore, from 1945 September 16. President Nixon an¬
was to weld together the two elements m Vietnam nounced withdrawal by mid-December of
of nationalism and communism. By unusual further 36,000 troops.
powers of organisation he was successful _m tm^
The evidence is that he did make a genuine and September 23. Mr. Ton Duo Thaiig
ele^d President of North Vietnam.
protracted attempt to negotiate faidependence
with the French in 1946-46 and was prepared to December 15. President Nixon an¬
make many concessions. The detennicmtioii ot nounced withdrawal of 50,000 more
the French to regain control of Indo-China after American troops before 16 April 1970.
the Second World War must ^ yarded as one
March 18. Prince Sihanouk, Cambodian
of the most tragic mistakes of the penod. The
character of his achievement is the dove- head
coup. of state, overthrown
, ,in right-wing
, j j
special
i.aiiini? of the national and commimistlc elements
in Vietnam; and the balance between the two April SO. H.S. combat troops invaded
has been skilfully maintained, however mieasy It Cambodia.
may seem. Flowing from this was Ho s refill June 29. Last rearguard H.S. imits with¬
to take sides in the Sino-Soviet conflict. His drawn from Cambodia, one day ahead of
attempt to bind together nationalistic and com¬ President Nixon’s deadline.
munistic elements has been more remarkable
wliGii it is S6en that Vietnanx is the only cou^^ 1971 February 8. 5,000 S. Vietnamese troops,
in South-east Asia where this has been possible, supported by H.S. helicopters and fighter
the Communists haviag been checked in IVmlaya, bombers— but not ground forces — invaded
Laos to cnt the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
in Burma, in Cambodia, and in the Phihppines.
Febmary 25. S. Vietnamese drive in Laos
halted.
Steps in Vietnam History. April.
April. American
American withdrawal
withdrawal from
from S.S.
1940 Japanese invasion. France withdrew. Vietnam well advanced.
1942-5 Vietnamese engage in guerrffla war , on
invaders. Nationalists and Communists Basic Facts about Vietnam.
Joining forces. The population is 82 million (N. 16-6, S, 16*5),
1946 Japan withdrew and Nationalists declare Eaoially they are consins of the Chinese and tlmir
Vietnam independent. , culture is largely derived from China.^ Neverthe-
Potsdam agreement makes Britam and less they are ancient enemies of the Chinese.
China responsible for administration of xhey are Confncians in their social attitudes.
Vietnam. The main reliôn is Buddhism 70-80 per cent,
1946 Britain invites

withdraws leaving Brenoh in cha^. moW
jgadlng î^’êsîN.'eMOO.^sfeo^'oBOh^^ê
figures in North Vietnam are Ton Due
Terrorist attacks on Frrach who made succeeded Ho Chi Minh as President,
massive reprisals against civihans. Pham Van Dong, the Prime Minister. Le Duan,
1954 X’rencli defeated at Bien Bien Phu by ttie Minister. The Government of S. Vietnam had
Yiet Minh. Geneva Agreements. -been formed by military coup and as resxdt of a
1956 refutes (^neva Agreements and

refuses elections.
1960-3 tween
Three Diem
jnem B-ud
years auu the
of me National Liberation
xNawuuiu co^ci^^^^
increasing xiiTOiwuiuu _ . m AFRICA.
_i .
Front formed to oppose the Diem regune. The CtvU War in Nigeria.
Neutral Buddhists appeal to Government sionThe civil war began in July 1967 after the b^-
for cations.
-- of the
Diem attacks Buddhists, Colonel
- i-- Ojuku. regionunder
ThisRegion
Bastera its IJm li^der.
became
Diem assassinated
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
WORLD EVENTS Cl8
Biafra. Federal troops, under the head of the Holland, a land noted for its enlightened policy of
Federal Military Government, General Gowon, racial integration: but after liis return to South
advanced into Biafra and cut the secessionists off Africa from Germany he held the separation of
from the sea and confined them to the Ibo heart¬ races to be blessed by scriptural authority and as
land. Margery Perham, writing in The Listener a follower of the Dutch Reformed Churoh, carried
(19 September 1968) explained that there was a his philosophy into politics.
very wide difference between the Ibo way of life
Md that of the other major tribes in Nigeria — the
Hausa and the Yoruba. “(Ehls difference had Dissension among the Nationalists.
seemed to matter less when all the tribes were held A split occurred in the ruling Nationalist Party
together within the overarching structure of the when Dr. Hertzog was dismissed by Mr. Vorster as
British government. But with Independence, with Minister of Health in August 1969; two other
the mu tribal competition for power and economic
members of the South African House of Asspinniy
advance, certain deep rivalries began to appear.” were expelled from the party organisation, and
The Hausa (Muslim) and the Yoruba (MusUm and another resigned. They became known as the
Christian) both belong to old civilisations and are verkramvte (rigidly conservative) as opposed to the
grouped in large city states, the Ibos (mostly verligte (enlightened). They formed the break¬
Eoman Catholic) are poorer, thirsty for education away extreme Right-wing Herstigte (Reformed)
and eager for change. The tension between the National Party.
main tribal groups led to the assassination in 1966 In the general election held in April 1970 Dr.
by Ibo officers of the Hausa Prime Minister,
Abubakar Tafewa Balewa. General Ironi, an Hertzog and his co-extremists were defeated.
Ibo soldier, tried to impose a unitary system of Mr. Forster’s Nationalist Party lost nine seats to
government, but was murdered by non-Ibo aSirreduction de VilUers Graaf’s United Party and suffered
of majorities over a wide front. Mrs
soldiers. This tragic civil war. seen by millions Helen Suzman tripled her majority hut remained
on their television screens, evoked a response for the only representative of the Liberal Progresssive
practical action and Lord Hunt and his mission Party in Parliament. Interpreting the results for
were successful in organising help. The Observer, Anthony Sampson (author of
The Federal Military Government said that Anatemv of Britain, and The New Europeans)
military operations would cease Immediately if said it would he a misreading of the situation to
Colonel Ojukwu and his associates would agree to suppose that Mr. Vorster as a result of the defeat
renounce secession, remain part of Nigeria and of the verJcramptes and of the gains of the Dnited
accept the new structure of the Federation based
on the 12 states, including the South Eastern and Party would pursue a more “ liberal ” internal
Rivers States. policy. “Mr. Vorster and Sir de VilUers Graaf
have been moving for years, almost in step, to¬
The end of the civU war after a period of wards the Right: and in many practical respects
apparent stalemate came in the space of a few the two main white parties are in a coalition.
days at the beginning of 1970. Federal troops There is nothing self-correcting In the South
captured Owerri, headauarters of the secessionist African poUtical system: as in Rhodesia, the ex¬
rdgime, together with XJli airstrip through which clusion of the majority from the vote leads to a
rehef supplies had reached Biafra. Colonel
Ojulcwu departed, leaving Colonel Efliong in steady, almost unopposed, move to the Right.”
The word verligte may not therefore imply any
charge of affairs. Colonel Bfflong called on his relaxation of apartheid, police powers, and ruth¬
troops to stop fighting and sued for peace. The less repression of the black population but rather
civil war was formally ended on 16 January. The a realisation that for South Africa to maintain her
coiMuct of the Federal Military Government and economic growth she must make more use of
of Federal forces was reported to be notable for skUled black labour, expand trade with black
ns generosity and spirit of reconciliation. Pre- Africa, and Improve her relations with Europe
mctmns of vengeance, and even genocide against and America, The sports boycott has a signi¬
the Ibo people, which had gained a wide currency, ficance far beyond the game itself.
largely as a result of “Biafran” propaganda,
were in the event proved to he imfounded. As
Mon as the fighting was over, the Nigerian violence ana csoumetn Anica.
Gojanmaent set about the task of relieving hunger
and suffering in the war-affected areas. While Violence has begun to erupt over southern
accepting many of the offers of aid which flowed Africa. The Indecisiveness over Rhodesia, the
m from friendly countries, the Government kept absence of serious economic pressure on South
the administration of the relief programme firmly Africa and on the Portuguese, Whatever the
m its own hands. reasons for this policy, have encouraged those
ready to use violence. And this applies to the
The Assassination oJ Vetwoerd. advocates of violence on both sides, black and
white. The guerriUa has suddenly become a
Veôerd, who was murdered in Septemhei reckonable factor, said Colin Legum, m a part of
1966, while the members of the Conunonwealtt the world where, until a few years ago. black vio¬
were aêmbled in Conference in London, was the lence was unknown. GuerrUlas are operating in
man who gave form and substance to the idea ol South-West Africa, in Angola, in Mozambique,
apMtffeid, led South Africa into a republic and
took her out of the Commonwealth. He studied and in ôdesia. Untfl 1966 President Faimda.
of Zambia — opposed to violenee — ^was successful
applied psychology in Germany and on return m denying guerrillas even passage through Zambia.
took an interest In politics, organising in 1936 a But he has been imahle to resist pressures. In
protest against the admission to South Afrinfi. of a this new and menacing situation Dr. Banda,
upload of Jews fleeing from Germany. He resident of Malawi, is in an anomalous position.
became a power behind the scenes in the National¬ He has ranged himself with the White Suprema¬
ist îty which, m 1948, ousted ttie Smuts rdgime cists against the guerrillas by opening diplomatic
on the slogan of apartheid. He succeeded J. G. relations wiffi Souto Africa. He has become a
Strydom as Prêr in 1969. a year after being Black ally of the White Front.
elected to the House of Assembly. The Ba,ntu
S^ Government Act of 1960 provided for the
dimsion of the non-wWte population into tribal Rhodesia. — See Part 11.
Pkits. me abolition of their exiiting representation
in PMuament and the creation of self-governing
native states.” But tiie aim of apaxth^d. the
physical separation of races is. apart from other
oblations, a dishonest myth, as the economy can- THE UNITED STATES.
not be ran without black labour. The call by The Assassination ol Kennedy.
Pau-African Orgamsatlon for a nationwide cam¬
paign against the law requiring ail African men to The Assassination of President Kennedy in
car^ passM foridentiflcatlon led to the massacre November 1963 at Dallas. Texas, shocked the
w the poll<^ at SharpeviUe. Verwoerd banned entire world. Tlw world recognised the growing
the two Bôr African political movements, the mastery which this young man had shown during
îcan National Congress and the Pan-African hte three years of office in leadership and com-
COTigress and most African leaders were sent to mitinent to policies which promised Inoreasing
prison, proscribed or fled. Verwoerd was bom in conciliation among nations. His youtlifulness
WORLD EVENTS C 19 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
h*id galvanised hope in a world in which political the war to American taxpayers. The l^îdent
decisions were so widely in the hands of leaders maintained that the extension of the conflict mto
past their prime. He was the youngest elected Cambodia in 1970 had conclusively demonstrated
American President (43) when he succeeded Eisen¬ " not only the tactical success of the operations
hower at the White House in January 1961, ; but also their strategic purpose ta reducing U.S.
Eisenhower being then America’s oldest President.
Kennedy had had difaculties with Congress: and i involvement in Vietnam.”
it was reassuring, therefore, that Lyndon B.
Johnson, who as Vice-President automatically The Nixon Dootetae.
succeeded Keimedy. should have had the reputa¬ The 65,000-word document contained, also a
tion of being a skilful negotiator in Congressional tentative assessment of this policy^which involves
matters. the restriction of aid for friends and allies overseas
who are victims of aggression or internal subver¬
Cuba and the TTnited States. sion, to military or economic aid but not, unless
treaty obligations reanire it, U.S. troops. Mr.
In 1961 the United States broke off diplomatic Nixon commented.: “ The Nixon Doctrine is a
relations with Cuba with whom relations had been philosophy of invigorated partnership, not a
strained since the Castro revolution of 1959.
Shortly afterwards two U.S. aeroplanes, but synonym for American
tive achievements, he said,withdrawal.”
were evidencedItsbyposi¬
the
manned by Cubans, attacked the principal military reduction of troops in Korea, Japan, Okinawa and
bases near Havana, the capital. Two days later Thailand.
1,500 invaders, Cuban exiles— armed, trained and
largely controlled by U.S. agencies — ^landed on the Defence.
island but were driven back. The United States
tntelUgenoe service had assumed that the Cuban Mr. Nixon said that a fresh review of the need
people would rise against Dr. Castro directly they
heard of the landtag. Controversy broke out in the for the Safeguard anti-ballistic missile defence
system had recently been completed. Defence
States. Confidence in the new Keimedy admtais- secretary, Mr. Melvin Laird, would ask Congress
steation was shaken for the affair was fundamen¬ for funds to finance the third stage of the project.
tally alien to the American character. Eelations
were more bitter than ever, and. by the end of This, as some observers were anick to point out,
1961, Cuba became a Communist state in the full ta spite of a slowdown in the deployment by the
sense. Soviet Union of SS-9 missiles, and the continuing
SALT talks. See also C80{8) .
The Crisis ot the Autumn oi 1960.

The Problem of Violence.
The world came to the brink of war during the
last week of October 1962. President Kennedy The two final
had pledged the United States to take measures Committee on reports of the President’s
the Causes National
and Prevention of
to oppose the creation of offensive military power Violence, set up by President Johnson In 1968
in Cuba. On 22 October, upon alleged evidence after the assassination of Senator Eobert Keimedy,
were issued ta 1969. Participating In the studies
of offensive Soviet missile sites there, he announced
a blockade of ships (or more precisely a auaranttae were historians, political scientists, anthropolo-
of ships) carrying weapons to Cuba. Some Soviet ^ts, psychiatrists, psychologists, sociologists,
and lawyers. The first report, issued in June 1969,
diios altered course thus avoiding a direct con¬
frontation. The United Nations made proposals said that Americans had “become a rather
to hoth sides in preparation for talks : and shortlybloody-minded people in both action amd reac¬
afterwards Khrushchev decided to dismantle tion ” and that “ ta total magnitude of strife the
United States ranks first among the 17 Western
Soviet missile bases in Cuba and ship “ offensive democracies and since 1948 had been one of the
weapons ” hack to the Soviet Union, the United
States agreel^ to give assurances against an half-dozen most tmmiltuons nations ta the world.’
invasion of Cuba which had been threatened. In suggesting methods to overcome violence In
society the final report issued ta December 1969
stated: “ The way in which we can make the
The Presidential Election, 1968. greatest progress toward reducing violence in
America, is by taking the actions necessary to
The mid-term Congressional elections of 1966 improve the conditions of family and community
rehabilitated tbe Eepublican Party which had life for all who live In onr cities, and especially for
been so sundered by the rout of Goldwater in 1964. the poor who are concentrated in the ghetto
It chose as its Presidential candidate Eichard slums. . . .” The report concluded: " When in
Nixon (who had once been Vice-President and a man’s long history other great oivfllsataons fell, it
Presidential candidate). On the DemocraUo side was less often from external assault than from
the candldatnre of Lyndon Johnson was first internal decay. . . . While serious external dan¬
challenged by Senator Eugene McCarthy, who gers remain, the graver threats today are tatemal:
took his stand npon the criticism of Americas haphazard urbanisation, racial dlscrimtaatloii, dis¬
war in Vietnam, and by Senator Itabert Keimedy figuring of the environinent, tmprecedented toter-
wbo was later assassinated. The President dependence, 'the dislocation of human identity
announced to the nation on 81 March that he and motivatlGn created by an affluent society —
would initiate peace moves in Vietnam and lay all resulttog ta a rising tide of tadividuai and group
down the presidency in January. This dramatic violence. The greatness and durability of most
turn of events threw the presidential race Into civilisations has been finally determined, by how
confusion. Vice-President Humphrey then en¬ they have responded to these challenges from
tered the lists to become the chosen candidate for within. Ours will be no exception.”
the Democratic Party. It was one of the most
closely contested presidential elections ta Ameri¬
can history, Nixon, the Eepubllpan candidate,
having a maibrlty of only 499,704 over Humptoy THE THREAT OF NUCLEAR CONFLICT.
in a total poll of 72 mlUlon. Although securing
only a majority of the popular vote Nixon Terms Used,
obtained SOI votes ta the Electoral College A deterrent is a weapons system capable of
against Humplircy’s 101. In January 1969 lie causing such a degree of destruction to an
became the 37th President of the United States, attacker that it would he too high a price for
hi-m to pay for any advantages sought. Of
course, the attacker may not know what
The Nixon Aaministratlon. destruction the deterrent could cause, so that
President Nixon’s second State of the Union what is important is not the owner’s eBtlmate
message on 25 Eebruary 1971, was in fact a com¬ of his deterrent
estimate but the potential
of It. Furthermore, aggressor’s
deterrent forces
prehensive statement on U.S, foreign policy.
On Vietnam, he pointed out the reduction ta must he able to strike back after an aggressor’s
Ampricau forces from 600,000 to under 300,000; missEe attack. So there is a ' distinction
a reduction In the casualty rate fleam 278 to ewer between first and second strike weapons.
60 deaths a week, and the halving of the cost of The nuclear deterrent Is said to be the ulti-
WORLD EVENTS ^20
PUBLIC affairs
mate deterrent, because nuclear weapons are Treaty to Prevent Spread of Nuclear Weapons.
tne most advanced form of weapon.
prevent the proIiferiioS of b?®? how to
The nuclear or thermonuclear bomb means round of talks, which endedthein b^b A^st iora
toe
a bomb or a missile with an explosive
measured in megatons, i.e., one million power The stumbl
tofUed ^:thou t any suhsta
mg block ntiS
more powerful than bombs used dming the
times despite declarations bywasAmeric Eussia’ s susSc&m toai
a toe mangênta
Second World War. A ten megaton bomb to be made for toe future of NATO
contains the equivalent of a train of railway Germany a finger on toe nuclear
wagorm filled with high explosive stretching were resmned at toe 18-power trigge cSence^
r Talka
Geneva m February, 1967' where a drSt toeatv
r witli its genetic
fall-out New York — and of course
effects. was tabled by toe N.S. and N.S.S.
1908 a single text, sponsored by bothE.toe Bv Sh
U.s:s!Ê
The independent bomb. Independence, in ditiOMIJ.8.and emergeatd, containing a number of ad"
to meet least some of the demands that
this TOntext, means the right and ability to
Munch a force alone against an IJ.S.-S ovietbydraft treaty clm
Jbor this it is necessary to own andaggressor.
control
£™d
Assemb ly toe
where it was was
21non-nu
absten
sent to*
Powers
adopted
tions oSin
thermonuclear weapons and be able to
deicer them. The ability to deliver weapons, of the cou^ries that voted against was India _
without wmch they are useless as a deterrent American-Soviet the
raises crucial difficulties, *1^®offer
j'olnt cast-i
ofron
guarant
protec
eestiondid that
not
f n^ênt, earlier
ultimate guarantee
is the that The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty flowing
nation s security: without it we ftom this like agains
should not reach the conference table with Into mightaêd draftt f!hm a ^ xoi-uoi
was signed i mat
in Lon^^
us freedom was the
md, as moh, is a safeguard against treaty wPf ‘+1^’ first Watoin
nucleargtonweapon
on 1 power
July 1968. BrEain
to ratify the
on 27 Novembei- 1968 It cîe iWo
Mhcies whichI?" might leave
,cliange in American
ns unprotected. force on 5 March 19
policy of an independent 70. ®*°
been seriously Nuclear Missile Bace.
America’s decision to enter the anti-hniiistie

ABM is the anti-ballistics missile defence m-ssile
ber 1067defence
after system was amoiS^d
toe Eussians to Setom-
had already begun
destroy■ ]^Ji®rebj y missiles are launched to
the missiles of the enemy — anti¬ Under toe old plan there were to he ABM sites
missile missiles. Both the tr.S.8.B. and TT^se ***^ around MoscS^
IJ.S.A. are developing an ABM system. Seattle, and San Praueisco. But there
-American civilians who
were ag^nst spelling money on more weapons when
*^®,-AiQericM multiple independent so muefi needed to be done in urban
re-entry vehicle which when warheads,
it re-enters each develop¬
the ment.^ Tim present modified system is designed
01 them atoed with precision at a different
Me to penetrate an anti- time

t toe U.S,rtf safeguard”
1^®is-êrJean
increasing deterrent. programme
toe sameto
its offensiveAt capabUltv
i“Proyi^ toe accuracy of its MIEVs as *a
«=^wJ®!l®i‘“F®®9^^®*“^®«tlewithawarhead
m^môrc^ destroying the American Mlnute- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.
iiscatoMon is a term used for
oopflict begins which These talks, begun in Helsinki in 1969 werp
resumed bwefully in 1970. Moscow did not
m-TOlves nuclear powers, the contesting
^rties are riding on an escalator from which <ilstrust of toe Soviet
there IS no escape and rising to an all-out Union was apparent again ®®®*1
weapon is said to be by toetheendfaiK
of toer^y
year
trustworthy and it can be an early agreement. ObSeiwers sav
believed m for its purposes; thus it is some¬ that toe two sides are still far apart, but little
times _ said _that the U.K. manned bomber toe substance of toe talks of
force IS credible only for a first strike. 0ml has been revetoT
‘unumal weapons and forces are other
imcleai. Atomic devices axe describedthan Outer Space for Peaceful Developments.
teclwa? when they axe in support of groundas
treaty to preserve outer space
purposes was completed in December
all-out major strike force, y- de^ribed by ^sident Jolmsmi as
The Partial Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty.
This important treaty was signed in Moscow in Johnson
sta^ tteted tetbTtr^y
fli^ mSpêd s^ a tmktl of to
1968
May-“m*
1M6
August 1968 between Brltain/iÛ.s!^ ^ U.S. and Eussia, toe only
^^dcrtook not to conduct nuclfiftr .^M c^^ftSjtween
two povsiers which
terts injihme out of four possible spheres— In the arattmg of toe treaty was prepared by toe Unit.ed
space and under water. The
fourth possibility — underground tests— —was ■hnf toftlM°<ff research. The
touched by the l^ty. bWdeelSTthS^^! opo'Ce tor ^ wuntrieSt no fiiaiVna of fjoTpis^fonfir
on Buob tests iêmains a desirable ftim over celesti^ bodies j no orbitinfir of weanonH of
s^â^Tor il
d^teuct iion {already provideKraftK
Of
êre li^ ên little liope of extending tbe test- d for in n-n
ceieOTiai bodies for peaceful pnrDOfles : nnfi
S* tPe i^ted
of^t hc States to Eussia
f explogon s, despite toe
to agree
Tbfi /U.S. and Britain still disagree with llussifl nations to space and mP®?5®f’^ co-opeSuora^nSS
question of identifl ying the nature of all toe explor ation of space4
rmdergroimd explosions. The Western T>nw^
Îto that, no foolproof method has yet been de- Seabed Treatp.
nnn
nuclear iounderground therefor
cannotexplosio accept a ban on
ns e without tn February 1971 hv top
number of on toe spot Inspect a limited
lo^ But tto te
f Is opposed to, on the grounds
that this would amount to espionage.
C2I
CENTRAU GOVERNMENT PUBLIC APPAIRS
11. POLITICAL STRUCTURES AND INSTITUTIONS

HOW BEITAIN GOVERNS HERSELF, S. CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.
1. THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. A. STRUCTURE.
Strictly there is no British Constitution. There is I. THE QUEEN.
no single document which contains all the rules The Queen’s tenure ofit the Crown holdsandfor itlifeis
regulating the operation of our system of govern¬ (unless she abdicates), is hereditary
ment, Indeed many of these rules have not been held by statutory right. The Queen is a constitu¬
written down. But this is not to say that there tional monarch; she took an oath at her Corona¬
are no constitutional rules. Some are to be found tion to rule according to the laws and customs of
in Acts of Parliament, such as the Representation the people. In law, she is head of the executive,
of the People Acts and the Government of Ireland an integral part of the legislature and the head of
Act of 1920. but these have no special validity the judiciary as well as being commander-in-chief
which distinguish them from Acts which relate to of the armed forces and temporal head of the
less important aspects of om national Ufe. Even Church of England. Thus the Queen appoints
those which have never been written down can be the prime minister and legally other ministers
fairly clearly delineated at any particular time. only assume office on receiving their seals of office
Therefore, although the task is made more difficult from the Queen. EauaUy, her assent is necessary
by the absence of a formal constitution, it is stiU before a bill, passed by the House of Commons and
possible to outline the working of our system of the House of Lords, becomes an Act of Parliament.
government. In practice,
One consectuence of the lack of a written consti¬ piuely formal.however, the but
She reigns Queen’s rolenotis nfie,
she does now
tution has been the gradual evolution of the system She has no freedom of choice in the selection of a
over the centuries without any sharp breaks in prime minister and the power of veto of legislation
continuity. Thus, although there have been Is never exercised. In aU important respects she
fundamental changes, for instance in the role of acts only on the advice of her ministers. In effect
the monarch, many of these changes have not
been recorded In any formal manner. Smviyals the United Kingdom
Government is governed
in the name hy Her However,
of the Queen. Majesty’s
from past ages remain to confuse the student such the Queen still plays an important role socially as
that it is necessary to distinguish between what the Head of State. Member countries of the
Bagehot, writing in the 19th cent., called the Commonwealth (except Malaysia. Lesotho,
“ efficient Swaziland, Tonga and those which are republics)
which were ” important
and “ dignified
In the” actual
elements, those ofparts
running the owe allegiance to the Queen and she is represented
coimtry and those parts which remained in exis¬ by a resident Governor-General. All members of
tence but now only had a symbolic role. the Commonwealth recognise the Queen as Head
It is not possible to attach a single label to our of the Commonwealth.
system of government which serves to distinguish
It ftom others. A number of labels— monarchical, n. PARLIAMENT,
parliamentary, rmitary, and democratic — provide
a reasonably accurate short description: mon¬ Parliament consists of the Queen, the House of
archical in the sense that the Queen is Head of Lords and the House of Commons. Collectively
State although she now only plays a formal part in they form the legislature. Over the centuries the
the conduct of the government, acting always on balance between the three elements has changed
the advice of her ministers; parliamentary both such that the Queen only remains a part of the
in the sense that Parliament is the sovereign law¬ legislature in a formal sense and that the House of
making body and that the government is formed Commons, as the popularly elected lower House,
out of Parliament and dependent on Its continuing has established its paramountcy over the House of
support: unitary in the sense that Parliament is
ultimately responsible for all parts of the United Lords, composed of lords spiritual and lords tem¬
Kingdom although it may have chosen to delegate poral. The maximum life of a Parliament is five
some of its powers to other institutions: and years but. on the advice of the prime minister, the
democratic in the sense that the House of Queen may dissolve Parliament and issue a pro¬
Commons is elected on a basis of nhiversal adult clamation calling for the election of a new Parlia¬
suffrage. ment. Parliament is adjourned from day to day
In the absence of the safeguard of a written while in session. At the end of a session (usually
12 months in length) it is prorogued. At the
constitution, democracy is preserved by the or¬ expiry of its life it is dissolved.
dinary law, by the political organisation of the
people, by custom and by rights which depend on
the capacity of the people to sustain them. It is (a) The Parties.
manifested In universal adult suffrage, the rule of To understand the operation of our system of
the majority and the right to oppose. Thus aU
citizens, male and female, over the age of eighteen govemment It is essential to appreciate the im¬
have the right to elect their own member of Parlia¬ portance of the party system. The party system
ment and to vote in local elections. Secondly, it emerged in the latter half of the seventeenth
century as Parliament gained the right to he the
is accepted that the majority has the rigffit to rule
subject to a number of safeguards, in particular thelaw-making body. Since then there has basically
right of the minority to oppose. This consideration been a two-party system, at different times
is vital to a true democracy and opposition Cavaliers and Roimdheads, Tories and Whigs,
is so essentially a part of our system that the Conservatives and LlberalsSand, since the 1980b,
Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary hy the Conservatives and Labour. Parties exist to form
Govemment. governments and the path to this goal lies tn the
Although their functions overlap, the three or¬ House of Conomons. for the party which obtains a
gans of government are easily distinguishable: majority of seats has the right to have its leaders
form the government. The other party forms Her
(i) The legislature, consisting of the Majesty’s Opposition.
highly disciplined and Tocoherent
this endorganisations.
parties are
Queen in Parliament,
Once elected the majority’s main function is to
(ii) The executive, consisting of the sustain the government tn power. The minority
accepts that, because of the rigidity of the party
Cabinet and other ministers in charge of system, it is unlikely to defeat the government in
government departments staffed by civil the Commons and therefore sees its role as one of
servants, local authorities, and a number of criticising government policy and setting forth an
statutory boards, such as the National Coal altemative programme whKm it hopes will win the
Board and the Post Office, responsible for the support of the electorate at the next election.
administration of paitioular services. Thus the party system is a major explanation of
the relationship between the executive and the
(ill) The Judiciary. legislature and Of the role of Parliament.
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT CS52 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
(b) The House o£ Lords. Houses the bill is sent to the Queen for Eoyal
Assent.
The House of Lords is the oldest second chamber The Lords cannot require the Commons to agree
in the world and the most hereditary in its charac¬ to amendments: nor can they delay a hill in¬
ter. It is composed of the lords temporal and the definitely. They have no power in respect of
lords spiritual. The former includes all peers who money bills: and since the passing of the Parlia¬
inherited their titles and who have not disclaimed ment Act of 1949 any other public bill which has
their peerages under the Peerage Act 1963, all been passed in the Commons in two successive
peers created for their own life-times under the sessions may be presented for Eoyal Assent with¬
provisions of the Life Peerages Act 1968 and the out the consent of the Lords provided that a year
Lords of Appeal appointed to assist the House in has elapsed between the date of the Second
2 its judicial duties. The lords spiritual are the 26 Beading of the bill in the Commons and the date
most senior bishops. The hereditary element is on which it was finally passed in that House.
still large but of declining importance especially as
.a result of the more freauent attendance of the
life peers and peeresses. This has tended to re¬
duce the overwhelming majority which the Con¬ secon funct of the Comm (and one of its
servative party used to enjoy and which consti¬ earlied in hiiosnto is to proovn s the Stat with
e
tutes a threat to legislation in the final year of a mone st The gorvye) r canniode raise money by
Labour government. However, the unrepresenta¬ taxaty. (or in any nmoetnhter way) t or spend mone
tive character of the House of Lords has limited its with i o n the auth of Parli and f.biy
s
usefulness. Its role is to ease the work-load of an poweout of autho oritybelon exac ment; to the
over-burdened House of Commons but not to Commr The riHtoyuse cangs vote lumsoinveely only on
o n s
thMeondeman. and on the respo y
of a minis
thwart its will. It still perfonns a useful function ey d nsibi te
in the legislative process by examining some bills of the CrFou'n^cti The finan plrioty of thre
in detail and initiating bills on non-eontroversial Ho ar divn. ons in Pu cial Expencedures Proce
subjects but its part is limited by the Parliament diuuese beloew scussed of theblic ditur
e
-
. Comm
Acts of 1911 and 1949 (see Legislation below). It ons.
also serves as the highest Court of Appeal. Pinal- — ^Th
ly the House of Lords is a forum where men and 3. Critical Functions of the Commons. —e There
women, distinguished in all flekis of national life, are a munber of opportunities for the Opposition
can discuss issues of importance free from the and the Government’s own back-benchers to
reins of party discipline. criticise goveinment policy. They can question
ministers on the floor of the House and have the
right to ask a supplementary question to the
reply. They can table motions for debate which
(o) The House o£ Commons. may help to mould public opinion. They can
The House of Commons is a representative speak in debates and can raise issues which do not
assembly consisting of 630M.P.S elected by simple involve public expenditure on the adjournment,
majority in single-member constituencies. Al¬ or under the 10-minute rule, or by promoting
though our system of government Is rightly des¬ private members’ hills (subject to success in the
cribed as parliamentary, this does not mean that ballot for places). Hlthnately this position is
Parliament governs. Because of the party system based on the ability of the Commons to, withdraw
the initiative in government lies elsewhere — in its support from a government, hy voting a mo¬
the Cabinet. But Parliament, and especially the tion of no confidence which would entaU its resig¬
Commons, has important functions to play not nation. If it resigns then a general election,
only as the assembly to which the government is probably geared to the issue in question, will
lUtimately responsible hut also in legitimising result if the prime minister advises the Queen to
legislation, in voting money and in acting as a dissolve Parliament. But a defeat on a motion of
body in which complaints may he raised. confidence does not necessarily result in a general
election if an alternative government based on a
majority of members is readily available. Be¬
cause of the predominance of two parties, it is
con of co law sta law and equ
(s sistD
m
S mo la,w istuthea par w ityi many years since such a situation has arisen in
s this country. Should such conditions recur,
maee s7b-y8) Pa tatnut and ens t t In hAictch of however, back-bench MB.s would find they were
Parde . orrlist e of the rehri Any me s able to exercise considerable powers which for a
aa a n
Of lPiaarm mamteunte pr a bil lm.aefd gi mbefo long time have lain dormant.
e
mal noltinat pro y ts etsheant it doe l notter pro ving trhre¬ To assist it in its critical role Parliament has,
icmee mto sb
exp v
,n of idpeudbl ut the pporsien since 1967, had a new officer, the Parliamentary
hUl endare intt ibyc the negoy, bas ciupp
o Commissioner for Administration, commonly
s i
its pr tur od out r v
at theern beg e a
dof eacln
o e uc l me inn h Imown as the Ombudsman. His function is to
sies i cgrianm the eQduef inedt Sp g Innt icenrt c cas investigate complaints of maladministration which
t siso us me eonr’ he eeocv g oa on es
i s are referred to him by M.P.s on behalf of their
int n taof befs pub he.rn an n ulthte constituents. In establishing such a post, the
m f lic mIne m nou ca
det eres of proaerctye l ore t
go ails ts powsid puegisl ei ly nat aGnry ncin sePs a he the House recognised that there were deficiencies in
method of Investigattug by questions and
el bli ati the eie a gf pe
whivern set out pdrlo s w h o a
r r s t n n o r
tiv ch stmaena an toposwhi h itchnhe. goe ill isrmhao¬t letters to ministers.
e get d als ch ve
cb om o or a o ‘Wph Paap d whi rnmeout f the 4. Committees of the House.— The House of
a b f oi n e c n hl r
wosimcittinjecwth it isltiecbyel edr stchreibh pol t einesshaome¬ Commons uses committees to assist it in Its work
rk ed iviec iev es icy idd in a number of different ways:
, h
s edis co
mdeave pe 'Whe thlegi pr mpl c and affec
pronylop caonplbe rever is Islmaptie-le ex onsul ts
ces .may eoriginate
Bills y Inoroteither
n gis House, unless tat they 1. Standing Committees. — A standing commit¬
s ant at l ive tee is a miniature of the House itself, reflecting its
deal with flnanoe or representation . i v when they are party composition, and consists of between 20 and
e
always introduced in the Commons. The Pirst 60 M.P.s. Its function is to examine the Com¬
Beading is just a formality. The House .begins mittee Stage of legislation. Some hills are not
its examination at the Second Beading when the sent to a standing committee but are examined hy
general principles are debated and voted. If they a committee of the Whole House which consists of
are approved, the bill is then referred for detailed all M.P.s but working under special rules of pro¬
Le clause-by-clause examination either to a standing cedure, for instance enabling an M.P. to speak
gi
sl committee or by a committee of the Whole House. more than once to the same question.
at
io (see Committees of the House below). After the
n.
—
Th Committee Stage comes the Eeport Stage when the
e
la
House considers the hill as reported to it by the 2. Select Committees.— A select committee is
w
of committee and decides whether any further a.body with special powers and privileges to which
th
e changes in individual clauses should be made. the House has delegated its authority in a special
Un
it The final stage is the Third Beading when the way for the purpose of discovering Information,
ed
Ki
House considers the bill as a whole and votes examining witnesses, sifting evidence and drawing
whether,
n gd as amended, it should become law. If up conclusions wMch ate reported to the House.
passed,om it is sent to the Lords where it must go As well as ad 7wo select committees there are a
through the same stages. Once passed by both munber of sessional select committees which are
RNMENT • PUBL.1C AFFAIRS
CENTRAL. GOVE
CENTR/^.»- - - , . i 1
atoost permanent as 1|e C—tee
[nd the Co^ttee of Privileges). Specxamea advice

Jommittees. C34(S)j. before
reaching a decision. The precise rela-
. — ATTnuses. tionsMp between a minister and to senior civil

(Si Joint Committees.
Committees
.-.^n-mVioro nf hntli lomt committee
joint con-
It Is really ggryice
+vo ™a advisers
a service imTiri thAvis fiTfi
a complex
entirely and
his subtle
servantsone. un
m that
sists of members of both Houses. It is really a ^jjg gjjg band they are entirely his sepants m that
cPiect committee of the Commons dehberatmg be alone is responsible for everything that goes
with a select committee of the Lords and is used qjj bi the department and he alone can be called to
to save duplication of effort, usually on unconten- aggormt in Parliament. Civil servants remain
t,„» ™te.a. ‘ 0?S oTto
local authorities, ^ ^jA“f-hp®po,Y,rnittee

whole However, the distinguishing feature of the
Private BiU committees deal with the Committee wnoie^ Civil Service is that at all levels it is npn-
Stage of such bills. political hi the sense that it serves both political
parties impartially. „ „ . .
TTT mvn? ■B’YPr'TiTIVE The non-industrial Civil Service is dmded

III. THE EXBCUTlVlii. , . at present into occupational groups known as
The executive work of central govenmient is ,, gja^gggg/’ on the administrative side_ there are
performed by the prime minister and the other ^bree Service-wide classes. The Adnimistratiye
mitoters of the Crown. The power ot executive (2,800), the Executive Class (ol.SOO) aud the
action is not given but
to a togoverênt
the ministerdepm-M
mdiviclumiy Clerical Class (165.000).
a corporate body
who is reônsiWe for the exercise of his duties
legally to the Queen and politically to Pa-rharaent. ^g ^^ton Eeforms.
^ ministers m^t he members of eitner th g j^g
was carried out by the Pulton >«
‘^"TtKad orneôvemment structure is the
m^y'stre nlths li wasThese felt to be inadeauate in

were:
UnSo fpoi
its woK frft
ffiSIt Mds.Kve^ ia^
It consists of the six main respects.
to
toding members of the majority P^ty m the ^gg g^^gb based on the
Commons, selected by the prune mmisten most of philosophy of the amatemr (or generatet
whom are heads of govemmpt departments which all-r(jimder ”). This was most evident
are staffed by civil servants and respotoble tor ^ Administrative Class, winch holds the
tHe impiemeiniaLiuju vjl
the^.implementation .pejerênt polmy to dominant position in the service.
^^^^ffrÂ^^^;,iinSf.CTR^wlthout^’^depMdmenM {&) The(there

service present system1,400.
are over of classes
each forin the
^ normal size is about 20.
AltCmsh leg&ly the Cabinet has no corporate pôst part with its own separate
indivi- career structure) seriously impeded its work,
SitStionfl etotei(». mitoters being
dually responsible for the exerei^ ()f go^^^ Scientists, engineers, and members of
^^*®e^head of the govenmmt is the Prime ^gg j-g^ g|yb servants were skilled
minister. He is the leader e^Jê maîty party managers.
choMiiK^^n o^S^^^teAof the government. (g) There was not enough contact between
He ae dialr at meetings of the <^blnet and, the service and the community it is there to
while he has few specific responsiltoties, not serve. ,
having a department of his mm (tohough me (f\ Personnel management and career
“StSS^'bS’tM c.»ei,«id tto
vary according to political oircnmstances, ln;fv ^legated to a non-departmental minister

' , ofcabtoekS
TVAnfiTi’.TTieiit TheofilcialW^^
(tlie Permanent Secretary) to oe
1. The Civil Service. Head of the Home Civil Service.
evaluation.
OrdSnSXc toto nnd file Eoyad Naval D^k- by the technldue of job
yards. It is toportant to realise ttot seven out of ^ The development of greater prtifessionah^
every ten civil servants work outside LoÔT. '“ke Service. Professional and techmpal
maiidy in the regional anddocal e£.!êp^- ^^tne gj ygts) to be givm more train^
ments such as Heaim and SMial Security. Em- and opportunity for .
ployment, and Inland Beyenue. - reanonsibility and wider careers. Administrators
^ The political head of each departoent is amMs- pjofesslonalism by speciaUslng.
ter' Very often the n^teter ^ no sî^ theh SLly years, in paitici^^^^
knowledge or eigierience in me field to wtoh he is e.g.. in economic and financial
ayrs or social poUoy.
CENTRA!. GOVERNMENT CSt4 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
The establishment of a Civil Service College the Environment by integrating the
trammg courses m management and Housing and Local Government, the Ministrv Ministry of
of
orgaiubation, and m research. Not restricted to Transport, and the Ministry of Public
civil servants. Buildiii"
and Works. A number of other minor changes in
(5) In addition to the permanent secretary, responsibilities and departmental
who has overall responsibility, under the minister. also proposed. By the end of
for the running of a department, the minister all these changes had been effected,
should also have a senior policy adviser who x> other most important feature of the White
would normally be head of the planning and JiiDBr ivas the establishment of a small, multi¬
research unit to be set up within departments for review staff within the Cabinet
major Jong-term policy planning. The main supervision of the Prime
task of the new adviser would be to look to and is to work for mmistMS collectively
prepare for the future and to ensure that current for the Cabmet as a whole the wider
policy decisions were taken with as full recogni- ipiPl'fâtions of every Govwnment programme,
lion as possible of likely future developments.
^ novel atconcept
possible In British
this stage Government
to predict how It will it Is not
operate.
(6) The delegation to departments of a larger The intention, however, was that the review staff
role in recruitment and the speeding up of re- should act as a counter-balancing force for mem-
cruitmeiit procedures. bers of the Cabinet when considering the proposals
mana'mmentô f^^VcWu'^
of Wi®ir*^de’part
servaSs® so°that^ ttfev to Lord stato?^°
appointed omitaf BothschUd head the newr
Th^ toPrhne'^MinSte
haTC tiropporLly
(8) The encouragement of greater mobility
tetweeu the Civil Service and other employments „ _ _ i-t, _ n ^
through a reform of the restrictions on the trans- Expenditure Procedure,
ier of peusionB. Offie Committee reoonmend am Since 1945 growing attention has been paid to
expanded late entry, tenporary appointments, the planning of public expenditure both as a result
short-term exchanges of staff, freer movement of its increasing size and because of its vital role
out Of tne service. in the management of the economy. New tech-
nlaues for the planning and examination of public
IM expenditure have been adopted by the spending
(D) Implementation. departments and by the Treasury. However,
(1) The
lished CivU Service
in November 1068 Department was estab-
on the lines proposed by Parliament’s
SF scrutiny
to* l>ace of government
wth these spending
developments. The
the Committee. House of Commons still considers expenditure on
mi, i. I i, , „ an annual cash basis, its procedure being centred
(2) The Government accepts the abohtion of around the annual voting of Supply. Most
classes and the introduction of a imifled grading government expenditure, however, renuires
structure. _ As interim measures while such a planning over a number of years ahead. The
structure is developed, jobs at the top of the House
Service have been maile onen f.n nil elaaoRH nnd aii t-ar-rn has no machinery for examining the long-
courses in autiunn 1970 in two residential centres Session. It received a large amoimt of written
at Suimingdale Park and Edinburgh. In addition fptoce, mcludmg a Green Paper published by
the Cent re for Administra ve Studies in government PiiWic Hiwewditer A New
Regent’s Park has been expti . e:
ande Presen
the tation (Omnd.
government 4017). toThpublish
intended is annoim that
ancedannual
d. White Paper, towards the end of the calendar year.
IV. THE JUDICIARY which would present to Parliament the results of
The judiciary IS.responsible
.1., for
..the mterpreta-
. I . for public
government’s consideration
expenditure, bringingof out
the the
prospects
main
tion of statutes and the determination of the com- impUeatlons for resources over the period ahead,
mon law. Judicial fimctlons are exercised quite It was intended that the "WTilte Paper should be
^parately from legislative or executive functions, debated and that this annual discussion shoiUd
However there are some hnks m personnel, come to occupy as important a place as is now
Judges are appointed by the Queen acting on the occupied by the annual Budget debate. The
advice of mnisters but to safeguard their inde- Report of the Select Committee in July 1969
jwndenceali senior judges can only be removed by welcomed the government’s proposals and also
ttie Soverei^ on an addr^s presented by both recommended that the Estimates Committee, at
Hou^s of Parhament. ITie Lord Chancellor, present operating imder restricting terms of
the head of the judiciary, is the only political reference and precluded from direct examination
appomtment who, as a member of the Cabinet, of policy, be obanged to a Select Committee on
msigra his position with a change of government. Expenditure with general terms of reference.
He also serves as Speaker of the House of Lords.
of tJie House “ toTheconsider publicIVhite
first such expenditure”. '
Paper was published in
of Lords. See English Law, D7-9. Itecsmhei IQQQ &s Public Expendikire 1968S9 to
1$73~74 (Omnd. 4234). It set out the govern¬
ments plans for public expenditure for the finan¬
cial year 1969-70 and for the next two years. It
B. REFORM OF GOVERNMENT.
B. REFORM OF OOVERNMENT. visional andallocations
approximate of expenditure on a pro¬
basis for 1972-3 and
1. Machinery
1. ol Government.
-I Machinery
MoAiiin/iTO
ol Government. 1973-4.
House
The White
of Commons
Paper was debated
on 21 and 22 January
in the
1970.
In October 1970 the Government published a Tlie proposal for a Select Committee onExpendi-
White Paper entitled The Reorganisation o? considered by the new government in
Central Qovernmmt
publlcation (Omnd. 4506),
oiithe machhiery the first official
of government since w”® »s conclusions published as a Green
Raper (see below),
the Report of the Haldane Committee of 1918. It
proposed a number of changes in the division of <v • r- i «
3. Specialised -.j.
Committees.
functions between departments and the establish- Speciahsed Committees,
ment otof _a
a new antral policy review staff. Con- In 1966. as one of the procedural reforms intro- inf, m-
tmuing iihe developments of recent yearn towards duced by Mr. Crossman, the Leader of the House,
the government proposed the establishment of a
^ ®f PffiPker of specialised select committees to in-
Health and vestigate particular areas of policy or the activities
of particular departments. Between 1966 and
( swch committees were appointed and
3 they produced a large number of reports. On
)
TheIndustry
CivU Seand the creation of a new Department of taking office, the Conservative government an-
rvice Coll
ege starte
d running
goimnittee
on ftoced
ure durm
g the 19
68-69
CENTRAt. GOVERNMENT PUBLIC AFFAIRS
the govMm
noimced that It woidd review ttiis experiment, acticms. To enforce these provision st^nto^
eS^Mly in the light of the Eeport of the Select ment proposes to establish two new Anew system
Committee on Procedure which recommended the agencies and to stre^hen a third. industri^ rebatlom
establidmient of a Select Committee on Expend!- of courts _ for dealing mth
tiire to replace the Estimates Committee. questions is to he created noMisti^ of a Nafaon^
state to
In October 1970 the results of this review were Industrial Relations Court, of equivênt
published as a Green Paiier Select Committees of the the High Oomt, and at a lov/er level of luduîal
Souse of Commons (Cmnd. 4507). It proposed a Tribunals. Theupcomts wo^d be able to award
dual system of some specialised committees and an compensation, to a Imut of £100,000 m the
expenditure committee. On the one hand the case of large trade muons, and they coidd make
Mtion.
Sntect Committee on Nationalised Industries was orders to refrain from imfair indMtrial Unions and
to be retained along with a number of specialised Secondly, a Registrar of Trade
committees dealing with particular subjects but ployers’ Associations is to be appointed to emure
not with individual departments. The Estimates upheld. that the two sides rules are up to stmidard and Me
Committee was also to be enlarged and trans- To qualify for the legal benefits and
formed into an Expenditure Committee which immimities under the by Act, a trade umon mte
would focus not on the Supply Estimates but on secure authorisation registering ^ with the
longe^term and ^der iÛcatio n^ Registrar. Thirdly, the government intends to
would hot be put the Commission on todustrial Relations at
IS.enS:r™a wh^ and which constituted as a Royal Commisaom
barred from considering the policies behind the present
fisures. It would be organised into sub-commit- statutory basis and to gm it new poyep
tees covering different subject areas. It was in- proposeadded responsibihties. The goTCrnment
tended to establish the Expenditure Committee that eaoh worker shoidd
umon. tlmt peuoto of
pirlv in 1971 At the end of 1970 select commit- both to jom and not to join a
tees on Nationalised Industries, Rime Relatiom notice of ^^ve”^^^ of
and Immigration. Science and pchnology, and eoteder
Scottish Affairs had been appointed. tgfrhave dlSed! that thfpre-.
entry closed sliop should be outlawed and that
Commission
4. In on the Const itution, large firms sli9uld give ^regular sharebolders-type
Eebruary 1969 a Royal Oonmission was were contained in an Industrial
appointed under the chairmanship of lord wgjg^HQjjg BUi which passed its Second Reading in
CTowther with the following terms of reference; House of Commons on 16 December 1970.
“ To examine the present functions of the centte government hope that the BiU wiU be pre¬
legislature and government m_ relation to tbe ggn+gd for Royal Assent in July 1971 and intend
several countries, nations and regions of the Umted ^ jx should come into effect in 1973.
Kingdom: to consider, having regard to the de¬
velopment in local government organisation ^d in „ „ ^
the administrative and other relationships between 2. Cuts m Pubhc Expenditure,
the various parts of the United Kingdom and to During the 1970 summer recess the Government
the interests of the prosperity and good govern- undertook a thoroughgoing examination of the
ment of our people under the Crown, whether any v of go-vermnent and other public authorities,
changes are desirable in these functions or other- mjj|g jeYie.p;r -âs based on a belief that the govem-
wise in present constitutional and economic intervening too much in the life of the
relations: to consider also, whether any changes ^nd that too high a proportion of the
are desirable in the constitutional_ and economic resources were committed to public
relationships between the Umted K^dom and the expenditure. Its main objectives were to reduce
Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. It is sphere of government so that it could con-
expeoted to report in late 1971 or early 1972. centrate its activities and its expenditure on thrae
tasks which it alone could perform and to enable
both private industry and the individual citizen
C. THE WORKING OF GOVERNMENT
GOVBRHBIENT
. 1970. ^renoef
Til ^renoef ^hein toT^rSts^
n.TTnniiTiifififl & miiiistGriS'lof statsmci^
this remewoy'were
thfe 'r^mv were
tbc
Two of tbe most important policies advocated nhancellor of the Excheaner on 27 October 1970.
by the Conservative Party In Opposition and The main features of the government’s decMons
during the election campaign^ were jefom ot selective approach to the social ser-
industriar relations and reductions in ighhoêx- .^fggg a general withdrawal In its relations
were taken to put these policies into practice. aovemment proposed to end cheap welfare milk
md the supply of free mirn system to piipm over of
„ 7. to abolish the present of housing rab-
1. Industrial Relations ■Eefonn. sidles, rents and rebates substituting a system
Industrial relations have been in the forefront which would give lieto
of political controversy for a number of years, to raise the charge for school jn®^> *0 ^ JP®
particularly since the Eeport of the Donovan Com- cliafee.f” md 'to rmare the
to riate ^
mission in 1968 In 1969 the Labour government cost of the service provided and to
Bill based on its charge for prescriptions
proposed an Industrial Relations (Cmnd. more ctoely
Strife 3623), but and as an mterhn measure to raise the charge
whit.p Paper In Place of
^Siio^l^tHhe fuu it 20P per item. Some of the mm®wed tooneof m tte
™S&ed new toefit
êed to abandon it in favour of the TUC’s wayistohespentlngivi^ a
ptedge to take action itself to deal with strikes, the poorest sections of tê to be pmoîn
At the time the Conservative party announced Family Income _ Supplement is
teat tey^d not regard this solution as adequate addition to exi^mg ^3®!!®**;®' topooj is mfuU-time work,
and during the election campaign they made children where the wage earner
simple tet of
Sear th^ intention to introduce a compre- ^® 1®'*'®! of benefit he^ h^d on a
P^« “ed to
Th“ proposals were published as a Con- Corporation, to dlscontmiie the EeSoi^to ahol^
sultative Docent by the Department of Em- ment Preimum by the end of 19 W
October 1970.
ployment in those In some respects investment replacim th^^ irtth a system
they resemble of the Labour govermnent, for of tax aUowances and reductioM.
inqf.ance in cases of national emergenoy there is public expenditure included the introduction oiâ
pToteiontorô^Ste^ SiSWperiod and s^tem of import levies, of ctoges for
and galleries and the
for the boldine baiUots* but In other res-
of strike national nanseiuns
peote .they“êr suhstantlaRy, TTe two b^c the grant toLondon

to theof Cqnsimer
tioii Council. Some of the resoles
principles behind their proposals are that coUective ““®^®
aêmmts should be legally binding and enforce- released m this way were to ^
ahle^ unless the partiM to the agreement expressly expenditure on educational builm^,
declare otherwise, and secondly that a Code of
Industrial Relations Practice should he town up 8®^®®!®!,^® menS^ndi-
whioh would list a number of unfair industrial especially for the elderly and the mentauy nanui
LOCAL GOVERNMENT C26 POBLJC AFFAIRS
capped, and to Increase sligMlr the overseas aid The following Acts and Orders are among those
programme. already passed by the new Parliament:
Although some of the decisions were put into
effect immediately, many were annoimcements of
the long-tenn intentions of the government. National
Pensions Insurance (Old Persons'
and Attendance Allowance)andAct Widmos’
1970.
See also Section G-, Part IV, under Internal Develop¬ provides retirement pensions for those who were
ments, excluded by their age from participation in the
national insurance scheme which came into opera¬
3. Becent Legislation. tion in 1948,
widows and anwidows’ pensions
allowance for seriously
for the certain younger
ill who
The legislative output of Parliament in 1970 reauire constant attention or supervision.
was limited as a result of the dissolution in May.
A number of major bilis, such as the National Parliamentary Constituencies Orders 1970, imple-
Superannuation and Social Insurance BUI, the mentii^ the recommendations of the Boundary
Ports Bill, the Commission for Industry and Man¬ Commissioners.
power Bill and the Education BiU, were lost for
this reason. Among the Acts which reached the British Standard Time Act 1968. The order which
statute book before the dissolution were the
following: would have made British Standard Time perman¬
ent was rejected. Erom 1971 there will be a
return to Greenwich Mean Time during the winter.
Administration of Justice Act 1970, makes import¬
ant alterations in the jurisdiction of the High
Coiut and abolishes the power of imprisonment for The Queen’s Speech (July 1970) contained pro¬
civil debt. See D6. posals to reform industrial relations, to abolish
the Land Commissiom to alter the administration
of justice In accordance with the recommendations
Bmal Fay {No. 8) Act 1970, makes discrinoination of the Eoyal Commission on Assizes and Quarter
in pay and terms and conditions of employment on Sessions and to bring the arrangements for ad¬
grounds of sex illegal by the end of 1976. mitting Commonwealth citizens into Britain for
employment into line with the arrangements for
Ohronieally Side and Disabled Persons Act 1970. aliens. Among the hills which had passed their
provides for a large number of measures to im¬ Second Beading by the end of 1970 were the
prove the welfare of chronlcaUy sick and disabled Industrial Eelations BUI, the EamUy Income
persons. A private member’s biU. introduced by Supplement BUI, the Local Government (Qualifi¬
Mr. Alfred Morris, it was hailed as a charter for cation of Members) BUI, the Misuse of Drugs Bill
the disabled. In particular, it makes the provision and the Unsolicited Goods and Services BUI.
of a number of services, formerly permissive,
mandatory upon local authorities.
Local Authorities Social Services Act 1970, unifies n. LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

the administration of the personal social services
within each local authority area in England and Local government is the creation of Parliament.
Wales, thus implementing the naaln recommenda¬ The structmre and boundaries of local authorities
tion of the Seebohm Committee (Cmnd. 3703). are laid down by Parliament and they may only
exercise those powers which Parliament either
Matrimonial Proceedings and Properly Act 1970, commands or permits them to exercise. Their
following the passage of the Divorce Beform Act functions include responsibUity for all education
in ] 069, it increases the power of the courts in except the universities, most personal health and
welfare services, public health, environmental
dealing with a spouse’s property on the breakdown planning, traffic and transport, in all cases subject
of a marriage, allowing the courts to re-allocate to some central government control. England
family assets. See D33.
and Wales (outside the Greater London area) are
Police Act 1970 and Ulster Defence Regiment Act at present divided
ministrative into The
counties. county boroughs
structure, andchart
as the ad¬
1970. together implement the recommendation of shows, is spUt vertically: on the one side are the
Lord Hunt’s Advisory Committee on the Police administrative coimties subdivided into county
in Northern Ireland that the police and military districts^ — ^non-county boroughs, urban districts,
roles should be separated. The Acts disbanded
and rural districts, the last-named being fui-ther
the “ B ” Specials and removed military duties divided into parishes: and on the other side are
from the Eoyal Dlster Constabulary and provided the county boroughs (mostly with populations of
for a voluntary police reserve to assist the ETJC over 76,000), local government being in the hands
and a locally recruited part-time force under the of one authority, the county borough council. In
command of G OO Northern Ireland to support the Scotland there are 33 county councils (two pairs
regular military forces. being combined for certain pxirposes), 201 town
councils (Including 4 counties of cities) and 196
Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, The district councils (2 counties not being divided into
Act provided for the abolition of the death districts). The Greater London area is adminis¬
penalty until July 1970. In December 1969 both tered by the coimciis of 32 London boroughs and
Houses approved resolutions extending the aboli¬ the caty of London, and by the Greater London
tion mdefinitely. See DlO(l). Council.
Local Oovemment in Mnaland and Wales

Parliament
IBT TiEB County(68)Councils County Borough Greater London

Councils Coimcil
(88)
Non-County
-Urban
1- Rural
2irD Tieb
Borough Corporatioa
of the London
Borough
District District
Councils
(259) Councils Councils City of London
(682) (470) Councils
(82)
8kd Tibb Parish Councils Parish Meetings

(7.500) (3,300)
Cat public affairs
local government
1. Local Government in toeate^

The London Goveênfc continues to look after. In 1070 the GLC took
the ahoUtion of the London over responsibility for London Transport,
x County Council, and parts ot ^
the Middlese
Essex, Surrey, Other Functions.— The GLO is responsible for
incorporated m Greater ]tond.on,wm^now covere ambulance services, for refuse disposal
the whole of the continuously develo^d ar^ main sewerase It is responsible also for
within tMen Mt. Tte system came fully festivalÛ, the Crystal
mto effect on 1 April laeo. Palace, the LCC museums, and Kenwood House.
The London Boroughs, — There are 32 London Greater London Development Plan.— A report.
each is heêen
borouglis and the popitotion of speaking Tomorrow’s London, published by the GLC m
170 000 and 340,000. Broadly the new
iinportmt November 1969, teUs of plans to nnprove the
boroughs are responsible for all quality of living within the Greater l^ndon area,
personal services such mhashousing, hei^h, and
welfare. Each council a maxunmn of 60 while preserving the position and status of the
capital. The council is concerned not omy with
directly elected counclUors, plus aldermen up to nrovidhig better amenities for those who hve ma
o?Sh.
cillors retireinaking
amaximimof70. ^8
together every three years (one yeM
com-
work
^ in London, but also for those who visit the
^ter the GLC elections). remains The mdependent posi¬ Ôle^' population of Greater London depHoed
the City of London
tionhasof the unchanged and
it powers of a borough. mbetween 1939 and 1969 from 8-6 million to 7-9
million. Ninety thousand more people leave the
capital each year than come to settle there. The
re
The Greater London Council, a directly elêoted ca
report says the aim is not to have the largest
body, carries out functions which need to _ be pj
planned and administered over Greater London pwulation in the world— “we cheerfuUy cede tins
^
bi
distinction to New York. Tokyo, or Sao P^lo —
as a whole and consists of lOO comciilors and 16 cc to concentrate
but on beauty and amenity,
aldermen. The new councils m Greater London council affirmed its intention to preserve London s
into existence as local authonties when they “ green belt ” (an area of countryside surrounding
were elected — ^the GLC on 9 the city, in which huUdhig is severe^ restrict^)-
London borough councils on 7 May 5 of State for Lpe^
g December 1969 the Secretary
In
from then until 1 April 1966 the new authonties oGovernment and Eegional Planning.^r. Anthonya
and the old continued side by mde. On 1 April Orosland,
^ announce d his intention to appoint
1966 the new councils took over their fi^ functions committee of inquiry into the Greater London
D
and the older authorities ceased to exist. which he described m com¬
Development Plan,
prehensive, complex, and controversial.
the GreaterheldLondon
lor elections CouncOj— I'or
theElections
first three in 1964, 1967. and
1970, each of the 32 London boroughs was also Local Govern¬
p*- 2. Proposals tor the Beform o£
the electoral area and returned ment: IReport oS Boyal Commission.
elec- .
four councillors, according to the size of the nts 1, England (except London).
torate in each area. Lhete electoral am^me pi
may, however, be changed for fht^ elwtlons and n The proposals outside for the reform of local govern¬
it is possible that the number of electopl are^ the Qreater^ndon area
ment
v in England
will be increased and will probably return om were published on 11 June set 1969 (Cimd. 4039).
councillor only, based upon the mw Parllam enta^ 3The Boyal Commission was up m 1966 under
constitue ncies as envisaged m the London Govern- t -ûd 8»d
ment Act, 19 63 . 8tbe chairman ship of Lord.Be dcliffe
evidence from. 2,156 witnesse s. Their ^bndiugs
were contained in three volrmes, comprising the
London i
main report. Mr. Derek Semors substmtial
The Powers o! London Boror«l^—Bmh es.
is a housing
borough London authority although tne imemoraiffium of dissent, and research appendic
Greater GonneU is _ the « The structure of local government m England
plans are di»TO |
and "Wales dates from the lM(te. The report
authority. Local developmmt the
up by the boroughs (within tLeframework of the 1began hy pointing out the need for reform, nt to catch
overall development plan of the GÎ^) and me nred for the structure of locM governme
boroughs are responsible for deal^ with appll^ up . with the effects of scientific discMvery and in¬
fdustrial progress which have so raplffiy re-shaped
tions for planning pennission. _^They 'wMlly Bh omUv4: ^d the need for local selLgov emment
responsible for a wide range of P^8^„,L88
services and welfare services for me 8lderi^tto to^sist the individual ions at a time when huge m-
sick and the handicapped, md 8^?™^ ® 1representative organisat seem to
lives Local governm ent should he the meam
The GLO wlU complete tthe LWhous^ pro:; J
gfa.TY>Tne and, for tli6 time being, inberits tbe IiOO I whereby citizens bring their views to hear on puh-
nearly to personM
^ôf homes (about 280.000) and wfil even- . he problems which touch most
tually transfer them to the boroughs. ^domestic life. There was a need for a new struc¬
ture and the a new map. " If local 88lf-goveniniMt
withers, roots of democracy grow dry. JChe
jBduoatibn in Greater London.— In Itoer Lon-
a the *■ ;four
Boyal
. Oommission said local government miist do
things:
don, virtually the ex-LCO area, eduction
responsibility of a spe^^ committee of the
Greater London CotmoU. the Inner I^don Bdu^
tion Authority, consisting of members of the. GLLa^ (i). perform specific tasks efficiently;
elected from the central area together with 1 zens;
(ii) attract and hold the attentio
n of citi¬
representative of each Londra ^roi^
and of the City of London. The LMiA maintalmofs (iil) develop strength to deal with central
the education service and decides the. amount f government as a partner;
money needed to he raised Ly Pjeoepte on I^r ^ (iv) adapt itself to the changing pattern of
London borough councils and by Imrrow^. The■” ® people’s
arrangements, work, movements, shopping
lives, etc.
education committee established by thetopther con¬
sists of the members of the Authority
with 16 other persons chosen from people ex¬
perienced in education. The lufiqne rve arrange¬i- It found that the present system was suffering
ments for education in Inner Londtopr^developea thele from three major defects:
continuity of the service which has
since 1870 as a unity without regard to localil (1) local government areas do not fit the
boundary divisions. In the Outer ^ndm area
ty of the borougn ja present- day patteni^f life and work in
education is the responsibili
council. :h modem England. TL? widen as
qui
social
cke
economic andn; technological _ changes
Highways and Traffic. — -The GLO is tlm traffic (ii) the division hetweem wmty horoiwhs
authority for the whole of Greater Londim.ic and counties, which was intended m 1888 to
n reflect the separation of town
“ Metropolitan roads come under the GLO anu id
LOCAL. GOVERNMENT C28 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
has made the planning of development and i In these areas responsibilities would be
allocated at two levels, the main metropolitan
transportation impossible. The result has authority being responsible for planning,
often been an atmosphere of hostility between
county boroughs and counties; transport, and major development. Smaller
district authorities (7 in Birmingham, 4 in
Liverpool, and 9 in Manchester) would have
county councils and county district coimcus responsibility for education, social services,
in the counties means that services which health, and housing.
should be in the hands of one authorit are
fragment among several. The difficulty ofy Below the hew unitary authorities, existing
(i meeting ed compre the needs of families councils (ranging from city councils, like Leeds, to
ii and individu heis nsiv us y greatly increased.
thel parish councils) could remain, but their purpose
) als
would be mainly to act as a sounding-board of
These faults in turn mahe people Teel local public opinion. In this purely advisory capacity
governmentthe di vision help
cannot them, make Parliament
of re they would have authority only in minor matters
doubt the ability of local sp government
onsibili to function like car parks and community halls unless the
effectively while the variety in type ty of
betauthority
we^ new local authority agreed to devolve precise
makes a single local government lobby almrot
impossible to achieve for negotiation with the Above the new authorities would be 8 provinces
government. powers.
with advisory powers only, unless given more on
The Eoyal Commission’s solution was based on the recommendation of the Constitutional Com¬
the following general principles: mission, which has yet to report. They would
take over the job being done by the regional
(i) areas should be so defined that they economic planning councils. They would prepare
enable electors and coimcillors to have a sense provincial plans which might be binding on the
of common purpose : local authorities. Their members would be
(il) areas should be based on the inter¬ selected by the local authorities with provision for
dependence of town and country: substantial co-option and they would be unpaid.
(iii) impersonal services (e.g.. planning, On financial matters, the Eoyal Commission
transport, and major development) should be urged that the opportunity offered by re¬
in the hands of one authority: organisation be taken to examine the short-
Ho. of authorities Area (1968)

Population
Province Unitary Met.
areas
10
areas
Horth East 5 2,749,000
Yorkshire (mile”)
3,639 4,849,000
6 2 6,990,000
Horth-West 174 1 6,402
6,631
West Miffiands 4 5,164,000
East Midlands 3,017,000
8 6,169
4,674 4,061.000
South-West 9.408 1,990,000
Bast Anglia 684
South-East (excl. Greater 6,889
10,003
London) 9,289.000
S 88,109.000
1
(iv) all personal services (e.g., education, comings of present-day local government finance
social services, health, and housing), should be and to remove them. Pointing out that the
in the hands of one authority; Exoheauer currently accounts for 62 per cent of all
(v) if possible both the impersonal and the local government expenditure, the Eoyal Com¬
personal group of services should be in the mission emphasised that unless local taxation of
hands of a single authority; all types were reformed and expanded, the new
authorities would he cramped and handicapped.
(vi) authorities should be larger than most In his memorandum of dissent, Mr. Derek
existing county boroughs if they axe to com¬ Senior argued that England’s highly diversified
mand the resources in revenue and manpower community structure does not lend itself to a
they need;
pattern of unitary authorities with a pre¬
(vii) the size of authorities is bound to vary determined range of population size. He believes
but a minimum population of 250,000 is that the areas suitable for the planning and
desirable; execution of regional development and those for
the administration of the social services have little
(vili) councillors should be able to keep in correlation. Accordingly, he recommends that a
touch with electors and thus for personal
services an authority ought not to exceed a two-level structure of local government he intro¬
mUlion persons; duced with 36 regional development authorities
controUtog planning, transport, investment,
(ix) where the area reauired for planning police, education, and 148 second level authorities
and other impersonal services contains too controlling health, welfare, childcare, housing
large a population for the personal servloes, management, consumer protection and aU other
there should be a two-tier system established, functions involving personal contact with the
akin to that already in operation in Greater citizen.
London;
Although the Conservative government does
(x) wherever possible, the new system not accept the recommendations of the Eoyal
should respect the traditions and loyalties of Commission, the Secretary of State for the En¬
the present system. vironment emphasised that its report must be the
starting
ment point for any discussion of local govern¬
reform.
These principles, in application, led to the re¬
commendation that the existing 1.210 local
authorities in England (79 coimty boroughs, 46
county coimcils, 227 non-county boroughs, 449 ownGovernment
proposals forProposals.
reform — were
The published
Government's
as a
urban districts, and 410 rural districts) should he White Paper Local Government in England (Cmnd.
replaced by: 4684) in Eebruary 1971. The government rejects
the unitary principle which Eedcliffe-Maud
68 single-tier aE-purpose authorities, called recommended for England, outside the metro¬
unitary authorities, and politan areas, and proposes to establish a two-tier
system throughout the country based on 44
8 metropolitan authorities covering the counties outside Greater London. Xf the plans
Birmingham, Liverpool, and Manchester are put into effect the present framework of coimty
conurbations. councils and their districts and county boroughs
LOCAL, GOVERNMENT PUBLIC AFFAIRS
consisttag in all of about 1200 authorities will be authorities proper, but would complement the
replaced by a xmlfonn two-level structure of coun- local government structure,
ties and districts numbering only 870 authorities. It is proposed that the seven regional authorities
w.YiHt.iTig county boundaries are to be retained (first-tier) should be responsible for the major
wherever possible although certain counties such services, i.e., the major planmng and related
as Huntingdon and Peterborough, Hereford. Eut- services (including industrial development, tr^-
laTifi and Cumberland and Westmorland will not portation and roads, water, sewerage, redevelop-
survive as separate counties. Within the counties ment, new towns, control of the countryside, and
pyigfiTig boroughs and districts will be rationalised tourism); the personal social services (education,
to provide districts with resources to enable them social work, and health): housing*, the protective
to carry out efficiently their responsibilities. The services (police, fire, and civil defence): and the
bigger cities and towns, will retain their identities impersonal services (such as refuse disposal, coast
but smaller towns will be joined with associated protection, weights and measures and consumer
rural areas to form new districts. Districts will protection, registration of births, deaths and
continue to vary in size but the minimum popula- marriages, and registration of electorsh . .
tlon is expected to be 40,000. Por the second tier amajority of the ^mmssion
All local government functions in relation to expressed a clear preference for the shire .level,
education, personal social services, highways, as representative of communities qmte wide in
traffic and transport, police and fire services are area and relatively self-eontamed. At this level
to be exercised by the county authorities. The it recommends the creationforof local 37 district authori-
district authorities are to be rônsible for hous- ties with responsibility planning and
ing and local amenity functions. Planning is to be related services, building control, housing improve-
divided between the two tiers, the majority of ment and ancillary housing functions, local aspects
planning control decisions being taken by the dis- of civil defence, parks and recreation (concurrently
trict authorities within the broad planning policies with the regional authorities). librariM. enynon-
establlshed by the county authorities. A unified mental health services, and the admmistration ot
planning staff will advise both tiers. , . justice. . . , j.
A different pattern is proposed for six predomi- The Commission proposed that councd elections
nantly urban areas, the metropolitan areas, which should take place every four years, with elections
must be treated as single entitles for important to district and regional authonties staggered so,
functions such as land-use planning and transport, that an election would be held every two years
Metropolitan coimties are proposed for Merseyside, that there should be one council member for each
Southeast Lancashire and North-East Cheshire electoral division .at the resdonal Md district
_ \ TiToef. 'Vni-TramrA iatâIo- AmTnAilinra should be paid a salary.
South Yorkshire and the xyne ana w ear area anu ns m rangianu, mere were uureo
the boundaries of these areas are drawn so as to ftom Miss H. Anderson!^. (Conservative)included, andJVH.
tadu& all the main areas of continuous develop- EusseU Johnson M.P. (Liteal). These
ment and some immediately adjacent areas, (i) all planning shpffid be enabling the respoi^bihty of
Within the metropolitan counties the districts are regional councils, thereby the strict
large enough in population and resources and oouncfls to be smaller,to more nimerpm (101 in
sufflcientlYcompact in size to be responsible for place of 37) and closer the PubUc, (u) Orkney,
education and personal social services. Shetland, and Western Ides should eac^become
Tto Government’s proposals for the boundaries all-purpose authorities on the CTmmd tot geo-
of the new counties everywhere and of the new graphic^y they are disttoct and (Mere^ ftom^
distelcts in the metropolitan cormtles were pub- rest^ Scotland, (ui) Argyll stould be Included m
llshed in a departmental circular issued to local the West Eegion and not the Highlands,
authorities for consultation. Within the new
connti^ outsidG tiiB uiGtropolita^ fSmyArmnATif ProDDsals — ThB Govcniiii6iit*s
Government intend to establish a Local Qovem- -wptV Tuibiifilied in a TOute
Sent Boundary Commission to make recommen- o) To J eol^“ IcSI
^tions regarding
^tions regarding the
the final
final pattern
pattern of of the
the new
new ois-dis-^83). Broadly Broadly it it accepts
accepts thethe structure
structure
“ Government aim to.introduoe a bill to put
The taoimdaiies ra to comties am
to^wmto® and^ me
to^to- 8theto Borders, been toadded
all and, inhasorder totsizethere
reduceso the will he
of some of
f&lTim^ffid^hddW ^^S??^WcrâsTtouSrK°S7to
toards to endnf 1978. vto^y ^ pmê authoiro^^

authorities could he held take
The over to exist- fto-
ing authorities
mg authorities on
on 11 April
April 1974.
1974. Hoiw in
tions iw particular
uarfloular in
in relation
relation toto housing,
housing, thereby
thereby
2. Scotland. unifying responsibility for the
ment and improvement of housing. bufidlng, manage-
report on 26 September 1969. its tmsOTpiion • onffiAfitipa ™m he

oe fuHy
nmy
of to defects of to exlsttora« oldmade sMm to W74 and to new authorities wm
readlog to the Maud report. (Che unmfomed operational by 1J7&.
structure had led tb a loss of power at 1ê_ local
level, to confusion, hostility between dmerent 3, Wales.
(^bUo. in Local
^^âtoTI^theTyes^’ to reutdre- government in Wales was not. inchided
creffibffitwa
Thp Oommission considered the the terms of reference of the Bedcliff^Maud
of a Tadlcally reformed system to be better commission as plans for inform were already far-
ments
Sutaff s^f'mffir l posSwe^^^ advanced. However the Labour goveênt had
pr^^better services for the pubho. and more; ^^ty in
râeêj^f Se published Its proposals M a copsu^
iavaI* of anthorlMcs independently elected and Labour government are in feouth-East _W^^®
MSi»*Hds“lltStTOandtt.|1?M«S'S^
S^tohbTOr^^CtoM and Sown where unitary authorito centod on ^ff.
te to S recomtoen- structure
ropniiH of raising finance but working Closely to-
S? to and to Noriffi Wales where an
Swansea and Newport are replaced by a wo-tler
county is to he created.
datlon of the Commission. It also proposes that
provision should be made for " neighbourhood ” introduction of the new system is the same as tot
community councils, which would not be local for England.
THE COMMONWEALTH CSO PUBLIC AFPAIRS
4. Northern Ireland. Trinidad and Tobago. Sierra Leone, Malta,
Plji. Barbados and Mauritius, aU of whom
Northern Ireland is governed imder the Govern¬ owe her allegiance, and she is the symbol of their
ment of Ireland Act 1920 which created the North¬ free association in the Commonwealth. Those
ern Ireland Parliament at Stormont. The Act countries which are EepubUcs (India, Pakistan,
confers on Stormont extensive powers for regulat¬ Ghana, Cyprus, Nigeria. Tansania, Zambia,
ing the affairs of Northern Ireland hut excludes Malawi, Botswana, Uganda. Singapore, Kenya,
certain matters from its jurisdiction, such as Gambia, and Guyana) with Presidents as Head of
foreign relations and defence, customs and excise State: Malaysia,? which has one of the Malay
and income tax which remain the responsibility Killers as Head of State: Lesotho, Swaziland, and
of the United Kingdom Parliament. Because of Tonga, which have their own monarohs, do not
these reserved powers, 12 M.P.S continue to be owe allegiance to the Queen. AU members accept
returned by Northern Ireland constituencies to her as the symbol of the free association of member
Westminster. Although in some respects this nations of the Commonwealth and as such Head
system is akin to a federal situation, the United of the Commonwealth.
Kingdom Parliament retains power to suspend
the Government of Ireland Act.
Por those matters within the jurisdiction of the The Colonies.
Northern Ireland Parliament, the government of
Northern Ireiand exercises executive powers. As stated In the opening passage of this outUne,
The Queen is represented by a Governor. the United Kingdom, In common ivlth other mem¬
bers of the Commonwealth, has certain dependen¬
cies which are described as “ The Colonies.” But
Local Government — Ât present local govern¬ this is a loose term, for “ the Colonies ” are not
ment is exercised by 1 county borough council. 6 really aU Colonies in the strict sense. What are
coimty councils. 9 non-county borough councils, loosely spoken of as Colonies are properly divided
24 urban district councils, 26 rural district councils into Colonies. Protectorates. Protected States,
and 2 development commissions exercising muni¬ Trust Territories etc.
cipal functions. Between 1966 and 1969 plans
were agreed for reform of local government but
events were overtaken by the disturbances in Definitions. — Oolmy. — k territory belonging by
summer 1969 and the decision in October 1969 to settlement, conquest, or annexation to the British
transfer responsibility for housing from local Crown.
government to a central housing authority. The
Minister of Development appointed a Eeview Protectorate. — A territory not formaUy annexed,
but in respect of which, by treaty, grant, usage,
Body which reported in June 1970. It proposed Buflerance, and other lawful means Her Majesty
a two-tier structure similar to that recommended has power and jurisdiction.
by the Wheatley Commission for Scotland. Stor¬
mont would he the regional authority with res¬ Protected State. — A territory under a ruler which
ponsibility for education, personal social services,
highways and trafBc, with 26 elected district coun¬ enjoys Her Majesty’s protection, over whose
foreign affairs she exercises control, but in respect
cils exercising more local fimctions. of whose internal affairs she does not exercise
jurisdiction.
Trust Terntorv. — A territory administered by
the United Kingdom Government under the
THE COMMONWEALTH. trusteeship system of the United Nations.
The Commonwealth. Oondominium. — Â territory over which responsi¬
bility is shared by two administering powers.
The Commonwealth is a grouping of most of the
successor states of the British Empire and is Leased Territories. — ^This term applies only to
usually described, following the terms of the that part of the mainland of China which was in
Statute of Westminster, 19S1, as a “ free associa¬ 1898 leased to Great Britain for ninety-nine years
tion.” It consists at present of 31 independent and is administered by the Government of Hong
Kong.
sovereign states, together with a number of de¬
pendencies, mostly small Islands which are de¬
pendencies of Britain. Australia, or New Zealand. Associated State. — Â former colonial territory
Plji and Tonga became member states of the Com¬ which has entered into a free and voluntary asso¬
monwealth in 1970, and Western Samoa was for¬ ciation with Britain to become self-governing in
mally admitted in the same year. Successor aU matters except for external affairs and defence.
states of the Empire which are not part of the The term appUes to six of the Bast Caribbean
Commonwealth include Burma, Eire, Sudan, Islands — Ântigua, St. Kitts-Nevis-AnguUla. and
South Africa, and South Yemen (formerly the the four Windward islands of Dominica , St. Lucia,
Eederatlon of South Arabia). St. Vincent, and Grenada. See also C6(S).
The Nature of the Commonwealth. BesponsibiUty of the British Government.

The Commonwealth is hot a federation, and has The British Government is responsible for the
no central government, defence force, or judiciary. affairs of Colonies (properly called Crown Colonies)
It is a grouping of states which continues to be both internal and external, and for their defence,
useful to members for a wide variety of reasons. and their peoples are British subjects. Protec¬
It is the only major association of states which torates are governed in the same way as Colonies,
links countries of the developed and under¬ but have not been annexed. The peoples of Pro¬
developed world. A web of technical associations, tectorates are not British subjects but British-
education exchanges, and eultoal and personal protected persons. In the case of an Associate
Units, holds it loosely together. GeopoUticaUy, State the British Government Is responsible for
its main segments are Britain and the three older defence and external relations, though It may con¬
“dominions” (AustraUa, New. Zealand, and fer
ity upon the with
to deal Associated
si>eciflo State’s
mattersgovernment
of foreign author¬
affairs.
Canada): South Asia (India, Pakistan, Ceylon)
whose peoples account for most of the auarter of The future of some of the remaining dependen¬
cies of Britain is unclear. Many are so small that
the world’s population
countries; who Uve inof Commonwealth
and those countries former British it is doubted whether they could ever be viable as
Africa which have not left the Commonwealth. independent states, and indeed that doubt applies
to some of the smaller states which have already
achieved independence. In the case of British
The Sovereign and the Commonwealth. \ Honduras, independence has been delayed because
of the political problem represented by the Guate¬
The Queen’s legislative power in the parliaments malan claim to the territory.
of the Commonwealth is a formaUty-r-she reigns,
though she does not rule: hut she provides the
element of continuity in the administration. The The Countries of the Commonwealth. — Ât the
Queen is, therefore. Queen of the United Kingdom, end of the Gazetteer is a list of aU the countries
Canada, AustraUa, New Zealand, Ceylon, Jamaica, of the Commonwealth showing their land area
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
THE
THE COMIWONWEAUTH
COIVlIVIWPiVYC.^*-. * .
es of population, list Co>i»

and recent estimat
^tinguishes between the sovereign memtes tmd in 1965 the
lXfac^S?l«
au i?e
wie Brhteh
JDriiiiHU dep
«ro AeX|!
ucyciiucM\^co mdm^^^ _
Witliln the definition either of Colony or wot^- <marantee of tmimneded progress to-
torate. under
partly sioce. one
for heading,
^^®S'^lMtly°mdSSther! wmds' theConstitution:
partly unaer anowci. majority rule already enyisaged in
2. a guarantee of no retrogressive amend-

The Commonwealth Secreiaxiat. ments of the 1961 institution: ^
Tbi, tod, .» «*»»« “ till StKfffiS'iSrSftif.S' '

l^:^Si^for‘’co ntoOitwealtti mftobeia, and racial 4. pro,ri® . towards ffie elimiiiatioii of .
me^ra the ground for Commonwealth meet^ discrimmation: and
and functions. The Secretary General is hfc overriding reauirement that Britam
Arnold Smith, a former Canadian diplomat. ^ ^,g satisfied that any proposed basis for
^ght have been expected, the independence would be acceptable to the
Stempted only tlm most S Khodesian population as a whole,
sucn
relation to major Commonwe^th pr^tos
as the Nigerian cM war. Ehodesian TJ.U.i., ana British Goyemment offered to co-operate
arms sales to South Afnca. crash programme of education for Africans to
fit them to tahe an effective share in the economie
Commonwealth
amnonwealt Problems.
Pmh lem
hProh s
lems, and political life of the country Within the span Of,
possibly, a decade.
Britain’s attitude to Southern African guestions
hafbeen fm S aid re=the P^^^
|e "op™we^th. jmtti the ^
annotmced tlie intention of resuming arms Smith declared the independence of
to South Africa, the focus has mowd away jggja,. tjie British Government were con-
fhe continued existence of a rel^l regime m wp «« Qf rebellion. (TJ.I).I. became
Bihodesia to what African and Asian ^mmom as I D I the illegal Beclaraiionl. The
wealth countries see as Britain’s conttaued support ^^protested’their loyalty to the Sovereto.
for a regime of white dommatlon whose commands, however, they were repndi^-
Britain’a support of the Nigerian federal r^tmy . African opinion was outraged, ^d among
gffveênt in the Nigeria war
some African Commonwealth states, ateo ahe^tedBrit^c^t^^g^^Mch broke off reMons
were two Commonweal^ with
. countriM
end of that war in January. 1970. criticism of fg^ Tanzania). Mauritania, êa. MaU.
Britain’s attitude has faded. _ the Sudan. Algeria, and the Congo (Brazzaville).
There is also the Britain ruled out, from the start, the iMe of fome,
the hostility between India hut Mr. Wilson embarked on a pohoy of graduated
this has long since ceased to ^ economic sanctions, including an oil embargo.
an Issue amenable to British or Commonwealth the objective being the emergent, nndernconramc
mediation. i. harflabin of a liberal alternative to the bimtn
™ British entry into the Common Market rOTU^ rtiê.^’The TTnited Nations took the view that
sents a particular^ preî^ thel961 constitution had tooken down Md ttot
y^pland and the West Indies beoau^ of their aecreea signed upon I.D.I. amoimted to the
dependence on agrioultnrM eôrts ^ totmction of all safeguards for the rule of tow ^d
linaUy. Briti^ attitudes for human rights in the 1961 constitution and
ô“Br*tfeh%®ortfbufarê^^^ aspects of the complex position

barred from freely entering Britam, have ^ in Rhodesia, and several ^“^tpretatipim cm he
fOT extensive criticism in Asian and African 133 gjyen. But one central fact must be stated
Commonwealth countries. simply: iieailyfl.veiiôn.^caMrem^ TOb-
hwlicatiom of
ordtoate to 230.000^whlte8.
B«o.b.EtoaAia.
Ministermip of both ,
ÂAt mfifir the Prime
Mr Winston Pleld and Mr. Ian Commonwealth Conference 19M and Rh9aesia.
^ted that Ehodesla had an immetote^ht to conference of Septemter 1966 it was
indenendenoe based on (a) the fact tlmt it hM j^g0Jfle4 to give the Khodesian B^nt reeim a
nS-ARpif-coyemlng for forty years, and (6) that a^ chance of a negotiated settlement ■^th
" . wii
tto .
nrlvately. Promisea Kt
mo?^ oy TaAiHou ■vn-niHt.fiTH
todW when hut
.explicitly the &f®Tthe
ri.ffyn:
took _ _offer
to sponsor joiuw rejected Britain
wre TYiamin.teTy mder-
sanctions at
Khodesian Pederation was broken up. The ■jjjq- y^thdraw all previous proposals foi a.
British Government, toth rmder constitutional setflement, aJid_not.^nt i^pend-
and labour rule, specified only thak while imo ence before majority rule was acUev^ ê mm
desia shonldmove to independence lê aiiv other gggjg Britain had to be accepted before a fixed
self-governing dependency. It shoim be unaer a ^te.
constitution broadly ac^pteble to the peoples a _ the British Govemmrat
whole and should prm de a PeaeeM tr^Mon ^ to Parliament any consti-
to majority rule. This the tutional settlement which did not confom i^th
in a statement of five MuditioM b®* o"* 'f-tK® ^ OTtooteiesr^These six principles were the five
following paragraph. It v^s not s^d by either ^prinîes jjj|^g^^g^ge ggt out in an earher
party that independence could not he muted to \ggetiief^th a sixth, nom^: no
Bhodâ nntU » eowênt elMteôn a ftm ^|j3g majority by the mlnonty or of
But that majority rale ^t The Bide on the « Tiger.”--After

was asserted hy the tô about t^" between officials dur^ the
le&d.6i8 (divided. iDixt -Dotli to PiwOii/r uy. a-p iQftA»M’r • Wllsoii aiid Mr. taltev -Oii
Amcaa
AmS States, by the Umted Nations, and by of 1966^^. off. Gibraltar
some Oommomyealtli countrieg.
THE COMMONWEAUTH C32 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
and prepared a working document wMcb the Speaking in the House of Commons on 16
Bhodesian Cabinet rejected three days later: and October 1969, the British Foreign and Common¬
on the 16th the TIN Security Council voted on a wealth Secretary said such a constitution, giving
British resolution for mandatory sanctions in¬ exceptional voting rights to a particular section
cluding oil. of the community by virtue of wealth or educa¬
tion, could be justified — if it coidd be justified in
The “ Fearless ” Talks. — Mr. Wilson and Mr. any circumstances — only if the regime which pro¬
Smith met on H.M.S. Fearless in Gibraltar mulgated it noade it overwhelmingly clear that
harbour on 9 October 1968 in yet another attempt it was giving the less privileged community every
to settle the dispute. But the talks ended on the possible opportunity to improve its education,
IStli with disagreement on the fundamental issues to become more prosperous. But. he continued,
still remaining. On 18 November the proposals “ ten times as much was at present spent on the
based on the Fearless talks were rejected by education of a European child as on the educa¬
Ehodesia. The white minority in the crisis tion of an African child, and while about 11 per
cent of European children moved from primary
affecting their country had found themselves im- to secondary schools, only 1 per cent of Africans
ready to give the African majority reasonable did so. As for the ownership of land, the 230,000
prospects of education, jobs, political and eivU Eiuopeans would own rather more land than the
rights. It was clear that what Mr. Smith ob¬ 4,800,000 Africans. If the African happened to
jected to was majority rule in Rhodesia at any advance to the position where he might increase
time. In the House of Commons debate of 22
October 1968 the Prime Minister emphasised that his wealth and voting rights in a town, then we
the limit of what Britain could ofier to reach a tod that the redefinition of areas in the town
settlement with the illegal regime in Rhodesia had is such as to operate solidly to the disadvantage
been reached. of the African who seeks either to he a shopkeeper
or a professional man.” It was a constitution
Commonwealth Conference 1969. " which at the very best and bn the most favour¬
able interpretation nobody could say is not really
Durmg the discussions at the Commonwealth racial: it is related to education and income . . .
Prime Ministers’ Conference held in London in and, at the same time, makes it impossible for the
January 1969, Britain was criticised for abandon¬ less privileged race to advance in education and
ing the principle of no independence before major¬
ity ride (NIBMAR) inputting forward to Mr. Siuith The Opposition spokesman on Foreign and
the Fearless proposals. The majority view was Commonwealth affairs in the House of Commons
that these proposals should be withdrawn. But income.”
supported the Foreign and Commonwealth
Mr. Wilson could not accept that view. The Fear¬ Secretary in declaring that Britain could not be
less terms were stiU on offer to Rhodesia. He con¬ a party to Mr.
sidered that it would be right, if it proved possible, for Rhodesia if it Smith’s proposed
were adopted, and constitution
that there
to give the people of Rhodesia as a whole an would have to be a change of attitude in Salis¬
opportunity to decide for themselves whether or bury if there were to he a negotiated settlement.
not they wished for a settlement which wordd he The Times in its leader of 18 June 1969 said the
fully consistent with the Sis Ptinclples laid down real issue in Rhodesia “is an illiberal constitu¬
by successive British governments. Any such tion wholly alien to British traditions — îlliberal
settlement would need to be clearly shown to not just because It repudiates any eventual
be the wish of the Rhodesian people as a whole. majority rule aud all the six principles, but because
If that took place, he would consult his Common¬ in its provisions it clearly opens the door to the
wealth colleagues about the NIBMAJB commit¬ type of administrative tyranny and police power
ment. He emphasised, however, that a settle¬ that
ment based on the Sts Principles would not he Sir characterise the South
Humphrey Gibbs African his
annoimced system.”
resignation
possible if it were shown that there could be no as Governor on 24 June 1969 and Ehodesia House
genuine test of Its acceptability in present circum¬ in London was closed the same day. On 2 March
stances in Rhodesia. 1970 the illegal rdgime declared itself a republic.
New Constitution and Republican Form of Talks about Talks.

Government.
A referendum held in Rhodesia in June 1969 The Conservative government came to power
committed to make one last try at reaching a
supported
constitution the
and illegal regime’s
republican proposed
form of new
government. settlement with Rhodesia. Mr. Heath said in
It was opposed by the two African opposition September 1970 that the government wanted to
parties, the Centre Party. Dr. Palley, the Inde¬ tod “ a sensible and just solution to the Rhode¬
pendent M.P.. the former GOC of the Rhodesian sian problem.” Shortly afterwards, Mr. Smith
Army, Lord Malvern and Sir Roy Welensky, told a British TV team that he hoped Ehodesia
both former Prime Ministers of the Central would "never degenerate to the system of one
African Federation, business and trade imion man,
U.D.I. one
was vote ...” with
celebrated The .afifth anniversary
military of
parade and
organisations, and by the Christian churches
excei)t the Dutch Reformed church. On the fly-past- It appears that neither Britain nor the
Rhodesian regime believes there is any real
other hand, the Rhodesian Conservative Associa¬ chance of success. Sir Alec Douglas-Home, the
tion condemned the proposals for not going far
enough. Despite this opposition, both proposals Foreign Secretary, told parliament in November
received large majorities, viz: 1970 that talks about talks had begun.
for a republic: Yes 61,130
No 14.872 Arms Sales to South Africa,
for the new
constitution Yes 64,724 The incoming Labour government in November
No 20,776 1964 annoimced that it would honour a HN
embargo on arms sales to South Africa, although
Of the electorate of 81,000 Europeans and 6,646 weapons already ordered by that country would
Africans, some 76,500 cast their votes. be delivered. From that time until the Conserva¬
The new constitution follows In most respects tive general election victory of 1970. no arms other
the regime’s constitutional than these were supplied (with some small excep¬
but additionally lays down proposals of Mayof 1969,
that the Head State tions) and South Africa made a series of protests
shall be a President. The legislature would con¬ that Britain had violated the terms of the Slmons-
sist of a Senate (containing 10 European. 10 town Agreement. The agreement has to do with
African chiefs paid by the Government, and 3 British-South African naval coroperation in the
appointed members irrespective of race) and a event of war. The Conservative party In opposi¬
lower House (60 Europeans, 8 chiefs, and 8 elected tion, however, made it clear that It would wish in
African memhers). The composition of the power to sell arms to South Africa for external
Senate is of special importance as the Declaration defence.
of Bights embodied in the regime’s constitution Opposition to the resumption of arms sales built
would not be subject to jurisdiction in the courts: up quickly after it became clear that the Conserva¬
it would be for the Senate only to decide whether tive government intended to lift the ban on soles.
any particular piece of legislation contravened that Tanzania in July 1970 said that she would with¬
declaration of rights. draw from the Commonwealth if sales were re-
r>-a-a PUBJ-IC AFFAIRS
THE COMMONWEAI-TH
into conmmnal war between Malays an

Slimed d Later Tanzama. Zambia, and -Oganda drawn ear
Saunce they would Mlow a of ^^-mTcl inYolvement of Australia ami New
Sb Aftica President Juto Nyer^^^^ wa? in^
should arms sales be resumed. happed In New Zealand the w

Liperm/
maintained its lead and nr Austraba the
,piiSrKS,??riS|sa„f£f
the westion of arms sales to South ference votes cast for the
maintained
Britainunder that ebe/vvas entitled to sgl Party and partly by its ability to win a maiord^^^
JVma the agreement which allows tne ™„-gjT,ai seats, following a crisis m tae pmoi"*
™4h naw to tie the base at Simonstown. ““£“5“ Wch 1971. the two top mmisters
Onnoritionltom^theblacli African states hMdraed ^âSed Places, Mr. William Mr. McMahon taking
a bitter debate over a document which premiership and Gorton the
dS
are due to be held
PreSdent Kaunda of Zambia Resented to the ^gfe^ce portfolio. Elections
members to^^^^ ^The^greater participation, in Asian aP"
geMrMattitiSlfofCîônwSlth
wh i m^lise rS Ssctoination aîstance ^VlS' S come from Britain and ^

the pursuit or con- 100,000andfrom Italy.
each of Of Netter-
ce. the perhapSt
Grfinterest,
wS dSy
ortiiriof inn evil policy/*to l>6cause
of thiscontributes it conflicted Gennany. greater
^thffidea that BrS must he free to deter- iX’S'Smb re than 50.000 tove lên ad-
glides and he argued that the , Asian and African countries mcludmg
Sine tor
Japanese.
w^^ 16.000 Chinese and
• reached by the insertion of the WOTds" !^^ Canada.
of .an the relationship totween the EngUdi-speatong
itr "ntath Sa Mso^toto ae
s^dy ôup consider theUPsecurity
lotting French-speatong
of the strategic sea routes in the Inân Ooem. Canada’s principal politwal P which gave the
ThP OToim wM due to meet in London m mid-1971. iêc elections in the spring of 1970, whion gai e
Party, committed to tederaiism.
wnw^pr hTP^ruary the BritEh government ^êbec Liberal
A-smilitary
small S5rKr ss“S3
force in Malaysia and f=C‘
Stoapo:^ Tauoite was discovered by police. Mr.
tSw r^rsiS the previous go’^rnment’s poliw BrS trade commissioner, was later
of“c3dewlthdiâwalÊast ofSu«! brtheend captors. As Quebec returned
nf 1 071 The British units — one infantry pattal I reie normal the general view was that the
seriously
ton a few toUcoptereand maritime Wtonaissmce pai^y to normai^^^^^
‘SfHnS fttea^Xd^ftaSs SSeW the hfdnappings and the murder of
i£âpore''Ma“afA^te^r4d^^4^^ %,SMbs were held in 1968 and 1969 between
ScWoSSttSS'S
Singapore is internal Communist«a 5iffi^„5ry*wS“ »
federal level in parliament and J]ll
E (80th Ed.)
THE UNITED NATIONS C38 PUBL.IC AFFAIRS
not reach a peaceful settlement. On its side the Special Sadies
Cmmcil can call on the parties to settle disputes
UN Children's Eimd (UNICEF)
peacefully, it can investigate any situation lihely
to cause a breach of the peace, and at any stage it Commissioner for Refugees
can recommend a solution. Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD)
The Veto. Industrial Development Organisation
(UNIDO)
At this point we must deal with the veto,
which applies to substantive questions. The
ntunber of affirmative votes reciuired for adopting Jntergovenment Agencies (previonslv catted
decisions on substantive matters is 9, including
the votes of the five permanent members. In Specialised Agencies). — ^The agencies are organisa¬
tions established byintergovemmental ag^ments,
other words if any one of the permanent members and their activities as a rule are co-ordmated by
says " No ” to the use of force, even after a full the Economic and Social Councfl. The list of the
investigation, the Council cannot use force to fifteen Agencies are given below.
settle the dispute. Thus when it comes to im¬ International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
posing sanctions for a breach of the peace the
assent is required of the Great Powers, and one of International Labour Organisation (ILO)
them may of course be a party to the dispute.
If the Great Powers imposed sanctions on each Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
other it would mean a major war in which the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural
present UN would disappear. Partly in order to Organisation (UNESCO)
overcome the difficulty of the veto the Assembly
World Health Organisation (WHO)
set up a Committee to remain in permanent ses¬
sion consisting of one representative of each World Bank (Bank)
member. It is known as the Little Assembly, its
formal title being the Interim Committee. International Finance Corporation (IFC)
International Monetary Fund (FUND)
The Uniting for Peace Resolution, 1960. i International Development Association (IDA)
The General Assembly had always been able to International Civil Aviation Organisation
aCAO)
discuss matters of peace and secmrity, although it
could not make recommendations about them if Universal Postal Union (UPU)
they were being considered by the Security Coun¬ International Telecommunication Union
cil. But in 1960, after the Korean crisis, a new
decision was taken by the General Assembly (ITU)
whereby if there were some threat or breach of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
peace on which the Security Council was in dead¬ Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative
lock, the Assembly, on a vote of seven members of Committee (IMC<D)
the Sûrity Council, could consider it iminedi^ly
and make a recommendation about it. This General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
decision, to which Russia and four other countnM (GATT)
were opposed, was called the " Uniting for Peace Several of these organisations were at work
resolution. By this resolution, too, the Assembly
can be called together within twenty-four hours. before the UN was set up. One such body is the
It was the standing Interim Assembly which ILO.
considered the Israeli-Bgyptian dilute in
November 1966.
A Peace Force.
Since its inception in 1946, the United Nations
The Economic and Eiocial Council. has been called on only four times for military
action — in Korea (1960). in Egypt (1966), in
The UN pledged themselves to a broad humani¬
tarian policy of which the following are salleiit the Congo (1900) and in Cyprus_ (1964). Korea
points: to promote higher standards of livtt«: fuU was really an American “ containment ” action
employment: the conditions of economic and under the covering of the UN. In other opera¬
tions, the number of troops ranged from 6,00()
social progress; solutions of international econo¬ to 20,000. Apart from military action, the UN
mic, social, health, and other related problems;
educational co-operation; universal respect for has sent observers or " presences ’ to various
parts of the world, mainly to the Middle and
hmnan rights; and the fundamental freedoms for Far East, to facilitate settlement of disputes.
all. The main business of the Economic and Thus to maintain a standby force of 20,000 men,
Social Council is to carry out this broad pohcy. when it might be needed so rarely, would be a
The size of the Coimcil was increased from 18 to waste, apart from problems of bases, control, and
27 with effect from January 1966. To ^Me equipment. Two ideas about the best kind of
these huge problems the Council established a
nmnber of important commissions and bodies, the peace force hold the field. They are:-—
principal being the following:— (1) the
and earmarking of national military units;
Beoional Mcontmic Commissions (2) a permanent multiracial force.
Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
The cogent arguments for a permanent UN Mili¬
Economic Commission for Asia and the Ear tary Force can be studied in United Nations
East (ECAEB) Forces by D. W. Bowett, pub. by Stevens in 1967.
Economic Commission for Latin America
(ECLA) A United Nations Success: Technical Assistance.
That the United Nations is something more than
Economic Commifflion foi Africa (EGA) a place of talk is proved by a glance at the hist w
of its programme of Technical Assistance. The
MuncUonal Commissions object of this aid is to help countries to develop
their economic and political independence: and,
Disarmament since this must be a truly co-operative venture, re¬
Statistics ceiving countries must not oniy invite the experts
Population but actively participate in projects they undertake
Social both with money and with local personnel— even
Human Eights the poorest being encouraged to make a contribu¬
Status of Women tion. A major reform was made in 1966 by the
Narcotic Drugs simplification of the existing systems of capM
and technical aid by the United Nations, The
THE UNITED NATIONS O 6 PUBLIC APFAIES
two maia cliaimels of aid were fused — the UN But after conventions are adopted at UNO they
Special Ennd and the UN Technical Assistance need to be ratified; thereafter signed; thereafter
Board — ^to become a single Council for a UN nations need to take the necessary action to enable
Development Programme (UNDP). See also the provisions to be put into force; and finally to
Underdeveloped Economies, Section G, Part m. put them into force. These are the stages be¬
tween declaration of intent and fulfilment. As
Unicef. U Thant has said: “The mere adoption of various
covenants and international agreements is not
Of aU the United Nations agencies Unicef enough by itself.’’ We need, therefore, to temper
has most caught puhhc imagination. In the enthusiasm for intentions with critical regard for
early years of the war the attempt began to what is aotuaUy happening.
make amends to chUdren whose early years had
been shattered by war; and during the auarter
century since Unicef has been bringing aid to The Persistence of Slavery.
millions all over Africa and Asia. Unicef does
not draw directly on United Nations funds but Slavery persists today in five forms defined
voluntary help from Governments and individuals. in the UN Supplementary Convention on the
There have been two developments of policy: Abolition of Slavery (1956), namely chattel
slavery, serfdom, debt bondage, sham adoption,
(1) a change in 1960 from post-war relief and servile forms of marriage. The .^ti-
work to programmes of help for mothers and Slavery Society (for the Protection of Human
children in developing countries; and Eights) stated in 1067 that it has recent Infor¬
mation of the esdstence of one or more of these
(2) from 1960, an emphasis on education
and vocational training rather than pure forms of slavery in thirty countries in the ’’ free
survival projects. world.” Apart from servile marriage the other
forma probably embrace between one or two
million people. This exploitation can only be
Htunan Eights. fought when governments legislate against it
The 20th anniversary of the adoption and and their officials and people uphold the law. To
proclamation of the Universal Declaration of encourage them to do so is the main fimction of the
Human Eights by the General Assembly on Anti-Slavery Society. Founded so far back as
1823 it is the principal organisation in the world
10 December 1948 was marked by the obser¬ working to end slavery: and it has consultative
vance of the year 1968 as International Year status at the Economic and Social Council at UNO.
for Hmnan Eights. There seemed, however, in
1968, a good deal to deplore as well as to celebrate. It supports the setting up of machinery to imple¬
There had been a good deal of thinking on the ment the slavery conventions called for in October
1967 by the Int. Commission on Prevention of
subject and over two decades numerous conven¬ discrimination and Protection of Minorities.
tions had been drawn up. But there had, un- Besides the eradication of slavery in afi its forms
fortrmately, been a good deal of obstruction and
non-co-operation: and in 1968 the situation of the Society’s aims include the abolition of labour
slaves, political prisoners, and minorities of all systems resembling slavery and the protection and
kind was distressing. Let us take these two parts advancement of aboriginal and primitive peoples.
of the problem in turn— the resolution for im¬ The address of the Anti-Slavery Society is
provement and the actuality. Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge Eoad, S.W.l.
Declarations and Conventions on Human Eights. The Anatomy o£ the United Nations.
Every member of the UN endorsed the Univer¬ Some ironical changes have taken place in the
sal Declaration of Human Eights. It marked the UN since its inception. At the outset the Security
determination to prevent the recurrence of the Coimcil was built as the organ through which the
genocide and brutality which occurred in the
Great Powers would together discharge their col¬
Second World War. Out of it sprang a Commis¬ lective responsibility as policemen. They were the
sion on Human Eights and numerous other superior powers. They had the authority and the
Declarations and Conventions. Thus the Euro¬ means to act as the big policemen to keep others in
pean Convention on Human Eights prescribed
order. But this assumed that the big five perman¬
that “ no one shall be subjected to torture or to ent members would agree and act in concert. This
inhuman
and there orhasdegrading treatment a or
been established punishment
European Court" is just what they did not do. As a result, in 1960,
on Human Eights. Among subseauent Declara¬ by Anglo-Saxon device, the General Assembly was
tions have been those on; mobilised to ensure action when action was vetoed
in the Security CoxmciL But over the last
decade the Assembly has grown both in numbers
(1) Granting of Ihdependenoe to Colonial and in the independence of its views. It is not
Countries and Peoples.
at all as interested in the conflict with Com¬
(2) Elimination of AU Forms of Eacial munism as those assumed who vested it with
Discrimination. additional power: it is more interested in colonial¬
and among Conventions have been those on: ism. So those who gave the Assembly this
additional strength would like to reverse the
(3) Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, position. But here we confront another diffl-
and Institutions and Practices Similar to culty. China, one must expect (and hope), will
Slavery. join the Security Council. That will make the
(4) Abolition of Forced Labour. unity in that body which is vitally necessary for
peacekeeptog even more difficult. The prospect
of Communist China beconoing a member of the
me an Oc UN advanced in November 1970 when a resolution
nt d cu
pa
(6) Eciual remuneration Of Men and Women to admit PeMng and expel Formosa secured a
Workers. ti majority of two votes. This was the flrst time
on
(7) Freedom of .Association and Protection Connmmlst China had won a majority for admis¬
of the Eight to Organise. sion. But the effect of the American-backed
(8) Discrimmation m Education. formula declaring the issue an " important ques¬
tion ” means that Peking’s admission requires a
(9) Prevention and Punishment of the two-thirds majority. There were signs at the
Crime of Genocide. Assembly’s 26th session that the “ important
(10) Political Eights of Women. question ” formula may not for much longer win
a majority of votes. If the formula were rejected
Drafts were being prepared for Covenants or Peking’s admission would be conditional only on a
Conventions on: simple majority.
(11) Civil and Political Eights; Economic,
Social, and Cultural Eights.
The General Assembly’s 26tb Session.
(12) Elimination of All Forms of EeUgious Tills centenary session, which was held in New
Intolerance. York in the autumn of 1970. attracted numerous
(18) Freedom of Information. heads of state, but the achievements of the session
WESTERN EUROPE C3 17 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
were, as expected, limited. The most important of the toviiation made to 1947 by ^. Marshall
shift was in the vote over the admission of Com¬ (then H.8. Secretary of State) to the European
munist China already mentioned. countries to draft a programme to put Europe on
The 1970s were declared a Second UN lle- her feet economically. The TJ.S A., was ready to
velopment Decade,” under which the developed give this aid. and it was to its own interest as well
countries are to he asked to contribute 1 per cent to do so, if the countries concerned would agree
of their gross national product to overseas aid, on co-operation and plan their needs. In March
and a corps of DN volunteers, on Peace Corps
1948 the countries concerned created the Orgâ-
lines, is to be set up. Pew experts expect that tion for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC)
more than a handful of the developed nations will to administer the programme of aid. Ttas body
actually make the recommended diversion ot was replaced by tie Organisation for European
resources to overseas aid. ^ , , Co-operation and Development to 1961.
A draft treaty banning the use of the seabed
for weapons of mass destruction was approved by
the Assembly. The draft treaty has, however, The Brussels Treaty, 1048, was the other main
been widely criticised on the grounds that it bans source of the West European organisatl^. In
something which none of the of nuclear powers ac- March 1948 Britain, Eranca. and the Benelux
tually want to do. I^sitlier tii6 two nuclear countries (Bel^nm, Holland, and Luxembourg),
powers has any plans for fixed nuclear weapons agreed at Bruss^ to pursue a common pohcy on
on the seabed, considering submarine launched economic, poUtlcal, and military cifilaboration,
missiles technically and strategically preferable. and to promote a better understanding of the
The African group put forward numerous resolu¬ principles which form the basis of the ooimnoa
tions condemning apartheid and white mmority civilisation of We^m Europe. It also proy^d
rule in South Africa. Ehodesia, and the Portuguese for the creation of a Consultative CounoiL This
colonies. Condemnation of apartheid WM one of Councfl, when formed, was the Council of Bmope.
the points in the 25th anniversary declaration. and it is described below, together mth an
The existing arms embargo in South Amca was account of all the organisations which stonêa
strengthened. The British prime nmister. Mr. from the Treaty. Italy and the Qernian Eedra-al
Edward Heath, managed, however, to avoid ^ Eepuhlio joined the Brussels Treaty Oreatosatlon
mention of his government ’s plans to sell arms to to May 1966. which then became the Western
South Africa in his speeches to the General European Union.
Assembly. The Prench, however, announced a
ban on the sale of certain categories of weapons
to South Africa. , ,, .
The Assembly also, in vanous resolution, put 2. Military Organisations.
pressure on Israel to rfflume unconditionally the
indirect negotiations with the .^b countries
which earUer in 1970 had been broken ofl!had by The Brussels Treaty and the Western Union
Defence Organisation.
Israel, on the grounds that the Egyptians
violated the Suez standstill by deploymg missiles As we have seen, tmder the Brussels Treaty, so
near the Suez Canal.
far hack as 1948, the five Western Bowere con¬
cerned pledged themselves yeaarto mihtary collabora¬
tion: and to the same they formed the
Western Union Defence Organi^ti on. At that
timfi policy was being framed by a rear ot a
WESTEEN EBBOPBAN ORGANISATIONS, revival of German aggression. But to tune this
1. Introduction. fear wm replaced by distrust of the Soviet Union.
There were two developments. _In the course of
BGven years tie Westere Union Defence Orgwa^-
This outline is an attempt to explain the various tion was transformed by the taoluslon of the
organisations through which European countries German Federal Republic itself and of Ita^ toto
are tryins to co-opeiate. The destmctlop. to a larger body called the Western Europ^ Unipm
Europe to the Second World War emphasised me How this change iê about is deson^ to the
need for greater union, both for recovery md for foUowtog paragraphs, which teU the swot of the
defence. A bewildering array of organisations creation of the new Federal Repubbc of Germany,
has sprung up. They differ in form, in function, the proposal for a European Defence.Comm^ty
and in membership. Some overlap to functijm. (which did not materialise), and the eventml
Some are much less effective than others. TOe emergence of Western Enrepean TMon (in of 1655).
edifice is not, moreover, built on a stogie har¬ The second
Brussels seauelôf a military character
Treaty
toe
Beneath the edifice are two differ¬
ent kiniia plan.
monious of foundations, that is to say. two rivto Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), ^êr^
theories. These two theories (the feder^t and regionalas orgamsatlon,
is a range,
WEU larger NATO Ms an
the functionalist) are explained as the story un¬ even its
folds. The story traces four main streams— the and the U.S A. An account of NATO foBorra the
military, the political, the economic, mid the story, to which we now tmn. of the emergence
scientific and technological— and describes the of toe new German Eepuhlio and its eventual
bodies which evolved to each stream. incorporation to WEU.
Historic Origin of European Unity. Government of Germany after the War.

SuBy. the famous Minister of Henry IV. Etog of
Fiance. outBned, to 1688, a proposal for aotoevim As a result of Germany’s uncoujtotional sur¬
render on June 6. 1946. all power in Germany was
European unity and putting an end to war to of fom pnn-
transferred to the Govemmmts
Europe. He oaBed It the “ Grand Design. / It
was revived to modem dress by Monsiair Bnand, cipal AUiea. By decisions at Potsdam to 1945 toat
power was exercised by the
of the U.S.A., the United Kingdom the Soviet
War (1943) the concept of a United Europe which Union, and France, each betag
was crat-
should be created after victory was hewonreturned to own zone of occupation. On ™attm êctag
Itoedby Sir Winston CBrarchBl : and Germany as a whole, the fom
toe subject to his famous speech at Zurich Univer¬ responsible as members of the Control Coimcil.
sity to 1946. .
B^to was divided toto four sectors of occupation
Two Starting Points: European Recovery Pro¬ The London Conference 1947 of toe four ForeiOT
gramme and the Brussels Treaty, Ministers concerned. Med _to aê on a jotot
German settlement
ITiere were two main sources of the presmt Mononuc
numerous European bodies. The first toe was to set to motion pohtical and to mê
developments which were speedUy
European Eeoovary Programme to 1947 (Ej^).
and the second was the Brussels Treaty of 1948,. Germany the battlegrou and the Western midHW
nd of theîtolo t
between Soviet Russia
The European Recovers Plan was popularly
known as the Martoall Plan, as it was the result The Allied Control Council endhould no I^cr Mo¬
tion efficiently; and by the of 1948 four-Power
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
WESTERN EUROPE C
rule had virtually collapsed and the partition off NATO Policies and Plans.
uernmny was complete. A federal Parliament
and Government were formed in Western Ger¬r ^ The NATO Ministerial Council met twice in
many. The Soviet zone prepared a rival form of 1970. NATO policies still continue to be based
sometunes rather uneasUy, on the twin concepts of
Government for East Germany. defence and detente. The move towards some
land of detente with the East continued when the
Astern Germany’s New Status.— In May 1962 2 May ministerial meeting agreed to a sounding out
tte German problem acquired a new complexion , of Warsaw Pact members on the possibility of a
,
when the so-called “Contractual Agreements” ■ Bmopean security conference and mutual force
TOre sig^d by the three AlUed Powers and 1 reductions. At the ministerial meeting in Decem-
WMtem Germmy at Bonn. These ACTeements 3 her 1970 NATO defined its attitudes more precisely
did not fom a Peace Treaty, but they attempted i agreeing that preparatory talks on East- West
to define how W. Germany and the three Allied ) secmlty should be held once there was a settlement
Governments should work together. 1 m Berlin. Such talks would also be conditional
was to be restored to Germany and Sovereignt y
she was to) the meeting decided, on evidence of progress in
enter a nuhtary alliance with France. Indeed,
a ireaty MUed the Euronean Defence Treaty was 3 . Arms _ current Talks
otherLimitation meaning
talks,”tietween the Strategic
the Soviet Union
dra^TO up between the tour Powers, with and [ and the U.S.A. and the talks between West and
the Benelux countries, which was to fitItalyGerman anxious for
Wfistem European system. 1 ,
Ea^ Germany. The Soviet Union,
a European secuiity conference, removed one
But this system, called the European Defence i obstacle durtog 1970 by indicating that it would
Gommuni^, never came to fruition as such, , not oppose American and Canadian participation
refusal of France to ratify the Treaty • m any European security talks.
Force levels continue to be a major worry for the
fiance, whose conventional strength is so inferior
to that of the Soviet bloc as to lead to a dangerous
Collapse oi EDO.— With the collapse of EDO ! and sometimes not very credible, reliance on nu-
there was a_ halt to the idea of a Political Com- • clear weapons. One long-standing fear of the
mmity demgned to embrace both the proposed [ European members, that the U.S. would greatly
and the existmg European Coal and Steel reduce its forces in Europe, was assuaged in 1970
Gommumty. It was logical that these two • when President Nixon pledged the U.S. to main-
munities formed by the same countries shouldCom¬
not i tarn and improve U.S. forces in Eiuope. The
nave separate institutions but should take their • mm ‘PTo mo for this commitment emerged at the
place within a singie political community. Decenêr ministerial meeting in the form of a
West German plan for European members to in-
The London Nine Power Conference and the crease their NATO budgets over the next five
Pans Aêments, 1954.— Nine Powers years by £375 million. Britain, however, has so
London to devise a aibstltute for EDO. met They
in far refused to commit itself to an increased finan¬
were Beîuin, CanAda, France the Gterman cial contribution, maintaining that her contribu¬
Federal tion of additional units durmg 1970 is an adequate
substitute.
Italy, Iiuxembourg, Nether-
lancte. United Kongdom, and the U.S.A. The
Conference considered how to assure full associa- vasionNATO, which up to the time of the Soviet in¬
German Federal Eepublic with the of Czechoslovakia, was evolving towards
West and the German defence contribution. All peace policies concerned -with economic and tech¬
nical co-operation -with the East and joint at-
the decisions which were reached formed part of tompts
one general settlement and these were embodied in to tackle such aU-Euroiie problems as
agreements signed shortly afterwards in Paris. pollution, has since then reverted strongly to its
These decisions included the following: — military role. The basic problems of the future
are, of course, no longer seen as related to a possible
massive Soviet attack, but to breakdowns or
1. The occupation of W. Gennany by Great uprisings within Eastern Europe. The fear is that
Britam. the U.SA.., and France should end. such internal struggles could spill over into more
general war. If the West wishes to influence
Sôviet policy within Communist and neutral
^ 2. me_Gemm Federal Eepublic aud Italy Lurope, the conventional strength of NATO is of
should jom the Brussels Treaty Organisation. more importance than the nuclear deterrent.
X W. German Eapublic was admitted

3. Political and Economic Organisations.
/Sr
(NATO). Atlantic Treaty Organisation
The European Economic Community.
_ The EEC was formed in 1968, growing out of the
Western European Duion. Emopeau Coal and Steel Community, a supra¬
These agreements took effect on May 6, 1965, national body set up in 1960 for the co-ordination
when the occupation regime in Western (3er- of coal and steel production in West Germany.
Belgium. HollMd, Luxembourg, France, and
many _ ended and the Eepublic attained full
spvereiCTity and independence. At the same mu 1970s have ioeen.
seen ait notable
completeeconomic
toe the Eepublic became a member of the The a commonsuccess.
agri¬
cultural policy, meet its goals on internal and
Western European Union- (the expanded Brussels pternal tariffs (by 1968), and take the first steps
êaty Ox^msatioii), which came into formal towards a common monetary policy. The EEC
being on May 6, 1965, and also of NATO, to
Uit»! toch we mow turn. The WEU includes the is imquestionably the strongest and most signifi¬
cant of aU European organisations and the only
Britain and is therefore a
consultation and discussion. The one which provides any sort of basis for West
European umty. Other bodies, such as the
^tivities of the IIÛ were boycotted by Council of Europe and the Bmopean Free Trade
France in 19C9.
êa (EFTA) ^ weU as regional associations like
■:3ii the Nordic 'CouncH and the Benelux Economic
The North Atlantic Treaty, 1949. Union now stand outside the mainstream of
1" ■a European poUticai and economic development.
- s The founder members of this Pact (which Others still, like the Organisation for Economic
widened the scope of the Brussels Treaty) were ^-o;^ratioii and Devalopmeiit, the successor to
U.S.A., Canada, France, the Orgamsation for European Economic Co¬
Bouanq. Belgium, and Luxembourg. The parties operation (OEEC), have so expanded their terms
<1 that ^ armed attack against one or more oi reference as to have ceased to be solely Euro¬
of them in Europe or North America shall be pean organisations. Sec also C39-40.
considewd an attack against them all and con-
sequently they agreed that if such an armed attack The Ciouncll of Europe.
pcoitts, each of them, in exercise of the right of
mdmdual or collective self-defence recognised by • This body was formed in 1949 and now has 18
the (Charter of the UN, will assist the party so member nations. The agreement of 1949 set up
attacked. a Committee of Ministers and a Consultative
WESTERN EUROPE C39 PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Assembly, forming together a Council of Europe, for some form of association with EEC. (Einland
Headauarters are at Strasbomg. is an associate member of EETA and Iceland a
The Consultative Assembly is the deliberative recently joined full member.)
organ of the Council and is empowered to debate
and make recommendations upon any matter The Organisation lor European Economic Co-
which (i) is referred to it by the Committee of operation (OEEC).
consists of 147 members elected by their national have sem that OEEC _waa created to ad-
members seated nm^ter American (Marshall) md. But it
werethey
order of the
in alphabetical Originally
parliaments. names: today sit
iTi iTTPQTVPf'tii vP of fiTiPli* CC011033Iiy» Txl© SUlOCSiulOXl Ot 3ri(l COQulUUGu UUull
Sonalitv ê Co^Ttêe of Ministers 1952; but the practice of mutual consultation on
Coimcil’s executivebutorgan
to the Assembly, merelyandreports
is not toresponsible
it. long-term programmes. Owing to the nature n/Sa of its
oriâl task of distributing Marshall Aid, the
U.S.Al- and Canada became associate members of
Future
mains Role o£
in doubt flie its
about Councn.— The particularly
future role, Coimoll re-fonned
'organisation.
with membersIn of1961 these
OEEC the two countries
Organisation
if Britain and other candidate nations for Common fQ,. jicouomic Co-operation which replaced OEEC
“ce fn lOTO^demSated th^t°

ctofflrte“Slhm Economic Co-operation and
opiMom®
a talk shop and that the EEC and even NATO can ueveiopment.
But1M
better discharge many of the tasks it has at- This body has taken the place of OEEC.
tempted continue. The best reply to such criti- Canada and the United States, who were as-
cisms has been that there remains a wide area out- sociated members of OEEC. joined with the eight-
side the present scope of NATO and the EEC — an een member countries of that body to set up
area encompassing, for example, human rights, the OECD. The convention was signed in Paris in
law. social policy, education, pollution — ^where the December 1960, and the new body came into exist-
Council can play a key co-ordinating role. The ence to the autumn of 1961. Thus Canada and the
Council has a reasonably impressive record to some U.S.A. join in facing the broader objectives and the
of these areas. Examples are its encouragement new tasks of today, namely to achieve in Europe
of reciprocal social service arrangements between the hipest sustainable economic growth, employ-
European countries, the co-ordination of medical ment, and standard of living; to contribute to
standards, and its general work on the harmonisa- economic development: and to expand world
tion of law. trade on a muliilateral and non-disorimmatory
basis, in accordance with international ohligations.
AA Euronean Free Trade Area.
Area. Men fiurther
OEOD has been
5^® scope of OECD
The tin widened by
European Free Trade the accession
accession to
to membership
membership of
of Japan.
When the Six were discussing ■ the
j.-,, Common the J
Market the British Ckivernment declared (1966) p](^nnniic Commission of Europe,
or * p
that they would consider joining a free-trade area Econoimc uimmission
in Europe. Although she would not join the Com- BCE was the first of the great regional eoin-
mon Market scheme itself, she would consider missions to be set up by UNO. It was created m
sharing in the stage-by-stage reduction of inter- 1947 to concert action for the economic reconstruc-
European tariffs on all non-agricultural goods, tion of Europe, and it was hoped to strengthen
They would not attempt (unlike the Six) to stan- eoonomio co-operation between all European mem-
dardise tbeir own tariff wails to relation to the bersjof UNO. Russia and some of the Cpmmu-
world outside the European free-trade area, nist Eastern European countries are members of
Such a free-trade area would be independently ECE. and it is the only European organisation
controlled with permanent co-ordination with where the Western hloo and Soviet powers can
EEC. In November 1968 France rejected the meet for discussion and action.
British proposals for linking the six European
common-market nations with the eleven other j.
OEEC countries in a free-trade area. It appeared 4. The Development of the Common Market,
to the French imppsstole to âbi^ a ^-trade ^
d>r6&i t)6fcwC6Il til6 six "trOQity powers
Stlld tne OtllBr -fhsa TTlAAimmlf*. riATnTnnTi'ifiV
eleven OEEC countries without a stogie custorns for
tariff between all of tbem and tbe oi^side world which the Ctornmnnity is to wort. Those articles
and without mea^^ of harmonisation m the for c^tiâ Co^
econonuo and social sphere. Market, for approximattog the economic policies
of member States, the promotion of harmonious
The European Free Trade Association. development of economic activities, and raising
Thereupon seven countries outside the area of
the Sir formed a European Free Trade Afflociation. ^ into ^ that
They were Great Britain, Austria, Denmark. J?
'NT/vRtirov "Pni-fncffli RwpiIpti BTiil Switzerland and speculation is poured. No limit is set m the
Treaty to the process of integration; on the other
uSm a tom at Stod^SoNoV^ a Fedemtion
tosX theêe-trade^^ Mmpri^g hand there is no commitment to join
« ws B r ontemtoa^ tS.t of Europe. While policy member States commit them-
to a common on a nimber of economic
there woi^ e^tmlly be no totemS Sffs or selves
^ ^ “
external systems.
tion of their
The Seven,
Association, immediately offered F^p
upon the fomd^ the rest of the commumty.
Mendly co-operation to the existing Common ' . . — — -i I- -- 1
Market. When BETA was formed, its member |
nations confidently expeêd that the EEC wotod European Council of
soon see the error of Its ways and agree to the Commission Ministers
creation of a.vast European free trade zone. In
the event, EFTA members saw their error flret.
with three members of the original seven starting
negotiations with the EEC to 1961. The sê Economic and Social
three once again began negotiations with the EEC Committee
to June 1970. If Britain, Denmark. Norway, and Consultative
Ireland (not a member of BETA) do succeed to Committee
joining the Common Market, EETA can be ex¬
pected to swiftly wither away. In late 1970, the
EEC opened negotiations with Portugal. Iceland, European .Court of
and Einland to an attempt to find ariMgements Fariiament
which would soften the blow of British entry. Justice
Sweden, Switzerland, and Austria are also working
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
WESTERN EUROPE C* o
The Organs oS EEC. government to actually begin the talks. The
hope was at that time that tbe talks on British
The ihachihery of government of the European entry, and on the entry of her fellow candidates,
Economic Coniinunlty (into which is now inte¬ Denmark, Norway, and Eire, could be completed
grated the machinery for ECSC and Biiratom) by mid-1071. At the time of going to press
consists of:
Britain had secured useful hut marginal agree¬
1. The Council ments on the marketing of some agricultural
products and agreement in principle on associate
2. The Commission status for African Commonwealth countries and
Gibraltar. It had also secured agreement to have
3. The Court
a single five-year period for adaptation in both
4. The Parliament or Assembly the industrial and agrlcultiual fields. But dis¬
cussion on the vital details of the timetable for
6. Tlie Economic and Social Committee raising food prices and adapting the Industrial
(for the Common Market and Euratoni) : and customs union had not been settled. The British
budget proposals had made it clear to the Bis
6. The Consultative Committee (for that Britain was unlikely to agree to make contri¬
ECSC).
butions to the Community escheguer in the early
7. The Ambassadors of tbe member years that would endanger her onm balance of
Governments.
payments.
The meetings of Ambassadors form unofflclai Doubts in Britain.
permanent liaison between Coimcil and Com¬
mission. Let us examine the chief official organs. Opposition to British entry grew in this coimtry
as the prospects for entry became more favourable.
It is considered possible that, faced with a final
The Council issues regulations and decisions decision, a majority of the Labour Party might be
which are, upon issue, binding in law on all against entry.
member States. It consists of one member fifom
each member State (normally a Cabinet Minister).
Decisions require either unanimity or a qualified The Future of tho EEC.
majority, weighted as follows:
Prance 4 votes Complicating the negotiations for an expansion
Germany „ of the EEC are various imresolved issues about
Italy „ the future development of the organisation. In
Belgium 2 votes late 1970, the Council of Ministers, for the third
Holland „ consecutive year, deferred reform of common
Luxembourg 1 vote agilcultural policy. The Council also failed to
agree on the Werner Plan for monetary and econo¬
mic union. This report outlined three stages for
Tbe Ommeil represents national interests. "If achieving monetary and economic union by 1980.
federation is unity in diversity, the Commission If the recommendatiom were carried out more
represents the unity and the Council the diversity. power wordd be vested in the Commission and m
The balancing of individual interests and Com¬ the European Parliament so that decisions would
munity interests is accomplished by discussions create a common currency, common tax policies,
between these institutions, culminating in the and common economic guidelines could he effec¬
meetings of the Council of Ministers ” (the words tively taken. See also Section O, Part IV.
of Walter Hallstein, former President of the Euro¬ Beyond these Immediate and pressing problems,
pean Community). lie other questions, such as the harmonisation of
European foreign policies and defence policies.
Nuclear weapons pooling by Britain and Prance
The Commission.— Whereas the Council consists would in Itself raise serious Issues, since Germany
of politicians the Commission consists of perman¬ is unable to participate in any nuclear force and an
ent officials. It has 14 members— 8 each from agreement between Prance and Britain might
Prance, the Glerman Federal Republic, and Italy: well alienate Germany at a time when its own
2 each from Belgium and the Netherlands; and 1 OstpoUtik is modifying its commitment to Western
from Luxembourg. They are the custodians of Emope.
the supranational idea and are pledged to com¬
plete independence from national control. The
business of the Commission is to further the general
purposes of the treaties of the Communities and 5. Scientific and Technological Organisations.
decisions are by majority vote. Prom the Com¬ Euratom is the short title of the Bmopean
mission flow two streams: — Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) formed m
(а) Proposals, which it sends to the Council. 1967 to further the use of nuclear energy in Europe
for peaceful purposes and to ensure that Europe
(б) Under powers of its own:— does not lag behind in the atomic revolution. The
negotiation for this Community opened at the
1. Decisions to named countries and same time, in 1966, as that for the Common
binding on them. Market and the Treaty for it was signed at Rome
2. Directives to named countries to on 26 March 1967, when the Treaty for the (Com¬
achieve certain results, without specifying mon Market was signed. Prior to the merger in
the means. July 1967 of the three executive bodies of the
Common Market, Euratom, and the Coal and
3. Recommendations and Opinions,: Steel Community into a single Commission and of
which are not binding. . the three Councils into a single Council, Ematom
was supervised by Its own Commission. Bura-
- 4. Authorisations without which many tom’a role is to ensure that the Community under¬
things are forbidden. takes the research necessary for the deyelopment
of nuclear energy not only for power, but also
The Court, whose procedure is wholly ConWnen- through the use of radioisotopes and radioactive
tal, consists of seven Judges appointed by (^vem- sources, for agricultural, industrial, and medical
ments for a maximum of six years. Its word is purposes. It has joined international projeots
final on the interpretation of the Treaty, on the such as the European Nuclear Energy Agency
rules made under the Treaty, and on the legality (BNEA) Dragoa project at Winfrlth, Dorset,
of all the actions of the organs of the Community. which is sponsored by OECD.
Expansion of the EEC. - The Six Co-ordinate on Scicntiflo and Techno¬

logical Policies. — ^The Council of Ministers to 1967
Britain opened negotiations in June 1970 on its reached agreement on a procedure for such co¬
third attempt to join the Common Market. The ordination. Existing co-operation to totema-
application liad been made by the previous Labour tional organisations included ELDO (European
government, but it fell to the new Conservative Rocket Launcher Development Organisation)
OF STATES PUB1.IC AFFAIRS
OTHER GROUPINGS
■psTJO /T?nrnnf»a.Ti ftnace RcsStircli OrsEiDisfljtion), XJi6 CSjiro Conffercn^ of 1964 wliiî^47
Neo-coloniaJisni and im-
sTid OEItN (Eurooean Nuclear Eeseaicli Centre) countries attended.
Brit wal ain allforgs
cularly in South Africa, condeinned parti-
(But in 1968 Britain ar™o“
ta announced^ itswith
withdra
from ELDO when the present developmentof pro¬ the
gramme ends in 1972.) The urgency
general problem of co-operation has been sharp-
i tStoSteS'St’: 3. MCA PollM, «J E».0«ac Gr»pin«..

--and the extensive overlapping of effort and economic grouping. See 038(2), 030(2).
expenditure.
Oomecon, The CouncU for Mutual Economic

TJnion, the East
OTHER
OTHEE GROUPINGS
©ROUPIN GS STATES. S.
OF STATE European PactSoviet
groups the
Assistance, Warsaw members, and Outer
1. Military«Alliances. Mongolia . Its aim to co-orana and inte-
is , but theteorganis^ on
1. Military«Alliances. grate members’ economies
. has been under considerable stram m recent
NATO — Îhe principal Western defence orgamsa-
org^sa- years.
prime
tion withforces responsibility for opposing Com¬
munist in Europe. See 038.
Organisation of American States groups 23

The Warsaw Pact, formed in 1955, groups the American coimtries, of which one, (Mba. has been
Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoriovakia. East suspended. Its central organ is the Pan-American
Union.
Germany. Hungary, Poland, and Eoumania. its
tancetitle
full is the Eastern European Mutual Assis¬
Treaty.
The Organisat
(OCAS) ionin of
was set up 1961. , ^ j.States
Central American ,
ANZUS Council, a loose military ^fmce Members: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala.
grouping
States. Australia, New Zealand, and the United I Honduras, Nicaragua.
Central Treaty Organisation (CKtCTO). The

successor to the Baghdad Pact allian^ of 1956. "Rniivin BravU Chile Colombia,
It is regarded as of limited effectiveness. Venezuela.
South East Asia Treaty Organisation was fomed j com¬

in 1965 and groups Australia. France, Great The Arab League with its seat at Cairo
Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the PhJhppmes, prises Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Letaanom
Siam, and the United States. France. Pakistan, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia. Saudi Arabia, Sudan,
and Britain have virtually withdrawn. Arab Republic. United âb Republic
and Yemen. A “Pact of the Umon of Arab
States ” was signed in 1946 by reprêntotiv^ of
Egypt, Iraq, Ijebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Trans¬
jordan, and Yemen. Later adherents were
8. Organisations of the Third World. Libya, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Kuwait, and.
Algeria.
The Third World is the name given to those
countries representin g the less privileged part oi
the world, most of them forming part of neither The Organisation of Afrioan Unity (O-^^)
the Western (Capitalist) bloc nor the Eastern
(Commimlst) bloc. They axe sometimes^ caUed constituted in 1963.
at Addis Ababaexcept indepen¬
are
dent
memberscountries A&ica,
of tbe inOAU. South Africa,
.a-
" non-aligned ” or " uncommitted nations.
They have three permanent organisations: There axe a nuihber of regional organisations in
A&o-Asian People’s Solidarity Africa such as: Jl) the East African OommM
(а) The
Council (1957); Services Organisation (1962) for K^ya, Tanzania.
Slgaad(1967)
Market (2) the gWe^jîoan Conmon
TaEd comprisin
The Afro-Asia n Organisation for Econo¬ Mah,
mic(б)Co-operat ion (1968); and Dahomey. Ghana. Ivory Coast, litoia. Leone,
Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra
Togo, and Upper Volta.
Three Continents Solidarity Org¬
(c) The (1966).
anisation
The Colombo Plan, owing Its mceptlpn m 1951

The Bandung Conference of 1955 in Indoneâ to the Commonwealth Consultative Coii^ttee,
was the first inter-continental TOifferpce ofof the
the is a plan for the economic development of South
so-called coloured peoples in the history and ûth East Asia. It wan nrigi^y adopM
world. It adopted a Declaration on Problems of for development ptogrammesjto todjto, Pakistm.
Dependent Peoples that colonialism was m evfi Bêo, and
Ceylon, Malaya. Singapore.^ North
and should be brought to an end. It also adop^ Sarawak, but the scheme has hem widened to
a Declaration on World Peace and Co-operation, include non-Coinmonwealth countriM, Md me
involving five principles of peaceful coesstence. U.SA. has agreed to join Australia. Britato.
Other conferences of the Third World have OaBadft, End "New Zealand in making available aid
been: within tbe framework of the Colombo Plan.
The Belgrade Conference of 1961 was
27-potot dMtemtion*contî]^ their Miôn m!S*ing
totheU,S.A.andtheU.S.8.R. within OAU.

PUBLIC AFFAIRS
CONSERVATIVE GOVERNMENT C42
HEATH’S CONSEEVATIVE GOVEENMENT

(as re-formed October 1970)
Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury — Êdward Heath.
Secretary of State for the Home Department — ^Reginald Maudling.
Secretary
Home. of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs — Sir Alec Douglas-
Chancellor of the Exchequer — Ânthony Barber.
Lord Chancellor — ^Lord Hailsham.
Lord President of the Council — ^William Whitelaw.
Secretary of State for Defence — ^Lord Carrington.
Secretary of State for Social Services — Sir Keith Joseph.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster — Geoffrey Rippon. *
(Minister in charge of European negotiations).
Secretai'y of State
John Davies. for Trade and Industry and President of the Board of Trade _
Secretai'y of State for Employment — ^Robert Carr.

Secretary of State for Education and Science — ^Margaret Thatcher.
Secretary of State for Scotland — Gordon Campbell,
Lord Privy Seal — Êarl JeUicoe.
Secretary of State for the Environment — ^Peter Walker.
Secretary of State for Wales — ^Peter Thomas.
Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Foodr—S ames Prior.
SjjeaJcer of the House of Commons — J. Selwyn Lloyd.

Leader of the Opposition — ^Harold Wilson.
MINISTERS NOT IN THE CABINET

Minister for Trade — ^Michael Noble.
Minister for Industry — -Sir John Eden.
Minister of Aviation Supply— FTedetick Corfield.
(this Ministry is being transferred to the Ministry of Defence)
Minister for Housing and Reconstruction — Julian Amery.
Minister for Transport Industries — John Peyton.
Minister for Local Government and De«eZopme«t— Graham Page.
Parliamentary Secretary, Treasury {Chief W7iip)— -Francis Pym.
Minister of Overseas Development— îch.axd'Wood..
Paymaster-General— îscoxmtEocles.
(Minister vdth special responsibility for the arts)
Ministers of State, Home Office — ^Richard Sharpies, Lord Windlesham.
Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Oj^ce— Joseph Godber.
Chief Secretary to the Treasury — ^Patrick Jenkin.
Minister of State, Treasury— T&rnn.oQ'Hl^gins.
Minister of State, Ministry of Defence — ^Lord Balniel.
Minister of State, Department of Health and Social Security— Locd Ahevdaxe,
Minister of State, Department of Employment — ^Patd Bryan.
Minister of State, Scottish Office — Lady Tweedsmuir.
Minister of Posts and Telecommunications— Chvistophev Chataway.
Minister of State, Welsh Offise — James Gibson-Watt.
Lord Commissioner of H.M. Treasury and Parliamentary Secretary, Civil Service
Department — ^DavidHoweU.
Minister without Portfolio — Lord Drumalbyn.
Law Officers ;
AWoraeTz-Gewemi!— Sir Peter Ra,wlm.son.
Solicitor-General — Sir Geoffrey Howe.
Lord Advocate — ^Norman Wylie.
Solicitor-General for Scotland^Dsu'^d.'Bxeaxd.
ENGLISH
LAW
A concise survey of the English legal
system, its history and development

from early times, with further detail
of some particular branches of the
law which are oi practical interest
to the ordinary citizen.
D2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Tables: The Sources of English Law and its Subdivisions 4
The System of English Courts 5-6
I. The Sources of English Law 7-8

Common Law and Case Law 7
Equity 7
Statute Law 8
II. The Subdivisions of English Law 8-28

1. Constitutional Law 8
The Supremacy of Parliament
The Rule of Law
2. Criminal Law 9
Categories of Crime
Criminal Responsibility
Unconsummated Crimes
Joint Crimes
Punishment and its Purpose (and see 47)
Insanity
The Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act, 1965
The Criminal Justice Act, 1967
The Criminal Law Act, 1967
3. Status 11
Nationality
Domicil
Marriage
Minority and Divorce (and see 28-34)
Lunacy
Bankruptcy
* Corporations
Adoption (see 38-41)
4. The Civil Law or Law of Persons 13

Law of Contract
Simple Contracts and Deeds
Subsidiary Matters;
Capacity of Parties
When writing is necessary
Mistake
Misrepresentation
Duress
Illegality
Breach of Contract
D3
4. The Civil Law or Law of Persons (conW.)

Law of Tort
Trespass against the Person 15
Trespass to Land
Nuisance
Trespass to Goods
Negligence
Defamation
Defences to actions of libel or slander
5. The Law of Property
In General
Wills and Intestacies
Probate and Letters of Administration
Property in Land
Realty or Freehold Property
Leaseholds
Statutory Reform in Law of Landlord and Tenant
Business Tenancies
Residential Tenancies (and see 47—48)

Mortgages
Title
Joint Ownership
Property Other than Land
28
III. Further Detail on Some Branches of the Law
1. Divorce and Other Matrimonial Causes

Historical Sketch
Powers of Inferior Courts— Summary Jurisdiction
ed Divorce Cases 28—
Matrimonial Causes in the High Court and Undefend
in Designated County Courts
The Divorce Reform Act, 1969
Grounds for Divorce
Judicial Separation
Decree Nisi and Decree Absolute
Custody of Children
Financial Provision
Domicil
Housekeeping Allowances
Matrimonial Homes
2. Legitimacy and Illegitimacy

35
3. Adoption of Children
38
4. Treatment of Juveniles in Need of Care
5. Justices of the Peace
6. Free Speech and PubUc Order
7. Race Relations
43
41
s
8. Overcrowding in prisons — ^possible remedie 44
9. Housing Act, 1969 46
47
47
CIVIL COURTS D5
ENGLISH LAW
ENGLISH LAW
D7
ENGLISH LAW
The Table set out on D4 shows in concise form:
L The Sources
11. The Subdirrisions
of
of the Law of England. The intention is to give a general picture a e
to exDlain briefly what the Table represents, and finally to de^. m slightly more detail, wltn rnanv
selected subjects which may be of particular interest to the ordinary reader. ,
^ny
text-books have been written on every one of the
A wd of w^hS S nectary. Learned
s
as restructured under the Administration of Justice Act, 1970,
in The system
tabular D5 andCtourts,
English
formof on D6.
1. THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH LAW

The citizen who desires to make some acauaint- Court of Appeal) announced that it would hence¬
ance with the English Legal System miKt begin forth regard itself as free to depart from toitsdoown
by disabusing himself of several popular fetocles: previous decisions when it appeared right so,
for example, that it is a fixed and unalterable code, though this power would he sparingly used.
that it is strictly logical, that it is coMy uPP^;
sonal and uninfluenced by human factors, ihe
history and practice of the law display precisely
the opposite characteristics. 3. EQUITY.
But the English genius for practical improvisa¬
tion has never excluded spiritual and ethiMl
CASE LAW. motives of conduct. Eor hundreds of years the
1, COMMON LAW AND Church was a great power to the land, extenotog
The Tn’.nFUsii Legal System is a living organism, its influence far beyond the strictly ecclesiastical
Past took
not a dead, static code. The system as we toow sphere. The great church-leaders of the
it began to develop in the 12th cent., whmi Hmiw an important part to the secular activities of
governmen t and administration; from ^ early
II extended the practice of sentog the roy^
judges about the country oii circuit, to give d^l date the King’s Chancellor was an ecclesiastic.
with crimes and disputes, and to adapt and The Chancellor was not only the King s Secretary
seM: as royal
official authority to the best of the local custoiM. of State and Keeper of the royal
some of which had been in for^ smce chaplain heIt waswas to“Keeper of con¬
Saxon days. The judges did this by empiricffi science.’’ Mm. therefore, that the King
by practical, coôn-serae turned for advice on matters of state where ethical
methods— that actual is.
decisions on the oases brought before thern. and moral considerations were tovolv^. and the
and by setting out their reason^ todecisions dctaiL All human institutions are fallible,
Simple records of the most Important rough-and-ready methods of the early common
w^ kept from the earliest timra: as a s^^ the cen¬ law sometimes fell short of those Ideals of abstract
ters pêd. the gradual elaboration of justice that inspire men’s mtads. DÎte, the or
of law-reporting ensured that the perhaps because of, its practical outlook,
become circumBcribed by
cant cases, the reasoned judgments delivered on common law tended to of
those facts, and the principles those judgments en¬ its own precedents. As the mMhtoery
shrined. should he recorded and prêêd. at that the became more elaborately organised, the idealistic
same time the doctrine of precedent — the rule doctrine— “ Where there Is a right there te a
d by a superior coi^, remedy ’’ — ^was apt to degenerate, to practece, into
those principles , enunciate
mferior to it— the realistic but soulless form—" WhereTw there is a
should be followed hy all courts close an
ensured consistency throughout the Mimtry. legal remedy, there Is a legal right.
Thus there was gradually develop^ a body ^ adherence to legal formalities led sometlm^ to a
principles— living, growing, and adaptable to new denial of justice. This was pîoularly so tor the
sets of facts as they arose; principle, moreover weak, who could not help thenplvM— feeble¬
which rose above local differences of md minded persons, tricked or cajoled into legally
became common to the whole Kealm. Hence the signing away their property; mtoôra uncoiîon-
legal
expression cornmoa Za«). , w ahly treated hy gumdlans who, havh^ got
of a minor s
Case Law. The system we have desorib^ is by custody (under a will or otherwise) their solenm trust:
no means a thing of the past; it inheritance, refused to honour
today. New circumstances are cpntlnr^y aris¬ borrowers who. having delayed beyond the date
ing; cases come before the judges for decision, and fixed for the repayment of a loan, fotmd themselves
It freauently happens that the principles laid down deDilved* tmder tlie strict terms of the mortgê
in the past do not apply precisely, to aU respect^ deSi, of property maw thnea more yalu^le
to the particular facts to point. When this occura wMch they had pledged only as secpity. Eor
it is the judge’s right and duty facts to Inte^ret and such cases as these the coujmon-law
principle to the new before hm. provided no remedy, since the victims had suffered
adapt the were therefore sent
Mb judgment is reported, and Ms r^pntog made no actual ffiegality. EetitlonsMs people, begging
clear. The adapted prtaffipM pf to the King. “ the father of
becomes part of the law of England, ^ Mm to right such wrongs: aiM the auestto^ of
followed hy all Inferior courts; and it will not ^ redress was delegat^ by *^®
ignored or abandoned by courts of the same rahto oellor. The . Chancellor had decisions no power d^tly to
<med argn^nt revoke or interfere with the of the royM
of any superior court, wlthOutreas the piaotistog
and careful consideration. Thus judges by depriving the oppressive party ot the
lawyer can never sit hack with tto comtorteble prêrty he had “ legally ” acaulred. but he coM4
assurance that he has complete _ his rtuffiM, 5nd did. insist that that party 8JP>Pl4mo^njoy
he must continually keep^ Imowte^ np ^ dat& such aoauteition. unconscionably. fpr WspwnBtoe
Thepractice oflaw la notbasedonri^drules.but is advantage. The defaulting guardian, though he
the art of applying the known principles to the continued legaUy to hold tbe “itapr s sprwerty. benefit,
facts of new cases as they arise. was compeUed to use it for the mtoor
In July 1906 the House of Lords (the Supreme the oppressive creditor, who had legally gob
ENGLISH LAW
CONSTITUTIONAL' LAW D8
eiples of law laid down m earlier times, they can¬
possession of or sold the debtor’s estate, was per¬ not iegislate — i.e., the Judge cannot make new
mitted to take out of the proceeds the amount of
his loan, witli reasonable interest and expenses, laws, or repeal or amend old laws, even when
but must hand back the balance to the debtor. cha,nges are rendered desirable by developing
Thus the Chancellor administered a kind of social conditions. The law-making body or
abstract justice, based upon the promptings of con¬ Legislature, is Parliament. A Statute or Act of
science, and not on legalistic rules. He dealt with Parhaimnt is the jmnt act of the Queen, the House
Or lioras, aznd tee House of Commons:
these cases in his own court — the Chancellery or while each
Ch^cery — ^where the yardstick was equity — ^that of these three “ Estates of the Realm ” has its o^
which was right or fair. And over the centuries functions, new law can be made, and old law
the principles on which the Court of Chancery repealed, only by these three Estates acting
acted became crystallised into a set of rules which gether, «.e., by Parliament, or by some person to¬ or
followed their own precedents and made con¬ body of persons to whom Parliament has delegated
scientious conduct their guiding star. authority to make rules having the force
Naturally enough, the activities of the Court of Parliament is free of control by any written of law
consti¬
Chancery were viewed with jealousy and mis¬ tution or any person or body of persons whatso¬
giving by the royal judges of the Common Law ever : an Act of Parliament must be enforced by all
Courts, and many were the clashes between the courts !W the law of the land, unless and until it is
two. Equity, however, had come to stay, and repealed or amended by Parliament itself. Parlia¬
the two systems were administered Independently ment is not bound by the Acts of a previous
until as late as 1873. In that year Parliament parhament, which it is free to repeal or amend as
passed the Supreme Court of Judicature Act, occasion may require. It is equally free to modify
which (in effect) fused the two systems into one. the rules of the common law and the rules of
By means of that and subsequent legislation there equity, however firmly entrenched: but those
was constituted one High Court of Justice, of which pies, unless and untU modified by parliamentary
legislation, continue to guide the Judges both in
the Queen's
and Bench Divorce
the Probate, Division, and
the Admiralty
Chancery Division,
Division their interpretation and enforcement of Statute
were domponent parts. The first-named was con¬ Law—n.e.. the body of Acts of Parliament still in
cerned primarily with common-law suits, the force for the time being — and in their decisions on
second with equitable matters: but both these
Divisions must have regard to both common law
ttop
statutecommon-l
Law has and equitable rules which the
aw left untouched. Por example
and equitable principles. In case of a conflict of the Peerage Act. 1968, enables a peer to renounce
principles, those of equity are to prevail. The his title and to become a commoner for ail pm-
last-named Division (for historical reasons) dealt poses, including voting for, and standing as, a
with the diverse subjects of wills and intestacies, candidate for the House of Commons. By the
matrimonial suits, and disputes relating to ships Law Commission Act, 1966, a body of Commis¬
at .sea. Criminal cases fall within the jurisdiction sioners was appointed: (1) to consider various
branches of the law: (2) to consolidate and codify
of the Queen’s Bench Division, but are dealt with the law wherever possible : (3) to draft reforms on
in special courts {see D6). The criminal law (in
strict fairness to accused persons) must be abso¬ certain subjects. The Commission’s Fifth
lutely certain and clearly defined: it is admini¬ Report, issued late in 1970, reviews recom¬
stered on strict legalistic principles, from which mendations for the first flive years of its activities
the doctrines of equity are excluded. and is referred to under various headings in the
By the Administration of Justice Act, 1970, the text that follows.
system of comts was revised. A new Family
Division deals with all matrimonial and family
matters {see D5) : probate work is taken over by
the Chancery Division, while Admiralty work is
THE ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM.
Bench with
dealt by a special section of the Queen’s
Division.
These three main streams — common lam (and
case law), equity, and statute law — ^have flowed
3. STATUTE LAW. throughout the centuries, sometimes independ¬
ently and sometimes in conjunction, to feed the
While, as we have shown, the Courts have the waters of that great river which is the English
function of interpreting and adapting the prin- Legal System.
11. THE SUBDIVISIONS OF ENGLISH LAW

I. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. that there is one system of law, and one system
atone, for everybody. This principle was re¬
This is that part of the English Legal System affirmed by the Court of Appeal in the Enfield
which relates to four main branches of national schools cases in August 1967— ministries and local
administration:— councils must obey the law like everybody else.
There is not in England, as there is in some other
{a) The Legislature-— i.e., the law-making states, a special system of law and special courts
body known as Parliament.
for scrutinising the acts of ministers, civil servants,
(6) The Executive — i.e., the Government or other functionaries: such persons are bound
and the functions of its various components. by the same rules of conduct as other citizens.
A complaint by a private citteen against a
(c) The Judiciary— i.e„ the Judges, their ^cretaxy of State or a Commissioner of Police
Courts and powers. is investigated by the same courts, and rmder the
{d) Local Qo’verrvment—i.e., the Local same legal rules, as a complaint against another
Authorities and their powers. private citizen. Any apparent exception will be
found to result from some special provision in an
The two main principles of the Constitution Act of Parliament itself. For example, the Army
Act sets up a code of conduct for ofificers and
soldiers, and does not apply to civiliaus: but
are: — that code is part of the Law of England because
1. The Supremacy o£ Parliament.— I.e., there is it is contained in an Act of Parliament — a code
nothing that Parliament cannot lawfully do, and which (incidentally) remains valid only if it is con¬
there is no person or body of persons above firmed by Parliament in every successive year.
Parliament. Its Acts cannot be imconstitutional, Aga^ the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act. 1989.
since it can itself modify the Constitution at will. conferred upon the Crown and its Ministers exten¬
Its Acts for the time being in force are the law of sive powers, during the last War. to make Defence
the land, and nobody can question their validity. Regulations which should have the force of law:
but the Act itself had to be passed by Parliament
with the ;proi)er formalities. Such Regulations
2. The Rule ol Law. — This means that no person derive their legal and binding effect solely from
or body of persons is above the law of the land, and the powers delegated by Parliament : and the High
CRIMINAl- LAW ENGLISH LAW
j
Court of Justice is competent to scrutinise, smd |hnriri. On the other hand, it would be out¬
frenuently does scrutinise, the wording of the rageous to convict and punish a child of four ofwho, his
Kegulations and the manner in winch those Mimster powers without understanding the ivrongfUlness
are exercised, and so satisfy itself that the behaviour, picked up and took away some
concerned is not attempting to exceed the auth¬ attractive and valuable object from a shop-
ority which Parliament has vested m mm---m counter; a lunatic who Idfied somebody imder
other words, to protect the citizen agaii^t the insane delusion that the victim was a wild beast, by
arbitrary abuse of lawful powers and again^ theuris a boy (Hke Oliver Tuist) who was compelled,
iinlawful enlargement. Delegated legislation force or violent threats, to break into a house, or a
always subject to such control: parlianientary man who took an overcoat from a public cloak¬
legislation is not, since nobody can question the room, honestly but mistakenly believing it is to be
these last illustrations the
validity of an Act of Parliament. But the inter¬ his own. In noneoneof in the sense that there was
pretation of any Act of Parliament— the ascertam- act a voluntary
effect;— is one of the the intention to do something WTong. To the me
ment of its legal meaning and m
proper fimctions of the Courts. By an Act of that an act is not a crime unless it is intentional
Parliament in 1966 an office new to the British this sense there are a few rare exceptions-— cases and
Constitution was set up — that of Parliamentary where an Act of Parliament has expressly
Commissioner or Ombudsman (a name borrowed clearly made some form of conduct pumshable m
from a Scandinavian institution) to departments whom com¬ itself, whether it was intentional or not: tor
plaints of injustice by Government example, during the War, permittmg a light to be
may be made. visible in black-out hours was punishable, even it
it was unintentional and involuntary on the Part
of themo.
1967, accused. And see Criminal , , Justice
.x.. Act.
Intention must not he confused with mome.

n. CRIMINAL LAW.
For example, in what has become known as
This is that part of the English Legal System “ mercy-kiiling ” — i.e., taking the life of a person
me indi- i
which deals with the relations between suffering from a painful and incurable disease—
vldual citizen and society as a whole. Thus, if A the killer is often actuated by a good motive^he
murders or robs B, the que.stlon of redress is not desire to relieve hopeless suffering: but the inten¬
one merely for Bor his family; the yictun caimot. tion is to kill, and the act is therefore a crime.
in a civilised community, be permitted to take any ve.)
not necessary
(It ismoti for the prosecution
. , to prove„
.
the law into his mm hands,” nor can it be left to
him to decide what action should be taken against The burden of proof in criminal cases is on the
the offender— otherwise blood-feuds and pubhc prosecution, i.e., it is the duty of the prosecution
disorder would result. Por that reason it has to prove the accused guilty: not the duty of the
been the law for centuries past that, in the cime ot accused to prove his innocence. The acci^d is
offences (1) against public order, (2) against the presumed to be innocent imless and untu his
person and (3) againstwhole) property, the State (repre¬ guilt is proved to the reasonable satisfaction of a
senting society as a itself intervenes and jury. The jury are the sole judges of the true
prosecutes the offender, for the purple of up¬ facts of the case, and their verdict had to M Justice mm-
holding public order and vindicatmg the rule of mous until recently: but by the Crimmal
inflicting punishment upon him— not tor Act, 1967, it may now be by a majonty of 10 to 2.
law by major changes
the purpose of compensating the inDured party The Act also contains a clause for
(which, as will be seen below, is the contrasting in committal proceedings by magistrates. See
function of Civil Law). But recent legislation in¬ below, DIO.
cludes power to make payment of compensation
for personal injuries to victims of violent crime.
For offences against public order, see D44-6. (6) TJneonsummated Crimes. — I.e., attempts to
The two main categories of Crime (aa the commit crimes which are frustrated by some (mt-
Tables (D4, 6) show) are:— or by some
side eventreasons person’s Intervention. U or
obvious the attempt to coimmt a grave
ia) Grave, Indictable, or Arrestablthe e Offences, crime is itself an offence for which the offender can
which are dealt with at Assizes, Ceiurm he prosecuted and, if convicted of the attempt,
Criminal Comt, and Quarter Sessions, and which punished byline or imprisonment. Incitement, ahd lay
carry severe penalties— death or lengthy sentences one person, of another to commit a crime,
of imprisonment (death only for treason m timebeen of conspiracy between two or more persons to conunit
war). (See also DlO-11.) Proposals have ioCB a crime, are usually or offences in themselves,
iiiEd.6 to rs-arrange thQ Crinunal Ck)iirts. whether the incitement the conspiracy proves
D6.) successful or not.
(6) Petty or (now) Non-arrestable Offences, which

are dealt with in Magistrates’ Courts, and are (c) Joint Crimes are those in which two or more
punishable by light sentences of imprisonment e). or • persons take part. Such participation may ariseis
by fines (with short sentences in the alternativ in different ways. A principal m the first degree
Examples of this latter class are (e.ff.. under the ■ the man who commits the actual offence with
Road Traffic Acts) driving without due care and I guUty intention (see (a) above), or whowho induces ite
himself
attention, exceeduig the speed-lumt. causing an I commission by some other person
obstruction, etc. {See 0.IBO Justices oi uie Peace, does not nnderetand what he is doing. A pntmwl
D4S-4.) in the seeoncl degree is one who ams am abets the
guilty perpetrator at the time when the crimewhois
Examples of (a) Grave. Indictable, or ArrestaWe ) committed. An accessory before the fact is one
Offences are set out in the Table (B4) under the i instigates or helps to prepare the coiîssion of the
three main headings of: crime toy another person, though not Winseu
present when that other person comimts it. In
(1) Offences against Public Order: most cases all these three classes of participants in
(2) Offences against the Person: and a crime are equally guilty, and liable to the same
punishment, provided that all of them shared toe
(3) Offences against Property. same common criminal purpose. (Thus, if two
armed burglars break into a house, with their
In connection with aU these categories of offences3 weapons drawn, and one of them shootsof and kills
the Criminal Law is concerned with the following? the householder, both will he guilty murdM,
general considerations:- — while the accomplice who helped to plan the
burglary will he equiilly guilty if the plan included
the carrying of loaded weapons.)
(a) fViminal Eesponsibilitj%— I.e.. the primarytte
principle that every person is presumed (until that
contrary is proved) to be sane, provided (d) Punishment and its Purpose. — ^The purpose
his acts are voluntary (i.e.. mtentional) . It would, of punishment is fourfold: —
for example, he absurd fM a juaji.
wounding another person toy shooting, to plead (i) Iletributim — to demonstrate to the
that he did not intend, when he discharged the community in general that crime ^ does not
firearm at the other person, to do him any bodily t pay” and thus to uphold toe ivile of law
ENGLISH LAW
CRIMINAl. LAW D
and to prevent the deterioration of pubiic 5 mquiry to determine whether there is a nrima
morals: facte case for Quarter Sessions, Assizes or the
, Central Criminal Court (D6) may commit an ac-
(ii) Prevention — ^to restrain offenders, so, êd for tnal on written evidence,
far as possible, from repeating their crimes by vitness(es) who made the statement, signed by the
and declared
Keeping them in custody: by theni to be true, provided that a copy is handed
(iii) Information — to mahe them, so far as3 to the defeiidant(s), solicitor, or counsel, none of
possible, better citizens by means of moral I whom objects: hut only If the accused is repre-
and ethical training — teaching them to “ go) sented by counsel or solicitor. (Thecannot
person who statement
read
straight ” : and
It.) If the witness is under the age of majority it
(iv) Deterrence — to inspire among offenders , must state his age. (The purpose is to
and would-be offenders a fear of and a healthy , Hi any case the save time )
respect for the law and the strength of society «ve evidence by Court may require such witness to
word of mouth, either on its own
as a whole, which it protects. initiative or on the request of any party. The
same applies to the trial Itself, and admissions are
. There has been much controversy on the relative ■ to be good evidence.
anportanoe of these four functions of punishment, ; Although the examining justices must sit in
until comparatively recent times deterrence was I open Court, no report of the proceedings may
considered the primary function, and punishments ' he pubUshed, unless
were correspondingly severe and. by modem ■ requests, or (&) the magistrates (a) one of the accused so
standards, savage. Experience has shown, how¬ , accused, or (c) a brief summary ofdischarge the
matters ex¬
ever, that crime is not effectively reduced merely cluding evidence is printed. Penalty for un¬
by severity of punishment, but rather by the authorised publication is £600. (Note: The
certamty or probability of detection and convic¬ purpose of these provisions is to avoid prejudice
tion. And, particularly during the past half- to the accused at the main trial.) Notice of dis¬
century, reformation of the offender, whenever charge or committal must be displayed after the
possible, has become a paramount atm, not only preliminary hearing. Any permitted publication
on groimdfl of humanity, but also for the purpose is privileged.
of reducing the wastage of human material which A Court shall not be bound to infer intention
can frequently be salved from a life of crime if It is
taken in hand, firmly hut kindly, at an early stage hut or mresight of the results of the accused’s actions,
in every case shall decide whether that
{see D4'?). The Children and Young Persons Act, particular accused did Intend or foresee them,
1960, makes radical reforms in the law and practice on the whole of the evidence. (This reverses a
relating to children hitherto brought before Juvenile decision in 1962, Director of Public Prosecutions v
Courts. A summary of the Act appears on D41-8. Smith, where the House of Lords inferred an
mtent to kill from the mere fact that the accused
accelerated a car and drove with a policeman
ie) Insanity. — Îf a person does an act which, if clinging to the bonnet.)
voluntary or intentional, would constitute a crime Notice of the defence of alibi must be given
(see Criminal Eesponsibility, D9), and his legal to the prosecutor at least 7 days before the
advisers put forward a defence of insanity, he can end of the committal proceedings, except with
still be convicted imless he can prove, to the leave of the Court. (This is intended to avoid an
satisfaction of a jury, that he was “ suffering from alibi being “ sprung ” on tbe prosecutor at tbe last
such a defect of reason, due to disease of the mind, moment, when he cannot disprove it.)
as not to know the nature and quality of the act he Verdicts of juries need no longer be unanimous.
was doing, or (if he did not know this) not to know If there are not less than 11 jurors, 10 may return
that what he was doing was wrong.” Medical a verdict; if there are 10, 0 may do so. But the
men, psychologists, and social reformers have long jury must be allowed at least 2 hours for deUbera-
regarded this rule (which has been in force si-nnB tion. Persons who have served a term of at least
1843) as too severe. It was a rule applicable to 8 months imprisonment (or in a borstal), sum¬
all crimes: but the controversy became associated marily, or who have been sentenced to at least
in the public mind chiefly with murder. The rule 6 years or for life (which usually means about
was amended by section 2 of the Homicide Act, 12 years), are disqualified from serving on a jury-
1967 ; but only in its application to mtuder cases. penalty £26: but a verdict is not to he held void
It IS now provided that “ a person who Mils (or is because of such disqualification.
a party to the killing of) another shall not be con¬ Magistrates hearing an offence carrying not
victed of murder if he was suffering from such more than six months imprisonment may no
abnormality of mind as substantially impaired his
mental responsibility for his acts and omissions longer refuse bail to an accused over seventeen,
on remand or committal, or in certain other cases.
in doing, or being a party to (he killing.” (It No J.P. may take part in the trial If he knows of
does not matter whether the “abnormality of previous convictions (to avoid prejudice). A
mind ” arises from “ a condition of arrested or constable may arrest without warrant any person
retarded development of mind,” or from “ any who he believes is likely to break his ball. If the
inherent causes,” or is “induced by disease or J .P.s refuse baU, the accused may apply for bail
injury.”) The Act goes on to provide that a to the High Court. A Magistrates’ Court shall not
person who, under the old law, would have been I sentence an accused to imprisonment in his ab¬
convicted of murder shall Instead be Uable to be sence. Magistrates may now Impose fines up to
convicted of manslaughter. £400 (instead of £100). Imprisonment in default
In other crimes, where the accused person is of payment Is abolished, except when the accused
clearly proved to have been insane at the time has means to pay but wlU not. Instead, en¬
the crime was committed, the verdict is now forcement shall be by seizing his goods, or by
" Hot guilty by reason of insanity.” deduction from bis earnings.
Preventive detention and corrective training are
abolished as is also corporal punishment in prisons.
The Murder (Abolition o£ Death Penalty) Act, Suspended sentences may he passed and must he if
1966, provides that no person shall suffer death for the term is for not over 6 months (except in
murder: a person convicted of murder shah be special cases). If the accused commits a tether
sentenced to imprisonment for life. In passing offence, ' he may have to serve the suspended
sentence the Court may declare theminimum sentence. ‘ The Home Secretary may make rules
period which it recommends the Home Secretary I
to allow to elapse before he orders the murderer’s sentence.requiring
: a "Social Inquiry report ” before
release on Ucense. The Act was to continue migrant : Deportation of a Commonwealth Im¬
may be substituted for Imprlsomnent for
in force until 31 July 1970, and then expire unless life. i
both Houses of Parliament passed contrary There is now power to release prisoners on
resoluttons. On a free vote in December 1069 ,licence, to revoke such licence, to remand or
both Houses reaffirmed that capital punishment release young offenders to or from detention or
for murder should be abolished. âpproved schools.
The Crmunal Justloe Act, 1967 levolutioniaes The Criminal Law Act, 1967. The old dlstlno-
mmy provisions of criminal law and procedure ;— tlon into felonies and misdemeanours is abolished ;
Magistrates or J.P.s conducting a prelimmary the expressions “indictable” and "summary ”
STATUS ENGLISH LAW
1
offences are retained, but for some p^poses the recodified,
Theft Act.expanded,
1968. and more-clearly v - defined by
offences are edivided into “ arr^table and
“ non-arrestabl ” offences. Arrestable off^c^
are those for whicb (i) the sentence is toed by
law; those for which (ii) the offender is liable (in) to
five years imprisonment, and those which in. STATUS. •;
there has been an attempt (D0{2)-(b)) to commit.
Arrestable offences, therefore, iiow mclude A person’s Status — i.e.r Ms legal positiw In
grave crime. Others affects his legal rights and duties to most
practically every variety of society—
are known as non-arrestable offences. , civU matters and, to some few cases, in ra^nal
The old offence of being an accessory after the matters too (see Criminal EeWonsibility, p9(l)).
fact (except in treason) is aboUshed: instead, a
new offence of “ assisting offendersthat is created by
the Criminal Law Act providing where a 1. Nationality, in this cpmeetion, means BriMsb
person has committed an arrestable offence, toany Nationality under the British Nationality Acte,
other person who, knowing or believing him be the latest of wMeh was passed to 1965. By the
guilty, does, without lawful authority or reason¬ 1948 Act the term “ Commonwealth Citizen^ was to
able excuse, any act with intent to Impede hte created wMch can be used as an alternative
apprehensio or prosecution
nimprisonme ” s^ bete hable theto Ttrit.iah Subject. A person may be a Bntisb orsub¬ by
periods of nt proportiona to ject by btoth, by naturalisat ion, by marriage,
offence. Where the arrest¬
sentence for the main triable registration, though under the Act of 1948 a
able offence is Itself summarily (i.e.. by a woman who was not a British subject before
Magistrates’ Court) with the defendmt s consent, marriage does not automatically acauire British
is ^ so triable. nationality merely by reason of her marriageof to a
tbpp the offence of “ assistingbrought this
But the proceedings may be oidy by or British subject. The law and the courts a
of Public country can determine whether a pereon is
with the consent of the Iêctor
Prosecutions. A husband or wife has no special British subject or an alien; they cannot detennine
whether or not he is a citizen of some particular
A new crime of “ concealing arrestable offences foreign state, since that is a matter for the law ot
speaking,
is created. In effect the new offence amounts to the foreign state concerned. Generally has the
of peace, an alien in tliis country
the prohibition of accepting a bribe in coîdera- in times
of the same rights and duties as a British subject, except
tion of such concealment, and the consentobtained
Director of Public Prosecutions must be that an alien has no right to vote in parliamentary
beforehand, if a prosecution is contemplated. or municipal elections, and that some protesions
The defendant must know or beheveassistant ttot his In¬ (e.ff.. that of a soUoitor) are closed to Mm. By the
formation might be of material m Act of 1964, a person who is statel^s apply
securing the conviction of an offender But the to he registered as a citizensimh of the XT. K.
that “you may show Colonies if either parent was a citizen when
common law rule of Ms bhtb is witnto
so that was bom. or if tbe place
but shall not sell mercy" is modified, he
appbea-
it is not unlawful to agr^ not to Vlêcn^ ot the ir.K. and Colonies at tbe time of Ms of those
give information on condition that the offender tion. By tbe Act of 1966 not aUen wives
makes good any loss or injury caused byfor 1m British subjects who are citizens of any
it. alth country may he registered as
offence, or makes reasonable compensation Commonwe
British subjects.
It remains unlawful to lielp to conceal any act oi
A new summary offence is created under the
Act— the making of false reports to canse wastefid 8. Domicil means the country where a person
employment of tbe time of the police m regard to has his permanent home without .^y pre^nt
any kind of alleged offence. , ^ intention of changing it. His_doim«il of onm la
to award compâti on to the that of his parents while he is a mmor. at the
Power is given
Injured party, in case of any mdlctable offence, age of majority he is free to acauire a new domicil
up to the sum of £400 (but compensat ion for by making Ms permanent borne elsewhwe.
damage due to an accident arising out of the Domicil is of particnlai importance m matters of—
Such compensation may he awarded hy the Court 3. Marriage and Divorce. — OBtoglishlawgHierally
tr3dng the offence, .
regards as valid a marriage ceremoM' carried out
Powers of arrest: Any person may now arrest to this country after the proper pehmlnames md
(i) anyone who is to tbe act, or whom he suspecte whatever the nation¬
with the proper formalities, Mso
to he in the act, of committing an arrestable bM ality or dWcil of the parties. Engbsh lawwMch
offence, and (ii) where an arrestable offence accepts the validity of a marriage ceremony
been committed, anyone who is guilty, or whom he has been carried out abroad accprdmg to the law
suspects to be guilty, of the offence. Ahe constable of the country where it took place. But if op
may without warrant arrest (i) where suroeots party or the other has an English domicil, the
with reasonable cause that an arrestable offenM status of the marriage as an insl’iMmon must
has been committed, anyone whom he, with depend on English law, whether the ceremony wp
reasonable cause, suspects to be^ guilty, and (ii) in proper form or not. Eor example, a mancanimt who
anyone who is about to commit, or whom to the has Ms permanent home in England
constable, with reasonable canse, suspects be evade the English rule against consanguinity by
about to commit an arrestable offence. Common going through a ceremony of marriage, m Kuii-a
law powers of arrest, suito M to prevent yiMei^ Ms mother’s
tania, withis lawful sister— even if poh
or breach of tbe peace (D38). are onêcted by marriage by Euritanlp. law. eyp
tbe new Act. A constable may enter (if necessary if the ceremony has been canied out with the
by force) and search any place where anyone usual Euritanlan formalities, itte rtlU null and
(whom he has the right to arrest) is or where, with void hy the law of England. The English court
reasonalole cause, be suspects bim. to Ite. A person wiU not, generally speaking, grant a divorce to a
may use sucb force as is reasonabl e in tbe cu- man who is domiciled abroad, since the law of the
cumstances in tbe prevention of crime or m effect- country wMch is his permanent home mp not
tog or assisting in the lav^l arrest of offenders or ]recognise this divorce, or perhaps miy divprp,
suspected offenders or of persop nnlaw^y at as valid; and it is improper that he should he
large. (This power is not restricted to constables ,
man m iub numcijwu. .
nor in actual terms to indictable offences: but
tbe words “ such force as is reasmahle to the generally recognise the validity of a cuvome
circumstances ’’ prevent or, by implication, torbid granted by the proper court of Ms domicil (i.e..
tbe use of force for arrest in the case of trivial
offence*) • A
the time) or of a divorce wMch the law of Ms
The common law offence of receiving is defined domicil regards as valid, even if it was grmted is bya
as follows: “ Aperson shall be treated as recmvmg a court elsewhere — and that whether p court
property if he dishonestly undertakes byor orassists to British subject or not. Under recent
its detention, removal, or reaHsation for fhe decisions. English law may also recognise a
benefit of another or if he aixangM p to d<n ^jme divorce grsmted by the court of a cpuntrrw th
common law crimes of theft, and similar now offepes, wMch he has some genuine connection, nut a
codifled in the Larceny Act, 1916. have been y. Whose per-
person, whatever Ms nationalit
STATUS D ‘® ENOUISH LAW
manent home Is In England will not be regarded ,6. Bankruptcy is the creation of Statute Law—
here as validly divorced merely because he has there was no common law of bankruptcy. It is
spent a few weeks in Angria, where divorce pro¬ the status .of a person (the “debtor”) who g
cedure is simple, and has been granted a decree msolvent-n.e.. who is unable to pay his
debts
mere. His status— married or single— generally (exceeding £60) as they fall due. By the aS
depends on the law of his domicil — i.e., the law of procedure the State takes the management
the OTuntry which is his permanent home. (See of the .debtor’s property 9fout
aim D34(l).) the ofOMcial Beceiwr
his ha^s and
whose duty It IS to reahse it and (subject to
privileged claims) to distribute it proporticertMn
oSSv
among Ms creditors. The procedure is that one
4. Minority is the status of a person under the of the croditors. files at the Bankruptcy Court
age of majority (now eighteen). A minor cannot bankruptcy petition, on which the Court mava
vote at elections: he cannot hold freehold or lease¬ make a receiving order, wMeh has the effect of
hold property, and he cannot be made bankrupt. transferring the legal manêment of the debtor’s
(In exceptional cases where the debt is for " neces- property to the Official Receiver. That
^nes (D14(l), a bankruptcy notice may be official
iûed against a minor.) If he enters into certain investigates the debtor’s finances and draws up an
Mcount, caBed a statement of affairs, showing the
kmds of contracts during his minority he can
debtor’s liabdities and assets. There is a meeting
rûdiate them, if he so desires, up to a reason- of ci'editors and a public examination of the debtor
able time after his majority. He cannot maifa a m Com’t, as a result of which the Court
vMd
Will orwill, jmd his rights under another person’s
Bettiement discharge the receiving order (on themaydebtor’s either
cannot lie compromised or showing that he can pay Ms debts, if he is given
altered without the leave of the High Court. A
idinor cMnot make a valid marriage without con¬ time, or persuade the general body of creditors
to accept Ms proposals for a composition of so
sent of hw parent or guardian, or of the appropriate
court. His rights are now the special care of the I much m toe £), or the Court may adjudicate toe
Division of the High (krart, which will debtor a ba^'upt. In the latter case it is open
protect those rights according to the Eules of *8 creditors either to leave toe management
Eamlly Law Keform Act, of toe debtor s property in the Official Receiver’s
1969, has reduced the age of majority to eighteen ruptcyhands or themselves to appoint & trustee in bank¬
tor aU purposes, including the parliamentary vote some or (usually an accoimtant) nominated bv
all of them, and that trustee takes over
md. marriage without parental consent.
Minor and “ minority ’ ’ may now be used in all toe management of the debtor’s affairs The
delitor is bound, under penalty, to give full
cases instead of “ infant ” and “Infancy.” formation about Ms affairs to the Official
Receiver and toe trustee in bankrupt cy: he
cannot, while he is a bankrupt, sit or vote in
„6. Limacy, m the broad legal sense, is the status Parliament or act as a Justice of the Peace or in
ot a person who is “ incapable, by reason of un- cmtam Mher offices. He will be committing an
soimdnese of mind, of managing Ms affairs.” offence if he conceals any property or debt or
Lâcy in this sense is not necessarily identical falsifies Ms books of account, if he obtains property
with any of the mental conditions to which such on credit or secures credit of £10 or more without
ffisclosing
psychological terms as “ insanity.” " imbecility,” disclosure orhisfails status, if he trades without such
idiocy,” and the like are applied: there need to keep proper books of account,
be no actual mental disease. When a person or if he leaves or attempts to leave the country
becomes Incapable, for tMs reason, of managing taking with him property, worth £20 or more
his affairs, the law, in order to protect both him which ought to be divided among Ms creditors
md society at large, changes his status by putting It is also an offence for him to transfer property
the custody of Ms person, or the control of his with intent to defraud any creditor, and any such
property, or both, into reliable hands. Such transaction may be set aside by toe Court.
mattiMs come under the supervision of the Chan¬
cery Division, since one of the functions of Equity
(see above) is to protect those who cannot help ■y. A Corporation or Incorporated Body Is an
themselves, (lertiflcation of " insanity ” (in the association of persons recognised by Act of
psychological sense) is not necessary: but with Parhament, or by its Charter, as one single legal
the proper medical certificate and legal safe¬ entity. It may be a chartered or a siatutmy
guards the patient (as he must be called) may be cgrporaUon (e.a., the British Broadcasting Corpora-
removed to a mental hospital. Some reliable tion or the Loudon Transport Board), a local
person (umally a near relative) may be appointed. authqnty (e.g., the Greater London Council or
the Yvestminster City Council), or a company
ofr the
?? Order of the Couri of Protection (a branch mcorporat
Chracery Division), as Receiver of his ed under the Companies Act, 1948 or
property. The Receiver’s duties are to look after one of the earlier Companies Acts. Generally
the property and income of the patient, pay Ms speaking, a corporation of any Mnd has power
debts and defray the expenses of his maintenance only to do rach things as it is given power to do
and medical care, and generally to deal with the by ite Charter or by toe Act of Parliament under
patient s property on the patient’s behalf. which it was constituted: if it goes beyond that
Perio^dicM_ accounts must be submitted to the power it is behaving ultra vim— “ beyond its
Court, which will scrutinise them strictly and at powers --and such acts on its part will
once intervene if there appears to be any irregu- regarded by the Courts as null and void. The be
lanty on the part of the Receiver. If there is no Court may also restrain toe corporation by
relative to take f he responsibility, the OfflcicH injunction — an Order forbidding it to act in
holioUor at tite Royal Courts of Justice will be a manner. such
. Every corporation, being a single legal entity;
UabUlties^
Apart fromas Receiver, with the same duties and are IS a .legal person distinct from the individuals who
its members. Thus the corporation itself can
these matters of administration, a
person of unsound mind is regarded as Incapable take proceedings, or have proceedings brought
of making a valid will, of entering Into a legal against it, in toe Civil Courts, and it may itself
agreement, or of dealing with his property. Hone be prosecuted in toe Criminal Courts, if it commits
of these transactions is valid unless the person 9e liable to a fine. No personal
concerned understood the nature and effect of Uablllty rests upon its individual members,
what he was doing: and whether he did under- mrectors, or officers unless they have personally
stmd.or not is a question of evidence in every done someth^ unlawful or aided and abetted toe
medical and other witnesses must corporation in
testify to Ms conduct and demeanour at the time itself cto enter its ■wrongdoing. The corporation
into a legal agreement with one or
entered into the transaction in question, more of its members or a member
of toe public,
if the Court comes to the conclusion that he was and. any person injured by its acts can enforce
unable to understand the nature and effect of the Ms legal rights against the property or assets of
transactipn, the Court wiU rescind— i.e., set aside the corporation, which are distinct from the
or cancel— the transaction, even though
proper legal form. By the Administraittion was in
of property or assets of toe individuals who compose
Justice Act, 1969 the Court of Protection may now ■A. company is usually a commercial concern and
authorise the execution of a will or codicil for the generally takes advantage of the principle of
PdttlOIlu* : . hrmted mbiUty, in which case the last word in
OF CONTRACT Dlt3 ENGLISH LAV/
1_AW
its name must be tlie word “ Limited.” Tbes i

expressed all the necessary terms and conditions.
nrinciple is that, in tbe event of the company i(6) In the latter case it is imvlied by A s Mnduct,
becoming insolvent, none of its members can be :and understood by law and custom, that A wm
compelled to contribute to its funds a larger be expected to pay. at the end of the journey, the
tnan the sum which he agreed to pay for M ;amount of the ffire recorded by the taxlnimer,
shares, however large the indebtedness of the it is not a necessary for the driver to stipulate those
company itself. Every company must file at the terms in advance. Everybody, several times in
Companies Eegistry aname, Memorandum of Associa¬ the course of each day, enters into an implied
tion, setting out its the situation or its contract of this kind— when he steps on an omm-
registered office, its objects {beyond which it has no bus to go to his work, when he orders a mem in a
Dower to act), its capital, and whether or not it Is restaurant, when he tells the grocer to deliver
Associa¬ goods to his house, and so on.
limited. It should also file its Articles of nt, the
tion, setting out its rules of manageme
method of issuing, allotting, and transferrmg its
shares, the procedure for meetings, the powers and and Simple Contracts and Deeds.
duties of its directors and other officers,
similar mattore. If and wlien Its objficts have (1) A Simple Contract is a contract expressed in
been fully achieved, or if it is desired to discon¬ words (whether in writing or not) without the
tinue its activities, or if it becomes h»lvent. it will formalities of a deed (see below), or a contract
be wound up and dissolved . The windi^-up is imvlied by conduct. There is no legal contract
undertaken by a lAmidator whose duties are (a) unless there is complete certainty on the terms:
similar to those of the trustee in bankruptcy. The lb) unless the basis of the agreement is lawful;
licuidator may be nominated by the members of and (c) unless both parties are legally capable pi
the company or, in case of the ctmipany s in¬ entering into it Isee above. Status), and (“' to
solvency, by some or all of the creditors, and the complete agreement on their intentlom. .tod the
liauidator’s appointment must be confirmed at a agreement is not enforceable (e) unless there is
some consideration, i.e., some fluid grp fluo,
special meeting. If the windtog-up of m in¬ implied, on either side. (Iffie Law
solvent company takes more ^ 7.? expressed or
liauldator must report annu^ to ttentBoard ot Commission, however, is considering the abolition
Trade, the Government Departme wMch of consideration as essential to every contraM.)
watches the interests of the persons concerned. Thus la) a promise by A that he wifl buy B s
motor-car cannot be enforced by cither side
8. Adoption. See D38-41. unless the price is mentioned, nor (6) if the
9. Legitimacy. SeeD35-7. car has been stolen by B, nor (c) if A is of môimd
mind, nor (d) if B owns two cars, and A is thinly
IV. The CIVIL LAW or LAW OF PERSONS. of the Ford, while B Intends to sell the Austin.
Atraiti (e) a promise by O. during the course oyhe
This deals with the relations between one year’s work, that he wUl give his employee. D. a
individual citizen and another, and their mutual Christmas box of £5 is not enforceable by D unless
rights and duties. If A makes a business agree¬ he has made a promise, or done sometiimg m re¬
ment with B. and breaks it, or if A walks withoirt turn. If C tells D that he will give D the £6 at
permission across B’s field of new-morm hay, B Christmas on condition that D puts in certoin extra
will be able to secure redress against A by pro¬
ceedings in a court of law. But in neither case time over and above his normal worktog-hours.
is it necessary for the State to intervene, by way and D compUes or promises to comply, that com¬
pliance, or promise of compliance, will be sufficient
of prosecution, to punish A for what he has done, consideration to turn A’s promise nothing enfon^-
into an at
since no offence against society at large, and no able contract. There need be ah in
violation of public order, or the rule of law, has writing, except in a few cases laid do^ by law;
arisen. The issue is one merely between A and B ; in ah other cases the only value of a written aêe-
B may choose to Ignore the wrong done to him, ment, signed by both parties, is that it priwdes
or he may negotiate amicably with A for the pay¬ clear evidence of the terms that were agreed. A
ment of compensation or, if this falls, he may as written contract requires a sixpenny revenue
plaintiff sue A as defendant in a eivU action for stamp if it is to be produced as evidence m a
damages. DnUke a criminal prosecution, under¬ court of law. (The Law Commission is recom¬
taken by the State for the preservation of pubhc mending a code to cover the whole law of contract. )
order and vindication of the rule of law. wim a
view to punishing the offender, the civil action
will be brought, if B so chooses, by B himself for (2) A Deed (broadly speaking) is a contract or
the purpose of recovering compensation in money other written document, s^ned, sealed, and
for the harm he has suffered and (in some cas^) of delivered by the parties. The formalities of
obtaining an injunction — a Court Order prombit- affixing one’s seal to a legal document, and pro¬
ing A ftom continuing his wrongful conduCT. this as my act
nouncing the formula, “ I deliver significanc
criminal prosecution will not be dis¬ and deed,” have emphasised the e and
continueda even
Again, at the request of the Injured party, solemnity of certain important transactions for
since the State itself is Interested to see justiM who were
many centuries past; and even persons capable
done: but a civil action can be discontinued by B unable to write their names were of
at whatever stage he desires, with or without an carrying out the formalities of secmng and amaerp.
agreement for the payment of damages in com¬ The legal requirement that dee(te should be
pensation. . j signed was Imposed oidy in 1926, by sîon 78 (1)
These relations between one mdividual and of the Law Of Property Act. The chief practical
another, interference with which may give rise to a distinction between a simple contr^t ^d a deM
civil action for damages or injunction, may a^ is that a deed reguires no consideration to niake it
in two alternative ways: — ^ftom the acts of the enforceable. The special fonnalltles which con-
parties themselves, or from the operation of law. stitufce the execution of a deed signing, sealmg.
Hitherto evidence of a criminal conviction has not
been admitted in civil cases, but this rulîs tion which (in a simple contract) the common Iw
abolished by the Civil Evidence Act, 1968. itte required to he satisfied hy consideration on the
onus of proving that the conviotion was wrong hes part of the person to whom the promise was made.
on the accused. For this reason a deed is required in a case where
A makes a promise to B which he desires to render
enforceable without any corresponding^ j^mise
1. Law of Contract. by B to A, and also in a case where A desire to
make B a gift of property of such a nature that
The relations between individuals which arise it cannat be physically handed over. This
from the acts of the parties themselves are usually second case arises particularly whme the subject
brought about by a contract — i.e., by an agreement of the gift is land or buildings; ta^t, by apro-
between them. A contract may be (a) expressed vision of the Law of Property Act, 1925. a dMd is
always necessary to transfer the ownership of any
as where A agrees to buy B’s motor-<^
forwords,
in £400, on certain stated conditions, or (o) freehold or leasehold property, and also to grant a
implied by conduct, as where A calls a tarn and tenancy for a term of more than three yearsi share The
tells the driver to take him to a certain admess. transfer of a legal right of some kind (e.g., a
In a company or the claim to monesu under an
is put into writing, the parties will normally have insurance policy) Is generally effected by deed.
L.AW OF CONTRACT D14 ENGLISH LAW
In connection with the Law of Contract the charged therewith, or some other person thereunto
following autaaidlary matters must be considered :— by himan lawfuEy
mean agent. Itauthorised ” — these
is not necessary that last
the words
whole
of the agreement shaU be formaEy set down in
Subsidiary Matters. writing: but there must be a written and signed
record of aU the essential terms.
(а) Capacity oi Parties. — The Question whether
a party to a contract is legally capable of entering (i) A Guarantee. — I.e., a promise by A to B in
into it usually depends on that party’s status (see the form — “ Please lend money (or supply goods)
above) :— to 0. and if O does not pay you I will.” A’s
promise by word of mouth Ctannot be enforced
(1) Nationality.— Nothing turns on this, except against him.
that no commercial contract can be made with an This provision of the Statute of Frauds stEl
alien enemy in time of war. holds good.
(ii) An agreement for the sale or disposition of

to (2)
a Domicil.
contract — have
"Wheretheir
the permanent
two or morehomes
parties
in land (or buildings) or of any interest in land (or
different countries it is a wise precaution for them buildings). We have already stated that the
actual transfer of a freehold or leasehold interest
to state, in the contract, under which country’s must be effected by deed. This is not the same as
law and its
dispute, by terms
which are
country’s
to be comts, in case
construed. of a
If they an agreement to sell or dispose of land or buEdings ;
omit to do so, and some dispute is brought before a transfer effects an immediate change of owner¬
the English Court, it will endeavour to decide, by ship, while an agreement to sell binds the party who
considering the wording of the contract, the signs it to make a transfer of ownership at some
language in which it is written, the domicE of the future time. Such an agreement need not be in
parties, and the general circumstances in which the the form of a deed, but its essential terms must be
in writing.
contract was made, what legal system the parties
Intended to apply and by what court they intended Some other parts of the Statute of Frauds have
is to be judged. Sometimes it will decide the been repealed: that contained in (ii) above has
dispute according to the rules of the foreign law. been replaced by a similar provision set out in
section 40 of the Law of Property Act, 1925.
(3) Marriage and Divorce. — There is now (iii) A bill of exchange or promissory note must
no practical difference in contractual capacity be in writing, by virtue of section 3 of the Bills of
between single persons, married persons, and Exchange Act, 1882.
divorcees.
(iv) A contract of Marine Insurance is in¬
(4) Minority. — It is not (generaUy speaking) im¬ admissible In evidence imless it is embodied in a
possible for a minor to enter into a valid contract, marine policy as laid down in the Marine Insurance
but he will be entitled to repudiate it at any time
up to the date of his majority (or a reasonable Act. 1906, sections 22-24, with aU relevant con¬
ditions fully specified, and duly signed by or on
period after tliat) unless the contract is (a) clearly behalf of the insircer.
for the minor’s benefit on the whole le.it., pro¬
fessional articles or an agreement for apprentice¬ (V) By the Contracts of Employment Act. 1963
ship), or (6) for the provision of necessaries-— i.e., (in force since July 1964), it is the duty of an em¬
food, drink, clothing, or services which are
necessary to the minor in his particular station in ployer (not later than 13 weeks after the employ¬
ment commenced) to hand his employee a written
life. (The origin of this latter rule is probably the statement of particulars of the employment
practical consideration that, in earher times, few (period, wage, working hours, and what length of
people would have taken the risk of providing a notice is reauired for termination).
minor, on credit, with the bare necessities of life if
they had been precluded from suing him for
reasonable payment.)
(c) Mistake. — Suppose that John Brown wants
his portrait painted by a famous artist called
(б) Lunacy. — A party to a contract who knows WiUiam Brush, of whom he has heard ,but whom
that the other party is of unsound mind wiU not
be permitted to hold the latter to Ms bargain. he has never met. He looks up " WiEiam Brush ”
in the directory and writes to him, at the address
shown, offering him 100 guineas to paint the
(6) Bankruptcy. — bankrupt cannot make a
valid agreement to deal with his property in a portrait. Suppose that particular “ "WllEam
Brush ” is not the artist at all but a stockbroker
manner which contravenes the law of Bank¬ of the same name. Even if that WiEiam Brush
ruptcy.
accepts Brown’s offer, their apparent agreement
wlE not constitute a valid contract, since Brown’s
(7) Corporations. — ^Whether a corporation is mistake as to Brush’s identity is so fundamental
capable of entering into a particular contract that it destroys the very basis of the agreement.
depends upon the legal powers conferred by the "Where there is a mistake of this kind. “ going to
Charter or Act of Parliament imder which it was the very root of the agreement.” no vaEd contract
constituted, or (if a company) by its Memorandum has, in the eyes of the law, been made. In other
of Association. If the matter to which the con¬ special cases eauity may. on the ground of
tract relates is of grave impoitance it wEl usuaUy conscience, reEeve one or both parties from
signify its adherence to the contract by affixing EablEty under a concluded contract by rectification
its seal with the fomialities laid down by its Rules (i.e., by correcting the terms they have inadvert¬
or Articles of Association. If it is an everyday or ently recorded) or by rescission (i.e., by cancella¬
trivial matter the corporation will normaUy enter tion of the contract). It is not every mistake
into a contract through some agent {e.g., its Town that wiU lead to these results: either the mistake
Clerk, Director, or Secretary, as the case may be) must have been fundamental or the circumstances
who is empowered to sign or speak on its behalf. must have been such that it worEd be uncon-
scienlious for one party or the other to try to en¬
(8) and (0) Neither adoption nor legitimacy (or force his apparent rights.
iilegitimacy)
into a contract.affects a party’s capacity to enter
(d) Misrepresentation.— Effuity, on similar
groimds, has often relieved a party from Eability
(i>) When Writing is Necessary.— There are under a contract into which he has been induced
certain exceptions, laid down by Act of Parlia¬ to enter through n representation hy tho oiiict
ment, to the rule that a contract is enforceable party which is substantially falser— i.e., a statement
even if made only by word of mouth or impEed by which is misleading on some' essential point.
conduct. The Statute of Frauds, 1677, provided Whether the nEsrepresentation was deEberate or
that contracts of these exceptional kinds cannot be innocent, the deceived party wiU usually he able to
enforced by action in the Courts “ unless the have the contract set aside— i.e., cancelled.
agreement upon which such action shall be Suppose, for example, Jones wants to insure his
brought, or some memorandum or note thereof, life with the Markshire lusurance Company.
shall be in writing, and signed by the party to be Before issuing the policy, which is the contract
I.AW OF TORT Dl1 5 ENGI-ISH UAW
crime for a man and a woman to live together
between them, the Company will ask Jones—
" Have you ever suffered from any serious illness? without being married, nor is it even ” unlawful
in the civil sense that such a way of life gives the
Suppose Jones says “ No,” though he did m fact
suffer from tuberculosis five years ago. Even n one a right of action against the other; but no
the policy contains a promise by the Comply to court would enforce an agreement by a woman to
£6000 upon Jones’s death, the become a man’s mistress, nor an agreement by
pay Jones’swillwidow
be entitled to refuse to pay when the man to maintain her in return.
Company
that event happens: it has been induced to enter
into the contract through Jones’s misrepresenta¬
tion.
(ff) Breach of Ckmtract occurs when one of the
parties brealcs his promise and neglects or refuses
By the Misrepresentation Act, 1967, if a person to perform his duty under the contract. Breach
enters into a contract (later than April, 1967. by one party entitles the other party to sue for
when the Act became law) after a misrepresenta¬ damages, the amount of which is usually assessed
tion has been made by the other party, and (o) the so as to compensate the latter for the actual loss he
misrepresentation has become a term of the has suffered. The object is to put the mjOTed
contract, or (6) the contract has been carried out, position
party, so far as money can do it. into the not
or both. then, if under the old law he would have he would have been in had the contract been
been entitled to rescind (i.e., cancel) the contract broken. Erom 1 January 1971 the Law Beform
without alleging fraud, he shall be entitled to do imibo Provns.) Act. 1970, has abolished breach of
so, in spite of (o) and (6). (Under the old law, promise suits.
once the contract had been carried out, his only
remedy was damages, if he had suffered loss.) It
is now provided that whereperson such misrepresenta¬ (1) Damages have always been the common-law
tion has been made to a as a result of remedy for breach of contract. In special cases,
however, equity may grant two n other remedies
which he has suffered loss, then the other party in addition to. or in substitutio for. damages:
dTigii be liable to damages even if there was no
fraud (i.«., deliberate deceit), unless he prores toat but only where equity regards damages as an
he believed, on reasonable groimds, up to the date insufficient compensation. These additional
of the contract, that his representations were true. remedies are: —
In any case the Court may award damages instead
of, or in addition to, rescission, if the Court thii^ (2) Specific Performance. — I.e., an order, to the
so, whether the. misrepresenta¬
to do or party in breach, actually to carry out what he
tionequitable
it was innocent fraudulent _ ^ contracted to do. In practice this remedy, is
If an agreement is made containing a clause confined to: (i) contracts for the sale or letting
excluding or restricting liability for misrepresent e- of land or buildings, and (ii) contracts for the sme
tion, that clause shall be Ineffective unless the of some article of a special nature wbicli cannot be
Court thiukH it fair and reasonable. In sales ot replaced by spending money in the open market
—for exsmple, tbe sale of an original painting by
goods rescission and/or damages are to be avail¬
able to the buyer even after he has become the Eembrandt. The remedy of specific performance
owner of the goods. And he is not is never granted to enforce a contract for persouM
to have accepted them until he has been corded services, since it would be impossible for the court
and has had a reasonable opportunity of inspm- to supervise the carrying out of such a contract.
ing to ascertain whether they conform to the
them or
contract not. (8) Injunction. — -T.e., an order. hy the court to
the party in default prohibiting /lim from carryinga
(Note: This Act is expected to remove abuses, out some positive act which would constitute
particularly at some auction smes. where the breach of contract. For example, where a singer
sellers, in their catalogues, have been recklpsandm has entered into a contract to work, for a certam
attributing a work of art to a particular artist, period, only under the managemen t of one
have excluded liability for misdescription m the particular impresario and no other, the court may
contract.) to ofl’er or en^p her services
order the singer notthat period. Disobedience to
elsewhere dm-ing
(e) Duress means compulsion by threats or force. an injunction constitutes contempt of court, and is
If a man has been compeUed in tins manner to I punishable by fine or imprisonment.
put his name to a contract it is vMable by tan
at any time-’— i.e.* lie may lepuâte it on the
cToimd of duress, and will he upheld hy law in 3. Law ol Tort.
doing BO. Undue i'nflueTic^ means mfluen^
exerted by A upon B to such an extent that tB TTiiR branch of the law deals with the relations,
could not have exercised any free and iMependen one individual citizen and another '^ch
. in•_ doing
will .1 _ aj... rtloooao has
particular act. Equity always between
nF TlOfKanna arise from the operation of the law itself, without
the necessity for the paittes to do any Mt to put
them into legal relations with one anotter.
sume that there has been imdue uffiuence where a was pointed out above (D13(l)), if A ^d B are to
guardian has got some benefit out of his ward, a be utiVaU in a contractual relationstop, each of
parent from his child who is under.(or oidy mst them must take some step to bring that relation¬
over) majority, a doctor from his patient,, a ship about. No such step, however, isnei^sary
solicitor flxim his client, or a priestofrom hw in connection the matters dealt wi^ by the
parishioner. In most of such iês the onuswhois Law of Tort. Everybody has a r^t to
upon the person in the influential position, that his person and his property shau be inviolable
has obtained the benefit, to prove that there was hy other private citizens; he also hM a right his to
no undue influence: it is not for the other person expect others to refrain from att^ta uponThese
to prove that his mind was wrongfully influenced character and his business reputation.or other
hy the former. rights do not arise from any agreement
act on his part, hut from the general ptmciples of
(f) Dlegality of contract arises where the parties
have agreed to do an not (i) forbidden hy }aw or is the violation of such a right, which
(li) contrary to " puhhe pohey. (i) The fomer entitles the injured party to bring a civil aeUon for
includes not only an agreement to ctmomtt a damages to compensate for the injury he hM
crime, but also an agreement to do an act wffich suffered. The word tori (in French ..^TOTg )
might he hannfrd to a thhd party and^veor him a meaning twisted
right of action for breach of contr^ tort. is derived from^the Latin toriits
The courts will obviously not lend their assist^ce ^'Ît wih be'seen from the Table (DA) that some
to a plaintiff who conmlains that the defendant torts ie.g., assault) may also he orimeB— -that is,
has refused to honour his agreement totoo some¬ they may entitleforthedamages injured party either to^brmg
(for example) the a^- a a civil action or to prosecute the
thing unlawful, whether
ment was to burgle a house or merely to offending party and have him punished by as
libellous article about another person. (U) Even criminal court in cases where the offending party
; a
if the act afflreûpon was not actually unlawful. action is liable to harm the community at large
personal assault, for example, inay lead In some
to general disorder, to , that
It was to do something . which is regêd as harm¬ circumstances
ful to the community It is not. for example, a event it will become a matter for intervention by
LAW OF TORT Dl6 ENGLISH LAW
the State through the crimmal courts (see D6). ment airfield from which considerations of
This section, however, deals only with the civil security require unauthorised persons to be
remedies which, as In breaches of contract, are excluded). Secondly, it is not necessary, to
primarily damages and sometimes injunction. constitute a trespass, that actual damage should be
Tresmss is a wrongful act committed by one done to the land or building on which the tres¬
citizen, against the wlU of another citizen, either passer has set foot. The essence of the tort is
against the latter’s person or In disturbance of his Interference with the possession of the other party
possession of land or other property. and this may arise by merely walking across his
The Taw Commission has made proposals for field, or throwing refuse upon it, or placing or
new legislation to make it a criminal offence to erecting anything on the land without the other
destroy or damage any property without lawful party’s
( excuse, especially if that would endanger life, to suffices. consent; any act of physical interference
threaten to do such an act, or to possess anything
3 by which property could be destroyed or damaged
(July 1070).
) an occu of land or premi does somet
there whpiicehr subst intseres with thehineng¬
joyme by a neigahntially occufperes of his land or
of assau batt or fals impr An premi n t In tresp ri(sb o u a i e r
t i
assau ilst,an atteermy, to do veiole istoonmtehen perso must sebse. physi asst ngee i bonve) she intecrferenc o
his s ot o n ases e f
of alntot if thpet act is fuUy ncceons t. nit nuisa For caelx:amp it is a nuisa if A
beco h e r
a :batt u m
Thus it is an assau matfeor one n c
allow eh.is facto c ,l e to emit vonlcuem of
m
mam etos shake heisryf.ist in the face of anotlht do t s ry himne e
r o thNiuck smoke which driftsy conti intos B’s
adopt a threa atti towa aneort, or housiesaornceg.arden, or for A to carry nouna,lliyn a buildin
delib tto ensietng his dogtudoen anotrhds persher, If bel t—o Thhiem a trade or proce which causeg
the feirrsattelpyerso actua strik theerother openr.s noxoinoging smell o,rtort disotfu n vibrsas liable tso
s rbui tio
or if the dogn, encoully beys the first persoon, interf
us
with B’s enjoy nsganceof ahriiss prnospe It
actua bites or harmsragtehed other perso that ins ,a is not.erehowev every sumchentact that geisvewsh rirse ty.to an
battelly In order to const an n,assau or actio for enru,isa there must be ean certai
1 batte ry. and to rende the tiretsupte liable ltto an n nce; n
amoun of “ gi an ta pa in urban
) actio ry,for damag hirs act must asbseerdelib It area t but peoplve musdt nokte,”use trhteiicrulparrelmyi in an
is notn assau aneds,batt if A acci erakte
no. c unresa, ore wilfu annoy mann ses Thus
again B litn a crowd erwyith the resduelnttaltlhayt B faklsls it hassobneaebnle held that Uya teach ingof musicer. who had
a sit i T , a b t t m pupil singi in her house erfor sever hour a
Tresalpnd bse najgured. thhe wfct oyf thhe preespasserin ust day sand on ngsever days a week, whiacl h causse
saos ai e il e rs jm
Thuss aangaoipnesrtanst perfo by a surgeon thouedg. consi distu a l to the perso next doord,
it may seriottihoen Pe affecrmetdhe body ofont,he othehr was dneortabcloemmi rbana n s n it was not
is notuslayn arsssoanu tma or batte tftoinghe cetouisuasnce,he inhcoe
perso i t
ry f bhue stuher
o unre r r e r us in this
person, has conse tlt ty boe mannasonablOen the other hand, when tehe perso
an nopera npteed o he wpiebryatwia t ch
next edro.or retali imp n
rfor thou ony: the other by clash domes
pbearso
tion,
conse may aemdou
m t
to an assau o ments and delib ted a makin g as muchtic noise lea¬s
i n
tterny’s nt nt lt r possi while theeratleelsyso werge going on, he was
Certain. acts which would in the ordinary way held blteo have commi ns a n
uisa becau his
constitute assault or battery are excusable: it is condu was unre tted and winlcfe annose
recognised, for example, by the common law, that But ecvtery case deapsenonabluepon its ownuUyspecia yfiancgts..
a parent or a teacher has the right to inflict A birild contr ds who keeps a pnelum
reasonable chastisement upon a child or pupil In drill goinlng outsi acatorpriva h i c atic
his care, and provided that the chastisement is not with builgd opdeera te no oulsie, nto oainmeaoction
is t able ti
excessive the child or pupil has no right of action. for nuis i n g prov t i o ns,that the use of the drill onis
If, however, the chastisement results in serious neces ance,to the idweodrk, that it is confi to
injury or amounts to brutal violence, then the reaso sary worki hours and limit to naedtem¬
n e
person inflicting it wfil be liable to an action for porar ablpeerio bnugt if the owner of a d motor
damages. (The present Government is consider¬ were yto keep d:its engin runni mere to d-ecmyocle
ing abolition of corporal punishment in schools.) strat its power outsie his nogw,n garagly for severna¬
False imprisonment means the unlawful restraint hourse a day, , and odhe sever days ea week, hils
of one person by another. It need not amount to neig could claim thatalthat was (in law) a
actually looking up a person in a room; it is nuishabours The Nois Abat Act, 1960,
sufficient if his freedom of movement is totally gives nrcieg.hts to local coeunc (eomnenthteir own initia
restrained either by confinement or by the use of tive or on compl byilsthree house t¬o
force or threat of force. It should be noted that order reduc a
ointu n h ol(d
the restraint must be unlawful; it is not. for louds tioinn stf nnepcaessar an ogiase ienrcsaln)ndutô
r eets, r ks y d r dens, d
example, unlawful for a police officer to arrest a prosepeakerso)ffend
cute ers.
person engaged in committing a crime, or a person
whom the officer has reasonable grounds for All the above examples may be classed as
suspecting of committing, or being about to private nuisances, and they are torts but not
commit, a violent crime. Even a private citizen crimes. There is, however, another cl^, known
may lawfully arrest a person who has actually as public nuisances, which become criminal offences
committed a violent crime or whose behaviour has tf they are liable to injure the public in general.
led to a breach of the peace (see Dll(l)). Examples of these are leaving an umlghted
The tort of malicious prosecution is coiomitted obstruction on a public road, blocking a public
by a person who makes a criminal charge against footpath, or allowing a building to get into such a
another person where the proceedings temâte state of disrepair that it causes a danger to users
in the acquittal of the latter, where the first of the public highway. In such cases the person
person was actuated by spite or ill-will, where there causing the public nuisance may be prosecuted
was no reasonable or proper cause for the pro¬ and punished and, moreover, any Individual
ceedings, and where the second person has citizen injured by such conduct may have a right
suffered damage as a result. The essence of the to bring a civil action for damages.
tort is malice on the part of the person who
brought the criminal charge: it is not sufficient
that he was honestly mistaken.
(4) Trespass to Goods is an unlawful disturbance
by A of B’s lawful possession of his goods. Such
disturbance may arise by seizure or removal of
the goodscausing
conduct j without the to
damage owner’s consent
the goods. or by
It follows
en un u la or a bu in th
poters la o a pon pend Tw ild im e that every theft of goods is also a trespass: but
w f n
po sse sh ful be nooth as rsseo po o ing pfoar for the preservation of public morality it Is laid
ex intsssiab oul thliy to teedr, Fir vent p u t l ltli n down that, if there is a criminal element in the
r.rae lao an asonl ot
ffiistth o.onout d s cart. a cr st, ulnspa thr d is sotes conduct of the wrongdoer which makes his
Ac e of rFdain se w i ls e me a
t r a hi me; mak esss the retre trespass theft, the Injured party cannot bring a
cr loflry (f ch ex es un spce civil action for damages nnless the thief has first
st imi f
it isaemane cr o a
r of nr fo an udne asrt been prosecuted in a criminal comrt.
fe plo rt e r s a in
peatutnal to cr cnetaimiian nc er o nt auta Go The tort of detinue consists in the wrongful
rs es os iall e , er hor ve
on s wa
y- is rn¬
li ed
ne
OF TORT ^ 7 ENGLISH LAW
UAW
and and damage by animals be penalised by civil
detention by one person of another’s goods action. Damages are to be assessed on a broader
his failure or refusal to deliver them up when
of conversion or trover Mteea when A The other rules, relating to the duty of care
B to his own
wrongfully appropriates the goods of depriving owned by an occupier to persons coming on tos
Ss or to the use of another person, the his premises are now contained in the Occupier
Liability Act. 1957.
owner of them permanently or for a substantial
time, or destroying them. These torts of detinue The occupier’s duty towards a trespassei re¬
and conversion can be coimnitted only agaimt mains unchanged. The Act. however, abolishes
cannot arê
goods or articles of property; they permanen the former distinction between an inmtee una a
from Interference with fixtures tly licensee, both of whom it describes by the new
attached to a building, gro-mi^ crops or trees: but term, visitor. The principal rules are; —
these torts may be committed if. after such things
have been removed or cut down, the wrongdoer
detains or converts them to his own use. 1. The occupier owes the same duty (" the
common duty of care ”) to aU his visitors,
except m so far as he is free to, and does,
extend, restrict, modify, or exclude his
(5) Negligence hi law has a very specialised
not “ neglect” or ‘ carelessness duty, to any visitor, by agreement or other¬
meaning: it is sense, wise.
in the ordinary but failure to taie such care
as the circumstances of the particular case demand. 2 The " common duty of care ” means a
In the tort of negligence there are two essential duty to istake such care as in aU the circim-
elements — first, a legal duty to exercise pro^r stances reasonable, to see that the visitor
care and. secondly, a failure to take such care. No will be reasonably safe in using the premises
action for negligence can be brought by A agaiMt for the purpose for which he is invited or
B. even if B has been grossly careless, unless tte permitted to be there.
relations between the parties were such that ,B
was under that legal duty towards A. Moreover There are subsidiary rules-— fi.g., that an occm
the degree of care which A is entitled to expect ja expect children to be less careful thm
from B will vary according to the nature of those pier must “ m the
adults, and(e.g., a personeaner)
thatwmdow-cl csm be expected
calling”
^Ône^bvious example where the legal duty of tto appreciate and guard agaimt specml risM
care arises is among persons usmg the roaite. ^ iincidental to that calling. AM a lanffiord of
of us have the right to use the roads for the jpremises, if he is under a legal obligation toward
purpose of travelling, on foot or m some, vehicle, i repair, is to
his tenant to keep the premisesas mif the
and the manner in which each of us exercises that <we , to visitors the same duty
right will obviously affect the safety md comfort so far as concerns dm^rs
were
j the occupier,
of other road-users. There is therefore a legal arising from his default in carrymg out tMt
duty of care upon every road-userthe (under tne < recommendM by
common law, and quite apart from provisioM ôbligation. One of theis matters the creation of a right of
motor-cars) to the , Law Commission
of Acts of Parliament relating to with due reprd redress, , for purchase rs and visitors imured by
exercise his right to walk or drive
to the similar rights of other road-users. And. idefects in a building, against vendors and land-
equally obviously, the standard or deme of care , Among the classes of persons upon whom the
which it is reasonable to expect from the driver of law imposes a duty to take cate ay®,
is •
a powerful car is liiglier tlian tbat wiucli of practise ; a profession or callim
expected from a pedestrian, since the amount on nature, demands some specif skill, abihty. and
damage which will be caused by carelesmes s
experien ce. A man who is advised or treated by
the part of the driver is very much greater than a physician, surgeon, or dentist, or who consults a
that which the pedestrian is capable of mflict- lawyer or an architect, is entitled to expect burn
both to possess and to exercise a reasonable degree
™ We are not here referring to offences under the of such skill, ability, and eperience. If the
Eoad Traffic Acts, for which drivers or pedptnaM the professional man falls short of the proyer siandar^
may be prosecuted and pumshed under
or wag¬ the patient or clienton may bring against him m
criminal law. Careless or reckless tovmg Acts, action for damagesof judgment account of to negligence.
ing may be a criminal offence tmder those person or But a mere error on a
even if it has caused no injury to any that the
property. In cases where such injury mas been professio does not amount to neghgence, provided
nal man possesses the proper standard ot
caused the test to be applied, in determming toowledge and skill and has used them careM^
whether the injured person can. sue Md recover
and conscientiously to the best of
damages against the other party, is whetherof that care And he is not liable, by virtue of^ his professio
nal
other party has fallen short of the standard is true status, to an action of negligen
reasonably to be expected from him. K he has done while acting otherwire than m his
that disobedience to a proraion of the Koad
Traffic Acts, or neglect of the Highway Code, latter may asked professio to nal
express an —opimon a on
capacity f
constitute evidence helping to prove that the house (which is no part of his professional duty).
party was lacking in the proper standard of care (But a barrister cannot be sued for negligence m
required of him: but there may be other cir<^- the conduct of a case in court.)
stances which show that he was negligent m law.
and Uable to an action by the imured party for
damages, even though he committed no criminal
(6) Deiamation. — The tort of dârmticni ie
t
°^Th^ are many other relationsWpsthese whereis the
the committed by a person -who attacks the reputahof
duty to take care arises. One of : of another by ” publishing a false md defama¬
relation between the occupier of premises ^d tory statement conoermng ^.to a ttod party.
persons coming on to the premises, whether they .: 1 If defamatory form
the permanent
other statement is m writi^ ot some
(e.ff., a pictoe, ^
have a right to be there duty or not. Towards tres¬
passers (see above) the of the occupier is, gramophone record), then the action be for
miwt riot srt a ry statemen t is in spoken
merely a negative one-— he Ubel. If the defamato
trap i.e.. he must not dehberately dodoanythmg , words or some other non-permanent form (e.g., by
calculated to cause injury, nor must he any act
which, if done carelessly, is reasonably likely to
whose
cause Injury. If he knows a trespasrer is on the» at the outset. In cases of libel the perscm
premises he must warn him before he does any T reputation has been attacked may sue for damages
dangerous act; the fact that the trespasser has no
^Sthout proof of “ special damê ”-^.e. . proof
lawful right to be there does not entitle the^ that he hm suffered actual harm from the hMlous
occupier (for example) to weaken &e supports otf statement; while in slander damage no action can normally
cw be proved,
a bridge or set off an explosion vidthout warning., be brought unless special where
If the occupier does so, he will be hable to be suedi There are. however, five exceptional cases
for damages, in an action for negligence, eve^y
a treffl^ser who is injured m a xesult. ((ae^ such proof is unnecessary, m., in slanderB:—
Haw Commission has recommended that ownership0 (a) disparaging a person in
the way of his
or use of dangerous things, dangerous activities, i, business, profession, or office
of protit
LAW OF TORT Dl 1 8 ENGLISH LAW
saying of a doctor that “ he is ignorant of the them. There are several recognised defences to
first principles of medicine ”); actions of libel or slander: —
(&) imputing dishonesty to a person holding (1) Justification. — A plea that the words com¬
an office of honour {e.g., saying of a Councillor plained of were substantially true. Once the words
that “ he gives contracts to his friends ”): have been shown to be defamatory, it is for the
(c) imputing that a person has committed person who used them to prove their truth — ^not
a crime punishable by imprisonment (e.g., for the party Injured to prove them false.
saying of a man “he is no better than a
thief ”) ; (2) Absolute Privilege. — ^By common law, or by
Act of Parliament, defamatory words used on
(d) imputing that a person is suffering certain particular occasions, though published to
from a contagious disease of a disgraceful kind third parties, cannot give rise to any right of ac¬
(especially a venereal disease) ;
tion. The occasion is “absolutely privileged.”
(e) imputing unchastity to a woman or No party to any legal proceedings, nor any vritness,
counsel, or member of the jury, nor of course the
judge, can be called upon to answer for any words
girl. he has used during the proceedings, however spite¬
In these
alone five cases
is sufllclent “ publication
to give rise to an ”action, slander ful, and however harmful they may have been to
of the without
the reputation of any other person. The rule
proof of special damage: for slanders of other applies to pleadings {i.e., allegations in writing,
kinds no action can be brought unless special filed at the court) as well as to statements made
damage can be proved.
Note also that no action can succeed, either in in Similar court by word of mouth.
protection applies to words spoken in
libel or slander, inless the statement complained Parliament by a member of either House (though
of is (1) false, and (2) defamatory and unless (3)
there has been publication to a third party. words spoken outside either House are not pro¬
tected). And under the Parliamentary Papers
(1) The statement must be false “ in substance Act, 1840, those who publish (in the ordinary
and in fact ” ; if it is substantially true the person sense of the word) the proceedings of either House,
complaining has suffered no injury, recognised by by its authority, are protected in the same way:
law. to his right to the inviolacy of his reputation. so are official communications, on affairs of State,
(2) The statement must be defamatory — l.e., it made by a minister to the Monarch, or by one
must be one which “ tends to lower him in the officer of State to another in the course of his
estimation of right-thinking members of the official duty. To aU these absolute privilege ap¬
community,” or which is “ calculated to expose
him to hatred,
Publication, in this ridicule, or contempt.”
context, means simply making (3)
plies.
known the defamatory statement to at least one (3) Qualified Privilege. — Âpart from the cases
just mentioned, there are other occasions which
third party. If the defamatory statement is con¬ are privileged, not absolutely, but in a qualified
veyed only to the person defamed, and to no one
sense. The nature of the qualification will be
else, therehasisnono civil
defamed “ publication,”
remedy. and the person explained below: meanwhile it may be said that
a privileged occasion of this latter kind arises
In one exceptional case — ^where a defamatory
statement, in writing, is likely to lead to a breach whenever the person making a communication
has an interest, or a legal, social, or moral duty to
of the peace — the person making it may be make it, and the person to whom it is made has a
prosecuted for the offence of criminal libel, for the
purpose not of compensating the injured party, but corresponding Interest or duty to receive it. A
of upholding law and order (D9(l)). In this common example is a reference given, about the
exceptional case the truth of the statement {see character of a servant, by a former to a prospec¬
above) is no defence, and publication to a third tive employer: another is a report made, on the
party is not necessary to secure a conviction. commercial credit of a trader, by one person who
has dealt with hhn to another who Intends to do so.
But there is no such offence as “ criminal slander.” Other occasions of qualified privilege are reports of
If a defamatory statement is made reflecting
on a class of persons generally {e.g., an attack on judicial proceedings, of public meetings, and of the
proceedings of municipal or other public bodies.
“ Methodists ” or “ coloured people ” or “ money¬ Such occasions are privileged to this extent and
lenders”) that will not entitle a person who
happens to belong to that class to bring an action with this qualification — ^that there was no malice
unless he can show that he personally was aimed at {i.e., spite or other improper motive) in the mind of
and defamed. (But under the Eace Eelations the person when he made the communication.
Act of 1866 it is now an offence to stir up hatredbn If there was malice, then the fact that the occasion
the ground of colour.) The family of a deceased was one of qualified privilege will not protect him
person cannot bring an action for a libel or slander from an action for damages at the suit of the person
upon the reputation of the deceased. defamed. In any such action it is the duty of the
If the person sued puts forward the defence judge to decide, as a question of law, whether the
occasion was one of qualified privilege: it is for
that the words he used were “not published of the jury to decide, as a matter of fact, whether
and auestlon
the concerningmust ” thebe person
decidedbringing
whetherthethose
action,
to the defendant was malicious in what he wrote or
whom the statement was published could reason¬ spoke. (Contrast occasions of absolute privilege,
ably understand it to refer to him,. If such under¬ where material.)the presence or absence of malice is im¬
standing is reasonable, then it is no defence for
the person who made the statement to show that
he did not in fact intend to refer to the other (4) Fair Comment “ on a matter of public
person, to
known even that the latter’s existence was un¬ interest.”
or him, — This form of defence is moat commonly
employed by newspapermen, reviewers, and
Some statements are defamatory in their critics. If this defence is to succeed, the words to
which it relates must be really comment {i.e.,
natural oMd primary sense {e.g,, “ Jolm Brief is a expressions of opinion, not statements of fact) ;
thoroughly dishonest lawyer”): others may the comment must be concerned with a matter of
appear imexceptlonabie if looked at literally, but
inay have a defamatory meaning in a particular public interest {e.g., a book, a play, a musical per¬
context, or in particular circumstances known to formance. a political speech, or the public actions
the persons
hear Mrs. B to has whom
left herthey are published
doctor {e.g,, “ AI of men in the public eye— but not their private
a lot of money. lives) . Lastly, the comment must be fair — and it
fine kind of doctor he is ! ”). In cases of the latter caimot be fair if it is actuated by malice in the mind
kind the person who claims that the published of the commentator. If he has mingled with his
words axe defamatory of him must plead an in¬ comment some statement of fact, and that state¬
nuendo — l.e., he must set out, in his statement of ment is Inaccurate or misleading, that in itself vidll
claim, the meaning in which he alleges the words prevent the comment from being regarded as fair.
complained of were used. It wUl be the duty of The onus is on the defendant who is pleading fair
the judge to decide, as a matter of law, whether comment to establish that what he is seeking to
the words are capable of bearing that meaning: defend is really comment, that the matter on which
the jury will have to decide, as a question of fact. he commented was one of public interest (not, for
whether the words complained of did actually example, private scandal), and that the comment
convey that meaning to those who heard or read is not based on any misstatement of facts or other-
AND INTESTACIES Dl 9 ENGLISH LAW
WILLS
(1) The Nature ol a Will.— The person making .a
-wise imfair. Dislionest or insiBceie coiênt will — the testator— seta down how he wishes his
cannot be fair: but on or the other “ ^lon^t
belief in the commentat s that property to be disposed of after Ms death, and
successful states the names of the persons (the eaecutors)
ment was fair Is not eno^h for a who are to attend to its disposal.
rlpfence. The comment must be fair in jaa. The executors may be. but need not he. some
The usual remedy in actions of libel and stader or all of the persons whom the testator desires to
is damages— a sum of money
benefit under Ms wfll. One executor alone is
iury’s view) to compensate a man for the harm M sufficient in law: but if that one dies before he
cases the
Sation has sufiered. In certain rare (or she) has completed his duties, delay and dim-
n. grant m iniimcti on
C^t may. in its fscretio
not to publish or not to culty may arise. It is therefore better to appoint
ordering the defendant at least two executors: if one dies, the other hm
repeat the publication of a hbeh , jt ^toir
full powers to continue the work. If the testator s
The Defamation Act, 1962, reduced^ the risk estate (that is. Ms property) Is large, it may be
of legal proceedings againânyone
" published ” a libel. The best to appoint a bank as executor: all b^s have
make an offer of amends, ix., an offer to trustee departments wMch are experienced in
a cmrection and apoloov. and to such matters. They have scales of chaises for
steps to notify those who âve ^ executorsMp work, wMch will he supplied on re-
any defamatory document, auest. An executor is not permitted to charge
the parfy for his work, unless the wiU authorises Mm to do so
accepted and the promise Performed, tor — a thoughtful provision for a complicated estate.
defamed cannot bring, or coidinue, an action
libel or slander. (6) If the ofier is rejected, thm Nor is the executor bound to accept the ezecutor-
sMp when death occurs.
the “ publisher.” in any action taken against him,
the wor(^ were A wfll “ speaks from death — ^that is, it has no
may plead, in defence, that legal effect until the testator dies: it can he
“published” innocently, and that the offer of revohed (that is. cancelled) in vatiom ways, or
amends was made as soon as practicable. Jkmo;
cent pnbUoation means: (1) that the pnhllmer alterations can he made by codicil, which is really
a supplementary will. Emthw. the atproperty to
did not intend the defamatory words to refer to the date of
the other party, and knew of no reason why they wMch it relates is that of the testator
might be understood to refer to him; or (2) that his death, wMch may he more or less than;ât he
the words were not in themselves defamatory, ana owns at the date when the will is made. The wul
that the “ publisher ” knew of no reMon why can be revoked or varied as often as desired to
suit îiflTigiTig circumstances: its provisions are
they might he understood to defame the other not final untU death. , , ^ .
party: also that, in either ease, the publisherthe
exercised all reasonable care in regard to Generally speakMg, a testator may make what¬
“ publication.” ever provisions, in regard to Ms or her property
and the persons to he benefited, he or she thinto
fit. He or she may even direct that his or her
wife, husband, or children are to bf, of
V. THE LAW OP PEOPBRTY. all benefit from the estate: but, if he or she
^
does so. it will be well to give the reasons, either
1. In General. in the wfll itself, or in a signed, witnessed, ^d
1
dated document, wliicb should be left with the
(1) Living Persons. — The special prights and dis- ■,
abilities which affect the ownershi and disposal ^nder Acts of 1938, 1952. 1965. 1966, and 1969 a
of property by certain classes of perMnshOTe p^n )hnshand or wife, an unmarried dau^ter or son
already dealt with rmder the heading of Sfoto iunder majority, or a son or dai^hter, either
(Dll-13). It is unnecessary to add anything living j
nere natural
,one who orforadopted, “ imder disability jf*
on the law of property in geneirf, so far as some reason is mcapahle of loo^g
persons are concerned: hut different rules are ]jafter himself or herself), who is not adeauatMy
apolioahle (as will he seen below) to the ownership provided for under the will, may apply to the
and disposal of land and buildings as compama i
for rfils iCourt for “ reasonable provision for mamteiiance to
with property of other kinds. The reason out of the estate: the Court has power either
main distinction is that the former are,
in their ;
refuse the application or to grant tte apphoant
mature, immoveable and cannot be pliysic^y whatever maintenance it thinks fit. In inaMiig its
transferreand
n.T'iTnnia d, astangible objects and
can money “ chattels
which are capable of ^ reasons decision the Court wfll take note of the testator a
for Ms failure to provide for the appheant
being owned). In addition, there is a third class- ■ in question. Similar rules now apply to former
certain intangible things which can be owned I husbands and wives, to the surviving spouse of a
dealt with — ^for example, the right to be paid a - void marriage, and to illegitimate children {see
debt, a share or stock in a company, an iMui-ance in * ^^â^person dies without leaving a valid wlU. he
policy, or a patent: these are known as things
action, and they can he transferred oidy m certain I is said to die intesktte. In that case sonaeboi^
formal ways, which will he described below. (usually the husband or wife or n^t of Mn) must
apply to the Probate Keglstry (at Somers^ Horae
in London or hi the nearest District Eegistry
(2) Deceased Persons. — It is obvious that the1 elsewhere) to be appointed adminiswe^. An
rights and duties as an
law of any civilised community must make pro¬ - administrator has the same
vision. not only for the transfer by a hving person 1 executor. If there are cMldren under majority least
of bis property, but also for the trana^sipn off and in certain other cases, there must he at dmh
that property (his “ estate ”) upon Ms deMM . two admlMstrators, and the procedure on
Law permits every person who te not dis-- is more Involved and troublesome than where
English
auallfied by mhiority or lunacy IDlS(l)) to give a executors have been appointed by wfll. Itather,
directions, during his lifetime, as to the dôsal off as the testator has not directed what is to h£®pen
his estate upon his death: he cm do t^ by me^ 8 to Ms property, the law has laid down ^ maer of
of a viUl. If he leaves no valid will he is said to diee succession, whicii the administrators must observe,
intestate, and in that event the law Itself laysconcise downa The Intestate’s husband or wife te then entmed
how his estate is to be distributed. A e first to the personal effects (fumitoe. household
survey of tbe law governing the estates of dec^sed 3, goods, motor-cars, hooks, etc.) : next, to theorwhole
persons is given below. (Some of these rules have e of the estate, if there are no children near
been modifl^. so far as domicil Is concerned, byy relatives, or. if there aie, and the Mtate is large
the Wills Act. 1963.) enough, the first £8,760, and, after that, Qe
husband or wife and children have certaiii rights
In the remainder of the estate, if any, details of
Wills and Intestacies .—The law of wills is highlyy wMch can be found in the Intestates Estates Act,
tecbnical; much trouble cm henaused by aa 1962, and the Eamfly Provision Act, 1966. or If
“home-made” will, and it is wise to seek aa there is no husband or wife, or no oliUdren,
solicitor’s advice. It Is only to possible here to out¬5- neither, the next of kin of the intestate will benefit
line the forrtialiUes necessary make a valid will,1. |; in order of nearness of their relationship to the
' deceased. By the Eamfly Beform Act, 1969,
iin TlA ArlontAd fi/fbCir Qi ClCtltuI*
The rules stated are thoseWales, under EngMi Mw— -

applicable to England md but not Scotland succeed to property on an intestacy as legitimate
or Northern Irelmd. children.
WII.I-S AND INTESTACIES D20 EN6I-ISH L,AW
It is always prudent to make a will, however to a codicil, which is a supplementary document
simple, since by doing so the testator exercises amending
legacy. the will in part, e.g., by adding a new
control over the disposal of his property and saves
considerable trouble for his family.
(3) The Contents of a WiE. — The opening words

should clearly identify the testator by his full
(S) The Execution of a Will. — The formalities names, occupation or description, present address
must be strictly observed, except in the case of
soldiers, sailors, and airmen on active service (in¬ and (if possible) other recent addresses, and declare
that this is his Last Will. It is sometimes found
cluding members of the Women’s Services and at death that a testator has a banking account or
nurses), for whom informal directions, even in a
letter or by word of mouth, are sufficient. For all stocks and shares registered in his name at some
other testators, inattention to the formalities may past address, and in such cases the bank or com¬
render the will invalid, and will in any case cause pany concerned, wishing to be sure that his iden¬
considerable trouble and expense. tity is clear, may insist upon a sworn statement to
the effect that he is the same person as the person
The will must be in writing — i.e., not by word they knew as customer or shareholder. {See
of mouth — handwritten, typewritten, or printed, example below.)
but the wording need not be in legal or formal
language, so long as it clearly identifies the testa¬ Next foEows the revocation clause — a declaration
tor, the executors, the various kinds of property that the will now being made revokes (that is,
dealt with, and the persons to be benefited. It cancels) all previous wills and codicils. If this is
should also state the following formalities have not inserted, doubts may arise after death as to
been carried out when it was executed — that is, whether the new provisions are intended to be
signed by the testator and attested — i.e., witnessed substituted for. or merely to supplement, provi¬
by two competent persons: sions in an older wlE. If it is intended that the
older wiE is to remain vaUd in part, that should be
clearly stated. If the document now being exe¬
(a) The wiE must be signed by the testator, or cuted is a codicil, it should be described as such,
by some other person in his presence and by his and the date of the original will to which it is a
direction. If the testator can write, his usual codicU shoidd be mentioned, and also which parts
signature wEl suffice; if he is illiterate or too un¬ of the original wiE are being confirmed, to stand
well initials
to sign alone.
m fuU, Ifhe hemayis incapable
make his of
“ mark " ora good, and which mioM.
his holding The next clause should appoint the executors,
pen, someone else may sign for the testator, pro¬ who must be identified by their fuU names and
vided he is present at the time and authorises the
signature. If the testator is bhnd or otherwise descriptions or addresses. “ My brother John,”
incapable of reading the will, it should be read over “ my son
since only Charles.” or “could
one person my mother ” will
possibly suffice,
answer to
to him before his signature or mark is placed on it.
and the fact of his blindness should be mentioned not enough without giving her names in fuE, sinceis
any of these descriptions: but “my wife”
in the final clause. See also D13, end of (6). it does not foEow that the person who is the testa¬
tor’s wifewhen
his wife at the
thetime
will of
washismade.
death was necessarily
(6) Iffie Signature or mark must be at the foot or Next foEow the directions for disposal of the
end of the will. This means (i) nothing added
below theanywhere
testator’sonsignatmre, and (li)after testator’s property. Bequests or legacies of par¬
nothing
written the document the
ticular articles (“ my pearl necklace,” “ my oak
testator himself has flmished signing, wUl be valid, bedroom suite ”) or of particular investments
except the signatures, addresses, and descriptions (“ my 3% Wat Stock ”) — these are spedfie legacies
of the witnesses. If, therefore, at the last rolnute — ^must clearly identify exactly what is being
the testator desires some addition, alteration, or bequeathed. In the case of land or a house, the
deletion to be made, he and the same witnesses Ml description shoxEd be given — " my leasehold
must sign or put their initials against the addition,house and grounds at 31. Acacia Soad, BedhiU
alteration, or deletion, which otherwise wUl be in the Coimty of Surrey,” or “ my freehold farm
ignored. known as ' Newiands ’ at Northgate in the County
of Derby.” The words “ I devise ” are the tech¬
nical words appropriate to freeholds: “I be¬
(c) The testator’s signature must be made or (if queath ” to aE other kinds of property: the effect
he cannot sign) acknowledged in the luesence Of is the same. (Bequests or legacies of sums of
two witnesses, who must both be present at the money — pecuniary legacies — should preferably be
same time. Any persons may be witnesses, so stated in words rather than figures: if figures are
long as they are capable of imderstanding what is used the accidental omission of a nought may be
going on. They need not read the wUl or know its disastrous.)
contents; but if either of them is a person who Is ElnaEy. there is the clause that deals with the
to take a benefit under the wiE, or the husbandbr residue of the Estate — that is to say, whatever
wife of such a person, he or she wlE lose that wiE remain after the executors have paid the
benefit. It is therefore safest to call in witnesses funeral expenses, death duties (if any), legal and
who are strangers to the testator. Both witnesses
other fees, the testator’s debts, and the pecuniary
must be present together when the testator signs legacies he has bequeathed, and after the specific
(or acknowledges) his signature: it wlE not be a bequests have been handed over to those entitled.
valid attestation if first one witness, and then the Such a clause is necessary because no testator can
other, is called into the room. be sure, when he makes his wEl, that he has dis¬
posed exactly of everything of which he may die
possessed, or that aE the persons to whom he has
id) The witnesses must sign the wiE in the pre¬
sence of the testator. Either witness may. if made bequests wEl necessarEy be aEve, when he
necessary, sign by mark or Initial, but no other dies. In general, the death of such a person — a
person may sign on his behalf. For identification legatee— lo&foie the testator causes that person’s
purposes it is usual and desirable for the witnesses legacy to lapse; but if there te a bequest of the
to add their addresses and occupations, in base of a residue for division among a number of persons,
subsequent dispute which may necessitate their no harm is done: the lapsed legacp, being left
being formd to give evidence. over and undisposed of, leaves the residue to be
If the wUl consists of several pages, they should divided among the surviving residuary legatees.
be fastened together before execution, and the The expression “such of the foEowing persons
signatures of the testator and witnesses should who may survive me ” may be properly used.
appear at the end of every page, not to satisfy At the time of writing (Nov. 1970). a Committee
the rules set out above, but as evidence that every is considering the possible relaxation of some of
page formed part of the wEl when it was executed. these strict rules.
It is desirable (though not legally essential)
that the wiU should bear, just above the slghatures
of the witnesses, an aMestatton ciduse^that is. (4) Bevooatlon and Revival.— A will or codicil
a formal statement that these formalities have
been carried out. The usual wording of this clause may be revoked (i.e., cancelled) by “ burning,
wEl be found in the example shown below. tearing, ofor revoking.
tention otherwise destroying
Destruction ” by
it with the in¬
accident, or
All these rules apply in exactly the same way without the testator’s desire to revoke it. is in-
WILLS AND INTESTACIES ENGLISH LAW
D;
effective, and if a copy exists, its provisions
put foTOard as still valid. lie revocation may be
clause
SIGNED AND ACKNOWLEDGED '
by the above-named JOHN SMITH
in a later will (see above) will be equally effective the Testator as and for his LAST WILL
to revoke an earlier wiU: or some part of the in the presence of us both present at 1 .Tohn
BMuer wUl may be revoked by a later codicil
clearly referring to that part. the same time who at his request in Smith
A will IS also revoked — generally speaking — by his presence and in the presence of
since the law assumes that, each other have hereimto subscribed
It the testator who is newly married had had time our names as witnesses:
for or given thought to the matter, he would have
S
he ^
will die intestate. do so after marriage, George Matthews,
If a totator makes Will A, and later on Will B 6, Elm Hoad,
EedhiU, SmTey.
containing a revocation clause, WiU A is revoked —
Chauffeur.
«.e., ^n<MUed. But if WiU B is in turn revoked
1 C, that does not revive — -i.e., revalidate —
Ida Gray,
<■ m-n C says, in so many words, that
WiU A is hereby revived.”
10, Oaktree Eoad,
EedhiU, Surrey.
« cwidren4.®!' <D19{2))iUegitimate
m a will include the words as“ child,”
weU as I
legitimate children (unless otherwise stated).
Children’s Nurse.
SPECIMEN WILL purposes usuaUy Inserted for identification

I, JOHN SMITH of 31 Acacia Eoad EedhiU in the „
County of Surrey Company Director^ HEEEBY Eevpcation Clause-cancels aU previous w'ills
EEVOKE** aU wiUs and testamentary documents® codicils.
® “ and
wills Testament ary documents ’’—includes both
codicils.
te my IAsTwiS.™*' wiliraSS^f^ documents ’’-includes both
1. I APPOINT my wife .TANE SMITH^ and ® Wife’s name should he mentioned— he may
my SoUcitor EDWARD JONES to be jointly the have a different wife by the time he dies.
Executors of this my WiU.
that
i.,the entirefee simple -—technical
freehold interest is words
disposedshowing
of.
,2. I DEVISE my freehold farm known as
Newlands ” situate at Northgate in the County specified ‘ legacies ” — i.e., legacies of actuaUy
of Derby unto my son JAMES SMITH in fee things.
simple.®
’ Not " my motor-car
sent car before lie dies ” : heperhaps may seU his pre-
3. I BEQUEATH the following specific lega¬ one, m wUch case there and buy a new
might be a dispute as to
cies:® whether he meant only the oar he owned at the
date of his will.
(1) To my son THOMAS SMITH any
motor-car of which I may be the owner’ at
the date of my death. tion® This e:pression is defined in the Administra¬
of Estates Act, 1926. It includes furniture
plate, cmna.
(2) To my said son JAMES SMITH all my sonal effects.wines, cigars, books, and other per-
It is better to use
shares in the Company known as John Smith defln^ by Act of ParUanient than a a word clearly
vague word
& Sons Limited.
hke possessions.”
(3) To my said wife all my personal chat¬ ® i.e., aU personal effects which the Testator has
tels® not hereby or by any codicU hereto not left or will not leave to anybody else.
otherwise bequeathed® for her own absolute
use and benefit.®® .®® These words show clearly that, although the
wife rs one of the Executors, with the duty of
clearing up the estate for the benefit of all the per¬
leg sons to be benefited, these particular bequests are
aci for her own personal benefit.
es:
(1) To my daughter JULIA SMITH the ®® “ Pecuniary ” — i.e., money.
siun of TWO THOUSAND POUNDS.
after all the
(2) To my secretary EVELYN EOBIN-
SON the sum of ONE HUNDBED POUNDS. other gifts have been disposed of, and debts paid.
®® Charging Clause, without
I devise and bequeath aU the resi¬ who is a SoUcitor would not hewhich the Executor
able to charge for
due® of my real and personal estate his work on the Estate.
and wheresoever not hereby disposedwhatsoever
of as to
my freeholds in fee simple® and as to my personal ■ '‘This is the proper form of attestation clause—
estate absolutely unto my said wife JANE i.e., the clause showing that the proper formalities
tor signmg and witnessing were observed.
SMITH for her own absolute use and benefit.®®
6. I DIRECT that any executor of this my Will
being a SoUcitor or a person engaged in any pro¬ Probate and Letters of Administration.— It is a
fession or business may be so employed and act pecull^ty of the English system that a deceased
and shall be entitled to make all proper profes¬ persons estate, upon his death, does not “ vest
m (i.e., fall into the possession of) the persons
sional charges®® for any work done by him or his to whom he has left it by will, or among whom it
firm in connection with my Estate including work ■
which an executor not being a SoUcitor or a hM by law to be distributed (the " beneficiaries ”):
the
■ estate vests, in the first instance, in his
person engaged as aforesaid could have done executor
i or executors, if he has appointed any
personally. suon.
i (If he has made no such appointment, then,
■ ■]pmding the appointment of administrator or
atomistrators (D19(2)), the estate vests (for
IN WITNESS whereof I the said JOHN SMTH the time being) in the Presiding Judge of the
i
the Testator have to this my LAST WILL set my Panilly
^ Division of the High Court of Justice;
band this twelfth day of April One Thousand jthat Judge has no duties in relation to the estate,
Nine Hundred and Seventy. ibut any notices that would, if there were executors,
WIi.LS AND INTESTACIES '22 ENGLISH LAW
have to be served upon them, must be served for for letters of administration. Apart from the
the time being upon him.) Ihe generic name that special cases (D19(2)) in which there must be at
applies both to executors and administrators, least two administrators, no grant -svill be made
when their title has been lawfully recognised, is to any more distant relative of the deceased unless
legal vfftsonal representatives; that is to say they and until all nearer relatives have renounced their
are recognised by law as representing the deceased rights or been “ cleared off ”; this last expression
person, for all proposes under the law of property, means that it must be clearly shown that they
and for most purposes under the law of contract are dead or for some other reason are incapable of
and the law of tort. Generally speaking, the acting as administrators. (The order of priority
deceased person’s rights and liabilities are trans¬ among the relatives entitled to take out a grant
mitted to his legal personal representatives, and is: (1) husband or wife; (2) children and thpir
can be enforced by or against them as soon as remoter issue ” (i.e., grandchildren, great¬
they have taken out a grant of probate or of letters grandchildren, etc.): (3) parents: (4) brothers
of administration. (Small estates are dealt with and sisters and issue of deceased brothers and
more simply.) sisters; (6) half-brothers and half-sisters and issue
of deceased half-brothers and half-sisters: (ffi
The “ grant,” in either case, is a document grandparents, and so forth.)
issued by one of the Eegistries and bearing the
seal of the Family Division of the High Court It has been said above that the property of a
and the signature of one of its Eegistrars. It deceased person “ vests ” on his death in his
states the deceased’s name and address, the date executor or executors, if any; if there are no
and place of his death, and either (1) that his last executors it “vests” in his administrators as
will has been proved and registered in the Eegistry soon as they have been duly constituted as such
concerned, or (2) that he died intestate (as the by the "grant.” In law these legal personal
case may be) : that (in the former case) the execu¬ representatives (executors or administrators) have
tors, or (in the latter case) the administrators, the same powers of disposing of the deceased’s
whose names, addresses, and descriptions are property as if they were the owners of that pro¬
given, are entitled to administer H.e., to deal with) perty in the fullest sense: but in accordance with
all the estate which “ vests in ” them by law; and the rules of eauity (see D7) they must exercise
the document concludes by certifying that an them powers of disposal strictly in accordance with
Inland Sevenue Affidavit has been delivered, what is just and conseionable—i.e., they must
showing the gross and net values of the estate and distribute the property itself, or sell it and dis¬
the amount of estate duty and interest (if any) tribute the net proceeds, as laid down by the
paid. Where a wiU has been “ proved.” a photo¬ terms of the will (if any) ; in case of an intestacy,
stat copy of the will is bound up inside the as laid down by the law of succession, as set out
"grant”: if no will has been “proved” the in the Intestates’ Estates Act, 1962, and the
" grant ” consists of a single sheet bearing the Family Provision Act, 1966. That strict exercise
above-mentioned particulars. It is important to of their powers which conscience demands will
note that, in either case, the title of the legal be enforced, in case of need, by the Chancery
personal representatives {i.e., their legal right to Division of the High Court of Justice (see D8),
deal with the estate) is evidenced by the " grant ” at the suit of any beneficiary imder the will or
— i.e., the document by which the Court’s author¬ intestacy. But purchasers and persons other
ity is conferred upon them — and not directly by than the beneficiaries can safely deal with the
the terms of the will or by their relationship Hf legal personal representatives as though they were
any) to the deceased. Anybody, for example, who legal owners of the deceased’s property, provided
is pruchastog property of the deceased from the the “grant” is produced as evidence of their
legal personal representatives is reauired only to
satisfy himself that probate or letters of admini¬ powers.
The procedure in applying for a grant of probate
stration have been granted to them: such a or letters of administration is that the applicants
purchaser is not in the least concerned with the must make a valuation of the various Idnds of
terms of the wiU. property of which the estate consists: the value
Whenever a.ny formal transadion has to be of each item is to be the value on the date of
carried out in connection with the deceased death. (It is not usually necessary to employ a
person’s estate the " grant ” must be produced; licensed valuer, though this may be helpful if the
this applies in particular to dealings with land or estate includes valuable jewellery, antiaues, or
buildings, “ things in action ” (see D37(3», the works of art.) An Inland Jdênue Affidavit, for
initiation, defence, or continuation of legal pro¬ death-duty purposes, must be completed and
ceedings for the benefit of the estate, and the sworn before a Commissioner for Oaths, tpir
transfer of the deceased’s contractual rights. document is one of a number of printed forms
There are^ however, a number o£ informal acts (varying according to the nature and composition
which the persona (if any) appointed by the will of the estate, and obtainable from Somerset
to be executors, or the nearest relatives who intend House, the Estate Duty Office, and certain
to apply for letters of administration, may pro¬ principal post offices). It is divided into headed
perly do before the issue of the “ grant these columns showing (a) the descriptions and the
include such common-sense matters as arranging values of the various parts of the estate (e.g.,
the funeral, safeguarding and insuring documents cash at bank. Government securities, stocks and
and valuables, feeding livestock, locking up shares, furniture and effects, and so forth): a
premises, and preserving property which would separate section shows (b) the funeral expenses
deteriorate if neglected. , AU persons should, how¬ and the debts which the deceased left owing.
ever, take care not to sell or dispose of any part of Hie gross estate consists of the items under (a);
the estate before the “ grant ” is ismied: a person the net estate is calculated by deducting those under
who, without lawful authority, meddles with the (6) from the gross total (the cost of a tombstone
estate may find himself regarded as executor de son cannot be deducted).
tort-^.e„ placed in the position of an executor by In the simplest cases estate duty is payable on
Ws own wrongdoing— and thereby bound to meet the net estate, according to a sliding scale: but no
the liabilities of the deceased person, and pay the duty is payable on an esta;te of £10,000 or less.
death duties (if any), for which he ought to have (In all but the simplest cases it would be wise to
provided. Bven a person named in the will as consult a solicitor, as the law relating to estate
executor takes a risk if he does more than the duty is excessively complicated.)
most urgently necessary acts before probate, since Another part of the document sets out parti¬
It may turn out that that will is. for some technical culars of the deceased and of the applicants, and
reason, invalid, or some later wiU may come to the kind of grant reauired. The document,
light in which he is not named. when sworn, must be forwarded to the Estate
hTot more than four persons can apply for a Duty Office, who will assess the duty payable (if
grant of probate or letters of administration. If any) and interest on such duty from the date of
therefore the will names more than four executors, death. This must be paid In full before proceed¬
the persons named will have to decide among ing further, except the part of the duty that relates
themselves to freehold property, which may be paid by
if there are which of than
no more them four,
are to apply:
none 'Evenis
of them instalments. (The deceased’s baiik will usually
compelled to apply, tmless he has already meddled grant a loan or overdraft for the purpose of such
with the estate : he can renounce his right by payment.) When the duty has been paid the
signing a form of renunciation. If the deceased Inland Eevenue Affidavit will be returned to the
has appointed no executor by will, one or more applicants receipted.
(not exceeding four) of the next-of-kin can apply The second document required is the Form of
PROPERTY IN LAND D23 ENGLISH LAW
Oath for Executors or Administrators. This gives which was not limited to expire at the end of a
particulars of the deceased and of the applicants, fixed period it was known as “ an estate in fee
as before, and declares either (a) that they believe simple ” — i.e., a freehold', a tenancy which was
the “paper writing” before them to be the for a fixed period only was known as “ a term of
deceased’s last will, or (6) that the deceased died years absolute,” or a leasehold.
intestate : in either case they declare their relation¬ When the Feudal System came to an end this
ship (if any) to the deceased, and the capacity in distinction remained. A freehold estate in land
which they apply {e.g.. “ the executors named in is still an interest which has no fixed expiry date:
the wiU,” or " the lawful widow of the deceased.” and the freeholder, out of that unlimited interest,
or as the case may be); and they swear to ad¬ can " carve,” as it were, fixed leasehold terms,
minister the estate (the gross amoimt of which during which tenants wiU hold the land of him.
they mention) according to law, and to produce The property legislation of 1925 profoundly
proper accounts whenever called upon to do changed and simplified the law. Until the end of
60. This Oath must also be sworn before a 1926 one important characteristic of the freehold
Commissioner. estate was that of primogeniture — the rule that, on
If there is a will it must now be signed (for the death of the freeholder intestate, the freehold
identification purposes) by the applicants and passed intact to his eldest son or (if he left no son)
the Commissioner for Oaths. If there is no will a to his eldest male heir. This was abolished by the
third document is required, known as an Adminis¬ Administration of Estates Act. 1926, which
tration Bond. This is a printed form which must enacted that, in the event of a person’s dying
be completed and signed, sealed, and delivered intestate after 31 December 1926, the whole of
(see D13(2)) by the applicants and two sureties — his property (realty as weU as personalty) should
i.e., independent persons who are willing to devolve upon his legal personal representatives
guarantee that the applicants wUl carry out their (D22{l))j and that it should, as one whole, be
duties according to law, under the penalty of sold and converted into money so far as necessary
forfeiting double the value of the estate if there
for the payment of the deceased’s funeral expenses,
is any default. (In practice, an insurance com'* and debts, death duties, administration expenses,
pany will usually undertake the duty of smety for and for distribution among his next of kin. The
a reasonable premium, and in that event no other eldest son, or heir, has no longer any special
surety is required.) The Bond must be executed privilege.
(i.e.. signed, sealed, and delivered by the individual
smeties. or sealed by the insurance company, and Settlements. — On the other hand, a freeholder
also signed, sealed, and delivered by the appli¬ (whom we will call Charles), having a freehold
cants) before a Commissioner for Oaths. estate in land — i.e., an interest which has no
Finally, the applicants must take to the Princi¬ expiry date — can during his lifetime create
pal Registry of the Family Division at Somerset successive interests to take effect one by one.
House, or to one of the District Registries outside Charles can, if he so desires, settle his freehold
London, (a) the receipted Inland Revenue estate to be enjoyed by himself during his life¬
Affidavit: (6) the duly sworn Oath for Executors time; after his own death, by bis eldest son
or Administrators: (c) either the will (if any), duly George during that son’s lifetime: then by Ms
marked with the signatures of the applicants second son John, during John’s lifetime, and
and the Commissioner, or the Administration finally by George’s son of
Peter ‘‘in fee simple.”
Bond, duly executed. If there is no hitch, the The successive Interests Charles, (Seorge, and
grant of probate or letters of administration wiU John are called life interests', the ultimate, future
usually be posted to the applicants (or their freehold interest, reserved for Peter to enjoy after
solicitor) within about fourteen days. the deaths of his grandfather, his father, and his
(For the convenience of persons who have no imole, is called a remainder. Both the life in¬
legal adviser, there is a Personal Applications terests and the remainder are rights of property to
Department, situated in Bush House, Aldwych, which Charles, George, John, and Peter become
W.C.2, where the officials are extremely helpful entitled immediately the settlement is made — that
in answering questions and showing applicants is, they are present rights to the future enjoyment
how to complete the forms. But in most cases of the property, and those rights can be dealt with
trouble and delay will be avoided by employing at any time, even before they “ fall into posses¬
a solicitor.) sion.” Since Charles, George, and John must
some time die, Peter knows now that his freehold
remainder must come, some time, to him or his
personal representatives and, through them, to Ms
II. Property in Land (Inunoveable Property). next of kin (see above) : for even if he dies young,
Althou^ the logical distinction preserved In the while George and John are still aUve. his right will
legal systems of other countries is between pro¬ not be " defeated ” but will be preserved for those
perty in land and buildings and property of other to whom his property may eventually pass under
Ms will or intestacy. Therefore that present right
kinds (“ immoveables
English law has from an ”earlyand
date “made
moveables ”),
the more to future enmiment is a piece of property which
artificial distinction between real property or Peter can deal with noio, imless he is a minor,
or unless he is restricted by the terms of the
realty (i.e., freeholds) and personal property or settlement from doing so. George and John can,
personalty (i.e., leasehold land and property of all if they are so minded, do the same with their life
other kinds). The reason is historical. In early
times, if the possession of freehold land was with¬ interest® — that is, they can nmo sell to another
held from its rightful owner, his remedy was an person, for hard cash, their present rights of
future enjoyment, or they can mortgage (i.e.,
action for recovery of the actual thing withheld — pledge) those rights against a loan, on the under¬
i.e., the freehold land Itself— and that very thing standing that they will get back those rights
(in Latin, res) would be restored to the owner when the loan is repaid.
under an order of the Court. On the other hand, To watch over these successive interests, and to
when property of other kinds (including leaseholds) preserve the rights of the ultimate successor,
was withheld from its rightful owner, his remedy Charles appoints trustees of the settlement, whose
was an action against the wrongdoer, in which duty it is to act impartially by all the heneficiaries.
the remedy woidd be the award of damages against A trust corporation (usually one of the hank
the wrongdoer personally (in personam) — not an trustee companies), which never dies, or at least
order for the restoration of the actual goods or two Individuals, may act as trustees. The
other property withheld. Although that distinc¬ Trustee Act. 1926. provides for the appointment,
tion in the remedies is no longer generally applic¬ by a simple procedure, of new trustees to take the
able, the terms (realty and personalty) have been place of those who die, become unfit, or unwilUng
retained.
to go on acting, etc. In the last resort the
Chancery Division of the High Court (the guar¬
dian of equity) has power to make such an appoint¬
1. Realty or Freehold Property. — ^The difficulties ment; for “toequity
of this branch of the law are due principally to In order enable never
landedlacks a trustee.”
property to he freely
historical reasons which go back to the Feudal disposed of, it is provided hy the Settled Land Act,
System. In a very practical sense that System 1926. that the person who is for the time being
recognised only the Monarch as the owner of land: enjoying the current life interest (see above) hm
those who held it from him were tenants (in power to sell the entire freehold estate if he so
French, “holders”). If the tenancy was one desires. Nevertheless, the scheme of interests
ENGLISH Law
LANDLORD AND TENANT D24
under the settlement is not defeated, for the of estate, arisiog from their mutual interest in fhB
purchaser from the tenant for life must pay the term of 999 years (as lessor and lessee respectiTC®
purchase-money not to him but to the trustees; ly ) t but th,6r6 is between them no nrivit v of prin
they must mvest the money in safe inyestments.
and carry out the provisions of the trust ment
tract, with one another.
for Eobert and JamesThehave made nnoâgree"
distinctio may in
nêssary modifications. Each tenant with the
for life certam circumstances be important.
will then rêceive the interest or dividends on
mvestinents during his lifetime, just as formerly the
he
The Form and Contents of a Lease.— A lease for
wo^d have received the rents and profits of the a term of more than three years must be mads Ito
his lifetiine: while the mjwinderOTmi
(Peter) wdl ifitimately come into the capital of deed
It (D13(2))
names between the
md describes the parties,
lessor S. and th“to
sets forth
the trust fund (^.e., the investments themselves) that, m return for sm annual rent (and sometime
the freehold interest. (By the terms of on payment, m addition, of a lump sum caS sa
a laoi Act, half the mvestments may consist of premium), the lessor demises {i.e., lets) to the
stocm or shares in commercial concerns recom¬ lessee, for a term of so many years from such and
mended
adviser.) by a stockbroker or other competent such a date, the land in question with the build¬
ings erected thereon. (In the law of property (he
biMdin^gs go with the land on which they stand.)
Then foUow the lessee s covenants — the promises
S. LeasehoMs.— We have seen above that the which he is to perform: to pay the rent by
freeholder, out of his estate which is unlimited in stipulated mstalments , on certain dates: to nav
tune, can carve ” fixed terms of years absolute or rates, taxes, and other outgoings on the property;
feoM/ioW estates. These terms may be of any to put and keep the property outside inoffuU bufidtngs
the rep^r; to
length: the most common are terms of 999 and 99
years. The document by which such a term is at &toted tunes; to keep the property insured
granted IS called & lease; the person gi-anting the to Its fuU value, m the names of the lessor and
term is landlord or lessor; the person to whom •himself: to permit the lessor periodlcaUy
It IS panted is the tenant or lessee. But the lessor, mspect the condition of the property; to carrv to
by the CTimt of a lease, has not given up all put repairs which the lessor, as a result of
mterest m the land. The lessor’s freehold estate iMpections. may caU upon him to carry such out
IS tmhmited in time; when, therefore, the lease- These are some of the stock clauses: but every
hold term (however long) comes to an end. the inhvidual lease must be carefully studied in
right to possession and enjoyment of the land will order to ascertain what the lessee’s obligations are
revert to the freeholder. That right, Imown as a IN^t come the lessor’s covenants — the promises
revernon, is again a present right to futiue enjoy- which the lessor is to perform: the chief of these
meru and, as such, a piece of property which the IS that, if the lessee carries out his part of the
treeholder can, if he wishes, dispose of now. The bargam, the lessor will permit him “ quiet enjoy¬
ment of the property without disturbance
sale of the ’Î’êrsion
freehold ”subject
is.in fact, eauivalent to the
to an existing lease: dm-ing the term. Some leases also contain
It confers upon the purchaser the lessor’s right to stipulations binding on both parties; for example
receive rent from the lessee throughout the lease¬ a stipulation that the rent shall be reduced or
hold term, and at the expiration of that term to pspended If the property is damaged or destroyed
reassess and enjoy the land without limit of time. W fire, and sometimes an arbitration clause. At
The lessee has a legal estate in the land for a the end of most leases comes a proviso, for the
fixed tem of years, and he in turn (unless pro- protection of the lessor, to the effect that he Rhaii
i ^ f’y the provisions of his lease) can grant be entitled to expel the lessee, and to re-enter and
sub-terms to expire at any time before repossess the property, if the lessee ceases to pay
head-term. This is a process which his own
his rent or to perform his covenants as requh'ed,
repeated, in turn, by each lessee, underlesseecan , sub-
be
or in tbe event of the
undCTlessee, and so forth, who will become respec- he cannot do so withoutlessee’s bankruptcy. (But
leave of a Court.)
huderlessor, sub-underlessor, and so (Jne copy of the lease (the original) is signed,
forth, of the person to whom the next subordinate sealed, and delivered {D13(2)) by the lessor,
interest is gi-anted. Thus Michael, the free¬ handed over to the lessee as evidence of his and title
holder, by grating to James a term of 999 to the leasehold Interest. The other copy (the
leaves htaseh with a freehold reversion whichyears, will counterpart) is signed, sealed, and delivered by
revert, _at the expiration of the 999 years, the lessee, and handed over to the lessor as
possession of the then freeholder. James, into the
by the evidence of his entltiement to the rent and to the
grmt of an mderlease, can carve (out of his lease- performance of the covenants by the lessee. Ofiie
hcfid term rf 999 years) a sub-term of 99 years in counterppt iMiiires a stamp (impressed by the
flavour of William, whose underlessor or landlord Stmp Duty Branch of the Inland Eevenue)
he become, leaving himself with a leasehold only five sMtogs; but the original must be of
reversion, Qt 900 years. William, in his turn, can stamped at the rate of 6s. for every £60 of the
pant to Anne a sub-underlease for 21 years rent m leases not exceeding 7 years (and at higher
leaving himself a leasehold reversion of 78 years, rates in longer leases). If the rent exceeds £60,
md so forth. The relationship of lessor and 10s. per £60 of any premium Isnayable also. No
tesee, or ImcUord and tenant, subsists between stamp duty is payable on rents up to £100 in
Vvmi^ and Anne, James and William, Michael short leases.
and James; tide relationship is one of iirwily of
estate as weU prvmty of contract. The former
phrase means that each of these pairs of indivi¬ S. Statutory Eeforms in Law ol Landlorfi and
duals is linked by their mutual interest in the same Tmant.— The above text on Leaseholds
and Leases
tern of yejf s ae above described. The latter sets out the common law rules. But, at various
phrase, privity of contract, means that the link is
it arises from the agreement between amended times^ since 1920, Parliament has considerably
and added to those rules— particularly to
Michael and .Times contained in the headlease, protect (1) tenants of trade, business and pro¬
^ the underlease between James fessional
premises. and (2) tenants of dwellings of
md Wiih^. and that in the sub-underlease comparatively low rateable value.
between WiUiam and Anne. But between
md Jês. between WiUiam
no relationship of any kmd. and Michael, there is
neither of contract L Busmess Tenancies.— Under the Landlord
nor of estê,. Michael can look only to James and Tenant Act, 1964, Part II (and
JamM to Wilham, and William to Anne, to carry imder it), as amended by the Law of cases decided
out the terms of the respective tenancies. Property Act.
there may be
_
conditions) to aK lessee
tenureor isunderlessee
granted (under certain
who occupies
estate between two parties without premses for the purpose of
a trade, business,
privity of_ contract. Suppose Michael conveys fession or employment carried on by him bn pro¬ the
(i.fi.,. transfers) his freehold reversion, during the (We shall refer to such premises as
mMistence of James’s lease, to Eobert. Thereby . tte holding ,) The holding may not be used as
Eoberte will take over all business premises, and there is no security, if the
he wlU become lessor, in placeMichael’s rights: i.e.,
of Michael, to James lea^ or tenancy agreement prohibits their use as
M lessee, as vv^ as^being entitled to possession OTCh, unless permission has been given by the
of the freôld when James’s lease expires. lessee s for underlessee’s) landlord to that effect.
Between Eobert and James there will be privity J. enancies eaxluded from protection Inelude agri-
:5
LANDLORD AND TENANT DS ENOILISH L.AVJ
cultural holdlugs, mining leases, on-licensed (f) or (ff), so that the Court caimo grant a new
premises (except certain hotels and restaurants) tenancy, the Court orders the landlord to pay to
and tenancies not exceeding six months, rmless the tenant compensation for disturbance, or the
the tenant and the person who carried on the same parties may agree on the amoimt of compensation
business there before him have occupied the pre¬ without Court action. If the tenant has carried
mises for more than twelve months altogether. on business on the holding for the whole of fourteen
A holding is protected by the Act by the pro¬ years preceding the termination, the compensation
vision that the tenancy does not automatically is twice the net rateable value: if for a lesser
come to an end on the date specified in the original period, a sum equal to the rateable value.
lease, but only (i) if the landlord gives to the tenant If the above procedure is carried out. the old
not less than six nor more than twelve months tenancy continues in effect until the final disposal
notice in writing to terminate the tenancy; (ii) if of the case even if the lease has expired mean¬
the tenant gives to the landlord, within a similar while, but a fair rent may be fixed by the Court for
period, areauestforanewtenancy; (iii) where the
tenancy is for a fixed period, if the tenant gives at the interim period of the proceedings. “Final
least three months notice (expiring at the end of disposal ” Includes any necessary time for appeal.
the period or on any auarter day afterwards) that 2. Eesidential Tenancies. — The Bent Acts,
he does not want the tenancy continued: (iv) if it 1966-68. as partially amended by the Housing
is a periodic tenancy (from month to month or year Act. 1969 (D47-8), restore the security of tenure
to year), the tenant gives the landlord notice to which had been imdermlned by the 1967 Bent
quit, of the fuU legal length: (v) if the tenancy is Act. It is now an offence for a landlord to evict
surrendered or (vi) if the tenancy is forfeited a tenant from “ protected ” premises without a
(which can be done by the landlord only on a Court Court order. The 1957 Bent Act allowed “ pro¬
application). In cases (i) and (ii), the parties may tected ’’ rents to become decontrolled when the
agree to fresh terms for a new tenancy. It is vital prenaises were relet. The Acts of 1965-68
in such cases that the time-table laid down in the
Act shall be adhered to. and the advice of a stipulate that
property the vacation
will result not in of a “protected"
decontrol, hut in
soUeitor should be sou^t at least twelve months
conversion on reletting to a “ regulated ’’ tenancy
before the end of the lease : if any request or appli¬ under theof new Acts,value
unless
cation is out of time, the Court cannot help the tenancy rateable not itover
is a £40
“ controlled
in London”
party in question. The twelve months or six or £30 elsewhere. Both “ regulated ” and
months notice of termination must not expire “ controlled ’’ tenancies are “ protected.”
earlier than the date of expiry of the original lease. Under the Acts of 1905-68 security of tenure is
■Where (i): the
termination (a) it landlord serves
mnst require the the notice
tenant, provided for “ regulated ’’ dwellings with rateable
of
within
two months of the notice being given, to notify values (A) above the “controlled” figures (see
above) and up to £400 a year in the Metropolitan
the landlord whether or not he is willing to give Police District and £200 elsewhere, to which the
up possession on the specified date; (6) it must rules summarised in the next paragraph apply,
state whether or not the landlord will oppose an except increases permitted as a result of land¬
application to the Court for a new tenancy, and if lords’ Improvements under the 1969 Act (as to
so on what grounds. Four of the grounds are that
the tenant has neglected repairs or payment of which see D48). (B) Those tenancies still “con¬
trolled ” are roughly the same as those to which
rent for which he is liable or committed some other the old Bent Eestriction provisions of 1920-89
breach of his lease, or that the landlord has offered continue to apply.
reasonable alternative accommodation. Three Bent oifioera or assessment committees can
further grounds are : (e) that the existing tenancy revise rents in category (a). Tenancies under (a)
is an imderlease of part of premises held under the
headlease, and the separate lettings would produce are
torv called “ regulated
tenancies tenancies.”
of formerly Certain
reauisilioned smu-
dwellims
a lower total rent than if the whole were let to¬ (which would have expired on 81 March 1966) axe
gether: (/) that on the termination of the current continued after that date as regulated tenancies.
tenancy (die landlord Intends to demolish or recon¬ Occupiers who are not tenants (i.e., those In occu¬
struct the holding or a suhstantiai part, and could pation necessarily because of their employment,
not reasonably do so without obtaining possession such as caretakers) are tacluded mder the term
of the whole; hut not if the tenant is willing to “tenants.” A tenancy of which a non-proflt-
give the landlord access to do the work, or to maldng Housing Association is landlord is exempt
accept a new tenancy of part of the holding: (a) from regulation.
finally, that on the termination of the current The task of the rent officers and rent assessment
tenancy, the landlord Intends to occupy the hold¬ committees is to fix fair rents on application of
ing for the purposes of a business to he carried on landlord or tenant, or both, in counties, county
by him, or as his residence. (But the landlord boroughs, London boroughs and the City of
may not oppose the grant of a new lease on this London. They axe to take into account all the
final ground if his interest was purchased or circumstances, age, chaiacter, locality and state
created within five years immediately preceding of repair of the dwelling; but disrepair due to the
the termination of the lease.) tenant’s neglect and improvements by the tenant
If the tenant prefers to request a new tenancy, are to be disregarded, as is also any great demand
he must propose not more than twelve nor less (exceeding supply) of dwellings in the district.
than six months from the date of request: hut The fixed rents are to be registered, and must in¬
not earlier than the date of expiry of his existing clude payments for furniture and services (if any).
lease. The tenant must also propose the period If the landlord pays rates, that fact is to he noted,
of the new lease, the rent he is willing to pay and and the registered rent plus the rates may he
the other particulars of the proposed new tenancy. recovered from the tenant. If the cost of services,
The tenant cannot make such request (a) if the or of repairs to be done by the landlord, is a
landlord has already served a termination notice, variable sum. the registered terms must say so.
or (W if the tenant has served notice to quit: nor The landlord cannot lawfliUy recover more than
can either the re^stered rent, taking the above variations
request for (a) or (6)
a new take place after the tenant’s
tenancy. into account.
Within two months after a tenant's request, the It is unlawful for any person (with intent to
landlord must serve on the tenant notice stating cause the residential occupier to give up occupa¬
on which of the above grounds (if any) he will tion or to refrain from pursuing his rights or
oppose
parties the Court’s
cannot makegrant
any ofagreement
a new tenancy. The remedies) to do anything calculated to interfere
to the effect with his peace or comfort or persistently to with¬
that the
leave Act time
at the shall the
not tenancy
apply, without the court’s draw or withhold services reasonably required for
was granted.
occupation. " Eesidential occupier ” means a
The next step is for the tenant, not less than two person occupying the premises as a residence,
months nor more than four months after the land¬ either by contract or by any Act of Parliament.
lord’s termination notice or the tenant’s request The paialty is a fine up to £100 or imprisonment
for a new tenancy, to apply to the County Conrt, up to six months or both, before the magistrates,
which must grant him anew tenancy on such terms for a first offence, and a fine up to £600 or the
as the parties may agree on or the (3ourt thinks fit,
imless the landlord establishes any of the above imprisonment, or both, for a subsequent convic¬
tion. The occupier, even If the premises ore not
groimds of objection. If the landlord’s objections “ protected " (i.e., not subject to the Bent
are false, the Court ‘will grant the tenant damages. Eestriotlons Acts or certain other statutes) cannot
If the landlord establishes any of grounds (e). lawfully he evicted even when the tenancy has
ENGL.ISH LAW
1-AW OF PROPERTY
terminated and tlie occupier continues to reside mortgage, and in the same
there, without leave of the Court. In default. oriâUr iSe lender ^t state as it ■
^lgi?S4.1o«e 1?^ tSf oTsSfXt^? has establish tl
t^ted ^ prenuses. Occupiers pro- principle that the borrower ô morSJ Ws

suDtMiant, and the widow or widower, ^
ttenjfnt ‘and* or any loan
freehold or leasehold
of money shall notinterest, m seSylo^l ^
be di^nnVAr!
s&iiff rafii
co^tio^F^th*^"^
^ ai’' or tajdae of a continuance
prelum as or
a which
ia the the
tot*plaoel
borrowera^MntiaotlM'lWt^wnfrîr
promises to repw the
transfer of a protected tenancy (m addition to to the lender, with interest at a certain
rata ^
instalments, and meanwhile 'for
Fr^na^
*IfF^r, lender’s
or mprovements he has paid for, or as a insured, protection, to keep the nronertv
in proper repair and so for^
refund to the outgoing tenant of any reasonable that is not
hrn^lf paid on taking posses- lender should, in it is cSy toportant
addition. ^ Ranted an ^‘at tha
liSeres?
nrjîHâi fni- Sn F® transfeped to in thetoproperly
.^rismess him
F® mcommg
i® the itself— an interest which will
take actual possession of the property ifenable
ssfL.ssc.M'STxs..n gotJ'iSffi'sa'r.a.-.ss.TSK
fi” more
for “m oSS’Sttp
than seven tss
years— and then only if the ss*"’
The Law of Property Act lean daviaad ■■
»
mder^tht temmey
Therî^l^l ^S-proyfe^^^ regarding the payable method of^ving the lender a’legal estate inlihe
pro-
regMSng‘nForteages dwellings and want of a mortgage of land, in whatever fomiUs
leêhold house, in which*
■*«•- itself ^ which, the lender can deal
“*•?''£
with bv fpfa
snip nTiH
a terms the fr^hold or which
a lease extended for fifty years. Xôngr means a to his will be transmitted, as an interest in land
legal personal renresentatfvpA nmw >110
tenancy ori^naUy granted for more than twenty- death. It is fiirther pro-riled
that on
one years. But the te^ncy must be at a low rent discharge of the S|l™e
“St ®»>^mg two-thirds of the rateable the loaS. with all Sest and thi reratnW
eLIS^lll ?o
Iio^FF- terms are ascertained by an the mortgagee), that tem of years^hXw/S «
^'^® must have be extinguished, the borrower thereafter continuinc
fni^ analogous to that of pawning a piece of lessee by way of a leaS o7tei^^

mlnV
So"y?la
S!g^
£Kf=«KsSrtr.M'^s liiss g-srppttSrlTw

ssiSrrdo5Se««£?£‘S'a;',!
ESPis ““laS E»“S€r“i^P
mortgalelFr/otW^tciêt b*^^^ d^Kue^d I

the lend™ (the mSiSf to ?ust him *^® ^ leasehold is effected by a
manently from possession, and even* to^prive can^be*dealfc’%fF®
bun of o-wnership of the property. Butthecom-ta xr, ^ ^?,®î calM a transfer of
of equity, as we have seen (I)7i2b ffrfldnnu-u- takes over
evolved the rule that It was unconscioMl^ ^r^hn ® estate in the land, subject to* or
lender to enrich SriL ftTfoTcMno htos^^^^ ri^Wa*^® «ie,Personal obligations or
loan and for freeinTtee ^Sf the mn^ ® freehold or leasehold title) must be
gage, the
redeem the borrowe?^ ihorid
property (i e to sMUyeuSto en^ftffil
free it from i->iBY>nan»>i
Sûtedâe-®. Pert of the latter s security,
fnlri^^h AHa+tf
by tendering to tee lenderUTbSSof care to get teem back
ss3S)..a
Sff r i as »”
LAW OF PROPERTY 027 ENGLISH LAW
of the purchaser’s solicitor to investigate title — the latters’ legal title: provided he hands over the
i.e.. to satisfy himself that the vendor has a proper purchase-money to them (not being less than two),
title himself and a proper right to convey or assign. or somebody authorised by them, the purchaser is
Generally speaking, the purchaser’s solicitor must not responsible for what they may do with that
go through the deeds (evidencing sales, trans¬ money. If those legal owners, from whom the
missions on death, grants of leases, grants and purchaser buys, fall to pay over the proper shares
redemptions of mortgages) for at least fifteen years to those beneficially interested, it is for the latter
back: he must cheek every step in the devohitim to enforce their rights against the vendors, who
of title {i.e., every change in ownership) and make have sold the legal estate, by action in the Chan¬
reguisitions (i.e., demand explanations) on any cery Division, the guardian of equity. The
point which is doubtful. This is stlU the system purchaser’s title to the land Itself is not affected
over the greater part of the country. No stamp by the vendors’ failure properly to carry out the
duty is payable on conveyances up to £S,600: terms of the trust for sale, so long as the legal
from £5,500 to £7,000 is 10s. per cent : after that it estate has been properly transferred to him and he
rises to £1 per cent. has paid the purchase-money to not less than two
legal owners.
(6) Registration of Title. — With a view, how¬
ever. to simplifying such procedure the Land
Registration Acts have provided for a different m. Property Other than Land (Moveables).
system. In areas to which an Order in Council has
made the system applicable, registration of title is 1. Chattels. — Chattels are concrete things which
can be the subject of ownership, other than land
co'iiwitlsory upon any sale of freeholds, or of or buildings, and other than objects so closely
leaseholds having more than forty years to run.
Under the Land Registration Act, 1966, this affixed to land or buildings that they are regarded
system is gradually being extended over the whole as part thereof (e.g., growing crops and trees, or
coimtry. Registration is effected in the following " landlord’s fixtiues ” built into some structure or
so closely attached that they cannot be removed
way: one of a number of District Registries inves¬ without serious damage to the structiue).
tigates the title of every freehold or leasehold sold
after the appropriate date, once and for all. If they In the ordinary way chattels can be sold or
are satisfied that it is in order, they register the given away without any special legal formalities —
owner as registered ‘proprietor of the land with abso¬ merely by physical transfer — i.e., by the owner
lute title to his freehold, absolute or good leasehold handing them over to somebody else. If a
chattel is to be mortgaged as security for a loan,
title to his leasehold. (These kinds of titles indi¬ the procedure differs according to whether the
cate that the title is unexceptionable, but if there
is a slight doubt the proprietor may be granted a person pledging it (the borrower) is or is not to
retain possession of the chattel. (His ownership,
gualifled title', and if he is in possesdon of the land in either case is not disturbed.)
he may be granted a possessory title, which signifies
little more than the fact of possession. The Chief
Land Registrar is empowered, however, to convert (а) If, as happens when an article is pawned, the
possessory titles into absolute or good leasehold borrower is not to keep the article in his possession,
titles, after fifteen years in the case of freeholds, he hands it over to the pawnbroker, who hands
and after ten years in the case of leaseholds. He him in exchange the agreed loan and a pawn-
may convert gualifled titles at any time, according ticket. On production of the pawn-ticket, and the
to circumstances.) repayment of the loan with the stipulated interest,
The Land Registry issues to the registered the borrower is entitled to receive the article back.
proprietor a land certificate, certifying (on behalf (Provision is made by law for cases where the
of the Government) that a registered title of the borrower defaults in payment, or where an mi-
appropriate kind has been granted. In any reasonable time elapses before he seeks to redeem
further transactions relating to that particular what he has pledged.)
land thewith
himself purchaser’s
the originalsolicitor need in not
deeds save concern
exceptional(б) If, however, the arrangement is that the
cases: he can generally rely upon the certified borrower is to retain possession of the mortgaged
statements made in the land certificate, on which article (as may happen if he borrows from a
the name of the new registered proprietor Is moneylender on the security of his furnltrue), then
entered by the Land Registry ofificiala when a the borrower must execute and hand to the lender
transfer in his favour, or the grant of a lease to a document called a bUl of sale. The law relating
to such a document is extremely complex; but
him. is lodged at the Registry. There are appro¬ the most important provision is that the lender
priate sections in the land certificate for registration
of a mortgage and the particulars of the mortgagee cannot enforce his rights unless he registers the
for the time being. bill of sale, at the Bankruptcy Court, in a register
which any member of the public can inspect for
a small charge. If then some member of the
public desires to purchase the article from the
6. Joint Ownership. — If two or more persons are
the owners of fteehold or leasehold property, that person in whose possession it remains, but has
does not mean that A owns one part of the land reason to suspect that that person, though he may
and buildings, and B and C other parts: the effect be the owner, has mortgaged it to a money-lender,
is that aU of them iointly mm the whole. (The it is open to the proposing purchaser to inspect the
analogy win be dear if the reader considera the register of bills of sale to satisfy himself on the
point. If he finds an entry against the owner’s
case of a motor-car owned jointly by A. B, and 0; name,
clearly all three own the entire oar between them : he will be wise not to proceed with the
it cannot be said that A owns the engine, B the transaction. If he finds no such entry, and has no
chassis, and C the body.) The Law of Property reason to believe the owner to be bankrupt, he can
Act, 1925, recognises such joint ownership of land usually assume that there is nothing to prevent
by means of a device known as a trust for sale. the person in possession from passing a good title
Tire respective rights of A, B, and C (eaual or to him. The proposed ptuchaser can also inspect
imeaual) can be fully enforced only if and when the register of bankruptcies in order to see whether
the property is sold and the net proceeds of sale, the vendor has the right to sell (see D10(2)).
in money, divided up in the proper proportions:
and any or aU of the joint owners can insist upon a. Things in Action.— These (see (D19(l)) are
such sale or division for the purpose of obtaining intangible rights which can be owned and dealt
their proper shares. But. while the property with but, because of their abstract nature, cannot
remains unsold, all the joint owners have rights be physically transferred. If Brown owes Jones
according to the proportions of their shares: if, £50, Jones (the creditor) can transfer to Robinson
for example, the property is let, the net rents, the right to collect the £60 from Brown, Jones
after paying for repairs and other expenses, must does this by a document called an assignment of
be divided between them in those proportions. the debt and (most important) by giving written
Up to four persons can jointly own a freehold or notice to Brown (the debtor) that Robinson is now
leasehold legal estate in land: if more than four the creditor instead of .Tones.
are entitled to the benefiMcil interest, then four of Similarly, if Jones owns ten shares in Brown &
their number only must hold the legal estate, and Co., Ltd., Jones will hold a share cerUficale — i.e.,
equity will enforce the beneftowd rights of aU a docummrt: certifying the amount of bis share¬
against the legal owners. A purchaser from joint holding. He, has certain rights in the company,
owners of the legal estate is concerned only with ■but these -depm.d- upon the company’s memo-
DIVORCE Don
, ENGLISH LAW
|sf sp?Sis!S“; r“
|M}SS;3£K» b.f3B£lSSMs."‘ »«‘
AioTSS Sid o“«MSai S" S^l SSK™ S~oS)“S‘'io'^»7dS- Sfotte ttS
i#iaiaSBS£l
SS "f ~5i«H
HSISIaSsMl aEi MMÊS%P
aSSH^SF^
III. FURTHER DETAIL ON SOME BRANCHES
OF THE LAW
DIVORCE AND OTHER MATRIMONIAL CAUSES
1. HISTOEIC
1. HISTOBICAL SKETCH.
AIi SKETCH. Causes.” This jurisdiction, formerly in
The momaUes in this branch of the Law of
The anomalies in this branch of the of of the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty
England,
England, and and the
the legalistic
legalistic attitude
attitude of the Courts
Courts is now allocated to the new Pamily
to
to the
the suêct,
suêct, are
are principall
principallyy due to historical
historical [PMsion winch will deal with cases affecting the
reasons. Por centuries the
reasons. Por centuries the Church Church of of Rome
Rome was was ^^5^* changes have been
cfr authority, and
ecclesiastical authority,
ecclesiastical and the law
the law “ 1^23 1925. 1937.
of that Church (Canon Law) applied to malri-
of that Church (Canon Law) applied
momal capes— that is to say. disputes relating to to malri~ 1965, 1907. 1909, and 1970) extending
mamal
any cawses— that is to say. disputes relating to
marriage fp^ '^lyorce and the jurisdiction of
^d the mutual rights and duties of
any marriage ^d
the the mutual indissolub
rights andle-duties of iPf C!opi’f : in ttie interpretation and adapta-
the spouses.
spouses. Marriage
Marriage was was divorce
indissoluble— that is.
in the modem is, KSP « .F'pciPlps.flie great body of case law (see
there was no such thing as divorce in the modem
sense Pilnciples and practice
of breaking the legal tie. But the Ecclesi¬
sense of breaking the legal tie. But the Bcclesi- HL*^® old Ecclesiaîcal Courts Is not without its
astical
asticM Cpimts,
Cpittts, which
which alone administered the the The principles of eduity (see
matrimonial
matrimonial law
reasOTis law before
before 1868.1868. might
might forfor certain
certain wi’i- ■ “9® modified the strict
reasOTis grant
grant aa decree
decree ofof nullity
nullity (a (a declaration
declaration that that this br^ch of the law; equity has no
a particular marriage ” was nuU and void). In
a particular
other marriage grant” was null In ^PPhcation to the law of matrimonial causes (ex-
other cases
legal cases they
they might
separation might grant what what is now cafied aa ®®^f resort to Iniunotion (see DIB) and for the
(tnown,
legal separation (tnown, in in those
those days
days as as aa P'ôt®hwon of the wife’s person or property).
.£f^°’^°%‘^mfisa
bed md board) ; this etthpro.’’
latter i.e., banishment from
decree, however, did
not dissolve the marriage bond, but merely gave 2. POWERS OP INFERIOR COURTS—
judicial sanction to the spouses’ living apart from SUMMARY JURISDICTION,
each other, and regulated the terms of the separa-
tion. After the Reformation the Ecclesiastical _ Cracurrently -i^h the jurisdiction of the Divorce
Courts continued Division of the Hgh Court, Magistrates’ Courts
on the same legal to deal -ndth matrimonial causes now
principles as before. _ have power (Matrimonial Proceedings
As a result of the Acts of Supremacy passed in
gie reigns of Henry \an and Elizabeth I. tte to tliere^der) to gr^t relief (by a matrimonial order)
declared to be the supreme governor either ®ouse (the complainant) in certain cases
other spouse (the
of the :âlm in all spiritual and ecclesiastical, as defendant).
temporal, causes. This royal supremacy, (Die procedure is simpler, quicker
exercised OTMtitubon^y through Parliament, was and ch®aper than in the High Court. A Magi¬
law of the land* since there was no strates Court may grant a matrimonial order; if
bmitation upon the power of ParUament (see such order provides (a) that the complainant shall
DS), ®eoiM Acts were passed, from time to that Pv has longer to cohabit
bound effect
the same with the defendant,
time, to effect that which neither the Ecclesi¬ as a High Court decree of
astical nor the Civil Courts then had jurisdiction judicial sepMation (see D32). A Magistrates’
*^® “arrlage tie Itself. A Court may also provide (6) that the husband shall
divorce of _tMs Mnd, known as (fivorce a vinculo where the hushand’a earning
I capacity is mpalred by age. illness, mental or
rnainmom-^ (a divorce from the marriage bond) physical disablement, that the wife shall pay the
rare, for the procedure was cumbersome and
eiTOtosive. Except by the passing imsband) such weekly maintenance as the Court
Act Of Parliament, there was no meansof ofa getting special thinta reascmable plus (h) weekly payments for
^h dependent cMd; (d) the child's custody
The Matrmioni 'dissolved before the year 1868. ^
al Causes Act, 1867, transferred complainantpajs or (e)of.age) may be granted to the
ttie jurisdiction in matrimonial matters from the to a county council or county
Ecclesiastical Courts to the new Civil “ Court for borou^ nounoil or (in special circumstances) (/)
Divorce Md ^Matrimonial Causes but per- such jMd may be independen ordered to be placed under the
ptuated the old ecclesiastical practice with regard probation t person (such as a
to nullity suits and judical separation (fomerly officer) ^d (a) access to the child may
toown_M divorce a mensa et ffwro "). Apart (Ihere J^granted to
are specialeltbeir spouse or to any patent.
irom this rearrangement, the Act took the provisions relating to (d). (e)
revolutionary step of conferring upon this Court a and (f). The iormer limits of £7. 10s. for wife or
imw judicial power — ^that of granting a divorce in husb^d and of £2. 10s. for a child were repealed
the modem sense of a complete dissolution of by the Maintenance Orders Act, 1968.
manage. As we have seen (D8), the Supreme
Judicature Act. 1873. and subseauSt thatthedefendant— it, i may apply for relief on the ground
legislation,^ set up one single High Court of Justice, (1) has dflserled the complainant;
r*^® Divorce, and Admiralty
Division foimed part, taking over (with other
Tsyrk) tJi6 jnrjsdiotion^^w Lad been confeixGd in the
it, complainan
been tguilty
or anof infant
persistent cruelty
child of to
1867 upon tbe “Court for Divorce and Matri- complainant or of the family (see D80(2)); the
DIVORCE D29 ENGLISH law
(3) has been conTioted (i> on indictment in the High Court or designated County Coiu’ts
(i.e., by a jury) of any assault on the com¬ (see (1) below) may be remitted or made payable
plainant, or (ii) (involving
by a Magistrates’ Court for
of by instalments.
certain offences imprisonment No order is enforceable while a wife is residing
not less than one month) aoainst (he person of with her husband, and no order may be made on
the complainant, or (iii) of a sexual offence. the application of a complainant where it is proved
(or an attempt thereat) against an infant child that he or she has been guilty of adultery, unless
of either spouse who is a child of the family: the defendant condoned or connived at (see below),
or by his wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to
(4) has committed adultery’. (i.e., tended to lead to), the adultery. An order
(5) while Imowingly suffering from venereal already granted will be discharged (i.e., its effect
disease, has insisted upon sexual intercourse
with the complainant, or permitted such will be terminated)
adultery, or on proofonthat
prooftheofspouses
the complainant’s
voluntarily
intercourse without the complainant being resinned cohabitation, except for any one period of
aware of such disease : not more than 3 months with a view to effecting a
reconciliation.
(6) is a habitual drunkard or a drug ad¬ If a matrimonial cause is pending in the Eamily
Division of the High Court, no application for a
dict'.
(7) being the husband, has compelled the separation or maintenance order ought to be dealt
wife, or led her, to submit to prostitution: with
Court bymay
a Magistrates’ Court.
refuse to make And awhen
any order Magistrates’
the suit
(8) being the husband, has wilfully neg¬ in question would, in its opinion, be more con¬
lected to provide reasonable maintenance for the veniently dealt with by the Eamily Division.
vdfe or any dependant child of the family: By the Matrimonial Proceedings and Property
(9) being the wife (in case (c) above) has Act, 1970, a maintenance order will be discharged
wilfully neglected to provide, or make a by the remarriage of the party in whose favour it
reasonable contribution to, reasonable main¬ was made: and the Court may order overpay¬
tenance for the husband or any dependant ments to be refunded.
child of the family, having regard to any
resources of the spouses.
Appeals. A Magistrates’ Court has power “ to
A Magistrates’ Court has jurisdiction to hear any state a case,” upon a point of law (not a question of
such complaint if either spouse ordinarily resides in fact) arising on the application, for decision hy a
the Court district, or (except in (3) above) if the Divisional Court consisting of two or more judges
cause of complaint arose in that district, or (in case of the Eamily Division. And an appeal from a
Divisional Court lies to the Court of Appeal, by
(3)) if the offence or attempt arose in that district. leave of either the former or the latter.
Jurisdiction is also exercisable if the complainant
resides in England and the parties last resided
together in England (even if the defendant now
resides in Scotland or Korthem Ireland), or if the 3. MATEIMONIAL CAUSES in the HIGH
defendant resides in England though the com¬ COUBT and UNDEFENDED DIVORCE
plainant resides in Scotland or Northern Ireland. CASES in DESIGNATED COUNTV COURTS.
Ike Court may order the costs of the application
to be paid by either party. (1) Constitution oS the Courts.
The general rule is that a complaint under (4)
above must be made within six months of the date The President of the Eamily Division and not
when the act of adultery first became known to the less than three other High Court Judges attached
complainant. A complaint on any other grounds to that Division are the permanent judges for
must generally be made within six months of the Matrimonial Causes. They sit both at the Royal
Courts of Justice in London and at Assizes. (See
ground of the complaint arising, unless the com¬ reference to proposed new Eamily Division of
plainant was abroad at the time: but this time
limit does not apply to such continuing offences High Corirt (DS8(2).) Certainly subsidiary duties
as desertion (see betom) or wilful neglect to main¬ are performed by the seven Registrars of the
tain. Principal Registry of the Division at Somerset
House, and by District Registrars in the principal
These "domestic proceedings,” as they are cities of England and Wales. The Matrimonial
termed, may be heard before one stipendiary
(legally qualified magistrate) or not more than Causes Act. 1967, permits designated County
three justice of the peace, including, so far as Courts to grant divorces in undefended cases.
practicable, both a man and a woman. The
hearing is in private, the public being excluded,
and newspapers are prohibited from publishing (S) Ikactioe and Procedure.
details; “ domestic
with separately from proceedings ” must
other matters, and bereports
dealt In contrast to “domestic proceedings” in
Magistrates’ Courts, the Judges of the Eamily
from probation ofifieers may be received on the Division or of designated County Courts sit
subject of any attempted reconcihation or on the normally in open comt, thou^ they have power
means of the parties. The same applies (under an to sit in camera (in private) where the ends of
Act of 1968) to appeals to the High Court from a justice so require. In nullity proceedings, how¬
Magistrates’ Court’s hearing of a matrimonial case ever, it is provided by statute that evidence on the
question of sexual incapaoity must be heard in
{see “Appeals”
strates should apply below).
the sameIn general
general,principles
the magi¬as camera imless the Judge is satisfied that the ends of
are applied in the Divorce Division ; lay justices of Justice require such evidence to be heard in open
the peace are advised on the law by their legally court. Press publicity is limited by statute to
quaUfted clerk. certain matters and the publication of indecent
A Magistrates’ matter may give rise to prosecution, in any
grant a divorce Court,
or to however,
annul a has no power the
marriage: to matrimonial proceedings.
jurisdiction to make such a decree is in the hands In general, practice and procedure in the
of the Family Division of the High Court of Eamily Division and designated County Courts
Justice are governed by statute, by rules of ComH: framed
County and, sincein 1967,
Courts of certain
undefended “designated
cases. CeneraUy” by a judicial committee under statutory authority,
speaking, the law relating to domestic proceedings and by the principles and practice of the old
in Magistrates’ Courts now (November 1970) re¬ Ecclesiastical Courts — except in proceedings for
mains imchanged, but in the High Court and dissolution of marriage, which the old Courts could
designated County Courts there have t>een far- not entertain (see D28(l)).
reaching reforms.
A maintenance order may be enforced by com¬
mitting the defendant to prison If his failure to (3) Belie! and Grounds for Relief.
comply with the order is shown to be due to wilful
refusal or culpable neglect, and if he has fallen (o)--NuIIity o! Marriage. The High Court has
into arrears. But this is the final resort If enforce¬ power
two mainto declare a “case:
classes of marriage ” null and void in
ment fails by " attachment of earnings,” i.e., an
order to employers to deduct the debt from the (i) “ Marriages ” Void from their Inception
debtor’s wages. Arrears becoming due more — i.e., where one of the parties had another
than a year before applcatioh for enforcement husband or wife living at the time of the cere-
ENGLISH LAW
DIVORCE Dso
mony; where there was a mistake as to the divorce does not bring about the break-d
more than the availability of surgical own auv
nature of the ceremony, or the identity of the treatinpiu
other party: where one party had been de¬ ^ be said to bring about iU-health A SSiSe
clared of unsound mind and was detained as a may break down— that is to say, the " kemeP’
lunatic at the time of the ceremony; where the marriage, the mutual respect and
affection
the parties were within the •prohibited degrees
of relationship {e.g.. brother and sister, or
uncle and niece) : or where the ceremony was
not m due form, or was a mock “ marriage ground, among both the upholders
(ii) Marrimes which are Voidable — i.e., of the orthodox view and those who advocat
which stand good unless and until one party ed
or the other (“ the Petitioner ”) successfully evep-, possible effort should
made, by private individuals and public institu-
petitions the Court for annulment — i.e., where tiOM, to effect a reconciliation, if at
either party was sexually impotent at the date Such efforts are favoured by the law, and all possible
of the ceremony: where either party has wll- woA IS done to this end by religious organis excXS
fimy refused to consummate the marriage: ations
where the marriage was induced by threats or medical mm, mobation officers, and such insti¬
tutions as the Marriage Guidance Council
fear or duress (i.e., force), or where one conunon ground that, if such
spouse was intoxicated at the time of the efforte are unsuccessful and the breach proves irre-
ceremony.
the interest of the chltoen^toftoe
The Act of 1966 added certain other groxmds: lajxiily snoula be paramount, and no -DaiTiM
(a) where either party was, at the time of the ôuld be spared^to secure their proper care and
Mremony, m fact of unsound mind but had not maintenance. The Matrimonial Proceedings and
been declared so, or was then a mental defective, Property Act, 1970, defines a "child of the
or then subject to recurrent fits of insanity or family ’■ as (a) a child of both parties,
epilepsy; (b) where the other spouse was, at the aw other cMd. not boarded out with themandby (6)
local authority or voluntary organis a
time of the marriage, suffering from venereal ation,
has been Seated by both parties as a child of who
msea^ in a communicab
tne wife was» at the time le
form: and (c) where fanffiy. There are elaborate provisions for the the
of the marriage* pregnant motectira of Ml such children (D83{1)): the wel-
by some person other than the petitioning husband. m children is the paramount consideration,
But in those last cases (a), (6), and (o) the Court
must not grant a decree unless it is satisfied that toespective of the rights and wrongs as between
the parents. Nobody will deny that,
the petitioner was. at the time of the marriage.
Ignorant of the facts alleged: that the proceedings mainage has broken down in fact, the once the
children
were instituted within a year of the marriage, that
Md that there has been no sexual intercourse Sol. they would somesuffer less ifbut
extent: the itlegal
does tienotbetween
follow
the parents were preserved, or if the home, with
petween.the parties, with the consent of the peti¬ its atmosphere of strife, and perhaps of violence
tioner, since he or she discovered that there were
grounds for a decree of nullity. were kept together at all costs — even assuming,
roch a thing were possible. A divorce may not
Where a “ marriage ” is void (see
ârds it as never having taken above) the law Judge has made an order
Where it is voidable, the decree place at all.
annuls the
declaring whether he is satisfied that aU possible
arrengements have been made for the care and
milage retrospectively from its inception: but upbringing of the children, that the only children
certain transactions between the parties while they
actually remained married are validated, and the of the family are those named in the order, that
Court has power to order maintenance for the the arrangements are satisfactory or the best that
womp: and any child who would in the normal
way have been the legitimate child of the parties ® void.
-h. *l®®re® , absolute made make
•without
remains legitimate, notwithstanding the annul But if circumstances it
desuable to grant the decree absolute without
aeiay, although arrangements for the children
Sterility— ^.e., inability to produce children — îs
not, in Its^, a ground for annulment of the that finalised,
5^®? the Courtanmay
effect, accepting make an
marriage. If the impotence of one spouse appears undertaking
to be curable without danger the Court ma^ be
fore pronouncing a decree, require that oppor Court 0it the earliest opportunity,
fvfnS last-named parties to bring isthe question
case, nobody
tumty for cure be first given. If he or she refuses entitled to
to undergo exammation or treatment the Court Judge question toe vahdity of the decree once the
s order is made.
may mfer, after hearing the other party’s evidence,
that, impotence exists. The petitioning husband
wie may ask for a nullity decree on the ground
of his or her OTO impotence, provided he or she did 3S^ the law. has revolution-
not know of it at the time of the marriage. And The old attitude,” that party,divorce is a
has been
there have been recent cases in which both part- abolished. , Prom 1 January 1971 (when the new
nem have been granted decrees. Act, came into force) only one groimd for filing
Apart from the one-year rule (mentioned in the
iMt paraâph but two) in certain cases, delay '’y. party (the “peti-
II j.7^1 exist, «fe., that the marriage has
however long! m petitioning for nullity is no bar irretrievably brolcen down—d.e., that it is impossible
to the grant of a decree. on living together as man and
wife. After long debate Parliament decided that.
breakdown, it would be impractic-
n-S’i pierce— (i) m Nature and
Di-^ce means the breaking of the legal tie of Purpose. — r *“® Ctoruts to investigate the whole history
carriage,
marriage by a decree of the Court. There has eMdenoe from which would require lengthy
been much controversy on the subject. both parties, perhaps lasting
days. The Act therefore provides five points for of
start, by facing the rmpalatable petitioner must
ttuth thatnome marriages do break down in fact.
Jjhe symptoms of break-down may be continual mwy the Court ; ‘satisfy means that he or she
strife, and sometimes violence, between the Difities ®®P^®i®
spouses, so long as they continue to live together: —not *^*® (as in criminal“ dP h balance
casesof (D9(8))
proba-
or there may be an actual breaking-up of the bnpie iollowmg beyond all reasonable doubt.” One of the five
temuse one or the other finds the situation in- points of evidence must be proved :
(а) that
toler^le and leaves. The function
Aould be to deal with this state of affairsof asthe law proceedings)the has respondent (the other party to the
committed adultery and the
best it petitioner
her:
due regmd: (a) to the interests of the finds it intolerable to live with him or
dispute . (If
(6) ^y)
to thewho^ are innocent parties to the
interests of the spouses and of
party involved: (c) to the interests of (б) toat toe respondent has behaved in such a
way that the
^bhc decency and the safeguarding of family life expected to Uve petitioner with him or her;
cannot reasonably be
drastic remedy provided by the . (c)
toat the respondent has deserted the peti-
civd law in the_ case of a marriage wldch has
ready brolcen, down in fact: the availability al¬ of
immediately preceding period
^ ddiitinuous of at least two years
the petition;
DIVORCE D31 ENGLISH LAW
id) that the parties have lived apart for a tion ” in the literal sense of waUring out of the
continuous period of at least two years immediate¬ matrimonial home, but conduct on the part of one
ly preceding the petition and the respondent party wMch is intended to force, and virtually
consents to the grant of a divorce: forces, the other party to leave him or her. Thus,
if a husband brings his mistress to live with him
(e) that the parties have lived apart for a in the matrimonial home and, as a result, his wife
continuous period of at least five years immedi¬ leaves him, not only is the wife innocent of deser¬
ately preceding the petition: tion in the legal sense, but the husband is himself
(/) finally, to cover those cases where one of the guilty of constructive desertion: it wUl be pre¬
sumed against him that he Intended to terminate
spouses has disappeared and not been heard of for his marital association, and he has in fact carried out
many years: that intention. Such a case illustrates the principle
Any married person who alleges that that there are tim elements in the legal meaning of
reasonable grounds exist for supposing the desertion — the act of physical separation and the
other party to be dead may petition the Court intention to bring normal married life to an end.
to have it prestuned that the other party is In order to bring about desertion it is not
dead and to have the marriage dissolved. necessary that the spouses should cease to live
under the same roof: “ desertion is not with¬
Ko petition for divorce on any ground may be drawal from a that
place,the but from a state of things.”
presented imtil the expiration of three years from It is sufficient Eespondent has withdrawn
the date of the marriage, unless a Judge is satisfied from, or forced the other to withdraw from life
that there is a case of exceptional hardship upon together “ in also
the be
samenotedhousehold.”
the Petitioner or exceptional depravity on the part It should that desertion is not a
of the Eespondent. Whether there is such a case single act but a continuous state of affairs. The
is a question for thebefore
Judge’s discretion upon the Petitioner must prove that desertion without
evidence brought him. Concealment or cause continued during the entire period of two
misrepresentation by the petitioner may result in years required by law as the basis of a divorce
dismissal of the petition, or postponement of the petition. Although {see above) desertion in the
decree absolute imtil three years have elapsed legal sense must he vrithout the consent of the
since the marriage. The Judge must also have petitioning spouse, recent judicial decisions have
regard to the interests of any “ child of the tended to dispense with the requirement that the
family ” (D30(S)). deserted party must prove a conlinninff desire for
As to the above-mentioned grounds for divorce : the deserting party to return, and a contimimg
willingness to receive and reinstate the deserting
(o) Adulteni means vohmtarv sexual intercourse party, during the entire period of two years pre¬
between a husband and a woman who is not his ceding the commencement of proceedings: In
wife, or between a wife and a man who is not her
husband. (A woman who has been raped — i.e., other intention
and words, once the latter
of deserting has party’s original that
been proved, act
forced to have intercourse with another man intention is presumed to have continued, unless
against her will — is not guilty of adultery.) Por there is evidence to the contrary. A matrimonial
obvious reasons, direct evidence of the act of adul¬ order made by a Magistrates’
tery is rare, and the Court may infer ftom cir¬ does not necessarily prevent the Court
period {see (D28(2))
of desertion
cumstantial evidence that adultery has tahen from running, unless the order contains a clause,
place. But adultery alone is not sufficient unless
the court is “ satisfied ” that the petitioner “ finds deliberately inserted, to the effect that “ the
it Intolerable ” to live with the Eespondent. The parties
(And theshall no longer
insertion, of suchhea clause
hound Istorare.)
cohabit.”
Kor
test for this will probably he the state of the does a decree of judicial separation made by the
petitioner’s own feelings. High Court (D32(S)) : hut in both eases the period
(6) In place of evidence of the former offence of living apart (two years) must precede such order
or decree.
of “ cruelty.” (i) the Court must now he “ satis¬ If the deserting party makes an offer to return to
fied ” that the respondent has (11) behaved in such the matrimonial home it is the duty of the other
a way that (ill) the petitioner cannot reasonably
be expected to live irith him or her. Until there party to receive him (or her) back and to resume
have been oases decided on this ground, it is impos¬ normal married life together, if the offer to xetiun
sible to say how the Courts will consider (il) and Is genuine and if no other matrimonial offence
has been committed by the deserting party.
(ill). ‘‘Misbehaviour” is a ranch more vague
idea than “ cruelty,” which had been explained in Whether such an offer la “ genuine ” is a question
of fact, to he decided on all the evidence;: it wUl
many reported cases to mean “conduct causing generally be a wise safeguard for a deserted party
danger to life, limb, or health ” (bodily or mental) who receives such aa offer to take legal advice
“or giving rise to a reasonable apprehension of before accepting or rejecting it: for if rejection of
such dangers.” But the new (11) and (ill) seem to the offer subsequently proves to have been un¬
depend, not on the petitioner’s feelings, but on justified, he (or she) may become the deserting
the Judge’s opinion whether his or her unwilling¬ party. TMs situation, again, arises from the legal
ness to go on living with the respondent is “ reason¬
able,” in the particular case before him, or not. view that “ desertion ” consists of two elements —
the act and the of deserting.
When " cruelty ” was the basis, the question was Ah honest and reasonable belief, by one spouse,
not “ Would other people deserihe the respondent’s that the other spouse has committed, or la com¬
conduct as ‘cruel’?” hut “ Has this particular mitting, adultery, if such a belief is induced by the
husband been ‘cruel’ to this particular wife, or
vice versa?”: this question was for the decision of otherfirst
the spouse’s
spouseconduct,
to refuse may tobelive
“ just cause ” and
together, for
the Judge. Also, in other legal connections,
reasonableness is a matter for the Court to decide: prevent Mm (or her) from being regarded as the
deserting party.
and
seem into(lii) {above) that
indicate the words “ beparagraph
the new exveeted towUl
lire be”
similarly interpreted. (d) TMs paragraph provides for new evidence
of “ breakdown ’’—eis!., that the parties have
(c) JDesertim means, primarily, the intentional lived apart for at least two years continuously,
permanent abandonment, by one spouse of the immediately before the petition, and that the
other, without that Therefore
other’s consent, respondent consents to a divorce. Up to 31
reasonable cause. there is and without
no desertion December 1970 the old law continued to apply
in such cases (for example) as : (i) where a husband —that an agreed separation afforded no ground for
cannot live with Ms wife because he is serving a divorce; Earliament and the Courts for many
sentence of imprisonment: (ii) where a husband yeai-s set their faces against “ divorce by consent.”
leaves his wife for a short time for necessary busi¬ But,
ness or family reasons, intending to return to her: years,from
even1 January 1971 agreement,
by mutual " living apartthough
” for two
not
(iii) whUe a separation continues with the consent amounting to desertion (D30(2)-(c)). will be re¬
of both parties: (iv) where the spouse who garded aa evidence that the marriage has irre¬
abandoned the other had just cause to do so. trievably broken doivn (D30(2)) and enable the
Indeed, in certain cases under (c) the doctrine Courts to grant a divorce. ; It no longer matters
known as constructive desertion may apply whether the parties ceased to live together
against the other spouse, if he or she has through the fault of one or both, or whether the
(figuratively speaJring) driven the first spouse separation is due to incompatlbUity, so long as
both consent to divorce;
away. Oonsiructive desertion means, not " deser¬
ENGLISH CAW
DIVORCE
evidence of breakdo^-îr.lilfauL parties for^ToT'u’' perioXsfôf’ sfe together

(except as stated below) whether the r^spSident dlsrega
consents or not, or which party, if any. Med” saS?e
is at fault. “Ifrtag apart ” fo? ? vpo p ’s
This IS the most controversial of the new grounds, above)® nor is thfnt
rTnrt <«>
K Sit.rj5ir.iii Stiff j '"”

S|
u tsf understand tins change in the law fSS iLr.ris.s Jo/isi s"
more than six montS (In Macfetra w P^
marriage; if the parties have ^teS2^!n\TZ^
for^%^ceTf^trfev^^ not lived together undlr“^’’ on'
for five years it will be obvious tbat the marriage
X ®®“ases for Adultery.— The petitioner’s rivht
„„ôwever, the Act provides certain safeguards to claim such damages, under Uie old law w^r
pvpr
ever possib fa-vours reconciliation
le: when- Eeform abolished, from 1 January 1971? by the ’ Law
(MisceUaneous Provisions) Act, 1970.
,, ^ is the Court’s duty, in all cases, to inquire, Restitution o£ Conjugal Rights.— This form of
't, reasonably can,” into the
alleged by each side; unless, on those facts, the facts action has been abolished, on the Law Commis-
sion s recommendatiou, from 1 January 1971 bv
oom't IS sa,tisfied that there is no irretrievable
oreafcdoiun, it shall grant a divorce. I
(2) In case ie) above, the respondent may
oppose a grant on the ground that divorce would
Judicial Act
Property Proceedings and
result m grave fluancial or other hardship ” to relief may Separation.- A petition for this form of
him or her and that it would, in all the circum¬ be presented by either spouse on any of
stances, be wrong to dissolve the marriage. If the groimds for which a divorce petition {see
there IS such opposition, and (e) is the only ground atwe) might have been presented; but on such a
tot divorce which the Court would otherwise petition the Court is not required to consider
CTant. it shall consider all the circumstances, In- whether^ttie marriage has irretrievably broken
‘conduct, their interests and down. The effect of the decree (as in the case of a
those of the children concerned (e.g., a new similar order made by a Magistrates’ Court) is
'regular imlon or the birth of illegitimate tba^he Petitioner is no longer bound to live with
children) : if the Court feels that a divorce the Respondent, and caimot therefore be regarded
rasult lu such hardship (as mentioned above)would and
as a deserting party. (The legal bond of marriage
that in all the circumstances it would be wrong to remains in force; the procedure is therefore often
employed by a spouse who does not desire divorce
^solve the marriage, it shall dismiss the petition, perliaps for reasons of conscience, perhaps merelv
ûs, m case (e), the Judge will have a discretion to so as not to allow
CTant or refuse a divorce. “ Hardship ” includes somebody the other party freedom to marry
the loss ot any benefit which the respondent might else.) It is, however, open to a Peti-
acqiure if the marriage continued (e.g., widow’s tioner’ who has obtained a decree of judicial
pension nghts on the petitioner’s death may be facts, separation, to petition for divorce, on the same
at a later date— provided that three years
case (d) (divorce by consent after two *'^® (see

years lar“n) the Court may. after decree
separatio D31tt)L^*^*^
Sicu
msi Decree Nisi and Decree Absolute.— When the
and before decree absolute (D3S(S)), on the case comes on for trial the Judge will hear the
Kespondent s appHcation, rescind (ie.. cancel) the evidence oi the Petitioner and his or her witnesses
if it is satisfied that the Petitioner misled
the Bespondent (whether intentionally or not) and legal ajmnent on his or her behalf: if the case
any matter connected with his or her consent, on IS defended by the Bespondent spouse, or by the
^-respondent H.e., any man accused, in the peti¬
tion, of adultery with a Bespondent wife), or by
t cês id) or (e) the Bespondent may re¬ m the petition as having com¬
quest the Court to consider his or her financial
position ; the Court must then pay regard to all the mitted adultery with a Bespondent husband, the
circumstances; (age, health, conduct, earning Judge will hear their evidence and legal argument
power, financial resources and obligations on tteir tehall. The Judge, if not satisfied on one
of both of the
points (a) to if) (D30“l) in a case of divorce
fp of the Bespondent as they are likely or ' jumcial separation, must dismiss the petition,
o?hp Pi® divorce,
ibe Coipt sliali not grantif the Petitioner
a docroe dies first). m' which event the married status of the parties
absolute unless ■will remain unchanged. If the Judge is
satisfl^ that the pomts mentioned he will, in asatisfied
financial provision for Petitioner need not make ’
the Respondent, or that suit for
financial provision made Is fair and reasonable, any or
*
judicial separation, pronounce a final decree: in
.best that can made in the circumstances i a
■ smt for divorce he will pronounce a decree unless
(perhaps, e.g., that the Petitioner has a he is satisfied, on all the evidence, that the marriage
to mamtam). Nevertheless the Court new family j has not broken down irretrievably.
may, if it ^ In a suit for nullity or divorce, the Judge
thij^s IHi, proceed with the case if it appears that pronounce will
it desirable to grant the i a deciee nisi-— i.e., an order that the
decree absolute without delay and if the Petitioner mmiage is to be annulled or dissolved unless (nisi) ,
® satisfactory undertaking to make ap- J Jbefore that event takes place, some cause is shown
proved financial provisions for the Bespondent. to the Comt why final annulment or dissolution
*ought not to ^ permitted. Interventi
on for this
pui'pop may be
ties mayagMement
be referred
or arrangemen
to the Court t i IQneen s JProctor, madeor by by any anmember
official known as the
of
bpf tobJp hiL such mterventions after decree nisi aretherare public,
but
may be mê. In divorce cases, on the ground, for
Setion Judge again has a dis- |
solicitor must certify atom £ârnffie, that
the Court some material
at the hearing. fact, was concealed
(And see 030(2)—
whether he has discussed witli the Petitioner
cases) the possibility of reconciliation and (in all oorders regarding " chUdren of the family.”)
If such inteiwention succeeds,
given will be rescinded {^.e., cancelled) the decree nisi
and
qualified .andtheaddresses of persons wffi retain their former status. If there the parties
is no such
onoiifl?ri to h^p ^ bring
fpUp?®?®^ parties together. If vmtervention, or if such
•^““® **^® 9.°“’^*^ there is such a possi- then ii intervention is dismissed,
the marriage will be finally annulled or dis-
TOived
t on application (on a special form), at the
pittikise proceedings for that iJiyowe Begistry concerned, by or on behalf of the
?,£t6r the Petitioner’s knowledge of Petitioner,
I not earlier than f/ir«e viwwfAs after the
the Bespondent s adultery, or experience of mis- decree nisi (unless the Court fixes a shorter time by
d
DIVORCE 13 ENGLISH LAW
special order). If tlie Petitioner does not make 1

known as “ancillary relief” (.i.e., subsidiary), and
such an application, then the Eespondent may do i may consist of “ periodical payments (so
it
so after the lapse of a fnriJieT three months (i.e.. six :
much per week or per month) or “ lump amount). sum(s)
months after the date of the decree msi), and the (one or more payments of a substantial
Court has power to grant or refuse such apphcation The (Dourt has power to order such periodical
or to deal with the ease as it thinks fit. payments duringandthechildren proceedings for the as re¬it
The decree which finally annuls or dfesolves the spondent spouse of the family
t.hinks reasonable. On granting a decree the
marriage is called a decree absolute, unless and
until it is granted, the marriage tie still subsists; Court may order the petitioner to make to the
the decree nisi does not terminate the status ot respondent (u) such, periodical payments as the
husband and wife. But the decree absolute does order may specify and/or (&) to secure such pay¬
terminate that status, leaving both parties free to ments to the Court’s satisfaction (by deposit of a
marry again. capital sum to produce enough interest to satisfy
the periodical payments) and/or (c) to pay to the
other spouse such lump sum or sums, in one
Custody of Children.— Apart from the general amount or by instalments, as the Court may
power of the Pamlly Division, as guardian of specify, to enable the other spouse to m^t
equity (D7), to protect the person and the property liabilities “reasonably incurred” (perhaps in¬
of any minor (D12) and of the Local Authority cluding legal expenses) in maintaining him or
imder the Children and Yoimg Persons Act, 1969. herself or any child of the family. Such order
(even though there may be no rqatrimoâl pro¬ may (at the Court’s discretion) be made (a) before
ceedings between its parents), and apart fromi the or on granting the decree, or at any tune after¬
additional powers of that Division and of Magi¬ wards: (b) even if the proceedings are dismissed,
strates’ Courts, under the Guardianship of Infant forthwith or within a reasonable period. If any
Act, 1026, to appoint a guardian or guardians for child of the family is over 18. payments may be
any infant and to make orders for either parent to ordered direct to him or her. The Court has now
have access to the infant Ci.e., to see it periodic¬ the new power to order (a) one spouse to transfer
infant’s
for themay
ally) and itself maintenance, the Famny to the other, or for the benefit of a child of me
Division make orders for the custody, family, some specified property, or (b) to settle
maintenance, and education of the children of the (D23(8)) such property for the benefit of the other
family in any matrimonial proceedings, and gve spouse or any such child, or (c) to vary any
directions for placing them under the protection voluntary settlement made between the spores
of the Court, and for access to them by either or before or after marriage, whether by will or other¬
both of the parties. The expression children of wise, or id) to extinguish or reduce the interest
the family ” includes children lawfully adopted by of either spouse under such settlement.
both husband and wife, children of a bigamous In deciding the nature of such ancillary relief
“ marriage ” which has given rise to nullity pro¬ (see above), the Court must consider ah the cir¬
ceedings (D29), and also children born l»fore tte cumstances of the case, including (a) financial income,
marriage of their parents and legitimated by that earning capacity, property and other
(subsequent) marriage. The new deflmUon of resources of each spouse: (&) financial needs,
the term, which is very wide, is stated on D30(2). obligations and responsibilities which each spouse
The Court may make such orders and give such has or is likely to have in future (e.g., responsi¬
directions at any time after proceedings have ên bility for a new wife and children) : (c) the
commenced for nullity, divorce, or judicial family’s living standard before the marriage
separation: it may make interim orders,durmg and give broke down: (d) ages of the spouses and duration
interim directions, from time to time the of the marriage: (e) either spouse’s physical or
proceedings. It is, however, unusual for the mental disability (if any): (/) each spouse’s con¬
Divorce Division to make orders for custody of or tribution to the family’s welfare: (g) the value of
access to any child over the age of sixteen (since any prospective benefit which a spouse may lose
such orders would be difficult to enforce). by divorce or annulinent (I>32(2)). The Court
In all such proceedings, in whatever court they shall so exercise its powers as to place the parties.
may be taken, the paramount consideration is the I BO far as practicable and just (having regard to
welfare of the children— not the punishment as of their conduct), in the financial position they
either parent, nor any privilege of the father I would have been in if there had been no breakdown.
against the mother, or vice versa. (It _ is, for • In addition, in regard to any child of the family.
example, imusual for the Court to deprive the the Court shall have regard to the way in which
mother of the custody of a very yoimg child, even i that child was being or was expected, before the
though she has committed, or is hvmg in, adultery ■ breakdown, to be educated or trained: whether
—unless, of coiuse. she is neglecting the child or isi and to what extent each spouse asumed respon-
a “ bad mother ” in the widest sense.) In some ) sibUity for the child’s maintenance, whether he or
cases, for good reason, both parents may be passed I she knew the child was not his or hers, andchild. the
over, and the custody of the child may be given to) liability of any other person to maintain the
some third party , or to a local authority. Similar provisions apply if. without divorce,
nullity or separation, a responsible spouse is
found by the Court to have wilfully neglected to
Financial Provision.— The Matrimonial very Pro¬ . provide reasonable maintenance to the other
ceedings and Property Act. 1970, makes r spouse or any child of the family for whom it was
detailed new provision for the maintenance of ai reasonable to expect the spouse responsible to
divorced spouse and/or for “ children of the provide^ Court considers that any child of the
family " (D30{3)). . . j.,, *
Apart from the ocaupaUcm rights m, or the trans¬ - family needs immediate financial assistance, but
fer of, the matrimonial home (D34(2)), the Act t it is not yet possible to decide how much and for
provides that a spouse who does subst^tial ’ how long, the Court may order such the spouse re -
(i.e.. Important and lasting) work, or eontnbutes 3 sponsible temporarily to make reasonable
The maximum
wortti to the 5 payments as the Coiut thinks fit.
substantially in money “or money’s - periodofsuchancillary provision (a) for a spouse.
other spouse’s property (not merely the matri¬
monial home), shair acquire such a share ot the3 is the joint lives of the spouses or (6) the other
beneficial Interest in that property as may seem1- spouse’s remarriage (if earlier). For a child of
the ffl.mil Y the maximum age is usually 18 or (it
■just to a Court dealing with the matter. Juris¬
diction in such property disputes is given to thes earlier) the child’s birthday next following the
TTigh Court as weU as a County Court, even if theB upper limit of compulsory school age (soon to be
marriage has been dissolved or annulled within1 16) ; but the relief may be extended beyond 18 if
the past 3 years. „ the chUd is receiving education or being trained
If spouses axe judicicdly separated (not mvorced),I, for a trade, profession, or vocation (e.g., an
when one of them dies intestate (D:19(2>), that one ss articled clerk or apprentice) until the death of
estate shall devolve (i.e., be dealt wth) as if thee the person liable, except for arrears. The wurt
sxirviviiig spouse were already dead (out not inu may vary or discharge any of such orders. Legal
case of a Magistrates’ Court separation order—- personal representatives (D22(l)) of a decea^d
D29( l)). „ . .. . spouse are not liable for distributing his or her
i- estate after the expiry of 6 months from probate
The bid expressions “alimony and main¬il or letters of administration (D22(l)). without re-
tenance pendiii suit ’’ are abolished. All financial
assistance to a spouse or children during or after!r gard to the possibility of variation: but the oMd
the ■ termination of matrimonial proceedings isis may make a claim against the beneficiaries of the
ENGLISH LAW
DIVORCE
became due not more them again.) (Tbis Act applies only to marriases
, T, . . between 8 September 1939 and IJme 1050 )
tbe variation, extension or discharge provisions
The Act also contams elaborate for
of voluntary tt i i
»ou.i
maintenance agreements made between the Housekeeping ôwances. — Îf any question
parties; such changes may sometimes be made by "be right of a husband or wife to money
Magistrates as well as by the High Court. There derived from any allowance made by the husband
are also safeguards to prevent any party respon- housekeeping, or any similar expenses, or to
sible from evadiog his or her responsibilities by property acquired out of such money, the
entering into transactions of certain Mads, which money or property (in the absence of agreement to
the Court may set aside (i.e., cancel). the contrary) shall be treated as belonging to them
It will be seen, from this necessarily concise “Otn m equal shares. (The old rule was that the
siunmary of the details of the Act, that very con- Pfb s savings out of housekeeping allowances
aider able powers and duties are conferred upon belonged to the husband.)
the Courts to enable them to order proper pro-
vision to be made for the victims, whether spouses Matrimonial Homes.— The Matrimonial
breakdown of marriage. Act. 1967. protects the rights of either mousefo Homes
remain in occupation of the matrimonM home
bot mean even if it belongs to the other spouse. If alreSy
th^t the welfMe of dependents, whether adults or in ocmpation, he or she is not to be evicted
neglected by the person to whom with leave of the Court : if not in occupation excent
ê or
divorce, annulment, or separation is granted. shemayenter and occupy the home.
power to enforce, restrict or terminate TheCoiirthas
these ri^ts
whyDomicil. — Ît has

the English beenwillexplained
Court above speak-
not. generally (Dll) |^''?ng regard tofinancial
the conduct of both
resources, thosespouses,’
of the
ing, grant a divorce to a man who is domiciled ®b!ldren, and all the circuiMtances. The Court’s
abroad. Since the domicil of a wife is the same as mclude the ^ht to except part of the
that of her husband (even if she has not lived with borne from a spouse s occupation, to order one
him for many years), the refusal of the English ®PObse m occupation to make periodical payments
court to accept jurisdiction has caused im.riianm °i.®b°b occupation, and to impose on
in many cases. To mitigate this hardship the “"her obhgatioM for repaormg, mamtaining or dis-
Matrimonlal Causes Act, 1965 (not repealed) con- ®barg]^ habilities on the home. Any payment
ferred upon the Divorce Division an additional biade by the occupymg towards satisfaction
statutory jurisdiction hi the following cases, in ‘'r® “bfir spouse s liabilities for rent, rates,
favour of a wife, even if her husband is not Payments, etc., shall wunt as if it were
domiciled in England: made by
home by one
the spouse
other shall
spouse. Occupation
be treated of the
as possession
{a) In any matrimonial proceedings, other than by the other spouse if he or she is protected by the
fora "decree of presumption of death and dissolu- "®b" Control provisions (DS6(3)); but this shall
tion of marriage ’’ (see below), if: (i) the wife has bot_ affect any right of the occupying spouse
been deserted by her husband, or the husband has aemnst the other under any Act or Order. These
been deported from the United lîngdom as an rights are to last only so long as the marriage sub¬
alien; and (ii) immediately before the desertion or unless provision is marde for such rights to be
deportation the husband was domiciled in ^ ®barge on the other spouse’s ownership or lease,
England. or the Court makes an order (under the Matri-
T , monial Proceedings and Property Act. 1970) for
,, P' f“ proceedings for divorce or nullity, if: (i) transfer of ownership of the home to the other
the TOfe IS resident (i.e., actually living for the spouse, or to settle it (D23(3)) for her or his
Dime being) m England; and (ii) has been ordi- benefit. In deciding how (if at all) to exeroiS
nanly resident there for a period of three years this power, the Court must have regard to each
immediately precetog the commencement of the party’s contribution to the family’s welfare
proceedings; and (di) tlm husband is not domiciled " including looking after the home and caring for
m any other part of the Umted Kingdom, or in the the
Channel Islands or the Isle of Man. (The two last- Iffamily,” not necessarily by payment in inSiey.
one spouse is entitled in law to occupy the
nêd territories have their own separate systems house as owner or lessee, the other spouse’s rights
“ ®fibll be a charge on the first spouse’s
(c) In proceedings for a deovee of " nrot^niYiofioTi ftom the date Of acquisition of the
of\death®aud ^solution 0^^ thi' Ac^®
Srtai%Ke"“wffe’s’^ Sê° died of th?sec^d
“immediately after the last occasion when she OTders)°^^yS^d
^f o^4Sip^r*^Sv
uei
her uwa
owntMrcrac°qmre
L fror^ xuat
tha?& domicil of laiptcy ’^® ^W^t“sfrte hKo^ô Siallb^^
& ds irom "In &*sh
aat e.) homeof the
may owner or lessee. The rights on any
be registered at the Land Eegistry
[d) Eecenfc cases have decided that the English spouse’s protection; only a mort-
courts shall have the right to recognise a divorce (U86) can enforce his rights against both
granted the
which by petitioner
the court has
of a some
foreign“genuine
country with
con- i ' contracts
^5^?^ or lessee , , to sell or let
nection ” {e.g., that he or she was born or is resl- (DS7(1)) in the home, such regis-
dent there, even if not domiciled there (sfifi 1)11(2)1 tered charge must be cancelled before vacant
at the time of the foreign divorce. ôêssion be_ prpmted. The Chief Land
. ê^jstrar shall cancel the charge if either spouse is
And, under
arriages) Act. the Matrimonial Causes (War or
1044.: dead, or on a divorce or nullity decree (D32(2)X/i
Marriages) Act, 1944; or under
under aa rjmirf.
Comt Oriipr
Order. AA spouse
onrviToa entitled to
release his or her rights in
during
^ (e) In the special World
the Second marriages
eaae of War, where: (i) the rated
celeb If the Kent Control Acts maKrpu nTini-n- .-.A
husband was, at the time of the marriage, domi- there is a decree absolute (D32f2)) of diirorcp» m-
ciled outside the United pigdom: (ii) the wife Sy. lle^mt wirict
wa^ m^câtely before the marriage, domiciled or lease be transferred to the former S
m England: and (iii) the parties never resided she was nSi^sSy spouse if he or
™r KsTee
together in the country which was the husbaiid’s originally protected snouae shflii no inno-pr up
donficil at the time of the marriage, the DiZee proSd. Or thl c^t
may direct &boa
minttv if both parties WMC
ho'tb’i^îpo at all material
TOPrp^^ times
+ divorce or any
spous^, together inorrespect
obligations separately,
of theshall be liable
home- for
hut tbp
domiciled in England. (Th& provision was to landlord must have an opportunity
,^® special oases of soldiers from the by the Court. (This narairranh dops ofnotbe'ine heard
pflpppf fbp
Srpi^pnfintrSS^*Sh^’ *bn ^w®^ rights referred to in the
Broadly, first provisions
tbesc paragraph).'orevefil a
husband or wife who is owner or lessee of the
matrimonial home from tSg out toe othe?
in some instances without communicating with spouse after the marriage has broken up.)
and illegitimacy D35 ENGLISH LAV/
legitimacy
LEGITIMACY AND ILLEGITIMACY

n. Instances.
Until about 40 years ago megitunaoy (or
“ bastardy ”) was regarded as a ^grace flnanci^ both for
mSr and child: it also brought great Many people famous in history have been born
iUegitimate. Charlemagne (742-814)le^ . ®rwerOT of
disadvantages. This state of affaurs h^ than four
and today the rights of ^ the Holy Eoman Empire, had no
gradually remedied, same as those of mistresse s, as well as four wives; all the tomm
ihegithnat e child are almost the ate chUdren. many oyrhom
the legitimate. bore him illegitim
became rulers or princes of great States. W imam
I of England (“ the Conauero r ’ ) wm the bastara
I, The Status. son of Duke Eobert (nicknamed the DevE ) of
Normandy; his mother was the daughter of a
megiti- tanner. In the 12th century Sir ^bert EaMcon-
From very early times legitimacy md ). m bridge was the reputed father of an megitunate
macy have been auestions of statim (Dll(2)
the legal systems of most countrie s it was basôn son: in Shakespeare’s play King John he is callea
the Latin ma-rim MclUt seiwper certa est, “ Philip the Bastard ” and was suspected to be
who is a the Illegitimate son of Eichard I (Cffiwr de JAon) :
incertus that is, “ it is always certam is mcertai n. in the play he is shown as a noWe chMaoter._ a
child’s mother, but who is its father
Sn to obvious: midwives, doctors, oris victor great warrior, and patriot. Don Jum of Amria.
in the Battle of Lepanto (1571),
relatives are nearly see always present when a oMd
bom, and actually the chUd aUied Christian fleets defeated the TinMsh
motlier’s body. But, Uving evon wben a child is bom (Moslem) armada, was the bastard son of the
to a married woinan Hapsburg emperor, Charles V.
she is unmarr ied— doubts may
qfin more when
l™e“no™father’s identity mnce me no t^Mt^d III. Legitimation.
narty is present when sexual mtercou
place, and there is always able a DOSsMity that ên
an apparently ” respect married woman As there is nothing that our Parliament cannot
Cy K had sexual relations wth some other Acts lawfully do (D8(l)). it did on rare occasions pass
ttie to legitimate bastard diiM^not grpt family.
aTweU as .witit her bi^band. at about
One such Act in the reign of Kich^d II (1381-9fl) Caimt.
legitimated the bastard offspring of John of
Duke
I of Lancaster, but without gming toem the
hood) is vMt one of inference ofandcases^ deduction', althou^ * of succession to the Crown. King paries by iJ.
in ttie majority where nmm^ right
no queîon was \ toe natural father of many bastard sons,
couples are living happily together, that the c
different mistresses, several of Mom were raised
arises' the husband But takes it for granted
-sê’s child is his. there are some to the peerage, among them the Dukes ^ Grrmton,
\
tove rda- St. Albans. Eichmond. Monmouth, and Bimcleuch,
- Moreover,
(Ml (1)). and ^me d, as well for about a century past, that prt
tlons withMultera Tnany Other than the husban
him, at about the time of concep Mon. ( “private inter¬
as with
be mcert am of
i our legal system known asthat, smre legiti¬
SSs the wife may he^lf law’’ has recognised
to S child. national
:
which of the two men has fathered therdate to macy ; is a question of status, which in tom de¬
to nearly all legal system s the relev^ pends on domicil (Dll(2)),^ if toe fathm of a
establish legitimacy (as to shaU s^) J® tabard was. at the date of its
always the date of the chflds marriag birth, even it a foreign country under the law of which the child
oolurs only a few weeks after e, so that coMd be legitimated by the subsequent marrlê
intercourse between a man and an unmamed ^ of its parents, then English law woulditsrecopiise date of
may produc e a legitim ate cMd provi ded!^ bom the child as legitimate either from
at my time after the r^rriap takes pl^. pro- (In birth or from toe date of the marriage, to Scot¬
d it is estima ted that a substan tial land the same rule operated, but
Englan the Tnfl.rrtftge dutOt Bufc, fl-psTt firom BUcli Bxc^tion^
Sion of brides are already pregnant on
wedding-day : but this does not normally preven
t cases, there was no way unte Bnghsh
tto cSm from being bom legitimate, _unless the law.wntil 1927, of legitimating a bastard except
produc es dear
husban d (more rarely the
evidence that he is not the father.)^ ,,
wife) by an Act of Parliament which very few could
succeed In getting passed.
in the Canon Law of the early Cathie ^moh
these considerations gave _rise _ to the ^c^^
maxim— pofer est atiem nupUae demonstge. rant, toat IV. Disabilities of Illegitimacy.
is. " fatherhood is proved dby i^nia This
prevented a man not marrie Until comparatively recent times the social and
the Church to the mother at the datetlwTe of the
ed as ^ legal disabilities of an illegitimate «Md were con¬ no¬
child’s birth, ftom being regard siderable was he
. He’’ since fiUus ww«i«sât
father; though civil law quite narly body’s child had nopw^ p^d (often)
that (1) not the man who was tto husba
ndwhen nmknown father. Socially, , he lived nnder a
the child was bom. but some otoer man.^^the lifelong stigma which made hhn a kind of second-
“ natural ” father if the wife had been unteithflfl, class citizen, for puritanl^ and nôw-mindea
mother was still unmarned when toe people often imputed to the cMd sin of
(2) if the
child was bom. there not was a "naturM father m mother; the sufferings of such a child have been
(who might or might be easily fbund. s^nd graphically described by Charles Dickens in the
willing or imwilUng to marry the mother e^r fta persons of Oliver Twist and Esther Suêrson
tirftlT In both oases the child was _and is, I hi BleaJc Souse. Under the Poor Law Act her
1880
t to
iUegitimate; obviously (1) is more mfflciflli^m a mother was legally the obliged to maintain
d and^ :^fe are or we.te Illegitima te child up to age of 16 or (if it was
prove if husban
together at the date of birth or inception toan ] a ^1) until its marriage. But in those days an
of the mother ’s upiarr led unmarrie d mother, besides the disgrace
(2) where toe facts
status when the chUd is bom. and of t^ actual found it difficult, or impossible to find a
bi?totMdng place, are easUy ^'OTed quite by witoetee^ position, which would allow her to mamtwn her¬
For these reasons the civil law, early m situation self and keep the child with her_, adoption
history, abandoned toeûrch s Me tl^ (DS8-41) was then unknown, so that m too many
hood te proved by marri age. There was a lâla oases the child, and often the motlmr too. foimd
pTM^ption (1) that toe husband living irito themselves in the workhouse. Even U the
married woman at the date of birth was the fatlmr tether was known and traced, there was then (as
the between him and the mother) no duty for proper
of the child, however soon after the marriage
birth took place and the cMd was reprded m maintenance, unless he voluntaril y made a bind¬
e to
legitimate unlessve clear evidence couM be pro¬ ing contract (D18(l)) with her to contribut
duced to dispro toe presunmtion beymd Ml the child’s support; but this came to an end on the
reasonable doubt (as m crimina l Uw— D0(a)).
was legislation, dattog lm<^ to
a child bom to an unmarried woman was
(2) that ate.
illeedtim 11676, requiring the natural father of the child (it
ENGLISH LAW
legitimacy and illegitimacy D36
Of the cMd, „™teMace ft„„ Mo, on *5?^® of the sexual intercourse resulting in
the to tre.M J'tti iSiKaXt Sie^SS
Z marriage. TlSer
V. Eemoval of Financial DisabUities. believed the marrilge^wasvlud ThulThMlfk
“SSSWd.““ •““»■ -
o7?>.p
01 me Poor Law father without
authorities. the Act
By the intervention
of iR4f> xrrr w -a
iSIM wSSiM
e « .
amended in 1872-3, 1914, 191^ 192^ 1967 lifd Paternity.
s-f S-SL-LSS SfMStTfS'ffi ^g.lsr*S^sS‘?4fSffi“ia
SiigS&SS™ SHKHCSeSS
illegitimate— as well as legiti^te— ‘ deuemh
SsSSîiSsHs SS'#r‘r4»®wr‘S
S'^shed disabilities of bastardy are presumption of law as to the iSm^y of
VI. RmoÎhlSotlalDtablUO*,. « B.S^l’SSWlSjttoS'oySS.SS

The Legitimacy Act 1926 for the first time in tf it shall not be necessary
pi -I®/?
oluld (the ^
father being of mi (Dll(2))
domiciled iUegItimate
In ttttt m p m x
England or Wales) should marry or have married VIII. Blood Tests.
“ tegitSel^^!f. trn^camf rulesôPifv^^pf?- relaxations of .the strict
d^blUtL* o®nfelmMy
Su.s''„“5ii,irSrSA € .MSSi si
date orê mamlige “wSjTCr ®was
sfe’S'iRg^fssS.s^H
one of them was married to f third party at the bfemde^M^h^^^
D37 ENGLISH LAW
legitimacy AND SULEGITIMACY
aûme that It is became she
vuhPTG bT inTestigating the blood groups (see test, the corirt may
help to provide evi-
inflPT Vo Section P) of a child Its mother, and one fears that such a test might
dence ttot h^band
her rules to not dêr and
the tofather, so
adMt
of Sore S?
Tinrative certainty (a) that cm
a Sheets ™
a particular com-
withman is forth. These should help
to comply rrith the courts
nS tS fSr of a particular cMld, or <&). -with parties from refusing
a case 'inhere a child’s patermty is
^0^ cSete cIrtatotylthatTf Wo men one direction in
Withouôtog toto m^c^^techS

besaldthat.t ^ttes to cm Is' regar^ minors under 16. particutorly
oittofomdtha tacM^^^^^ eMT^^^rnStebefom
frnm thp hlood of Doth its motner ana oer nusoana, jraiiv xxjl nun cumc uibu lui
or of the putative father, he cannot be the nalwal in the High Court and the ^mrt of Appeal on the
of the child Question whether it to right and proper for the
^ In the past twenty years evidence based on courts to direct the taMrg of a hlood tert on a
voluntary blood teats has become acceptable by young child, especi^y if it is rmder 4 or h y^rs
the courts (a) in cases Involving the suspected old. Since eguity (D7(8)) took a spîal interest
adultery of a wife and non-patemity of her in the wâre of young children vAa oo^d not
husband; (6) into cases where
and it 13 uncertainwoman
a "single” what P.rolsottoems
cised, before the eês-^
Judicature Act 1875 it êr-
mterestwluch
hns oivpn birth a child
its father.
man^submitted ^Where all the narties vMingly through the old Co^ of Chancery but, ter that ic
have themselves and the child for blood Act, through any High Court Judge (DSlll^ the
case concerning
tests no difficulty arises: the results of the tests has been customary, m any °Md
SiSt Ke e^dmee. admtosible in the court custody, upbringing, oradvre^re rf a
lipo^T,p. ae case. But these tests cannot prove to appomt a guardian Ut&m ( th^^ôses
mho is the father, but only who is not. Neverthe- of the case ) to aûe, omthe child sbehaffi its
interests, whliffi may be dffiereffi
less such tests have in recent years become a own
valuable source of evidence, provided that all of its of mother or father (see (a), abOTe).
wSa Invffiv^ Cve rab^tted to tests. result such arguments, in various cases, some
The difficulties begin (a) if one or more of the Judges have held (1) that it cm never be eiKutable
a child born to
narnpa refits to mbmit himself or herself for a ID7(2)) to order a blood test on
test or (6) if the person having custody of the wedlock which may help to b^^de cadence ttot
her hraband
phlid wf^s to have it hlood-t^d. To obtain “its mother was lying when she said
very slight surgical opera- not was the father,” and that it to almo^ MrtaMy
a blood sample only a (a) in the case of an adult the offering of the huând but ot an
fion is reouired: but
pven ihe slightest surgical operation performed on adulterer, (ii) Conymsely, otlmr the child itself
him or her without consent would be an assault felt that, in all doubtful cases,
therefore the courts, and atsomettoiebe Mixii^toknowwho tois be itsnînal
and batterv which ought not dMided
the Taw Commission, have resolutely set their father — a question
faces against physical compulsion or punishment by the court on variwl evidence emdence ^xcludh® the
of bloi^
of anv kind for refusal to take a test. But the scientific and up-toâte
^fomAct, Bart m (which will assuming that all the adult parties are -wfll^ to
BaS-^w
n^t^me tatôrw mto toe Lord Chancellor submit themselves to tets : above t^t if a
exercises the power that the Act gives him (IJS-9) woman is suspected of adtiltery, ier husband wffi
if inf fvoMSon vtoen he thinks fit— leave the court with a sense of grievance and tn-
19™onfers justice, and never treat the child as Ws own. ton
moS M^tefore toe mriSI of
oS^toe onîSte
fpsta the pow to "of any party,
Wnlication Werly w.
of blood evidence
the use whenever if such clear, up-to-date,
is excludeffi „ scientific
.
thp nn+pmitv of a child has to be determined in Two such cases, W. v. TV. andS. v. S., m which
pirt III of the Act majorities of two^ Judges to one in different
brtoflv sets out the proposed procedure and con- Courts of Appeal, had g^n wnflicting d^toiOM,
Lords
fers power on the Home Secretary to issue regula- came before the House ofunanimo^y dec^d m
tions (D8-0) on the details. But the Act lays it The five Law
down that (1) no blood sample to to be taken from favour of view (_ii), above. Lo^
whole
anv person without his consent, if he to over 16, livered the principffi speeiffi, dealt T^th the
(gfto Sto toS; shall be as valid as history of toe subject ’which we have outhned
(DlSd)). (3) A above, and emphasised toe former financial
fhelSd^tSd^Sority
blood sample may be taken from anybodywithunder and social disabilities of ffle^timaw have mow
1 fi toot Buffering from mental disorder) the practically disappeared. In large to,wM nobody
is legitimate
consent of the peSon having his or her care and knows or cares whether a newcomer
coôl. (4) L?a person is suffering from mental or illegitimate; one toopes toakprejuHto to d^
disorder and cannot understand the " nature and creasing. Some children may ôw up sensitive
purpose blood tests, the person having his or resentful at having been bom ffie^tmate.
But what if a person over 16, not suffering from tests On a young .bhUdiMe^ sattefledthatoit
the court B would be against the child smterert— a
mental disorder, fails or refuses to obey
direction to take any step to enable blood tests child,’ becarwe, as soon as_it ’^S; old enou^ to
to be made? The answer appears in sec. 23 of the understand, it would genera^ be mwise to mbmit
Acto to rack emntê co^ may draw such it to toe test aga^ its will. Offie court must
tofereMîf ftom that fact as appear proper protect the.clffid, but it is not r^y doi^so by
if
to fbl eireiimstences.” It to also provided that be banning a test on some vaê or toadpwy con-
In any nroceedings in which paternity to to jeoture that it might turn out to ite âdvantage,
determined the coiut gives a direction for a blood A parent can lawfully use constramt to hto yoimg
test to be taken, and any party involved, who chUd if it to not crael or oppressive: so why cannot
*^LStos%eId partHoôn
ând questionsome
of toe added worcto .
m doubt
™itenSwt
take any step required of him to giveteMto
^t“KiHmT effect to the which liave left
direction toe court may ad joum to enable him to They did not Mieve that Part III
taire that step; if at the end of the adjournment was intended to grant power, to magistrates^
he has unreasonably failed to take it. toe court courts (in aflUiation cases) and dwlgnated
may dteS toTclffini for rÛef notwithstand^^^ county coi^s Cp29(2)) in undefended diverts,
toe absence of evidence to rebut the presumption, to order blood tests on young children, m toe
And if a person named in a direction fails to con- rights exercto^ by toe
sample any
from Court of (Sianoery had been transfemed by the
sent to toe taking of a blood
person of whom he has care and control, he shall ^dicaturo Acts (B8(l)) only to ^be High Cm^.
step. In restricts nothing
There is.orhowever, In toe of wtochi-s
^t comt
1969 too
be d^mK^S,ve
other words the court to take
failedmay the a conclusion
drawsuch defines the nieaning
that toe person refusing is doing so because he nor in the Law (^mmissions
fpnra that the test if made would be against his The resolution of this doubt must await the Lord
OT her c^ So?for eSler^fa^SToto^^ ChanceUor’s order (above)^robab^ in the spring
?Itoes to kiblnit heW or her chUd to a blood of 1971, and the Act may be amended.
ENGLISH LAW
ADOPTION D38
ADOPTION OF CHILDREN
I maximum period is laid down by law within which
, . -^ôption IS the act of a person who takes upon
hiiêU the position of parent to a child who is not . the Applicants must apply to the Court. This is
m law his o-ivn legitimate child. It has been for ' regarded by reformers as a serious defect in pro¬
centimes very common in India and most Con¬ cedure. They consider that - there should be
tinental countries, and for over a hundred years maximum period of (say) six months, within whicha
in most parts of the United States. It was recog- the Applicants must apply to the Court for
rused by tlie laws of Greece and Rome from early Order, and the parents should be compelle mm
tames. Julius Caesar adopted his grand-nephew decide intbin that period whether or not theyd are
Octavian (afterwards the Emperor Augustus) in prepared to give foimal WTittenSecretary
*The Home consent toappointed
the nro-
provision for adoption
under the Common Law of England (D4); the the Houghton Committee in 1969 to conSder the
transfer of parental rights and duties in respect law, policy, and procedure on the adoption of
pt a cmld to another person was unknown to our 1 review will include such issues as
mw until 1926, when the first of a series of Adopt- whether relatives should be able to apply for
tmn Acts was passed. (There have been a number guardiansfop instead of adoption, the relation
of amendments since then. The present law is between adoption law and that part of guardian-
contained in the Adoption Acts 1968 and ship law which gives the natural father of an
illegitimate chUd the right to apply for custody
• ® 1-., Iôrmal
mvahd. ((^t under adoption," outside the
the Adoption Act,Acts,
1968,is and, m particular, the position of long-term foste^
acloptions oftcctcd under tbe law of certain foreijxn parents who wish to keep a child permanently
countries
courts.) may be recognised by the English against the wishes of the naturM parents. The
Committee has published its preliminary proposals
working paper for consideration and com-
The procedure for adoption is as follows: ment by all persons and institutions interested.
(1) Approach by would-be adopters to a A Dri6i snmiiiary of tli6S6 preiimiiiary ’DroDosaifl
registered Adoption Society or Xiocail Author¬ is Formal given at the end of this articlMD^l).
consent may be dispensed with by the
ity for help in adopting a child, and explana- her wife or husband, can¬
tions of their qualifications.
not ^found, is incapable of consenting, oris living
(2) Investigations of suitability of persons apart in what seems likely to be a permanent separa-
including medical matters, and -A parent s consent may also be dispensed
notifli^tion to parent(s) of eventual need for
formal consent and effects of Order when treated the child, j or abandone d, negleeted ill-
made. consent. If pe parentis does “ unreason ably ” ,ôr
refusing
hearing, not attend the Court
(3) Informal consent ofparents or guardian witnessed that consent must be given in writing
to handing over of child to would-be-adopters by a J.P., County Court officer, or Magi-
‘^1®.’;^= “ outside England by a British
Comul or \ ice-Consul or ioreign Notary
on
(4) trial."
Actual handing over of child to would- None of the provisions relating to consent
be adopters “ on trial.” applies to the proposed adoption of a child who
conform to the■ P^Jional ; hut such adoption must
ters(6)toEormal
a Court.application by would-be adop¬ he IS a national internal law of the country of wh Sh
(Act of 1968).
(6) Eormal consent of parents to adoption. to the Court is filed by
the Applicants, the OfiHcial Solicitor (or, in Magis-
(7) Hearing by the Court. If an Order is
refused, and there is no appeal, the child must 1 trates Local
Court cases, the Children’s Officer of W
retairned to its parent(s), or to the Local ad litemAuthority) is appointed the child’s guardian
( j.e , a guardian
Authority if the parents are unsuitahle. oeedings, wlio looks alterforthethe purpose of the pro-
(There may he an appeal, while the interests of the child
still in the hands of the Applicants, child is without regard to those of anybody else). If no
to the appointment for the Court hearing
Coiurt pf Appeal and the House of Lords. If la days from the application to is made within
the original application, or appeal, the Court, the
an Order is made. Then, and onlysucceeds, cd Jiim must apply for the Court’s
then is directions, (iffiis is a new rule, to avoid execu¬
the child adopted. tive delay.) The Court then hears the ease in
? private, the public
complete not being
discretion either ad-
to
detafl explain the sequence in more make or to refuse an Adoption Order. . If refused,
and there is no^ appeal, the child- must be returned
Applications for Adoption. — The would-be tli®y are unsuitable, placed
adopters (the Applicants ”) normally approach m the care of the Local Authority. If an Order is
a registered Adoption Society, a ûnty Council
or County Borough Council to make and partici¬
pate in adoption arrangements, which must
eventually be confiimed by an Order of the High
Court, a County Court, or a Magistrates’ Court
bearing .hiyenile cases. The Adoption Society or
-Authority carefully investigates the suit- S8MS:n"tow”” Orders.— The High Couit (Family
*•
apiiity of the Applicants, interviews them and '
sees their home, and ascertains the religion in . Court may make an Adoption Order
which the parents wish the child to be brought
The Applicants must produce a certificate fromupa ner, tauthoris ing ^ Appheant, a Magistra
in theor prescrib
Court, ed tes’
bivMiUpto adopt a child. An Order may be mademan¬ on
registered medical practitioner to the effect that ithe application of two spouses jointly, or by one
i
health, as must the parents of the spouse
i with__the consent of
but in no other case may an the other spouse;
Order be made in
society or Local Authority must hand the parents lavpur of more than one person. (Dispens
ordinary language, explaining with 1 consent-— see above.) An Order may ing
i be
the êcts of im Adoption Order if made by the i adoption of an illegitimate
Court, and calhng attention to the parents* formal c or legitima ted child, or the re-adoption
wnsent bei^ eventually required. Suchconsemb £ adopted child (c.g., in case of the of an
death
may be withdrayra at any time before the Order c
may be dispensed with lather, f
foiv either s)),
•^dopter( or her mother
his jointly
aloneby or with hisor natural
or her
hy>the (ûrt on special grounds (see 6«k)to) . spouse,
s this facilitates the : adoption of iUegiti-
-the"cT' .*4®®® preliminary matters are satisfactory mate
i or legitimated children and puts them (for
Swiiety or Council may hand the child over rMord purposes) on a par with legitimate children
r been adopted. (A legitimated child is
oonsecutive months o
one born put of wedloot, but whose parents have
pr®ceding the Order, if made: but no period is subsequently married.)
counted before the child is six weeks old. No ^ s An adoption Order may not generally be made
ADOPTION D39 EN<5L.ISH UAW
in England unless the Applicant and the child are Adoption Order: but the Court may not make an
living in England. (But see Act of 1968, above.) interim order without the tluree months’ care and
Nor may an Order be made rmless the Applicant possession and notice to the Local Authority as
(or one of two Applicants) is: (a) the mother or are provided above. An interim custody order
father of the illegitimate or legitimated child (with for less than two years may he extended to the
full two years, but no longer. An interim order
the other parent's consent) : or (6) a " relative,” for custody is not an Adoption Order.
i e., a grandparent, brother, sister, uncle, or aunt
of the chad, or a person who would be such relative
if the chUd were the legitimate chUd of its mother
or father, or of former adopters, and such relative Procedure and Appeals. — To safeguard the
is aged 21 or over: or (c) in any other ca^, is 25 child’s interests during the hearing the Comt has
to appoint a guardian ad litem (see AzipUeattom
years old or more. On the application of a sole for Adoption, para 6).
maip. AppUcant to adopt a female chUd, no Order
may be made unless the Coiut is satisfied that
there are ” special circumstances ” justifying an Effects of Adoption Orders. — Ûpon an Order
Adoption Order “Order
as an may
exceptional measure.” being made, all rights, duties, obligations, and
No Adoption be made imless the liabilities of the parents or guardians in relation to
child has been continuously in the care and posses¬ custody, maintenance, and education of the child,
sion of the Applicant for at least three consecutive including rights to appoint a guardian by will, to
Tporit.hs immediately preceding the Order (not consent or refuse consent to Ids marriage, shall be
counting any time before the infant is six weeks extinguished: and aU such rights, etc., shall be
old): this is subject to the safeguards detailed exercisable by, and enforceable against, the
below as to supervision of a “ protected child.” Adopter(s) as if the child were his, her, or their
(But in the case of Appbeants domiciled (Dll) legitimate child, and the child shall stand to the
outside Great Britain, who desire to adopt an Adopter(s) in the same position. If two spouses
infant under the law of the country of domicil, are the Adopters, they shall stand to each other
and to obtain a provisional Adoption Order in and to the child (for the purpose of court orders
England, the child may be taken or sent abroad for custody, maintenance of and right of access
for the purpose first mentioned and the period of (1)38(1)) as if they were the lawful father and
three consecutive months is extended to six.) mother, and the child shall stand to
Except where one of the Applicants is a parent of same relation. ,them in . , the
the child, no Order is to be made in respect of that For the purpose of the marriage laTO. an Adop¬
child who, at the hearing, is below the upper limit ter and Adoptee shall be regarded as if they were
of the compulsory school age, unless the Applic^t within the prohibited degrees of blood relation¬
has given notice, in writing, to the Local Authority ship — even if a later Adoption Order is made in
of his in(»ntlon. at least three months (in cases of favour of another i>erson (i.e., an Adopter may not
provisional adoption, six months) before the in any circumstances marry the Adoptee).
Coiut Hearmg.
Succession to Property. — If. after an Adoption
Formal Consents Required. — No Order may be Order, the Adopter or Adoptee dies without a wil
ordinarily made without the consent of every in respect of any property, the property shall
person who is a parent or guardian of the child devolve as if the Adoptee were the lawful child of
(which may be given either unconditionally or the Adopter (D21-3) and not the child of any
subject to conditions as to the religion in which other person. In any disposition of property
the parent or guardian requires the child to be made by will, codicil or settlanent (D21. 83) after
brought up). Even so. the consent of the parent
or guardian may be dispensed with (see above). an Adoption Order, a reference to the “ child or
Where a parent or guardian has given informal children ” of the Adopter shall include a reference
to the Adoptee (imless the contrary intention
consent without knowing the identity of the Appli- appears). The will or codicil is treated as having
cant(s), and subsequently withdraws his or her
consent solely on this ground, he or she is deemed been made at the Adopter’s death. But any refer¬
ence to the “child or children” of the natural
to heActwitholdlng
also consentand“unreasonably.”
of 1968, above, (See
preliminary proposals parents (or either of them) shall not include a
of the Home Office Houghton Committee (D40).) reference to the Adoptee. And any reference to
a "relative ’’ of the Adoptee shall (unless the
contrary intention appeius) be regarded as a refer¬
Matters on which the Court must he satisfied. — ence to the person who would be such a relative
Before making the Order the Court must be satis¬ if the Adopter were his lawful parent. (But these
fied: provisions do not apply to any dignity or title of
(a) that every person whose consent is honour— -e.g., a hereditary peerage.)
necessary, and has not been dispensed with, For the purposes of the Admim.stTation of
has consented to and understands the nature Estates Act, 1925 (D81-3), an Adoptee shall be
and effect of the proposed Adoption Order: regarded as a brother or sister of any child or
in particular that every parent understands adopted child of the Adopter. Executors and
that the effect will be to deprive him or her administrators (D81-3) are nob liable if they dis¬
permanently of his or her parental rights : tribute the estate of the Adopter without ascer¬
taining that no Adoption Order has been made:
(&) that the proposed Order will be for the but the Adoptee may sue the beneficiary for the
child’s welfare: Adoptee’s share of the property: if there has been
(c) that the Applicant has not received or more than one Adoption Order, the earlier adop¬
tion shall be disregarded.
agreed to receive, and that no person has
made or given, or agreed to make or give,
any payment or other reward, in considera¬ Citizenship.— If the Adoptee was not a citizen of
tion of the adoption, except such as the Court the Hnited Kingdom and Colonies (Dll) but the
may sanction (If any). Adopter or male Adopter is, the Adoptee shall he
such a citizen as from the date of the Adoption
As to (a), the Court must have regard to the Order.
Applicant’s health, to be evidenced by the certifi¬
cate of a fully registered medical practitioner:
the Court shall also give due consideration to the Registration. — The Registrar-General is to keep
wishes of the child, having regard to his or her age an Adopted Children’s Register, to contain
and understanding. The Court may impose such ised entries but no others. A certified copyauthor¬
of the
terms and conditions as it thinks fit, ihclUdhig a entries counts as evidence; the index may be
requirement that the adopter shall make such searched by anybody, who may obtain a certified
financial proyision for the chUd as is just and copy of any entry. No other record may be seen
expedient. It may postpone a decision on the by the pnbUo without a Court Order. Every
appUcation and make an interim order giving the entey shows only its number, date, and country
Applicant custody of the child for a probationary of birth of the child, the name and adopted sur¬
period not exceeding two years, upon such terms name of the child and of the Adopters, the date of
as it may think fit. for the maintenance, education, the Adoption Order and ot tlie (’ourt, ihe dale of
and supervision of the child’s welfare. The same entry, and signatme of the Registrar. The word
rules apply to an interim order for ouBtody, as to adopted ” cir V re-adopted ” Is written a^fnst
consent and dispensing -with consent, as for a final the name of the child in the Register of Births:
F (80th Ed.)
ENGLISH LAW
ADOPTION
canceled if an Adoption Order is A warrant may be issued, in tbe event

of refimfli
retoed or m f adoptmn succeeds. to alow a visit, or tie inspection of premises bvM
_ If axlld
father adopted by
is rabsequently legitimated by or
its mother mar¬ authorised person.
theirnatural nieuubes oy an
riage, the Court of Adoption may, on their applca- „ , -rx ■ ,
tion, revoke the Adoption Order and the entries «enerm.— It is generaly unlawful to give any
in the register and any certificate shal be can- P^^psP® m consideration of the adoption of a
celled (and the parents’ names substituted). mchid, connection
any granttherewith,
of consent the
(i.e,,transfer
formal of
or informal)
care and
Local Authorities and Adoption Societies.—

Except «on— neniltv^
for the Local Authorities or registered taprlso^nt - tot this
Adoption Societies mentioned at the conênce- wnt of^ r^vistered AdnnHnn
meat oi Appllmtions for Adoption, para 1, no S toy nSS
other body may make adoption arrangements; airtSed hv n
tod even the authorised bodies may not place the advertteenS mav be
dSre nf
or registered Adoption Society. There are strict ^Se are five SctodS^to fhP
iqrs
?l»d fr ^ mfsf topUtoM out tte
anneals 0® *1*2 register, and as to nature and purposes
every Adoption Society ofmust
the have.
Eegulations which
Care and Possession oi Infants awaiting Adop¬ Every Adoption Society must set up a
tion. — While to applcation is pending, a parent or case committee ” of not less than three, to
guardian who has assented may not, without consider each individual case.
the court's leave, remove the infant from the care No child shaU be delivered to the proposed
and possession of the Applicant; the Court wUl Adopter until the latter has been interviewed
not give leave without considering the infant’s by the case committee, who must inspect the
weEare. The_ parent(s) or guardlan(s) may not premises where the child is to live perman¬
take back an infant, in the care and possession of ently after all the reports have been con¬
any Applicant, before the actual Adoption Order, sidered.
and must give written notice to the Authority or
Society (before an Adoption Order is made) of the Every Society must furnish a report on its
activities and the prescribed accounts.
parent’s or guardian’s intention to part with the
child, in which case the child must be handed to Provision must be made for the care and
Gie Applictot(s) through the Authority or the supervision of any child placed with a Society
Society. Only in cases where the adoption with a view to adoption.
application is retoed by the Court or on appeal,
may the child be returned to or retained by the (mere is a prohibition of or restriction upon
parent or guardian. disclosure of records kept by the Society, and
provision for their safe keeping.
Supervision. — ^Where arrangements have been
rnade for placing a child, below the upper limit Home Office (Houghton) Committee’s Pre¬
of compulsory school age, in the care and posses¬ liminary Proposals (October 1970).— One un¬
sion of a " stranger.” or where notice of Intention satisfactory feature of the present law is that the
to apply for an Adoption Order is given, then the Courts have held. In certain cases, that the rights
child is known as a “ protected child ” while it is of natural parents to oppose an adoption order or
in the care and possession of a “ stranger ”; but to withdraw consent already given, at the last
not if it is in an Approved School or some other moment, just when the Court is about to make an
home under the Children’s Acta. The child ceases order, must be preserved; this has meant that
to be a “ protected child ” at the age of 18. or on the welfare of the child is not at present the first
the making of an Adoption Order. It is the duty and paramount consideration in adoption as It is
of every Local Authority to see that every “ pro¬ in cases of custody (D33(l)) and guardianship
tected child ” is periodically visited by its officers, (Guardianship of Infants Act 1026, sec. 1).
who shall satisfy themselves of the child’s well¬
being and give such advice as may be needed. (1) The Committee recognises that the child’s
The officers must produce a document of authority, need, above all, is for security; especially if a
tod may then inspect any premises where the conflict arises between the natural parents and
child is kept or to be kept. It is the duty of any the would-be adopters, the Committee’s first
stranger ” to give notice of all arrangements proposal is that the law should be changed so as
with regard to "protected children,” including to ensure that the welfare of the child comes first,
any change of address, and particulars of the having regard to the family’s situation as a whole.
name, sex, date and place of birth, and name and The child’s welfare cannot be regarded in isola¬
address of the parent(s) or guardlan(s) or person(s) tion from the family generally, including brothers,
from whom the child is received. In the event of sisters and other relatives, as well as parents.
a ‘ protected child’s ” death, the personCs) having (Some readers may remember the Unhappiness of
care and possession must give written notice to the little Eanny Price, in Jane Austen’s Mansfield
the Authority. If neither the Local Authority Park, on being taken away to be brought up by
nor a registered Adoption Society took part in her rich aunt and uncle, mUes from her home, and
the arrangements and It appears to the Authority separated for a long time from her brothers and
that such arrangements would be detrimental to sisters.) If, on consideration in this light, the
the child, the Authority may in writing prohibit best long-term solution for the child’s welfare
the proposed Adopters from keeping the child in consists in severing parental and family ties
any premises, subject to appeal to a Juvenile permanently, the law should not stand in the
Court. If the Court is satisfied that a "protected way; the long-term welfare of the child should be
child ” is received or about to be received by an the first and paramount consideration. Tlie
unfit person, or in non-approved premises, the length of time he may have been with foster-
Court may order his removal to a place of safety parents or would-be adopters is one, but not the
until he can be restored to his parent(s) or only, important factor; his emotional relationship
guardito(s) or relatlve(s). On proof that there is with his natural family must also be considered in
imminent danger to the child’s health or well¬ each individual case.
being, this power may be exeroi^ by a J.P. A
Local Authority may receive any child so removed (2) Further consideration should be given to
the possibility of allowances and subsidies for
(even if not a “ protected child " and even if he guardians and adopters in approved cases. (At
is over 17) informing the parentis) or guardian(B) present any form of payment is illegal.)
of what has been done. There are heavy ,penal¬
ties
these for any contravention by a “ stranger ” of
provisions. (3) When placing a child with would-be
adopters, the local authority or adoption society
IN NEED OF CARE ENGLISH LAW
JUVENILES
nay some regard to the natural parent(s)’ guards to ensure t^t the coMent o^ê natraal
Riioiild
• £rtn fh A rpiiSon in which the Child should parentis) is given freely, with fuU underatandlng
bftoou^ht ul^ but toelawIhoiM ^ to permit of its implication: also that arrangements fm the
theS toSe that auestion a condition of their child's welfare be provided for if adoption is not
consent to an adoption order. ^ . , approved.
registered in England, Wales ^d Scotland rose jje has been adopted, and his curiosity
from 14,668 in 1968 to 26,986 in 1968, it feu about his natural parents satisfied. More than one-
sllghtly, in 1969, to 26,049. It appears that a of aU adoptions are by unmarried mothers
higher proportion of unmarried mothers are Keep- other relatives: these are fundamentaUy differ¬
ing their babies : and the tendency to reduction in adoption by strangers. In the former
the number adopted may be accentuate ..t Wnd of adoption the adopters already belong to
increasing use of contraceptives (e.ff., tm.pm ) ohild’s own famUy. and are often alr^dy
and the legaUsation of abortion in certam ctr- caring for him: this makes it harder to achieve
cumstances. There is reauired a nationauy .. openness ” between the adopters and the chUd.
available adoption service, focusmg primarUy on (few) cases where a chUd is adopted by ms
the needs of chUdren, and forming an integral mmiarried mother or (more rarely) unmarried
part of the comprehensive social services. Every father, attempts by this means to conceal his
local authority should secure the provision or ulegitimacy from him or from the world at large
(4
such ) Although
a service inthe number
its own area, ofas part
adoption
of ChUdorder
care. s(040(1)) coupled
The child withalways
should registration
be told, ofas the adop-
he grows
The system of registration of voluntary ôption and the issue of a new certificate instead of
societies should be retained and strenCThened. (.bg birth certificate), are Ukely to be damaging to
The placing of a chUd. with a view to adoption, bim, rather than helpful, in the long run— see also
with non-relatives should be penmtted only meMimacv, D35. And the apparent advantage
to local authorities and authorised adoption ^f pennitting such adoptions is outweighed by
societies. the disadvantages of cutting any link winch exists
. . x . 1
.. trial .. with the other parent by means of access
(5) (a) The present muumum period (033(1)), and transforming a natural into an
of three months, durmg which the chUd must artificial relationship. In any case, the mummed
reside with would-be adopters tefore they cm j^^fber already has custody and is reôMible for
apply for an order (D38(2)), sho^d be extended to bim by law. Therefore it is doubtful whether it
one year, and the consent of the local authority gbould stUl he permissible for a natural parent to
should always be ohtaineib (6) If, for five yearn bis or her own ohUd.
hlTm aSte righfto mPly (8) But. to replay adoptions of this special
of Idad. opportunities for custody md îarM m p
an adoption order — in either case irrespective diould he extended, .^^tioêrs are mt news
the views of the natural parentis). Change (a) is
voUmtary sarily pemanmt m their eS^t. md do not ex-
desiSb^ bMause
nro-iTiisatlons sometimes place a childorwith
local anthorities foster- tmguish the legal rights and
parents in cases where the natural parents have natural parents: they are thertfore
no thought of giving up their parental rights and prlate in CMes ((6) .
resDonsibUltiea (e.ff., because they are temporarily parents are temporarily unable ^
tumble to secure living accommodation suitably with t^m becaiwe of
Stemive for Se sizHf their families, but have tion. (Guardianship ^ the
every^£teSion of keeping the child with them as ferring on the Îd the rawt&^tritlumt
or the would-be adopters to feel insecure. "jf leLm^Z^^Sn^rotMse

(6) New provisions should he made by law for qualified, should not later be able to apply for
finalising the consent of the natmal parent(s). not adoption. A step-parent (after death or divorce
at the time when the Court is about to mme the ibg natural parent) should be able to adopt the
order, but before the date of the h^n^— m some iUegitimato child of his or her spome. provided
cases even before the child is placed with would-^ tbia does not affect the latter’s legal position as
adoptem. This would be in the inte^^ts of the parent.
who wishmd'ISX
^ lltett to adopt andThese prelMnarv
discussed by Proposate ^ Im wnaidered
iSifi^^Hi Sety h^^t
from toe^ôptfr? of those
auxietv which in itself can harm the interested in the subject, so that the Comnittee B
child’s devMopi^ relationship with its adoptive final Proposa^ may be pubhsh^ by t^ ^d of
pmmts: Blit it is es^ntial fha,t there he safe- 1971, to enable new legislation to be prepared.
TREATMENT OF JUVENILES IN NEED OF CARE

Quite apart from the protection and welfare ments of intention)— Tfte Child, tlw Family and
provisions for “ cliildren of tbo family êcted the Young Offender (1966) and Children in Trouble
by matrimonial disputes (D33a)h revolution (1968). and the Eeport of the Committee on
provisions have been made by Part I of the Chil¬ ChUdren and Young Persons (1960). ^The &st
dren & Toung Persons Act, 1969. for the *’ treat¬ proposed setting up “EamUy Councils m place
ment” (a word which has taken the place of of JuvenUe Courts: but this cre^d so much
“punishment”) of delinciuent or other children controversy that it was dropped. But the bmc
(under the age of 14) and young yersms (t^ween aim of reform has been fulfilled— to remove toe
14 and 17) in need of care. Pmfe II of the -Act
deals with accommodation for ohUdren cororntted stigma of criminality from ’ children in trouble
up to the age of 14. Instead of a prosecution
to the care of local authorities and foster-children. (D9(l)) for what, in an adult, would he a cniâi
In 1933 the minimum age of criminal resyonawuuv offence, a local authoritv, a constable, or an officer
(the age at which the law regards thein as rMpon- of toe National Society for toe Prevention of
sible for delinauent behaviour) was raised from 7 Cruelty to (UiUdren (“ a aualifl^ J PF
to 8 years: by the OhUdren & Young Persons Act. bring a chUd before a JuvenUe Court (staffed by
1963, it was again increased to 10._ The Act of sPBCifiilly Qualified and selected magistiat^) lu
1969 provides for raising the minimum age at “ care proceedings The need for care and
which a chUd may be vroseeuied (at pr^nt 10). control ” is a test which governs all the conditions
The Giovernment has announced its intotion to (a) to (/) below. Such proceeding may Im
specify the age of 12 as the age below which a chUd put inmotion In cases of (a) truancy: (&) suspected
may not be prosecuted (but see last para^ but one, offencto (other than homicide) : (0) cMdren and
ynnng Têrsons ** boyoud control ” of their parents
of the 1969 Act came mainly into force on or guardiansl id) children and yoiingf persons who
1 January 1971: other parts wUl take eSeot are ill4reated or neglected or who are in
when the Home Secretary makes am authorised danger where, in addition, they a^ in
order. The Act was based on two Goveniment and control which they are unUkelv
White Papers (proposals for discussion and state¬ unless toe Court makes an order. Truancy
ENGLISH LAW
JUVENILES IN NEED OF CARE
ti SfMislss
Eiia-sSll
enter into a recognisance {i.e., an Further if the Court is nr. b- ,
the th| Sal contt ofthTS
p|pgc|t;oter°g^nii aSrîHi?
ttSci oftf f
êse care •proceedings are (for the purpose of raperôr^ dutv ia to artTri«B
e-Wdence) regarded as civU not criminal, racept to Men^ tL CoSrt mav
(6), above, where the alleged offence must be orders from time to tlrrS> ^Tf t^B
proved “ beyond all reasonable doubt ” (M(Sm Sn OTer™8 Mdtoe ciuif firf^ tnaf
tr#f 4*^
pfsjgmi
-SSSa»S!
««*»sa»un;h,K‘sssss,s
miSj (fSTb “ S Jal-Mte “ t iteS-SSi «£&
nffi saa”?uj4*i7“affbSid^
sent for trial by Judge and jury, escept to of M!l6Me^‘w,^n/’^,.^lfBi?MB details for !? ”>’’“•“1 te-
laS|£SSiSS “lISFISli™
bfsocîm^d!^f thfa™dTfo^^^ SeTto'^mZin ISftofivbod°“
to^l.eompels“M^
vMon°tof a&mu!^®®age®for CsKffi regulating conditions of
to be raised fro^Hoir^ffaSd when the SI rn coûnlty homes, and of
Secretary makes an order to that effect A BtiUd those boarded out TOth foster-parents (in both
convicte|om|lK™^^ Sh^l^to
sentto pr|Z. may b“p^&de“*Iam Me^t ft? m!Sf s^ê® tS fttciuten' ire levari;
êred to®MiX "gtosS’êâS?®
■Kor£Hrt ^speotor* or liiglior officer, sweaxs wludfete
CoiiiLDituiity liomes consMtute a sindF* lA^ni
n«rhi8'âtton|nce.*ora'^^^^ heptomefbyTgdo^^S’^^^^
stru5ion®ofm!^p?S“cert”to®c&^ yefE^too® SliT^*1^d ^

persons.^ phased toto operation so that*diflerent agesmay ite
uu ttuppiy iiitj A-»ourti witij miorxnation as to lioiiie does not intend to i^rino* infn FrtTna fho _
to the ûft*^th°intormaMonâ^°t^^ tlmt theltoveHm^toMânnounMd’th^^
BBBSt-nM
i^t^tfons on Sâier ^rennrti of
reports or Couit pro- the /or does
‘®?® above),agenor
?£“ mi»w»wm girosectiMoa r^
imtllto satis-
it intendto to12seek
StideS^himf^m bviIbSSI that local authoXy social Urk deSênta
■hir^ ,^~asssii:
>^P®^l8lon being transferred from the Home Office to the
hy a local authority or probation ofacer, and may Department
of Health & Social Securl^.
JUSTI
US3 KCES OF THE -PEACE
- -
ENGI.ISH LAW
(y
A Home Office WMte Paper of De^mber 1070 The

stated that the noniber of o^ton ffi sulhtêcrease ffi the^volountary figure does not
srSf ,ffiS5i°K-s.ssSLa‘in ssi iva.1,1. i.

JUSTICES OF THE PEACE
m-
Sentencing PoUcy— The arrangements, ef than tm ye^ stand¬
ters or solicitors of not lessions
noimced at the end of May 1964, by the Lordj^ ing, with special qualificat for the task.
Justice, “for the purpose of achieyinga greater deeper
Sfonnity of sentraeing policy and factors in pro¬
understanding of the many social of more md Procedure and Powers.— Eor “domestic the City
Tolved,” comprise the organisation ceedings ” and in juvenile courts (outside
longer conferences of all holders of judicial offlg* of I^don and the metropolitan stipendia^
lunjiiding justices of the pe^^ chmnnen of ar^rter ^court area, where full-time, legally-quaUfled,
sessions, recorders and High Coi^ magistra
si tes preside), not more than thr^ J.Hs
in"- parties, in groups, consider .case historic should sit. indnding both a man and a woman,
Sever prSc^. For other duties not more
of" “ offenders,” and later meet to discuss the than seven JfP.s (and, preferably, not
sentences which each mup wmild have p^d if |
m court. On “
five, and an odd, not even, number) should sit.
had come before them from
these cases day Hoiramg The
^ election of a
the same it was annoum^
Street that a Eoyal Commission was being deputy-chaiimen is held by to J.P.B in Octoter,
appointed (under the chalrmamh ip of Lord Amory
are
(former Chancellor of the Excheaner)), r and are eligible for re-election. All sitGto
held in public, except in dpmratio proceeding.
“to conduct a fundamental review of penffi
methods, the concepts and pureoses tK md in juvenile courts the press, tho^h not the
diould imderlie the punishment ^d treat¬ usually excluded, are not permitted to identafr
ment of offenders in England and Wffies. to parties by name or address, or to publish evidence
report how far they are realizedavailable, by the
penalties and methods of treatment m JJ?., <ao» .re
W whether any changes are dîrable
these, or in the arrangements and responsi¬
bility for selecting the sentences to be Im¬ ances. An information charging an offence mw
posed on particular offend^; and to review be laid before him: heifmayIt is in writing, and rab-
and institutions deal¬
the work of the services the stantiated on oath, Israe a warrant, te a
ing with offenders and responsibility for nces, he may issue
civil m^ter, in shnliar circumstamay
a summons. Search warrants so may , in most cmw,
their administrations, and to make recom¬ "hft Issued bv a sinsl© and a summons
mendation s.”
or warrant requiring the att^ffim ee of a wltn^^
Some of the (Commission's rMommendatffins ^
incorporated in the Crhnmal justice Ac V 1967 A rtipendiaiy (legany-qualifled, jiald, full-time the
magistrate) is not so limited; he 1^
(DIO. and the Criminal Law Act. 1987 (DIO-ID). of summaw jurisdict
powers of a court sitting ion (i.e.,
two or more J.P.s together).
Compulsory Training of New J.P.s. —
June 1964 the Lord OhanceUpr announ^ new nriminiil Jurisdiction.— Except in those in¬
arrangements for the convpul^ry teamli^ ^d
of time is pre¬
in which a special limit Parliament
instruction of newly-appomteff Justly of tte stances by a particular Act of , no
peace, and fresh attempts to. stop glaring inscribed may be laid (in retod to a crimii^
rtances of inadeanate. excessive or inconsistent Momatto offence), nor complaint (in a.civU
sentences.” An adiôry councily to re-ore^^ to office
the present scheme for voluntar training (whi^ lapse of six months from the date when
rtêd in 1950). and every was committed or tb® to®*!?*'
criminal jurisdiction cavers (1) to trial
justice glv^ an underta Mng h®* *S. iSf?. The J.P.S’
of ‘ ‘ summary offences ” (minor offences
Whout the Lord Chancellor's authority, rmtd ffi than under (2) below)
OT she has been through a compulsory .coy^- a magistrates' court other
The course includes attending as observer m their piStoble maximumor of
by aoffence, six months imprison-
md mmt for one a fine (in gen^D.not
own and other courts and at guarter sessions,, ons. £100. The jurisdiction ateo extend to
visits to prisons, borstals, and similar instituti exceeding
(2) certain " indictable ’’ (or an^table )
offences which may be tried som^rto if to
Duties of J.P,s.;— All these annoimc e- accused consents: In such cases to toxtam
General ™e work of punishments are 6 montotopnsomnent or a toe
inents have focused attention upon
iustices of the peace — the unpaid lay magistrates not exceeding £400, or both, forrae smffi off^M,
throughout the country who dealin with iffie
nronortion of crimlnffi offences, various courte.
offtoiSf There aS5 (3) certain petty offends
fall ripom ttem-- ê which to accused or to prosecution e^t
ether manifold Auties constable, certain mattere to be tried on indictment, before a jury at dua^r
appointment of special
rSatinir to highways, the grant and renewal of sessions. No offender under to ag^f 17 may be
for IhASe of ffitoxioating lianors. junsQiciiion. ouu buuu j uu^b _
“ domestic proceedings ”
tween husband and wife), custody of ^dren md a detention centre. Alternatively, he may be com¬
affiliation and adoption orders. Bentrare
mitted, in custody, to quarter sessi^^ for offenders
strates— both laymen and Jawei^vnth to a period of borstal training. First, ly
qualifications sit in juvenile ®o™*s rty should not be sent to prison: they are frequent
Offences by and against TOUi^ P®®®!®' ®“d^th to ^Md on probation or given suspended sentences
to to of ap¬
committing of young l>eople
proved persons or authorities, whenerer to young ^ SaÔne Kse
j'p. or more may sit as §
people are in need of OMe a^dproteptipn. _ _ _ nary enqiiry to(Le.. “® whethCT
determine Jkl th^
hivIsS a
Although, therefore, the criming jOTisdlctl on of
J E.s (as toy are generally Imown) is by no means an accused which win require ms
against the
to full extent of their duties. ItJs this orMnffi ffidicted before a jury. For tote purp.ose ên («m
beemmos t fteauentl y in J.P.S take depositi ons (that te. p^den^
jurisdiction which has
the oubllo eye: and the three announcenmids D10(£) under oath, by prosecution wltn^re.
mentioned above relate only to tot aspect of to reduced to writing and signed by each witoMendwhoof
XP.S’ duties. Neither historioally mor currtoly hM Sven It), If toe JF.s decide, at the
are J.P.8 expected to be lawyers; t\®
is to bMxing, that to prosecution hM dted^d no
of law,
court, who advises them on points prima facie case, the accused te dltohai*^, theif
n early always a solicitor ; and at quarter salons tlm tore is such a case, then after due warnJw to but
anything
ohairman and deputy chairman are usually barris¬ Mo^d that he te not obliged to say
ENOi.ISH LAW
PUBL.IC ORDER
D44
that, if he does answer the charge, anything ha to give their time, without remuneration, to these
says will be written down and may be used in public-spirited duties, may find it difficult, or in
evidence at his trial, he is committed for trial, on some cases impossible, to attend com-ses of train¬
bail or in custody (according to the gravity of the ing, in their spare time, in addition.
charge), at quarter sessions or assizes. (For
restrictions on newspaper reports of such pro¬
ceedings, see Criminal Justice Act, 1967 (D10(2)).) Recruitment of J.P.s.— The Lord Chancellor in
his 1965 presidential address to the Magistrates’
Association at Guildhall, London, said he woifid
History oi the Office of J.P. — The above is by like to see the J.P.s recruited from more varied
no means an exhaustive accoimt of the duties of
J.P.s and of the procedure before them: but walks of life. “ The strength of the lay magis¬
sufflcient has been said to indicate the vital im¬ mantracy,”
and hewoman
said, realising
“ is dependent
that theonBenches
the ordinary
refiect
portance of their work. The office is both aU shades of opinion and are not representative of
honorary and honourable: as early as 1827, in
the reign of Edward III, the King appointed see one section
more only.”
colouredHe said he would also
magistrates like to
appointed.
“ conservators ” of the peace within his Kingdom: ‘ There are now two coloured justices serving on
and the Justices of the Peace Act, 1361, in the the Bench and these appointments have both been
same reign, determined “what sort of persons tremendously successful.” The Lord Chief Jus¬
should be Justices of the Peace and what authority tice, in October 1970, said that J.P.s should be
they should have.” From that day to this their empowered to give up to 12 months’ prison sen¬
duties have gradually become more difficult and tences for violent crimes. He advocated recon¬
extensive, as society has grown more complex. sideration of compulsorily suspended sentences
It would seem that, while there are many advan¬ during which many people commit further
tages in leaving the trial of the less grave offences offences. See also D10(2).
to lay magistrates (as J.P.s are) the system, which
for over six centuries has prominently figured in
our penal practice, will be brought up to date and Justices of the Peace Act, 1S68. By this Act ea;
made more efficient by the proposed compulsory offKio J.P.s are abolished, except for the Lord
training. The only doubts have arisen on the Mayor and aldermen of the City of London, who
ground that persons “of the best of reputation may still sit together with lay justices appointed
in the coimties ” (Act of 1344), who are prepared by the Lord Chancellor.
FREE SPEECH AND PUBLIC ORDER

In the constitution of our parliamentary demo¬ “ a man is presumed to Intend the natiual con¬
cracy Isee D8) certain unwritten rules have been sequences of his acts” {see (3), above). This
recognised for about three centuries past. These does not mean that there must be no full and free
rules, which are not always easy to reconcile, discussion, nor that there is any prohibition upon
may be siunmarised as follows : criticism, or even censure: but there must be
no malignitv, nor any imputation of corrupt or
(1) Free Speech. — Free and open discussion, malicious motives, such as to incite people to take
within the law, ought to be permitted, both in the law into their own hands and to provoke them
private and in public, of all political, social, moral to tumult and disorder.
and religious questions. With these principles in mind, let us consider
(2) Unpopular Opinions.— Unpopular or min¬ some actual cases (decided during the past ninety
ority opinions, lawfully expressed, privately or years) in which these rules have been applied.
publicly, by act or word, do not become unlawful
merely because their expression may induce other Beatty v. G-iUbanks (1882) arose from the
people to commit unlawful acts. activities of the newly-formded Salvation Army,
(8) Provocation,— Every man is presumed to which was “an association for carrying out
intend the natural consequences of his acts ; hence, religious exercises among themselves, and for a
the use of threatening, abusive of Insulting religious revival among certain classes of the com¬
language or behaviour, if it is naturally provoca¬ munity.” Its leaders formed their followers into
tive of disorder, is unlawful. , processions which marched through the streets of
Weston-super-Mare, with bands and banners, col¬
(4) Public Order.— The vresermtion of public lecting people as they marched back to their hall,
order is of pafamoimt importance: a magistrate
or police officer, or any person (see Dll(l)) has a ■whcK prayer-meetings were held. They were op¬
posed on several occasions by an organisation
right and duty to take any steps necessary to stop
a breach of the peace taking place, or to prevent a calling itself the "Skeleton Army,” which ob¬
jected to these religious exercises. In consequence,
breach which he reasonably apprehends. disorders frequently arose, and the Salvation Army
These rules have recently been widely discussed, leaders were charged with “unlawfully and
as a result of the activities of political extremists tumultuously assembling to the disturbance of the
who make a special feature of propaganda against peace.” The Magistrates bound them over to be
racial or religious minorities. Some of their of good behaviour; the Salvation Army appealed
to the High Comt.
meetings and marches have been accompanied by
grave public disorder. The Judges decided that the Magistrates were
Until comparatively recent times the whole wrong. “ Everyone must be taken to intend the
subject depended upon common law decisions natural consequences of his acts” ((3), above)
(D7), not statute law (D8). For example: “ and if this disturbance of the peace was the
natural consequence of the Salvation Army^s
activities, they would have been liable, and the
Unlawful Assembly is a common law offence, Magistrates would have been right to bind them
constituted by an assembly of three or more Over. But the evidence does nOt support this
persons, intending either to commit a crime by contention. . . . There was nothing in their con¬
open force, or to carry out any common purpose, duct, which was either tumultuous or against the
whether lawful or vmlawful, in such manner as to peace: on the contrary, the evidence shows the
give firm and courageous persons in the neighbour¬ disturbances were caused by other people, antago¬
hood reasonable grounds to apprehend a breach of nistic to them. What has happened here is that
the peace in consequence of the assembly. (The an unlawful organisation has assumed to itself
words "any common pmpose, whether lawful or the right to prevent the Salvation Army from
Mniotufui,” should be noted.) lawfully assembling, and the decision of the Magis¬
trates amounts to this — ^that a man may be con¬
Sedition is a common law crime, which includes victed, for doing a lawful act if he knows that his
the: doing of acts or the speaking of words with doing it may cause another to do an unlawful act.
the intention of promoting feelings of ill-wUl or There is.no authority for such a proposition.”
hostility between different classes of the Queen’s
subjects. If the words or acta (whatever the Wise V. Dunning (1902) is a contrasthig case.
intention) .have a direct tendency io cause unlawful A fanatical Protestant clergyman had, on several
meetings or disturbances, they are seditions, since occasions, held meetings in parts of Liverpool
ENGLISH U/VW
13^5
contiiBing a strong Eoman CatMio population. L^^Bgôênt) oSy'if'bHsS\sfled\tot no

isBiirely to be involved.)
iSkltiuit
tbe Roman
breaches f ^tbe Prohibition o£ Quasi-MiUtary Organisations.—
vod bound him over to be gection 2 mates it an oflence to participate
Ijiverpool Magistrate 'Pmtestant clergyman nnntml or management of an association whose
or toined o^mpped
^ôpMed to^th?^h ^mt. protesting that there members are («) orpnised in ™ing the
that he had committed or m- * enpie tpmto^be employed
s^Hro"ftS?alr1i»pSS5&>i™
meeal tot as S: the natural consectpnce ^b® ^tornp-

nf a temptation held out to comiMt it. (the Senior Law Ofilcer of the Crown) is
but . . .“he c^ show that tlw law regards “prostration under Section 2 can
conduct.” ... i r Preservation o£ Public Order on the Occasion o£

The clergyman’s behaviom (unlike th^ of the pjo^^ggiong _gection 3 confers powers for this
Salvatto leaders in the earhey^^^^ pSôse, as follows;
bepvMim , cases as it happened, dealt jmpose on the organisers or participants in ttm pro
wi?h1el&So“e8*^^ But Z same rules S^mth colditiop p
SS/S'c».»™-»o,oth„Bna.
JîSters against the Government, and its policies, „ Borou-gli or Urban Bistrwt Cwwnl (if
men right opposite an unempioymcuu will not sufflce to preveui,
trahung-oentre: she had made a speech strongly diorder, and on appUoaWon hy hto)
t.he Government’s policy* a-ncl a distmo* . rôVe an Order (witli the consent of the Home
nnpp had followed. Fourteen months later, when geerefcary) prohibiting dH public pro^ssions, or
“P®. Tilace for the same pm- J*! nf m\wic nrocessions in the area for
the meeting there. She insisted on dotog so, power does not apply within the City
to
beganstage, Cie Metropolitan Police Area, as to which see (3)
stepmdôn
fftanders. It not,and
herwashox, at that suggested th {êôiy).)
was Never- (s) On the Gcrnmissiomr of ihe CUv of, London
anybody to commit a breach of the ^ piSL^ and the Oommissicmcr of MetTO!Pphian
theless she was cmmcMof obsMi^^^ Foim, ^^gjâr to that des^bed m f2)
intendentiw tier pon^ Pê, conditions, (ttus. within
&hed in (2)
SSS above.
MSi/fopSntit.andshewasgruiltyofobslrMce- • ■ + rail
ingmn in carrying out mat du
ty. tobmp^ pubhc pro
irvio Public Order Act, 1936.— In the period qj. ^ organise or assist In organMing a
to s ”ond World War, eftrem^ Sn^ûtrav ention of to Section.
prl^^
SniuSborgMiisations held meetings at jvhich „ ' .
they wore political unifoms and Prohibition o£ Offensive Weapons.— By Seiôn
flrrn ** tactics similar to those hi vogue among the onvhodv is guilty of an offence if he has with
Ttalian Pascists and German Nazis. They ateo y,5m any offensive weapon at a public meeting or on
indulged like the Nazis, In virulmt the occasion of a public procession, without lawful
to sto up racial hatred. M a re^t *“6 occîon m a on tlw occamonof
^bâted
Sls‘“£s«j.a“s-pS£S
it wajSr^y agreed that to law required to m?^ or a Local Authority (acting as mch).
of Piie Brigades or Cadet
Eoyl ?toe offlcU members
re&iv’êdto
y‘^! Corps, and so forth.
^|^nt^^^l^™e»rtfoiTaû^r
tion
nf uniform signifying the wearer’s associa
^..Ap'SltiS^&fon. orwith to
nf a TitSitical object.(The exceptions are .cere';
special occasio ns _
mnnial anniversary or Other
may permit
r^Woh^rCtof Officer of PoUoe
RACE RELATIONS 046 ENGLISH LAW
provoke a breach of the peace, or whereby a breach fought — were not the National Socialists of Ger¬
of the peace is likely to be occasioned, shall be many, but World Jewry and its associates.”
There was complete disorder and a general surge
guilty of an offence,” towards the speaker by the crowd, but they were
restrained by the police, imder Superintendent
Disorderly Conduct at a Public Meeting. — Section Burgoyne: and 20 arrests were made while the
6 refers to the Public Meeting Act, 1908. Section
1 of the 1908 Act makes it an offence for a person crowd was being dispersed.
Before the Bow Street Magistrate Jordan was
to act in a disorderly manner at a lawful public convicted and sentenced to Imprisonment, for
meeting for the purpose of preventing the trans¬ " using at a public meeting insulting words whereby
action of the meeting’s business. Section 6 of the a breach of the peace was likely to be occasioned."
1936 Act gives power to a constable, if he reason¬ He appealed to Quarter Sessions, who found as a
ably suspects an offence under the 1908 Act. to fact that, though the words were highly insulting,
demand of the suspected offender his name and they were not Ukely to lead ordinary responsible
address (provided that the chairman of the meet- persons to commit breaches of the peace: they
reuuests him to do so). If the suspected offender
refuses or fails to give his name and address, or therefore allowed Jordan’s appeal against con¬
gives a false name and address, he commits an viction. The prosecution then asked for “ a case
to be stated ” for the High Court on the question
offence, and the constable may arrest him without whether the words in section 6 could properly he
warrant. (Note that, to auaUfy for protection,
the public meetiug must in the first place, be interpreted to mean “ likely to lead to a breach of
lawful.) Section 6 of the 1936 Act has been con¬ theThe peace
Lordby Chief
ordinary citizens.”
Justice, with two other Judges,
siderably extended and strengthened by Section 6 decided that Quarter Sessions were wrong. The
of the Eaee Eelations Act, 1966, for stirring up test was not whether the insulting words were
hatred on grounds of race or colour. The Public likely to cause a breach of the peace by a hypo¬
Order Act, 1963, has greatly Increased the penalties thetical audience, whatever their creed, faith, race,
under Section 6 of the Act of 1986 and Section 1 or political views: in any case the Judges imagined
of the Act of 1908: but an undertaking has been that any reasonable citizen would be provoked
given by the Home Office that the new Act will not beyond endurance. But this was an Act to keep
be used to See
suppress
also mere
Eace “ Eelations
hedding ” Act,
at a public orderaudience
in public places,
meeting.
below.
1068, his as he finds and
it. If“ athose
speaker
wordsmust take
to that
audience are likely to provoke a breach of the
peace, the speaker is guilty of an offence. The
Jordan v. Burgoyna (1063) was similar to Wise v. right of free speech is not in question: he may
Dunning (1902). except that the 1963 case was express his views as strongly as he hkes, hut he
concerned with section 6 of the Public Order Act, must not threaten, abuse or insult that audience.”
1936. At a public meeting in Trafalgar Square, to The ease was sent back to Quarter Sessions with a
an audience of 6,000, wMch included many Jews, direction to find the offence proved, and to dismiss
Colin Jordan used the words — " Hitler was right. Jordan’s appeal from the Magistrate’s convic¬
Our real enemies — the people we should have tion. See D6.
RAGE RELATIONS
It is already a criminal offence, under the Eace employees are exempted: for the following two
Eelations Act, 1966, to stir up hatred on grounds years the limit will be abolished. And if an
of race or colour. The Eace Eelations Act of employer " discriminates ” in good faith for the
1968 is not penal in Its remedies, but makes purpose of preserving “ a reasonable balance ” of
“ diserlmluation ” a civil wrong, giving rise (in different groups, the discrimination is not un¬
the first place) to conciliation (see below) by lawful: but "reasonable balance” must be be¬
regional committees, and (if these fall) to damages tween (1) those who (of whatever race, colour, etc.)
(Die(l)) or ininnotion (D15(2)) or both. Aperson were horn, or whoUy or partly educated, in
who feels there has been discrimination against Britain and (2) others, whatever their race, eto.
him can complain, in writing or by word of mouth, Other exemptions are inside employees in a
or someone else, authorised by him in writing, can private household (e.g., au pair girls) but not
complain on his behalf, within two months of the outside employees (e.g., bmlders): employment
discriminatory act, to the local conciliation com¬ wholly or mainly outside Britain, in any coimtry,
mittee or to the Eace Eelations Board direct. ship, or aircraft: in a British ship If persons of
The Act applies to discrimination on grounds of different races, etc., would otherwise have to share
race, colour, or ethnic or national origins. Un¬ sleeping, mess, or sanitary accommodation: or
lawful discrimination means treatmg a person less where race, eta., ie a bona fide qualification (e.g.,
favourably than others, on any of the above waiters In a Chinese restaurant) .
grounds : " separate but equal ” treatment (e.g., It is unlawful for any organisation of employers
segregation) counts asiess favourable treatment. or workers to discriminate in admitting members,
It is unlawful for anyone providing the public benefits of membership, or expulsion: in selling
with goods, facilities, or services to discriminate by or letting all types of premises (including furnished
refusing, or deliberately omitting to provide, any¬ or unfurnished living accommodation, business
body with goods, etc., of the like quality, in the premises, or land). The prohibition applies
like manner, or on the like terms as are normally equaEy to property-owners (including companies),
made available to others. Examples axe — access estate-agents, developers, and local authorities
to and use of any place which the public may (e.g., borough councils) — unless (1) the person
enter: facilities for entertainment, a recreation or offering accornmodatlon (“ the landlord ”) livesand
in
refreshment: accommodation in a hotel, board- the premises and shares facilities with others,
ing-bouae, etc,; facilities for banking. Insurance- (2) there is accommodation for not more than two
grants, loans, credit, or finance: for education, households besides the landlord: or (3) the land¬
instruction, or tralifing. or the services of any lord, wholly occupying the premises, sells without
trade, profession, business, local or other authority. any advertisement or estate-rênt. It is also
But hotels, etc., are exempted if the landlord or tmlawfulto publisher display any discriminatory
some of his immediate family live oh the premises: advertisements or notice. HntU 13 November
or where there is not normally accommodation for 1970 boarding- and lodging-houses were taduded
more than twelve persons In the first two years in (1) and (2) if there was not accommodation for
of the Act. or six persons thereafter, besides the
landlord and some of his fainily. more than 12
household: frompersons other than
14 November 1970,thethelandlord’s
number
It is also unlawful to discriminate in employ¬ was reduced to sis:.
ment — terms, recruitment, training, promotion, Anybody who deliberately aids. Induces, or
dismissal, or conditions of work: also to refuse to Incites another rmlawfuEy to discriminate will be
employ a person, on grounds of race, etc., on work equaEy Eable— e.£f.. heigdibours who put pressure
of any description which is available and for on a vendor to prevent sale of his house to a
which he is qualified (though employers may treat coloured, etc., person. (But incitement to racial
employees differently by reason of seniority, /iafred is BtiU a crime (D46(1).)
ability, or educational standards). During the If a regional committee or the Eace Eelations
second two years of the Act, commencing 14 Board thinks, on investigation of a complaint,
November 1970, employers of less than ten there has been unlawful- discrimination. It will try
ENGUISH »-AW
^p|KS?i
ted).
plainest might have expec
S ON CRIMINAL LAW
ADDiITIi^
ADU ONA L
iN DETAIL
^PUNISHMENT)
(See DIO).
POSS IBLE mmy
OVERCROWDING IN PRISONS—
remedies ^ (WAschemecomhintagafinewithacompÔT
TTnder-Secretary outlined a A sw'hpme of “ interniediaite treatment
»#f Si
understanding and approval of pubhe opimra, a^ô tr^tment
the Home Office must stress that it does not sw
of juveniles ’Ji.rreed
even 35
of car^
sa^SSSSSi; i£-.g»==e'SS
IM
men for loriner orim« similar system shorno, oe w -- -
them to Uve m the general ofôn. Investigation proceeds.
me™®df^tMatoent^wffi necessitate iMreasi^ further suggestions. “ on
If ^ÊmeSVsehS whffib now^PPUe|
= ÎHP
mmmim
b. «« U. .b»e P0»™.
' ":L .f .»•-«»• — sr “"■'1 M
iSf ^"^“1
woffidi:^rtMôA%roble^
strffig* ’te ®d^ o“ ^^St"

of aûBt-
But i.c uBtU

the ^ Quin’s
1*
Plea^«
(if ever) they are no longer danger

o
T
.)
AJJmiiî LAW OF LANDLORD AND

N ON
AILS te
ADDITIONAL DET nant
(S€ eD2 6(l)). , f 1965 1968
LAW OF LANDLORD AND TENANT 048 ENGLISH LAW
landlords of sucli dwellings, whether houses or trolled tenancy, what works are necessary to
flats, towards the cost of conversions and improve¬ satisfy the conditions, with plans and specifica¬
tions. The council must serve on the tenant a
ments,
which the and councils
coin the may
termdeclare
“ Improvement areas to”
some districts notice (1) that he may, within 28 days, complain
be and advertise the facilities available. that the dwelling does not satisfy the conditions
Parts in and IV deal with rents of improved and (2) explaining the effect of the Act. If the
accommodation, in dwellings occupied by one or tenant makes no complaint, and the council finds
more families; further details of these Parts are that the qualifying conditions are met, it will issue
given below. a certificate : if the tenant makes such a complaint,
and the coimcil finds it justified, it must refuse the
Part V is concerned with slum-clearance — a landlord a certificate: in either case it must notify
problem taclded (never auite successfully) by
many governments in the past. the tenant of the result.
Part VT gives councils power to insist on repair If (imder Hi) above) the application was made
of old-fashioned houses without proper amenities, before the works were completed but the council
to make advances for such repairs, and (if neces¬ thinks the dwelling will satisfy the qualifying
sary) to make improvements by agreement with, conditions after completion, it may provisionally
and at the espense of, the owner. It is estimated approve the applicant’s request and toissue
ficate accordingly, sending a copy the atenant,
certi¬
that, when the Act came into force, 1-8 million whose consent must be obtained both before and
dwellings were unlit for habitation: a further
after the works are completed. In such cases, in
4-6 million lacked “standard amenities” (see order to obtain a fair rent certificate, the landlord
below) or were in need of repairs costing at least
£126 each. Councils are also reauired periodically must apply to the rent officer (D26(S)), with copies
to review housing conditions in their areas. of plans and specifications; the officer’s certificate
specifies the fair rent which may be charged under
The size of the problem is due to many causes — a regulated tenancy if the works are properly
not only the “ freezing ” of controlled rents at very completed. When the council has inspected the
low levels, but also the earlier age at which young
people leave home to found their own families, fair rent certificate, and is satisfied that the
dwelling meets the qualifying conditions, it shall
the inability of the few who still occupy big, old- issue a qualification certificate and send the tenant
fashioned houses to procure domestic help to en¬ a copy. After such conversion from a controlled
able them to keep such a house going as a single
unit, with the remt that some rooms are disused to a regulated tenancy, the landlord applies to the
rent olHcer for registration of the fair rent. If
or let off as apartments in a dilapidated and un¬ the council refuses a certificate or provisional
suitable state.
In the brief account of Parts III and TV below approval, it must give the landlord its written
the separate imits into which a larger house or reasons.
A landlord who has been refused, or a tenant
flat may Act
The entice be divided are called
has 91 sections and ten“ dwellings.”
schedules; who thinks the council’s certificate was wrongly
all, therefore, that can be done here is to give a issued, may appeal to the County Court which,
short summary of some of its important provisions after inspection and consideration, may refuse or
as they affect landlords and tenants. allow the appeal, with or without conditions.
The Department of the Environment (formerly If the council’s certificate is “quashed” (i.e.,
the Ministry of Housing & local (Government) has cancelled), any fair rent registration shall be de¬
issued two booklets for the guidance of landlords, leted and shall be regarded as never having been
effective.
tenants, and lodgers (the terms used where more
than one family occupies a single unit) — (1) Where the council gave only provisional appro¬
House Improvements <& Bents and (2) Fhasina val — Hi) above — the tenancy shall remain con¬
of Bent Increases. These booklets contain simple trolled until the fun certificate is issued. In
questions and answers to some of the problems certain circumstances some rent Increases per¬
arising under the Act. But they are not official mitted by the 1968 Act (D26(2)) may be dis¬
statement of law, the complications of which will allowed If the above procedure has not been fol¬
necessitate consultation with a solicitor if a dispute lowed, or may be recovered only in stages as laid
arises. down in the Act. The tenant’s consent must be
Part III has as its main purpose the increase of sought for the works to be carried out; if it is
rented accommodation by offering landlords refused, the County Court may consider the dis¬
incentives, by way of higher rents, to improve pute (giving regard
those dwellings stUl controlled by the Eent Ee- accommodation whileparticularly to the
tlie works are beingtenant’s
done)
strictlona Acts (D25(2)) by installing certain and make an order, with or without conditions,
“standard amenities” (see below) which may accordingly. But it shall make no order em¬
powering the landlord to enter and do the works
enable them to be converted into “regulated
tenancies ” under the Eent Act, 1968, at “ fair ” if the rating authority certifies that the tenant’s
rents higher income is within the “rate relief limits” speci¬
(D86(S)). Suchthan the old may
conversion “ controlled
take place” when
rents fied in the Act.
the landlord has satisfied “the qualifying condi¬ Part IV of the Act relates to houses " in mul¬
tions” — i.e., that the dwelling (a) is provided tiple occupation” — i.e., dwellings occupied by
with all standard amenities for the exclusive use of persons who do not form one single household
its occupants; (6) is in good repair (disregarding (the former definition was “ occupied by mem¬
internal decoration), having regard to its age, bers of more councils
than one tofamily”). This Part of thea
character, and locality: (c) is in all other respects Act enables make orders applying
fit for human habitation. If satisfied on these “ management code ” for such dwellings, to
ensure that there are proper means of escape from
points the council may, on the landlord’s applica¬ fire, gives directions to reduce or prevent over¬
tion, issue a “qualification certificate” to that crowding in houses in multiple occupation, the
effect, whereupon (in most oases) a tenancy be¬ keeping, of registers thereof by the council, its
comes a regulated tenancy to which the “fair
rent ” provisions apply. powers to make “control orders” followed by
Standard amenities are a fixed bath or shower, " compulsory purchase orders ”, and a list of
wash-hand basin and sink, with hot and cold offences and penalto. Eor further detail the
water supplies to all, water-closet indoors (or Act must be consulted.
“ readily accessible ” ftom the dwelling). Bath In November 1970 the new Minister announced
or shower should be in a bathroom: if this is not plans to speed up the system of housing grants
practicable, they may be in any room except a (under Part I). At the same time he promised
bedroom. (Hie qualification certificate shall not revised schemes to remedy the housing problem in
be issued unless — (i) the dwelling has, at all thnes the worst areas by remordug Inequalities between
since 26 August 1969, been provided with stan¬ tenants of council and private dwellings, extend¬
dard amenities or (ii) works to provide them were ing the “ fair rent ” principle to both, to operate
begun before that date: HU) the landlord, except a rent rebate Byatem for needy tenants of both
with the council’s written consent, uses each classes, to take energetic steps for slum-clearance
dwelling for the purposes of private occupation by assisting councils and private landlords to
(not business), must not be charging a rent higher improve or rebuild. Further statements of the
than the legal rent, and no premium may be paid ; Government’s intentions wiU be issued after dls-
or asked by him or any tenant. (There are some j ousslon with councils; but It will probably be
other conditions for which reference must be 1972 or later before the further legislation which
made to the Act.) The application must state wiil be needed can be passed. Thus the 1960 Act
the name of the tenant under the existing con¬ I is likely to be considerably amended in due course.
THE
WORLD OF
MUSIC
The art of music as it has de¬

veloped in the Western world,
with a glossary of musical terms
and an index to composers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Historical Narrative and Discussion 3-19
Polyphony is Bom 3
Early Secular Music 3
The Sixteenth Century 4
Beginnings of Instrumental Music 4
Drama in Music 5
Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-century Church Music 5

Lully, Purcell, and Seventeenth-century Opera 5
Vivaldi and the Rise of Instnunental Music 6
Bach and Handel 6
Haydn and Mozart 7
Eighteenth-century Opera 7
Beethoven 8
The Romantic Movement 8
Nineteenth-century Opera 9
National Movements 11
The French Impressionists 13
The Late German Romantics 15
Twentieth-century Music 16
Modern English School 18
II. Glossary of Musical Terms 19-25
P-
THE WORLD OF MUSIC
another. It is a haekground to music as the science section is a background to Hewton s experiments
the latter cannot show the reader the colours of the spectrum but only tell ofcan o^y describe noM s
and of the relationship between colour and wavelength, so in this section we hk work, and when
aîevements in the world of sound. But knowing something about ôinposer,
his music.
he lived can help to bring fuller imderstandmg and enjoyment when listening to
The section is in three parts:
I. Historical Narrative and Discussion
n. Glossary of Musical Terms
HI. Index to Composers
I. HISTORICAL NARRATIVE AND DISCUSSION

The history of music, like that of any people or what is thisd, music — plainchant — Ûke? It
Andunaccompanie
art, is not one of iminterrupted progress towards is an single line of melody, whichj
some ideal perfection. Bor five centuries or more when we have to
flavour is heard become
have aused
wide torange
its “mtiaue
of spmtum
Qiiisic in tlie West has achieved peaks of accoin- and emotional expression, not excluding word
plishment in one style or another before sowety
has dictated or composers have felt the need for painting. The texts used came from the Liturgy .
something new and different. Thus Wagner s These beautiful, extended lines of flowii^, flexible
music-drama Parsifal, lasting five hoip, is Mt melody can still be heard on Sundays in Homan
necessarily a more rewarding work than what Catholic cathedrals and churches.
Monteverdi achieved in Orfeo 260 yearn ^rher.
Morethecomplex yes, more rewarding — weU, that is
for listener to judge.
Polyphony is Bom.
We must keep this in mind when cqnsiderhig tlw The 10th cent, saw the appearance of a book
development of music from a starting point oh called Mwica Pncliiriadis (whose authorship is
say, Gregorian chant down to the compUcaJ^
structures of a Schoenberg in our own day. Ih this disputed) which introduced theories about unison
development there is no tone dividing line between singing in which the melody is doubled at the
fourth or fifth. Organum. or diaphony, is med
one period and another, nor must shnplifyiM to describe tWs method of writing, a term which
terms
taken too as “ classical ” or " romantic be
suchliterally. confusingly could also be used for a kind of singing
where melismatic melody was heard over a drone
The earliest history of Western musicM w note on the organ. Buies came into fasWon de¬
know it today is closely bound up with the Chu^, fining which Intervals were allowed and which
for music had to be provided tor servi«s. _The parts of the church services could be simg in more
earliest rihriatinn music was influenced by Greek than one part. By the time of Guido d’ Arezzo
songs, few of which unfortunately have survived, (c. 990-1060), a Benedictine monk who helped
and by the music of synagogues, where the art of advance notation, contrary motion was permitted
ohanttag originated. The mo(M systgn of the as the cadence was approached, another technical
ancient Greeks was highly organised. The earliest advance. Gradually the voices became more and
Greek scale was from A to A and the four dMCMm- more independent, and the third, so long con¬
ing notes A,G.B.B became the b^ ,qf their sidered a tocord, came into use. Pdrotin, of
musical theory, and it is flnm them tiiat WeMem Notre Dame, was the first composer to write for
music learned to cMl notes after the letters of the three and four voices, and he and his great pre¬
alphabet. A scale can begin on any note and decessor L4onin were the great masters of early
always includes two semitones upon which much polyphony. G3ie proximity and spikiness of
of the character of a melody depends. Pdrotin’s harmony is almost modem-sounding,
and as with Gregorian chant, once we have_ ad¬
The Greek modes were based on the wMte notes justed ourselves to the sound, this music can be a
rewarding experience.
only; the Dorian. Phrygian. By(^. and Mtoly-
dlan began respectively on E,D.C. and B. iDjar
character was thus decided by the pqptmn of the
semitones, and they formed the taiM, often
corrupted, of the mediaev^ modes. This system Early Seonlar Music.
was transmitted through Jjatin writers siwh_ as In mediaeval Prance, towards the end of the
Boethius and Oassiodorus. and through Arabic
writers. The eight Church modes wereThese not 11th cent., there developed what has becorqe
established until the 8th or 9th cent. known as the age of the troubadours, poet-musi¬
cians. They were the successors to the jongleurs,
plagal modes, as they are called, startkl in each
case, for technical reasons, a fourth below the or jugglers, and minstrelB about whom we know
authentic modes. little as practically none of their music has sur¬
vived. The troubadours hymned the beauty of
By the end of the 6th cent. Gregorian dianthad spring and of ladies, (tontemporary with them m
developed so far that some sort of pemênt Germany were the Minnesingers. Their songs
record was required. Newmes, rigns placed over Were mostly set in three modes. Adam de la
the Latin text, were the earliest attempt at musical TTaiie (d. 1287). because SO much of hls music sur-
notation. Gradually lines came into use untfl a ^ves, la perliapB tha best-known of the trouba-
four-line stave was established, probably ^m. the donrs. He was a notable composer of rondels,
11th and 12th cent., and with them def signs, an early form of rotind* of which the Hnglish
although the treble def as we know It today did Bwtner is icumen in, written by a monk of Heading
not appear rmtil the 18th cent. c. 1226. is a fine example.
HISTORICAL NARRATIVE £4 THE WORLD OF MUSIC
Ars Uova. of them were in the service of royal or ducal house-
The term ars nova derives partly from writings thw
of Philippe de Vltry (1291-1361) who codified the cathedrals
rules of the old and the new music in a valuable wfUi f^fiw
treatise. This new art represented a freeing of
music from organum and rhythmic modes, and an prooamy nit,fi.
increase in the shape and form of melodic line.
Ihance was the centre of music during the 14th .
cent, and apart from Philippe de Vitry the leading The Sixteenth Century.
composer was Guillaume de Machaut (1300-77), ts^ i«iT, „onf tyuic.-p
who wrote many secular works as well as a poly- gteadllv exuaudino' ^
phonic setting of the Mass. His music is notable M„gjp IUp hnmp^na
for its vigou? and tenderness as weU as for its Sok chcteT SI
technical expertise. Meanwhile in 14th-cent. mnined tTippuiPfinii^/rai ^®'
Italy a quiteImitation
developing. separate branch
and canonof ars novato was
were be fS?o tM trith tlfp^ T®
not
noted in the music of Italian composers, and of life ^ romnnspre hllan ^p??
choral forms such as the Ballata. Madrigal (which mcelvad^T^fh(wm^vnW^^Jitmti,Hm°û°5?
often included instrumental accompaniment) and ttmretilaTmd education, both
ana practical.
common.
Caccia (a two-voice hunting
The greatest Italian this ™eoreticai
in canon)of were
songcomposer Carrvinc on fromoff. where ToHmiinHafy^
Palestrinaln ppS Wp pp„
cesco ai Jjanomi m. id^so a?). iji gpam, Lassus In the Netherlands, and Byrd in
England was less affected by ars mono and tended 55?!?;^^ the polyphonic style to its
to remain loyal to older forms. Not until the ^ fame tiine came the rise of the
16th cent, did she begin to make a significant Nether-
contribution to the history of music. Both John the beginnings of instrumental
Dunstable (c. 1380-1463), who was no less eminent came to be known in the succeeding
as a mathematician and an astronomer than as a centuries.
musician, and his contemporary Lionel Power The vocal composers began to use chordal
advanced
CbU. V CVLLLpCU. the
LUC techniaue
LCL/lXUXliUCof iXLUOlU
music byUJt their
LUCXJL method
UXUUXXWVL M, --..I, it 1 i . < v**w*w**
of composition (use of the triad, for instance) and as contrapuntal (poly-
melUfiuous style. Their musicianship was much writing — âmples are
appreciated on the Continent. Dunstable did Oorpits and PMestaims
away with the use of cantus Minus — a fixed
melody — and increased the use of free composition. for instance in Byrd s 0 Quamof Gioriosum
Minpositlon, as
which
After Dunstable the next great figure in Euro- shows an eager response to the mood and to the
pean music was Guillaume Dufay (c. 1400-74), the section of the words in a kind of vocal orchestra-
most celebrated composer of the Burgundian tion. A feature of all these composers’ music,
school. His music is distinguished for its blend but more e®ecially that of Victoria (c. 1636-1611)
of flowing melody, cleverly wrought counterpoint and^lestilna (1626-04), is its serene simplicity
and tender expressiveness. Much travelled, and fervoiu of utterance. Palestrina was perhaps
Dufay was a man of catholic outlook. Together more spacioiK in his effects. Victoria the more
with Dunstable and the Burgundian Gilles Bln- passionate. How weE we can imagine — and
Chois he bridged the gap between 14th cent, ars sometimes hear — ^their music resounding down the
nova and the fuEy developed polyphony of the naves of the great cathedrals of Europe.
16th cent. ™ .
The music of Lassus (o. 1632-94) is dlsMnguished
Ars mow composers also showed an interest in both in sheer amoimt and in vitaEty. His mastery
secular music and many of their rondeaux and inthefleldofmotets was unrivaEed, encompassing
chansons (those of Binchois paitioulariy) have a wide range of subject and mood. He and his
been preserved. PersonaUty began to play a feEow Blemish composers, Willaert, de Monte and
distinguishing part In composition. Arcadelt, were also expert in the Madrid, a form
„ popular in Italy and England as well. The
The results of Dufay’s good work can he heard Madrigal was a contrapuntal setting of a poem,
in the flowering of the Eranco-Netherland school usually not longer than twelve lines, in five or six
later in the 16th cent. Its two most notable re- parts. The subject (of the poetry) was usuaEy
presentatives are Ockegliem (c. 1420-95) and his amorous or pasto^. It was a short-Eved, but
ptipE Josquln des Pr6s (c. 1460-1621), who carried highly proEflc vogue. Orlando Gibbons (1683-
musical expressiveness even further than Dufay; 1626)* Thomas Weelkes (c. 1676-1623), and John
their work can also he grand and majestic. In- WEbye (1574^1638) were the most prominent
deed dignified,
the Josquin’s partially
wide range,accounts
from theforhmnorouB to
his justly English exponents,
deserved high reputation. He was a master of
counterpoint hut. tempered Ms mechanical in- 3jjstj.„jjiQ^tjjjjusio.
genuity with imaginative insight. By the end uxuaii,.
of the 14th cent, instrumental music
Throughout the Benaissance choral music was began to become something more than mere
breaking away, as we have seen, from its earlier anonymous dance tunes or primitive organ music,
bonds. The mediaeval tradition of having the Instruments often accompanied voices, or even
cantus Mrrius in the tenor went by the board: the replaced them, so that the recorder, lute, viol,
use of dissonance, when only two voices were used and spinet indoors, and sackbute and shawms out-
in mediaeval times, was abandoned in favour of doors, bad already been developed by the time
euphony; and aU the voices, democratioaEy, came instrumental music came to be written down,
to share the musical lines. Composers also began Gradually a distinction grew up between what was
to respect their texts: where words were previously appropriate to the voice and what was suitable
fitted to the music, the reverse was now the case, for instruments. Byrd, Gibbons, and Giles
In Josguin’s music. Indeed, we liave the first Famaby in England, the great blind keyboard
attempts at symboEsm: matching verbal ideas player* Cabezdn (1610-66) in Spain, and Eresoo-
with musical ones. The Importance of this musi- baldl (1683-1643) in Italy produced valuable
cal renaissance has been realised only over the Instrumental works. Perhaps the ParfZteMia and
past twenty years. At last the Benaissance the Biiawiiliam PimiM, a? BooA;, coEectlons of Early
composers are coming to be seen not merely as English keyboard music, give as fair a representa-
Mstorioal figures relevant only in so far as their tlve idea as any of the development of Instrumen-
work culminated in the great classical composers, tal form at this time,
but as masters in their own right, whose music
should be nearly as famiEar to us as Is that of a In chamber music musicians often played
Mozart or a Beethoven. coEectlons of dance tunes strung together to make
a whole: or they chose fantasies (or “ fancies”),
the■With
Eves the exception
of the of Dufay,
musicians little is knownMost
so for mentioned. of where a composer
Then there were sets altered a tune ason hea ground.
of variations wished,
EO THE WORLO OF MÎC
HISTORICAL NARRATIVE
tb,ta bass
on 1, . .tole
viol.tmie 07» ov.i nod. |sacred subjects in.R£S‘tm%'lr®pia?‘!S
his services in Eome, designed
As far as brass instruments they to ho^ f M

were often used on festiTC oc^sioM in (c 1550-1662) and Carlssmu
his or tacathedrate. fhTtol addSirand chora.1
bine voice and instruments and his son Gmvami Scarlatti (16C0-1725). whose oratorios bear a
Gabrieli jaraed
<1657^612) ™d
symphomes, theotten usmt auu |^°se®?iîmbllS
j(.g to hil Was. brought oratorio
Italy.
phonal effect. Heinrich Schtitz (1685-1672). Bach’s êat
predeceôr
TnnRi> His was the formder
, historic^ Gem^
place hasofnever Deen caiiea
o 1a.
Drama in ISusic. into Question t)ut only in recent times iiave the
Not until the end of the 16th cent, did anyone merits of his own music come to he re-
begin to think about combining driuna and mîc. He studied with Giova^ Gabrieli m
and so “ invent ” tbe new art we ^low t^y ^ Msûtb and later came rmder the.mflu^ce of
opera. A group of artistic intelbgmtsia met to- j^Q^teverdi. so it was not suipnsi^ th^ he
g^her in Florence and connived Mea oê- kalian ideas across the to Germ^y
They took lireek mywioiogi^ duwlv.fo, |ost. ne aiso mxruuuû,
in Wnatio form, and set them to italfen declamatory style and to the new nf
the choral polyphonic sWe of but gQ^geâto instrumental -^ting. Bnt hisdra^
with single voices declaimmg dialogue mmmia religious works were hfe greatest eon^îon
The earUest examples of^hat -was to musical development. He wrrte with n ^°nt
per Mtisico were Peri’s Bap7i?ie m My intensity, bringing to life tbe smlptiiml tests by
and his Burydice,
nanritii The new in which
style came to its full closely aUylng his
thrpe settinccs of nrge^ music —
the Passions to Matthew,
the wotos,Dune,
Hm
^totoe appearance of Monteverdi (1567-1643), ^ John— paved the way for Bachêven mOTe
^wse genius would surely have shone ui any age. works in this genre. contem-
annHennannSchem(158b-
TAOT norariesofSch1
. m 1607,
Monteverdi’sflrst opera. Or/eo, produced Samuel1tz.Joh
ScMdt (ISg^-lMl). were ^th
figures in German Heformation music.
IIS
is a landmark of dramatic epr^sion. ^d m
Srt SSSttSS!" Loii7.P«<»ii.«.as."«i«»tti.-(«nt«TOp«».

Sive.
di Popmea, and written
aria. His
whenlast
he wm at the Franceparadoxically
resisted the it
tideotsof an
Hato opera,^-
Italian. Jean
ffor those days) of 75. succeeds m its aim of^creat- "RATitiste Bully (c. 1632—87), who charted the
ing a free, fluid form, sllppi^ ^^ftu^sSiS'^^cfosel different course of French
to arioso and even mia llth the beginning associated with tbe^c^t bêt.
forms that were to be «sed “ His musical monopoly durl^
cent. He focusses attention to ™ XIV was put to good use. In hls_
lievable extent on character rather ton situation, libretto, usually on classical. aUegori^
He creates real people ^th themes, plays a vital paft m t|!® .
and foibles— the Mttemsh. . ^xu^j ^toctiva .^j^gj^ jg tfierefore less dearly ^^ded between
Poppaea, the iiower-druiib. mfatimted Hero, tne jggjwjyg and aria than, m Itahan CP®^®' -li—t
noble
empress Seâ™
Octavia.and the .dignified,
As recent rejeotod
Prodnctiom have fj^SraticS
jjgpgj^gj^ge tânandin the Mets assê
the traditional It^^ gre^r
fom.
shown these characters leap from die mi^c^Pê short, a more realistic, less stylised art.
eêi-
ftelteea^ te!mîcMlteri^ Only the vocal line, jn England, opera developed out of toe ?„
+hp poptinUo and the very incomplete Instrumen- tainment known as the MasQue, ®
+«irifnTTipiiiriflTts}iavel)eeupreaerved, tot iusen.- dances, accompanied by voices and instnim^^
u'iprtR tâl variety in the tecoroorated in a drama or sp^^le.
Ehnppof^d and string parts can be aaaea, as we Henry Lawes’s asao-ioozi
s„sg“
composer. sSSffi
Blow (1649-1708) can be called the A'®''
Monteverdi’s successors were CavalU (1602-76). opera because here the music is ^;S^y
Certi (162M9) and Stradella (1642-82). who gave t^g ascendancy over the spâk^ woto.
toe solo vIm more and more presence en- it was PurceU (1668-95). BloVs pupfl. ^toBtoo
comaged by toe advent of the castrati’s biânt and Aeneas, who reafly gave dâtic Itfe to toe
(toese artificially created smgere had a ^g^ medium by givmf Ids a toe
vSs
TrnPTip'apd popularity similar to “ pop singers of musical personality that liras ®P^der to^
they appeMed. The ana fhmg the mere spoken word could Mhieve. The
beSe morelSfd^d oralis and dramatic Sillu iame£* of toe dying Dido
veriMmiUtude gradually but inexorably tooksecond am laid hi
«M«I. one.
oSS
ing s^-operas— such as M
Sixteento- and Seventeenth-century Chtmoh Music, o/seveTal* ftfil-|ength
Mwt 0l Prt” ^
opposed to toe itonzontal (polyphony) led to ^ Hisverse anthems and much of his instiumenta
increasing impprtmee of ^®,.^'“®® “ music, emeoially the Fantasias, are also nch in
music. In Italy, it is rro- bmaeteative ^tery through his original use of
flowering, great madrigallBt Carlo Ge^ However, a great
1614). whose harmonic daring P^^Tmtonlsto m pieces were written for a speciflo
today, but by 1600 toe estate wm wm^ to ^ aig set to impoM-
replaM older forms in church & his genius was partly
Stepiest form this was a stow told in im^patod ^ day. and he -wto ap-
redWve. Giacomo Carisstmi (c. 1604-^4) vw acmo ^ tminster Abbey where he
on™the first siBnlflcanticoiêraof mw dn^pomp. He is said to have
foxm. He too was in 05^*^® died thiough catching cold when looked out of hifi
s .tthi.
fere sra»
ssi^rsr
B THE WORLD OF
HISTORiCAI. NARRATIVE E MUSIC
Vivaldi and the Eise o£ Instrumental Music. has heard either of these works well performed
cannot help but dismiss from Ms mind any idea of
Out of the dance suites popular in the 16th cent, Bach as a mere dry-as-dust musical mathemati¬
and the beginning of the 17 th (Imown in Italy as cian. In the St. Matthew Passion, every sugges¬
the Somta da Camera) developed the concerto. tion in the text that can possibly be illustrated by
This began as two groups of tnstriinientalists a musical equivalent is so illustrated. The Old
compared and contrasted with each other as in Testament Pharasaic law is represented by strict
Giovanni Gabrieli’s Sonata piano e forte. With musical forms such as the canon: Christ’s sayings
Arcangelo Corelli (1658-1713) the concerto grosso are given noble arioso life; and the arias reflect
took a more definite shape, alternating a solo
group of instruments with the main body of strings truly the New Testament’s compassionate
in, three or more contrasting movements. Gui- message. Techmcally the work is a marvel-
expressively it is eloquent. The B minor MaRs
seppe Torelli (1658-1709), Francesco Geminianl although it contains borrowings from many of his
(1687-1762) and Tommaso Albinoni (1671-1760) own works, still stands as a satisfying monumental
were other notable contributors to the form, but
none of the composers so far mentioned has today whole to wMch Bach’s choral writing acMeved a
new richness, the adaptations being to accord with
achieved the popularity of the priest Antonio their new setting,
Vivaldi (c. 1678-1741), himself a violinist, who
had at Ms disposal the orchestra at the Ospedale
della Pieta in Venice. The yoimg women at this Bach’s instrumental music, especially the violin
concertos and the imaccompanied works for violin
music school also contributed the vocal side of the and cello, not only show the immense range of Ms
concerts there of which there are many descrip¬ powers but also contain many of Ms deeper
tions. One says: “They sing like angels, play thoughts, whereas the orchestral suites and the
the vioUn, flute, organ, oboe, cello, bassoon — in Brandenburg concertos are more extrovert
short no instrument is large enough to frighten particularly the rhythmically exuberant fast
them ... I swear nothing is so charming than to movements.
see a yoimg and pretty nun, dressed in wMte, a
sprig of pomegranate blossom behind one ear,
leading the orchestra, and beating time with all Bach closes an era — that of the later contra-
puntallsts — ^by acMeving the ne plus ultra in fugal
the grace
body, and wrote
Vivaldi precision
aboutimaginable.”
500 concertosForwMch
this composition: Ms last, incomplete work, the Art
of the Fugue, is evidence of tMs.
maintain a remarkably even quality, of which
“ The Four Seasons ” are perhaps the most
felicitous.
Handel (1685-1769).
Meanwhile organ music was adv.ancing rapidly During his lifetime Handel was far more widely
in technique. Girolamo Frescobaldi (1588-1648) recogMsed as a great composer than Bach, and his
and Jan Pleterszoon SweeUnck (1562-1621) wrote
works that provided the foundation of the Italian music, unlike Bach’s, maintained its place to
and Northern German schools of organ music. popular esteem until the re-discovery of Bach and
the dominance of the symphony placed Handel
Their ricercares gradually developed into the somewhat to the background.
fugue, a vein so richly mined by Bach. Among
their successors the most notable figure before
Bach was Johann Pachelbel (1663-1706). Duiing the latter part of the 19th cent. Handel’s
name was mainly associated with mammoth,
anachronistic performances of a small sample of
Other keyboard music, especially for the harpsi¬ Ms oratorios at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere to
chord. was the particular province of France and England. In Ms lifetime these works, and all his
Jean-Philippe Eameau (1688-1764) and Francois other works to the genre, were sung by a small
Couperin (1668-1733) were both masters of key¬ choir who were outnumbered by the instrumental
board style and harmonic invention.
players. Over the past few years authentic-sized
performances of Ms oratorios and a revival of
Bach (1685-1760). interest to Ms operas have revealed the real Handel,
unknown to our grandparents.
The two giant figures of Bach and Handel
bestride the first half of the 18th cent. Their The operas were neglected partly because the
dlfEerences are perhaps greater than their similari¬ vocal prowess they required — and wMch the cas-
ties. Bach wrote essentially for himself (al¬ trati so brilliantly supplied — ^was no longer avail¬
though of course, he had to satisfy his employers able and because their dramatic life, at least
at C6then and Leipzig) wlule Handel was compos¬ according to 19th- and early 20th-oent. tenets,
ing to please Ms wide public. Bach was a pro¬ hardly existed. Now it is realised that this neglect
vincial. always remaining to central Germany; has deprived us of an unending stream of glorious
Hnndel was widely travelled. Bach was devoutly melody and of much daring harmony. But per¬
religious, almost ascetic: Handel was more a man haps it is to the Mtherto disregarded oratorios,
of the world. They never met. such as Semele, that Handel’s innate dramatic
sense and musical range are to be heard gloriously
To summarise Bach’s vast output in a short fulfilled, and the pastoral serenade Acis arid
space is virtually impossible. One can only try Galatea is surely one of the most delightful scores
to distil the flavour of his music. He brought the ever composed.
art of poljmhony to the Mghest pitch of mastery
that has ever been acMeved or is ever likely to Handel was a colourful, imaginative orchestra-
be acMeved. In Ms famous " Forty-Eight ” and tor, and this can be heard both to Ms accompani¬
" the Art of the Fugue ’* he explored all the fugal ment to vocal music and to his concerti grossl, op.
permutations of the major and minor keys. At 3 and 6, the earlier set exploiting a diversity of
the same time Ms music rose above techMcal interesting string and wind combination. In Ms
brilliance to acMeve. especially to Ms organ music, writing he was at home to a polyphoMc or homo-
the two Passions, many of the church cantatas, phonic style as Ms superb choruses show. His
and the B minor Mass, intense emotional and ex¬ organ concertos, of wMch he was the “inventor"
pressive power. The cantatas, from Ms Leipzig (to quote a contemporary source), were often
appointment (1723) onwards, were integrated into played between the acts of Ms oratorios. They
the services. They consisted usually of a chorus are alternately expressive and exuberant pieces
based on a Lutheran hymn time, recitatives, calling for some virtuosity from the player. His
several extended arias, and a concluding chorus occasional works, such as the Water Music and
usually a straightforward version of the hymn Fireworks Music show Ms ingenuity to extending
tune to wMch the congregation joined. There the range of the typical 17th cent, suite to serve a
are some two hundred of these works and they particular occasion.
contain a wealth of comparatively unknown and
sometimes even unrecognised beauties. The St. Handel’s working life was mostly spent to
John and the St. Matthew Passion extend these England where his Italian operas were acclaimed.
procedures to n grand scale, an Evangelist telUng In the years between Ms arrival here to 1711 and
the new Testament story to vivid recitative, the 1729 he wrote nearly thirty operas. It was only
chorus taking the part of the crowd, soloists pon¬ when the public tired of these and Ms reputation
dering to arias on the meaning of the Gospel, and slumped that he turned to oratorio with equal
success.
Jesus’s words being sung by a bass. Anyone who
historical narrative THE WORLD OF MUSIC
that comp^rs begm for BCavdn did not leaye any concertos of conse-
already antiei:^ted in the mi^c of Eêau Md myon ^êciaUy those for piano._are
particularly Dommico ^latta (16^-1737). As a brilliant dayiex
a*^ SSS 'SSTA fK
s-is 1='.
tionally fortunate in having ^ s®- ssagaffSfs. pi.«d .. d»it. .h.
Nicholas of Esterhazy. who aUowed hm to /rote ohuich music. Haydn’s sixteen masses
more of less as he wished so he vras able to cS™ and the Seasons
of the orchestra. Instruments now came to be

treated in a more colourful manner accordh^ to
fbRir paxtienlar timbre. The court of Maiêim Eighteenth-century Opera.
had an orchestra of a stand^ rotT Karl Mozart— for many the first great opera com-
and Johann Stemitz (1717-W) and Jto son Earl ozar^ course, create his mastomeces
were to follow in their footrt®s. Ttoc^gjsifaon Eameau (1683-1764). who carried on his
of their orch^ra faadS o?u& classical themes but developed
horns often being to the s^dâ sa^ ^ recitative and greatly m-
section. Bach’s son C^l PhiliPP^^neUim- of expression. But it was
S8> added to and developed sympliomc^d Bonat q, (lYi4”87) wlio more tlian anyone brolce out
form. especiaUy as regards keys and subjects. Gluck Yof toe now ossified Italian form
by.toe_^Binger--and showed
just what Sated
of opeô could be achieved in
Haydn and Mozart. terms. Drama in munc ^y ê of age TOto
These two figure MiaMe m TmfiM (1770).’ His simplicity and
sented of tbeir huge <ptpnt Mp^Tiwhils in Geimany a kind of opera called
Haydn’s liarmonic daring or Ms TTvifn mn*fp TPri^T^flv Havdn’s operas “were dis-
genulty. toe evenâter tooi^ht jnSedâs nnwortoympretontations of his genuis
Beethoven wo^d have tieen tapoîble. l^yto ^ tjie enlightening eSorts of the
laid the groundwork on which htesu^ssor bmt cm y ogjm Bobhnstondon, some of his
towering edi&^.^ A ’'^“rk suto as toe îd m toe medium have been
and toe finale are e-ndence onba^ bnt it wm omy yoimgeômposer seems to have had an
asîntegialpaitofapredommantlyhomophonlo stage. Intohteopems
techmaue. poured his most intense, personal muMe. He
so different in vividly portrays toe foibles, desires. loves, and
Mozart’s symphonies are not aspirations of mankind.
fomft^&^’sbnt— andthism^he asub-
jective,jna^î^he put more impMom The earlier. Immature stage pieces of his youth
into :his. Nobody could ^t^ 4 nfi. ATmuhonv led to such works as Jjveio Shlla (17(?2) and £a
searching first movement of hla ^h Cfiardiniâ a775) with their first glimpses
without being deeply moved. It ™ _f moiies to come. His first indubitably great
three works in toe medlran ^^t Moz^bro^t Despite its unpro-
his
ouslysymphonic art toon^Haydn
had an effect pê<ôn.s ^ter
^d^ê
s:^phonôb^ SSsingly
m^n^y BtSto*^t,Id<wenflo reveals
ahUlty to bieatoe new Moz^s
life mto
^tten aftm them. Eor pa^ra md tenders form. Though in-
contained witMn a f9™ fliisiicea by Gluck it is yet inoxe human and touch-
phonies, and many other of Mozart’s works, have e^rLsion. To succeed ^
yet to be surpassed. Mozmt wrote a much more frivolous êce Die
because toe most exactly batentod,formrfmuri^ smg.

expression. The four tusteuments two_ôr^ Aftpr three lesser pieces Mozart embarked on
and eeUo--disous8.arê.tonmum w Seîece'sSNozze di
Die âuber/l&e 11791).
Figaro, as weU as being a delightful c<an^5^

explfficea more fully than any previons opera
situation and character, 'whito find expression in
HISTOmCAU NARRATIVE E 3 THE WORLD OF MUSIC
beautiful arias and in two finales of symphonic Beethoven’s grandest choral work — and one of
proportion. In Don Oiovavni, less satisfactory as the most noble in existence — îs the Mass in D
a dramatic structure, the range of musical charac¬ (Mima Solemnis). Its vast scale and sublime
terisation and insight into human motives is utterance often defeat performers, but when it is
widened stiU further. Oosl lyrically but successfully done there is no more spiritually up¬
humorously expresses the follies of love. Mozart lifting experience for the listener. Except perhaps
could not help hut love his characters and his Beethoven’s only opera. Fidelia. TMs simple
music for them is at one and the same time escape story
amusing and heartfelt. Die ZauberflOte — The creative fire intowasa universal
transformed
symbolby of Beethoven’s
liberty, the
composer identififing himself with the struggle for
Magic Mutemen
his fellow — displays Mozart’s
and of truth in andeep-felt
opera oflove of
great freedom from tyraimy and release from darkness.
spiritual strength. Nor has opera any more
loveable personality than the birdcatoher Papa- Beethoven lived in a period of war and revolu¬
tion. A passionate belief in the brotherhood of
geno. Mozart’s final opera La CUmenza di Tito,
extoliing imperial magnanimity, has never man and in h'berty, he was shocked to find his
achieved the success or popuiarity of his other Ideals thrown over by revolutionaries-tumed-
maturer stage works, though it contains much dictators. His own tragedy of deafness, wMch
excellent music. came upon him at the moment of Ms triumph,
nearly submerged him, but in the end he won
through and produced the string of masterpieces
Beethoven. from the “Eroica” onwards. Hope springing
from despair, love from hatred, victory over
Mozart was the last major composer to depend, defeat, these are the imquenchable legacies left by
to any large extent, on private patronage for his Beethoven.
living, and even he left the service of the Arch¬
bishop of Salzburg because he could not stand the
restrictions imposed on his freedom. Henceforth Tlie Romantic Movement.
composers would have to stand on their own two
feet with all the advantages (liberty) and disad¬ Inevitably, the Romantic movement in litera¬
vantages (lack of security) that implied. Beet¬ ture that burst forth about 1800 was bound to
hoven (1770-1827) was the first such composer of have its counterpart in music. And so it was.
importance. Breaking the classical bonds, composers such as
Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, and Berlioz sought a
Although his work is usually divided into three new freedom in musical expression. Form be¬
periods, this division is somewhat too arbitrary, came of less Importance than content: and that
for no other composer in history, with the possible content often had literary connections. For their
exception of Wagner, has shown such a continual purposes a larger orchestra was needed and
development of his genius. Coming at just the supplied, but the miniature, the song especially,
right moment in musical history, he crowned the because of its very personal connotation, was also
achievements of Haydn and Mozart with music of a favourite form.
the utmost profxmdity of thought and feeling that
looks back to its classical heritage and forward to Schubert (1797-1828) — described by Liszt as
the romantic movement of the 19th cent. His " the most poetic of musicians ” — îs perhaps the
influence on musical thinking and writing is in¬ greatest lyrical geMus in musical history. La him
calculable. the Viennese tradition and influence of Haydn.
Mozart, and Beethoven reached its zeMth. The
His first period shows his strong melodic gifts song was always Schubert’s starting point, so it
and the beginning of his individuality in develop¬ is hardly surprising that his reputation as a song
ing form and structure to suit his own ends and writer has never been impaired but in his sym¬
match Ms particular genius. Unusual keys are phonic and instrumental works too it is always his
explored, unusual harmonic procedures employed. Inexhaustible fund of melody that first calls for
With the "Eroica” (his third symphony) he attention.
established his position as a great composer. The quintet, for Nobody
piano andcould listenMsto octet,
strings, Ms “ Ms
Trout
fifth”
unity of purpose he here acMeved within a long symphony, or Ms song cycle Die SchSne MUUerin
and diverse structure is truly staggering, even without being enchanted and invigorated by the
today. In the first movement alone the struc¬ sheer tunefuMess of the music. But there is much
tural invention and cogency went far beyond more to Schubert than this: Ms imderstanding of
what even Mozart had acMeved in his “ Jupiter ” the possibilities of harmonic change, Ms grasp of
symphony, and the second movement — a vast orchestral coloration {in the great C major
funeral March — has an overwhelmingly tragic symphony,
structure. for instance), Ms free use of sonata
emotional content. But the " Eroica ” was
followed by six eaually great symphonies, each
one as varied, as inventive, as unified as the Although Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven had
others. The ninth symphony is significant in both all contributed to the song as an art form, it was
its length and finale. Here Beethoven crowns with Schubert that it acMeved its first fuU flower¬
three superb instrumental movements with a ing. If he had written nothing but Ms songs. Ms
choral movement that, as well as summing up all place in the musical firmament would be assured.
that has gone before, expresses in music the joy With his FrlJOnig In 1816 the GSerman Lied came
in existence more ecstatically than any other work. of age and from then imtil the end of Ms life he
wrote more than six himdred songs, hardly a dud
The bunung intensity of Beethoven’s genius is among them. Whether It is the charm of Eeiden-
just as evident in Ms chamber music. His rflsteiw. the drama of Heir Dopwlsdnger or the
Quartets are the product of a revolutionary age in numbed intensity of the Wifiterreise cycle Schubert
wMoh the social graces and formal restraint of the unerringly went to the heart of a poet’s meaning;
18th cent, were thrown off in a search for a more indeed he often raised poor verses to an inspired
personal mode of expression. The early op. 18 level by his settings. And for the first time the
set, and the Eazoumovsky Quartets, op. 59, go pianist shares a place Of equal Importance with the
even beyond the range of Haydn’s and Mozart’s singer.
works In the medium but it was in Ms late Quartets.
Ms final musical testament, that Beethoven re¬ There is only room to mention one or two other
fined and distilled Ms art for posterity, No words composers, some of them wrongly neglected, who
can possibly describe their imlque quality, but were roughly contemporaries of Beethoven and
any and every chance should be taken to make Schubert: the Czech Dussek (1760-1812), who like
their acquaintance: the effort required will he Beethoven bridges the classical-romantic gulf.
more than amply rewarded. Boccherini (1743-1806), the two Italian opera
eomposers Clmarosa (1749-1801) and Paisiello
The early piano concertos do not reach quite (1740-1816), the Frenchman MChui (1768-1817)
this level of attainment, but the last three, to¬ and the German Hummel (1778-1886).
gether with the vIolEn concerto, are on a par with
the finest of the symphonies and quartets, as well Weber (1784-1826) lacked Beethoven’s energy
as being considerable tests of the pôtmers' and constructive powers and Schubert’s sheer
tecMque, (Hie Triple Concerto for piano, lyrical proftmdity, but he is an important figure,
TioUn, and cello is aa imusual and rewarding work. especially £a the field of oiiera, where Ms Her
HISTORICAL NARRATIVE THE WORLO OF MUSIC
to a more l)y the rrorld at large, wMeh idolised and to

FreiscMiz and Oheron led the way
flA-rihip dramatically realistic form of opera. Kis piimo. Then hiB reputation took a plimr,e from
SSa“d*'“Melut^^^^^^ Sml?JMyScKSdglo^lbut\
Se
shape of Of his
his music
music is also not to he denied. ScS!
is also not to he denied. Stnyf^S^pto?^ of cm|ee.
inspired by literature), and
and Orjiheus ana Fro-
and FtO'-
he
wrATiflplssnlin
wrpTidplssQhn ana
Idendeissonn and Schumann.
Schumann.
and &cn meihens wor^ show that
w.eiheus — and Ms late piano wpr!^ ^^£5
^ extraordinary harmonic innovator. The
Mendelssohn (1809-47) was the civihsed crafts- sonata in B minor brings Ins romantic,
man among the Komantic coinposers. A boy temperament within a reasonably stable,
genius — many of his finest works were written pjamstic form, and as such is a landmark in the
before he was twenty— he maintained the impor- repertory of the instrument. Liszt’s output was
tance of classical form while imbmng it with hM prodigious, but the inauiring listener should ex¬
own affectionate brand of poetic sensibihty. ^s pipje the more original of his compositions already
third and fourth symphonies— the Sottish mentioned to form a true picture of lus fertile
and “The Italian ’’—(and possibly the fifth ggnipg
“ The Eeformation ’’), his string quartets (some
of which go deeper than most of his music), yiotm
concerto, first piano concerto, and of com^, the
incidental music to “ A Midsummer Night s chopin.
yle ^
at Its most ^®wS*g“' efferv escent st
Sf! ^mowinnm g. board, par excellence. His development of the
Schumann (1810-1856) is less easy to categorise, technical and expressive capaMties of the irtano
TTi't? pnriv rriTnautic flauiG was buxut out by some is uuKiue in musical Mstpry. Eus inventive
flaw in his intellectual and/or emotional make-up, powers were pomed out
and his inspiration seems to have declined m later energy and in If
years. No matter, by then he had given us the
marveUous song cycles of 1840. an ever fresh ptoo ^ttyity
ocsnoc^rtn manv fine niano solos, mcluding the melody, limpid, transparent, singly, can oe r
rtyle gmduaUy
mercurial popular Carnaval and several sym- cognised easily by anyone, but his
phonies, which, if not structurally perfect, contain develop^ into som^ta^ mme
much lovely music. The joys and sorrows of love fymg than pure melody. He took ihe â^t
and the feeling for natural beauty are all perfectly care of every detail so
mirrored in these charming, lyrical works. pTette Ability ?ln he foffin a?y of Ws
worts; for bis constructive ability we must turn to
Giants
Romantic tiian Ballades, the B minor donate, and tne
Komantio ts. „ Barcarolle, while the Preludes and Stnmes blend
Berlioz (1808-69) and Liszt (1811-86) are the technical powers and emotional expressiveness m
two most typical representative flgiues of the proportions.
Eomanticera. Both have always been controver¬
sial figures, with ardent advocates and opponents
either unduly enthusiastic or unfairly derogatory.
Berlioz might he termed the perfect painter in uineteenth-century Opera.
soimd d^coS
he™ and
supernatural Tpite Stx^sf
the historical “
with the utmost After Mozarff s operas ^d Beethov^’s FideUo,
to Sfato’mSto “ffirato S tSKSlitoted to estoorfliuy o«»nl.
r„SfollnWle'f.SW“«“jaS
dramaticaresymphony
people JSowico
wlUiPg to gjid tJlfh’ei,
overlook yet most hundred
the occasional _ or more years
, , , ,
ago.
j 4.1 _
vulgarity for the ineffable beauty of his many fine He aI'wWB, worked in^^d aromd toe _1880 Me
pages, hut brutal cuts in his music, such as Wte are theatres of IMy and between 1810_^dofwhiM Csm
often made in, for instance, his epic opera
TroSans only have the effect of reducing the be expect^ {0 _^
stature of his works. We must accepttwohim, warts Barbi&re &h Swwli<h L IMia'm in Algie^,
and all. Anyone who has seen the parts of Cenerentdla Md Le Comte Ory will always
The Trojam presented complete in one evening apênces aalo^ ^ opera housêsst. — —
at; covent liameu. will realise xuat joexiiuz imew wuaj^ aao
cli^ seTerS moaitoMi^’wOT^^ as The G^êra^BOK^s

orchestra, and brass hands, although Berlioz uses fulness that anyone might
these forces fastidiously. The Symyhon^ fufê there Las also hem a rented inteÛn^lMs more
Trtoiwpfiale caUs In its original form, for choir, senouB operas — OteUo (181m, Ao tiozza, JMam
brass, and strhigs. But BerUoz was just as happy (1817). %l'^820^whl^were were
writing on a smaller scale as his exquisite song (1820), and Gnillautm Tell (1820) which
wordiTlM W summed Gautier. M d’m certainly Biassed in Matte Pow hy his
^Ho up better than successors hut which nevertheless are not to he
shows. Gautier perhaps
anyone Berlioz’s singifito talent: “ In that despised or neglected,
renaissance of the 1830s BerUoz represents the ,-4
romantic musical idea, the breaking up of old Tell, to give it ite EOâ^
moulds, the substitution of new forms for unvaried was^hls last work
square rhythms, a complex and competent ndh- on for nearly fihty years in retirement m Pmib,
ness of orchestration, truth of local colour, un- seme of many
expected effects in sound, tumultuous and emoyed good Uvlng, diep_^rh8 tons mots,
Shakespearian depth of passion, amorous or occasionally composing trifles. .An expptmn is
melancholy dreaminess, longings and questionings the unpretentioiM Petite Messe Solewclte.
of the soul, infinite and mysterious sentiments not originally for soloists, chorus, a haônium. Md
to he rendered in words, and that something more two pianos. Bossmi later orchestrated rt, but he
than aU which escapes language hut may he would imt aUow it to he
divined in music.’’ toe. The firet public Perf®™f»f
February 1860, as near as possible to tbe ôtn.
birth on leap Year
During not
honoured by his Liszt
lifetime
his only was ffited and
musical colleagues but Day 1792. of the composer’s
anniversary
THE WORLD OF MUSIC
HISTORICAL. NARRATIVE
Eos^, \3ncenzo operatic composers. Ernani (1844), I due Fovari
Ûmi (1801-1836) was aa exquisite, romantic (1844), and
figure dealing with exquisite, romantic stories, an of glories to Duiso Ifiiier
come even if as(1849)
a
aU have fnii&S
^
^ Chopin, who much admired
deheate. stouous dramas, and these “ gaUey
vo^ Itae (in the arias) self later described them, gave hlii the SehlSi
S'Crpbatics to the final sections (caba- know-how to produce his iW, SSter oSs si
*^,Pt’ô®t,?cco™Plish- well as establishing him toeontTOvertibly^M^V^
S S Xrid^s'l^M. S mcSt“»l composer of the time.

first is a tender, homely country story, the second Verdi first really stahed his claim
to
m {ôst heroic unsatiâetory
lyrical drama historical
of sacrifice,story
and the In these
re- are marriedpieces^
to a his iunroncitiy dramatto^mH^c.^
wonde^^
deemed by its appealing music. In the past few at the same time controlled v^^^ melod^
sensibility. They were followedbvby a four
finp operas _ _
Smfionato. and Marilyn Simon Boccanegra (1887), Un Ballo in MaspJiem
tove broight Bellini B operas a popularity (1868), La Fotea del JDestino (1862)
and Marhefit
were WTnten. rample^tles of story line by his conttoSfy
Gaetano Donizetti. (1797-1848) was an even cSld“ly
SSuKA'fpWS'.'g"p5S
mance as Ins more frequently heard comedies. n. more speciacmar.
chaiieesifcoff^ to a coloratin-a soprano witli tragic ensemble axe

preteimoM. hw always held the stage and offfie ^sic-d^ fused fn n
Lêzia Borgia, ^nm Boleiia, La Famiia, and equals that of Wagner
FaM^
Snperor appointed him Court Composer and

&=rslf SSJ
Ma.ster of the Imperial Chapel. .
Br^s (1838-1897) has justly been described
French Opera. “ost of the
w „®' spirit controlled by a cinne^cnl
The taste to Paris was for more and more lavish with most of the
productions. Following Spontiid (I774t.a^61)“
whose works were comparîvely austere came I^p bis
Hatovy (1799-1862) aid GSmTfeS ^ne i^n
(1791-1864) whose operas contato Ml ttie 1^- arttonl^te^'n^^
dients ^that came to be expected of " Grind rfomtoe^* ^ highest expression
showpieces ‘
the
hte chamber musicPtoo
autotisîc^ ^/?^+ andfound
will be
« &£Sll “
tioiis Meyerbeer^s music contained everythinEr tbp nnfSfpfR^hA clarinet
lii. repertory of everyworks;

was asys iroS5S5f»x»wSS'
considerable. ’ ihSitiSiS?.??
vvagner. “s “O^Pojpular '??“*••
orchestra
toey and ““*•
most
are part the”»«“«
ofpiano and
soUd
viohn plaprs to the world. (Their high serious-
v^rdi lyrfcaJ beauty,
^êply satisfying. They and control of form
do not pMe X
Italian opera in the 19th cent oniTniTinfAfl paemon and excitement provided bv
works of diusem^^ (msSfiSrf^whn contemporaries, but their study piS^'d^^n.
^ a P^fK^d
tar’s moat hero during
noted to weU
bisas sXetotov
the pertod
composer, as ^°co™® Srto ®®“° deserves aThe doShle
mention as
ofthe ffi^
Sf h^W^tS^SoWllw^Fm whi^ songs to

Nabi^ seeking
people (1842). deliverance,
with its theme wasof trentp.^
anÔOTreS
no o Rewords “ejodic bûty Many
and meaning. takes are set
symbol of the Italians' fight for
: erolo^
, d treasures, and the !Fou,t Sencns Rnnora of
Musically, Verdi developed out of all rpmcmif ?a« ^ traô mastapieces. In am.lighter
“‘o <*oral Eequle too. vein
is a
during the course of his long career ^ twfrtBHh?/ Wêt for four voices
is. very far removed from the
8tart~«top foianuias, inherited from hffl nmiHAAAo
BOifi, of his firat iwkB, yet even they are touched' Bruckner.
a»t «!. ds gi.s“ aa’s wsicSSoft £

El 1 THE WORLD OF MUSIC
HISTORICAL NARRATIVE
as a naive AiistriaBi unable to grasp the ftmclainen- his reason and died of an incurable disease.
tala of symphonic architecture has died hard, and These circumstances account perhaps for hM
the prevailing popularity of his grandest worKs is almost feverish bursts of creative activity, which
at last gaining hiTn his rightful place in the 19th- were also the outward sign of his burning geMus.
cent. ikmament. The nine symphonies and the TTifl greatest contributions to the art of 1/ied^
masses are his chief claim to immortality. They were his extraordinary insight into the poets
contain melodies of unforgettable beauty, sym¬ meaning and the harmonic means by wMch he
phonic paragraphs of unparalleled grandeur, and heightened the expression of the words. .He raised
an appreciation of formal development that, the importance of the piano part even higher than
though different, is as equally valid as that of had Schumann, and in some of Ms songs the vocal
Brahms. The movements of his symphonies are part takes the form of a free declamation .over a
long and he often pauses, as if for breath and to repeated idea in the piano. However, in the
admire the scenery, before he reaches the dimactic main the vocal and piano parts are interweaved
peak of his musical journey. His idiom is best with great subtlety, and he unerringly retched
approached by a newcomer to his work through the very varied moods of the poems he chose to
the fourth and seventh symphonies as they are set. TTiw greatest creative period was between
perhaps the easiest to understand, but the fifth, early 1888 and early 1890 when songs poured from
sixth, eighth, and ninth (unfinished) are just as Ms pen daily — ^more than 60 settings of the ^r-
beautiful — and cogently argued — once one has man poet MiSrike, 20 of Eichendorff. more than
acquired the knack, so to speak, of listening to his 60 of Goethe, and more than 40 of Heyee and
music. Most of these works are now to be heard Geibel (the Spanish Song-book). Later he_con^
in their original form, stripped of the veneer of posed songs from Heyse’s Italian Song-book and
“ improvements ” suggested to the diffident the three Michelangelo sonnets. And the range
composer by his friends. of Ms creative understanding was wide, taking m
the ahnost wild passion of the Spanish songs, the
As well as the masses, which translate Bruck¬ humanity and humour of the Italian love-soi^B,
ner’s symphonic ideas to the choral plain, Bruck¬ the titanic power of Prometheus (Goethe), the
ner’s
ing. delightful string quintet is worth investigat¬ varying moods of the Mfiiike book, and t^te m-
tangihle power of the Michelangelo sonnets. There
are almost inexhaustible riches here for tM m-
qurring mind to discover. Outside Lieder, wolf j
Wagner. output is small, but it Includes a sadly neglected
opera, Ler Corregidor, the Italian Serenade for
Praised only this side of idolatry by his ad¬ string quartet (alternatively for small orchestra)
mirers, unmeroiftilly criticised by his detractors, and a tone poem Penthesilea.
Eichard Wagner (1813-83) is perhaps the most
controversial composer In musical history.. And Ernest Newman, Ms greatest champion, summed
so it was bound to be with such a revolutionary
figure, whose writings, other than his music, con¬ up his work most aptly: “ Wolf practically never
tain, to say the least, dubious theories and whose repeats himself fix the songs; every character is
drawn from the living model. It is a positively
operas, composed to his own libretti, broke tte
bonds of the form as known until his tune. He Shakespearian imagination that is at work-—
Protean in its creativeness, inexhaustibly fecimd
regarded music-drama as a fusion of aU the arts — and Mways functioning from the inside of toe
music, literature, painting— In one unity. With character or toe scene, not merely making an m-
The Bing of the Nibelungs he achieved his purpose;
no other work of art has ever Med to encompass ventory from the outside.”
the whole of existence. Today, and surely for¬
ever, musicians, philosophers, and writers will
National Movements.
argue over its meaning, and each age will rein¬
terpret it according to its own lights. During the course of toe 19th cent., alongside
the emergence of national political identity, came
But before he reacffied this pinnacle of achieve¬ the rise of nationalism in music, fertilising tradi¬
ment, Wagner giûaUy transformed opera — tional Western — that is basically German —
through Biensi, The Flying Butehman. Tann- musical forms with folk material. Of these groups
h&ueer, and Lohengr in — so that a new mould was the Eussian is certainly the most important, if
faôned to take what he wanted to pour into it. not the moat vital.
He introduced the Leitmotiv, a musical theme that
could be associated with a particular person, Glinka, (1804-67) was the first importaiit
situation, or idea, each time it occurred. Slowly
he developed the musical form so that the drama Eussian composer of too national school and, al¬
could unfold continuously without breaks for | though Ms two operas A Life for the Tsar (some¬
times called Ivan Susanin) and Busslan and
arias. By the lame he began to write Tristan and Ludmilla are strongly influenced by Italian
Isolde and Die Meistersinger, he had perftoted Ms models, they do Mtroduoe Eussian song and
methods and had he never imdertaken The Bing
that tragedy and that comedy would have assured harmony into the texture. He undoubtedly in¬
him his place in the musical firmament. Indeed. fluenced Borodin (1833-87), Cul (1835-1918).
Lie Meistersinger is considered a masterpiece even Balakireff (1837-1910). Mnssoigsky (1839-81) mid
by those who are not willing or prepared to accept Eimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908)— the so-called
“ Pive ” of lOth-cent. Eussian muMo. However,
the rest of the Wagnerian ethos.
each was very much of an iudividualist top,
Borodin was a lecturer in chemistry who wrote in
The length and complexity of these operas, and
of Parsifal, a work of unique beauty in spite of Ms spare tone. His two symphonies, two string
certain longueurs, meaim that it is almost essential quartets led up to Ms most notable work, the
opera Prince Igor, left incomplete at his death.
to prepare oneself by homework, with libretti and Balakireff, Mend and adviser to the rest of the
records, before attempting to assimilate them in gronp, wrote little himself, hut Ms orchestral
the opera house. The added effort is well worth worlm and the piano fantasia, Islamev, are worthy
wMle for the ultimate musical satisfaction they of investigation.
bring because Wagner was more than an operatic
reformer: he opened up a new harmonic language
(especially in the use of ohroinaticiHm) that was Modest Mussorgsky (1839-81) is today seen as
logically to develop into the atonality of the 20th the
Moremost
thanimportant
the othersandhe inspired of “ ThesongFive.”
used Eussian and
cent.
Eussian speech as the basis of Ms operas in wMoh
he portrayed the lives and destinies of Ms own
Won. people. Although his capacities were seriously
impaired hy an vmeongenM job, poverty, and
As Wagner was the culmination of the 19th (litDking, he produced two great operas, Boris
cent, symphonic and operatic tradition, so Hugo Godunov and EJiovanshchina, and another Soror
Wolf (1860-1903) summed up. if he did not sur¬ dhinlsy Fair that is immensely enjoyable. Boris
pass, the adMevements in song-writing of Schubert should he given in its original, with spare ortoM-
Schumann, and Loewo (1796-1869). tralion, but more often than not it is heard in
Eimsky-Korsakov’s more elaborate revision. In
Wolf was a lonely pathetic man. He lived any case the opera exists in various yersions. none
much of his fife in poverty, and eventually lost of them necessarily the right one; what is im-
HISTORICAL NARRATIVE El 2 THE WORLD OF MUSIC
portant fe to it in one or the other because of His main orchestral wort
nr
its .great pi^rayal of Boris’s personality set Country), written between *1874 nnri
ag^st the background of the Russian people, cycle of six symphoiJcôems
presented to choral outbursts, life and lege^ of to coî^ nobl^dpnWin’cî
He
KhcvQTishchiTiu was complGtccl by iRpimsIry* tbrGs mafiTTp r*'hflTn'hD'r rxm-fira^ ^ only
Korsakov, Sorochintsv Fair by Tcherepnto (al- trio, written to 1855
in memory of^h^dM+n
though other versions also exist). Mussorgsky’s eldest daughter,” and two
son^ explore a new veto of naturalistic vocal autobiographical The firstsSne ot ?
declMiatipn. Each of the four Songs and in v
of Death is a miniature drama worthy ofDances " Eroi My S’’-4eUe hte
Wolf, tions until a ten-ible screeîn^
although of course m a quite other idiom. The describes the onset of ^ dlhsstrm
Nursery songs miraculously conjure up a child’s lamy Scted
Ein^ky-Korsakov (1844-1908) is perhaps a less music.
ImcaJ vein. aM it is a pity that Sodko. S

^ toyed^toc^1iite|Sy)"f£tic The Snow
of theto S^ô^fthf ^yLra^®
neara more ot
teS*more ten.
ofto axe
ti
tlie mostly mature symphonies and,erfoimed
although only
totttoeeo works,
rfourarer several
egtoarlyi of which, ttey
for
r ,, ,
mTchalkovsky. 7 m D minor (formerly known as
Tchaikovsky. 2) reach a tragic grandeur at times. They are
Peter Dyich Tchaikovsky (1840-93) is a more of
utove^lly admired figure kan any of ‘ê Br^^^co^^come iSît
of
achievement-
ISeffi^f*^^^*omhe^ml1SSSris
also superb. The three ton? cSSS the crStivrf^f? «er music ttooughout his weak
ô^ks are long
violin concerto offer î opp?rtitoti® tor vto- “ Dum^ ” It*®'' Quartets, the
'ôrds nevertheless his Stabat Mater
The three ballets — The Sleevim Deantu 'tman J’l®**' deeply felt choral works
Lake, Md Nutcracker show Tctoikovsl^^’s^kill on th^ career, many of
a smaUer and perhaps more congenial scale but He ’wrote ten operas, but
only two of tos operas — Eugene Onegin and’ The Czechotovakla earned a foothold outside
Ottey
Oiieen demonstra
o/^pcdes-^nrvive in regular
te his abUity performance
to delineate charac- ozecnosiavakia.
gr and his alwa^ eioaixent melodic invention. , ,
His son^ often felicitousiy capture a passing mood
or emnf.inn_
“ ■***wv.4v* The Momviaii composg*
1928) spent most of his life LeoS JanAcefc (1858-
m Bmo as a worlcing
— - . „ i^îcian. His music has recently come to bp
Bohemia (Czechoslovakia). ^cognised as some of the moôriîM^tton i?
The Czech national school is dominated by two closelv®^^^l1i»?wippi?*®
composers — Smetana (1824-84) and DvoMlr 1* mflection of the speech of his
(1841-1904). In to O'lTO country sSanahoto Over the score
a uniaue position as the fatherof to coutoto the Bouse of the Dead, he
music — which is remarkable when tou ponaWAi* is a
that he lived in a country that waZ then Î^® this deep love of humanity
Austrian rule and never spoke theêoh inn^pgp operas Kdtya
perfectly. Yet his music is filled with the^^t novawnp ^^j^ôCunmng lAttle Vixen
of Czech history and national life, and many ^to (1926). and From
operas, his most important oontoibuttm Head (atopted&om a Dostoyevsky
purely with national subjects. ^ reawêtone Important and they have
of interest to flitogs nônal aft^ AmfS been produced to Britain in recent years. His
off *® tl»e^^tabM& o>êmMee“«s IS self-evident In aU of them.

first opera, ^c Bwlfta and
produced there to 1866. but ite sucwHB^tîp^ S««^|effa shoifid be noted, and to two string
fiytfio enormous popularity of^ff lai*^ p^®''** i*® ef'oeld be better
S.''S^“SSSaKS-.»“*S“
m^îeee. It IB conceived on a heroic scale” H™8nry.

^S'ê^Ttode “«sical outburst came some-
festival tabl^. ^ 3^0 ^<^®a874) that in other countries. ItsS
corned^. TTie TisT (me) W (1881-1945) who. as we? as
narrative Ei3 the world op music
historical,
was fuU of folk music, but it was transmuted forces of ^nature. Sibelius^ one string auratet
by his strongly personal style and powerful in- Voces Inhmae ^6. of Ms sonp are worth.
teUect into something highly original. music hearing too._ Bie auality of this enigmamc wni-
restlessness is some-
ia tense and volatile but thisother-wordly. poser’s music Itos recently been the subjert ot
fimPH relieved by a Wnii of ethereal much argument, taut his musics personÔT is
lyridsmi as in the lovely slow movements of his protaably strong enough to survive the auirhs of
guartets. fashion.
Bartdk was affected as much by the musical Carl Nielsen (186B-1031) is another indlvidual-
innovations of Debussy and Stravinsky (see below) ist. His six symphonies, l*e Sibellm s seven, are
as by East European, notably Magyar, folk music the most unportant part of his output, but whereas
a huge, tmlnhabited
and many of his works are an attempt to meld the Sibelius was dealing with
tio northern landscape. Nielsen is more fnemUy and
serene in his music, which is seldom forbidding
ffhe most important part of his output is un- always inventive, throwing a new light, through
doubtedly his string auaxtets which cover most of unusual ideas about harmony, structoe and
his creative life. To this intimate form he con- tonality, on traditional forms. He aho wrote
flded his personal innermost thoughts and in it highly individual concertos for tM flute and
conducted Ms most far-reaching musical expert- clarinet, four string auartets, and two operas-—
ments. thereby extending its boundaries beyond the dramatic, rather Brahmsian SaMt ana Mam
anything previously known. As with Beethoven’s (1802) and a delightful comedy, Maskaraae (190o),
late quartets many of Bartok’s rely on organic or full of lyrical music.
cyclic development while remaining just witMn .... . tt,/, i /-laA’i
the laws of classical form. As Mosco Camer puts The Norwegian composer Edvittd Grieg (1843-
it “For profundity of thought, imaginative 1907) was essentially a miniatunst whose raê of
power, logic of structure, diversity of formal feeling was not wide but whose music is always
details, and enlargement of the technical scope, gentle and appealing. His most notable vrorks
they stand unrivalled in the field of modem are the romantic piano concerto, the atmôsphmc
chamber music.” tocidental music to Ibsen s play Peer Gvnt. the
charming Lyric Suite, and the small piano pieces.
The most important of his orchestral works are Not an important composer, then, but always an
the three piano concertos, of wMch the flrst_ two attractive one,
are harsh and uncompromising, and flendisMy
difficult to play, while the third, written in 1945.
is mellower and more diatonic. The second moim -m™ ^nd the Wngiigii EbvItoI.
concerto (1937-8) shows the vanous elements of •
Bartdk’s style in full flower, by turns exhuberant. After the death of Bpcefl there is harffiy a iê
passionate, and brilliant. The Music far Strings, m English munc worth spea^ of imtil the Mm
Percussion and Celesta (1937) is remarkable for its cent, when Hubert {1848-1918) and Chês
strange sonorities and its fascinating texture. ViDieis Stanford (186^1924), Mtually an JrisM
The Concerto for Orchestra (1944) is more imme- man, led a revival. . Their music is seldom heard
diately appealing and again shows the composer today, but then pioneer work paved the way
in complete command of a large canvas. Of the for Edward Elgar (MB7— 1934). Altho'^h all
piano works Mifcro&osmos (1936) and the sonata were influenced by Brahms they nevertheless
for two piaurei and percussion (1937) are especially managed to establish a new English teadltim tnat
to be noted. has been carried on m our own day. Elgar s
symphonies are laid out on a grand, leisurely sê
His cMef stage pieces are The Miraculous and they are both eloquent and exhilarating. His
Mandarin (1919), a harsh, cruel ballet which drew violin concerto has an elegiac slow moyênt as
appropriately dramatic music from the composer, has the glorious cello concerto ^d both contima
and the opera Mvfce Bluebeard’s CasOe (1911). a many fine opportunities for the soloist. The
luscious, original score that makes one regret that ceOo concerto is m appeahng a work as any by
he wrote no more operas later in Ms career. Elgar expressing Ms innermost thoughts. Hs
Enigma variations are a senes of portraits m
Koddly (1882-1967) was from early years closely sound of Ms Mends, but there is another overall
associated with Bartdk and with Mm coUeoted theme to go with them that has never been iden-
TrnTigfl.riaT^ folk melodies using many of them tifled. This has not prevented the work ftom
in Ms music. He worked in many forms and the becoming Elgar’s most popular, not surprisingly
more Important of Ms works are the Peacock when one considers its charm and mMoffiousness.
Variations for orehestra, the choral Psalmus Three other orchestral pieces that shomd jiot be
Hwwarictis and TeDmn, The Dances o/GoMnto, neglected are his symphoMe study PalMV. a
and the opera PLdry Jdnos, and the sonatas for many-sided musical picture of the Eat Knight, and
f»AUn and for unaccompanied cello. the overtures Cocdcaigne, a happy evocation of
London, and J« the SoitiA, inspired by a vMt to
Italy. three late chamber worl^. written
wfaBn he wss 61, 816 reticeut, econouiic picccs that
Sihehus, Nielsen and Grieg. remove any mteconception ofElgar as a bombastic
Amoi® Scandinavian composers the Einn Jean composer. His songs are mostly feeble, but the
Sibelius (1865-19B7) and the Dane Carl Nielsen oratorios, notably TAe Dream, of Sero««MS. show the
(1866-1981) are outstanding, Sibelius is a lone composer’s ability to control a large canvM. The
northern figure ploughing his own furrow, composer himself wrote over the score of Germms,
oblivious or. at any rate, ignoring the imusual “This is the best of me” — a verdict with which we
developments that were taking place in Central can leadUy agree.
Europe, yet hte seven symphonies axe strong as
granite, honest, rugged works that will un-
doubt6<31y stand the test of time. They axe not <[rhA ]B¥encli Impressionists*
by any means an similar in mood, or even form. ^ ,
The first is very much influenced by TchaJkovSky GSsar Eranck (1822-90) was the mam figure in
and Borodin, the second and third show a more mid-19th-cent. musical Erance md hismfluence
peiscmal style developing, the fourth is terse and spread even wider than hlsmuslc of wM<m only
tr^c, the fifth lyrical, bright, and lucid; the sixth the D minor Symphony, the SymphoMo Variations
is perhaps most typically SibeUan in its evocation for piano and orchestra, the piano quintet, and the
of primeval matee, and the seventh — în one violin sonata are likely to be encount^d today,
contMuous movement-— is a more purely abstract The leading Erench opera composers of that time
piece, notable for its structural logic and the grand- were Massenet (1842-1912) and Gounod (1818-93).
ness of its themes. The violin concerto Is the ^ ■u
most easily understood of ttie composer s main Concurrently with similar movements m Erench
works and has a grateful part for the soloist. painting and poetry came the Erench Impreôii-
ist composers at the end of the 19th cent. Their
The tone poems The Stoan of Tuonela, Pdhfola’s leader— and one of the great seminal forces of
Eaughtor. En Saga. Night Ride and Simrise, The modern music~was Claude Dehussy (1862-1918).
Bard, and Tapivla uncannily evoke the icy words His atm was to capture a mood or sensation and he
of the legends of the far north, and the primeval did that by more or less inventing a fresh system
HISTORICAL NARRATIVE THE WORLD OF MUSIC
of harmony using a whole-tone scale, unusual figmre off the beaten track, as it were. He, too
chords, and creating in the orchestra new. highly is known only for a handful of compositions. He
personal textures — there is no mistaking the was strongly influenced by Vincent d’lhdy
Debussy idiom once you have heard at least one (1861-1931) and the school who strongly opposed
piece by him. His impressionistic style did not Debussy^s new ideas, yet he could not help but
lead him, however, to abandon form as some have come under Debussy’s spell. Dukas’s one great
suggested, and his main works are just as closely work is his opera Ariane et Barbe-Bleue, the text
organised as those by classical German composers, adapted from a Maeterlinck play written with the
His music is sensuous and poetic yet nearly always composer in mind,
formally satisfying as weU.
His reputation, atX least

,
with the general ,musical
■I X. ,?*^«rice Havel (1876-1937). a pupil of Faurd.
followed m Debussy’s footsteps, although his later
public, rests largely on his orchestral music, a few pieces were more ascetic. Indeed, he was one of
piano pieces and his only opera Pellias el Mill- the most fastidious of composers, always seekin"-
sande. La Mer is a scintillating evocation of the and often finding, artistic perfection. The works
sea in all its moods; Nocturnes, Images, and he wrote before 1918 are definitely of the Impres-
Frilude a VAvris midi d’wi Faune exactly suggest sionist School and it would be diflienlt to I'mnpitip
different places, times, moods— the “ Iberia ” more beautiful soimds than are to be found in the
and ■■ Gigues ” sections of Images, calling to mind ballet Davhnis et C'hloS, in the song-cycle SMiira-
respectively the spirit of Spain and the flickering mde, and the piano fantasy Gaspard de la NuiL
light of a rainy English night. Pellias. based His first style was smnmed up in the A Tninnr
on a Symbolist drama by Maeterlinck, tells a piano trio (1016). In his later music Eavel was
storypflove,jealousy.andmurderinpredomlnant- struggling, not always successfully, to keep up
ly restramed yet emotionally loaded terms. It is with new developments such as jazz and atonallty.
an elusive original work that has no predecessor or The piano concerto, for instance, shows very
successor. Intensely atmospheric, rivetingly strongly the influence of jazz.
l«autiful, it weaves an irresistible speU over the
listener. Outstanding orchestral works of his, other than
. ... . . . X, , , , Paphnis are Bapsodie eapagnole (1907), La False
Debussy s chamber music is unjustly neglected. (1920), a sumptuous evocation of the Vienna
His string quartet (1898) was one of the first works waltz, and the ever-popular BolPro. IVo cham-
in which he displayed his new and strange world her works, besides the trio, are masterpieces — the
of sound, and the three late sonatas, one for violin, string quartet (1902-8) and the Introduction and
one for cello, and the third for flute, viola, and Allegro for Harp. String Quartet, Flute, and
harp are elhptlcal, compressed pieces which seem Clarinet. This Septet composed in 1906, ravishes
to be questing disjomtedly into new regions of the senses with magical sound,
sound. His songs too, are worthy of investi-
gatiom and his piano music, especially the twenty- Havel’s piano pieces are perhaps his most
four Preludes and some of the shorter pieces, notable contribution to music, combining an
contain some of his most imaginative and original extraordinary feeling for the Instrument’s techni-
ideas and thoughts. cal possibilities ■with the sensibility of a Chopin.
Gabriel IJ-urd (1846-1924) is a difficult figure Mire I’Oye, aU written just after the turn of the
to place. He lived through all kmds of musical century, come very close to the perfection of
revolutions yet they wem^ to affect the character Gaspard de la Null. His songs show his unusual
Of zus work yeiT little. He has never been, and appreciation of the need to fuse poetic and musical
IS never likely to be, a widely known or popular values, and he set exotic poems for preference,
composer, yet his music has a vetieence and deli- The song-cycle Histoires naturellcs (10O6) is an
caoy that IS very appealing. Despite his dreamy, acutely observed setting of five poems about birds
retiring art he was not a recluse, but a very sociable and animals; Oing Miladies populairea Greeguea
charming settings of Greek folk songs;
XX -xx. X. , X, Poimea de Mallarmi (1913), Chansons
_ He was content with forms as he found them, Mendicassea (1926). are suitably exotic settings
but he mbued them wth a very personal, human of three poems by an 18th-cent. Creole poet called
^le. Perhaps his art IS test heard in his songs. Parny. Finally in 1932 came Bon Quichoite
êy are not overtly passionate or dramatic but Bulcinde, three poems by Paul ivrnrsud. Havel’sh
the long, sinuous melodies and subtle harmonies last composition,
are exquisitely wrought. Of the song-cycles,
P^^ôdi^ (Verlaine), Le Havel wrote two operas — the slight but moder-
ately amusing L’Beure eapagnole (1907), nicely
written m :W22, when the orehestrated in a faintly and appropriately Span-
composer was seventy-seven, is a beautiful setting ish style and L’Enfant et lea SortiUaes (lO^sj to a
of words by a soldier kiUed in the tost World story by Colettt a dSicTom faSy
There are also ^ny remarkable single songs, naughty child I
who gets his due punishment
many of them settings of poems by Verlaine. tormenting animals and destroying furniture. for
He wrote few orchestral pieces, but the Ballade
for piano and orchestra and the Pamne are among e--!-
his most typical, and delicate compositions, and
his outstrading piano musio.niodelled on Chopin’s. Felipe Pedrefl (1841-1922) has been
moludes Nocturnes, Impromptus, and Barcarolles, described as the inidwife of Sp^sh SioSist aptly
His chamber miMio covers more than half a cen- music. As a musicologist and teacher he
tmy from the violin sonata of 1876 to the string influenced the two main composers stronriv
of the school
qmrtet wrHt® the year he In that period Manuel Falla (187“4™ff
(1867-1916). Falla's oufeutEnrique
^ notgStorge
sonatas, and most of it Was written about the time of the
unforced first World War. He had spent tte yXs btfore
Irw ftohaps FaurS the war in Paris and there he naturaUynSmdm
'A ° • ^btooached with the first piano quartet, a the influence of Debussy. Debussv wrote Snanish
lui cnoxai Bcgmem, true w^ it that even to Falla, bom and bred In
aninf 11QOK
i sn accomplished, , îwusia. It had new things to say. Hewasable
to take something from Debussy and blend it
^tivated muslpian, hM had a "bad press ’’ but vrith his oto W^y toffividuals^le evoK to
hlspr^tsmanûp, as displayed in his symphonies, his music all the passion and gaietv of his^^ftop
X- operas) is not to be despiseA two ballets Lofce the. Magician (1915) full of Spanish
(1844-1933), despite a very long ^°êreAu^1ffrHr«^7l905rSite
«°nes he libretto, hS inch Ippeal' espeSits\v^^^
whin the
written. Paul Dukas (1865-1935) is another Spanish SoyTi9l1yretome up
historical, narrative El 5 THE WORLD OF MUSIC
smouldering as passion at the inheart of the country’s filters the charm and the decadence of ISth-cent.
character, does Nights the Garden of Spam Vienna through early 20th-cent. eyes. This ws
(1916), an evocative piece for piano and orchestra. followed by Aficdne aw/ Woa;o8 (1912). (îgmally
His later works, especially the harpsichord con¬ after MoUfere’s Le Bourgeois
certo of 1926, show Falla tending towards a less intended to beit given
GentiJhomme, was later presented (1916) ^rothout
ebullient, more neo-classical style. His sewnd the play but with a preceding scene, written by
opera Master Peter’s Puppet Sims (1923) is_ a von Hofinannstha l. Die Frau ohne Schatten is the
miniaturist work, refined and intense. His thurd Strauss-Hoftnaims-
opera Atlantida, left unfinished at his death, was most grandiose result of the complex psychological
thal partnership. It is a
complete by his pupil Ernesto Halffter and first allegory, but Strauss’s contribution P*®
staged in 1962. It is a long work, more a dramatic consistently lofty a level as is his Ubrettists.
cantata than an opera, and as such a rather un¬ Intermezzo (1924), which has a libretto by Strains
wieldy epic. himself, is a largely autobiographical domestic
comedy, which has lately gained in reputation as
Granados, who was drowned when his ship was a compact, charming piece. With Die Aegvpmsche
torpedoed by the Germans in 1916, was per^ps a Helena (1928). an opera on a mythical theme, and
more restrictedly Spanish composer than Falla, Arabella (1983), another charn^ Viennê
but his music is unfailingly attractive, and surely comedy, the Strauss-Hofmannsthal coltoboration
others of his seven operas, besides Goyescas (wmeh of the librettist’s death. Strauss
is heard occasionally), deserve to be rescued from ended on account
then wrote Die Schweigsame Frau (193w to a
oblivion. Goyescas itself is especially famous mr libretto by Stefan Zweig, based on a
the second interlude and opening of Act ul—La Jonson, and Friedensiag (1988), Daphne (1^8)
Maja V el Ruisenor (The lover and the nightingale), a beautiful opera — and Die lAebe Donoe
a haunting, sinuous melody for soprano, some¬ (written 1938-40) with Josef Gregor as Ubrettist.
times heard in its original form as a piano solo. His swan-song was Capriccio. a dramatisation ot
He wrote a set of Tonadillas. A tonadilla is a the old argument about the relative importance of
type of Spanish song popular in the 18th cent., words and music in opera. The libretto is by the
and Granados’s set ably and enchantmgly recap¬ conductor Clemens Krauss and the opera, a
tures a lost age of grace and character, as work, was a fit end to a great
exciting Spanish Dances are heard in both their operatic melodious
serene, career.
piano and orchestral form.
However, Strauss went on composing till nearly
The chief claim to fame of Albdniz (1860—1909) the end of his life, adding a group of late orchestral
is Ibiria, masterly descriptive pieces for Pispo. pieces to his already large catalogue of worM.,
Turina (1882-1949). not altogether successfully, The Metamorphoses for 23 solo string instnunents
attempted a more cosmopolitan style, but his is probably the best of these. Durmg his long
most often heard music, especially that for guitar, creative career he wrote numerous songs, many oi
is typically Spanish. such as Morgen, Wiegenlied
them, Seele of surpassing beauty. and lluhe,
meine
Other notable figures in German music at tos

The Late German Komantics. <time were hlax Reger (1873-1916), a somewhat
While composers such as Debussy, Sibelius, :ponderous but highly accomplished cqmpo^r
Stravinsky, and Schoenberg (see below for ttie .who, in a quarter of a centiuy of crea,tive hfe,
of
latter pair) were striking out along new patm, .wrote more than 160 works, of which his sets
Richard Strauss (1864-1949) continued in the variations, his piano concerto, and ctomber music
trend of 19th-cent. German composers; he was are probably the most imprest ve. Hans PfltOTer
the tradition’s last great figure. At least two of ; (1869-1949), another German traditionalist, is
his operas — Salome and RleTctra — ^were considered ■ chiefly remembered today for his opera Palesinm.
shocking at the time, but today we can hear that about events, now known to be spunous, m the
; life of the 16th-cent. Italian composer.
they are essentially big-scale, romantic wo^ —
natural successors
the harmonies may to once
Wagner’s— however starthng
have seemed.
Mêr.
If Strauss did not achieve the granite toteUec-
tual greatness of Beethoven or Wagner, there is Gustav Mahler (1860-1911), the Austrian Jevdsh
no denying his melodic genius and powera of composer, is one of the most important figuresmfm
fertile invention which overlaid the strrak ot 20th-cent. music. In a sense he bridges the
between the late Romantics, who were tending
vulgarity and inflation in his musical make-up. more and more towards chromaticism and away
His first outstanding achievement was m the field
of the symphonic poem, where he carried the work from established key relationships, and the atoMi-
ists, who abandoned key signatures entirely, ^s
of composers and 'Mrlloz to its
as Liszt with
such Starting detractors maintain that his inflation of allegedly
logical conclusion. von Jym. m
1888 and ending with Sinfonia Domestim m 1903 banal Viennese beer-house music to unheard-of
he wrote a series of kaleidoscopic worto. fim of lengths rules him out of court as a serious writer.
•pfiR admirers would claim that his music encom¬
enormous vitality, endless melody, and fasciimt-
ing orchestration. The most easily assumlated^ passes the whole of life in enormous, valid strac-
and the most popular— are Don Juan and TiU tures. The truth, if truth there be, perhaps lies
Bulenspieael but some of the longer works, notrtly somewhere in between: that if his material does
Also Sprach Zarathustra (based on Nietzsche s not always justify the length of his symphonies,
prose poem) and Don Qitixote (based, of courae, on if there are occasional imperfections and longumrs,
Cervantes’s great work) will reward the pemstent, these shortcomings are worth putting up with for
the sake of the depth of utterance, to hi^mty
inciuiring mind with long hours of enthraUed and the poetry of the great pages. He_ adimtted
listening. Other works soimd somewhat dated himself that "I cannot do without tnviahties..
in their bombastic over-confidence, thmigh
Strauss’s skill in composition seldom flagged at but
titanic out of these impurities that he forged his
it isvictories.
this stage of his long creative career. The sym¬
phonic poems all tell something of a story usu^y His music is undoubtedly best approached
based on a literary source, but it is not ^sential through his songs, where the words force him to
to the enjoyment of the music to know what this discipline his wide-ranging vision. Lieder eznes
is, although it may be helpful. fahrenden Gesellen (1884).^ to his own wor^.
SwSertoicnKfider (1901— 4), to poenis by îickert,
Strauss’s reputation is even more solidly based and some indWdual songs perfectly rdate words
on his fifteen operas, the earliest of which Guntram
was first performed in 1894, the last, Oapr^cio. in to music, and are aR of a poignant loveliness.
Siniilarly Das lAed wn der Erde (1908) ■ especially
1942. During these years to e^ntials of the last of the six songs, is a touching farewell to
Strauss’s style chsm^ little, though it becê the world, nobly expressed.
very much more refined as toyeap passed. His
first
suous operatic
tragediesperiod
Salomeended^^th
(1906) andtheMWdra
violent.^sm- Mahler’s
ten symphonie
The impresdve
J W09) . most legacy posterityare
s, tohowever, . They are
the latter being his first collaboration with his almost impossible to characterise briefly so vast
chief librettist Hugo von Ho&nannrthal. Then are they in terms of botli length , and variety.
came their uniQue Der Rosenlcavaher (XQIX), which The tot, fourth and ninth are probably the easiest
to grasp but the fifth, sixth and seventh, despite string trio (1946) are modem classics of their kind:
flaws, contain some of his most awe-inspiring con¬ they require concentrated listening and a degree
ceptions. The second and third, both of -which of understanding of the unfamiliar style of com¬
use soloists and chorus, are revolutionary in lay¬ position. The set of songs -with piano Das Duck
out and concept; they both try, inevitably -with¬ der hSngendeii OSrten (opus 16), -wo-itten in 1908
out complete success, to carry out the composer’s
Dierrot Lunaire, opus 21 (1912) and the Pour
flictum, “ a symphony should he Uhe the world — Songs, opus 22 (1913-14) pro-vide a kind of bridge
between tonality and atonality that the adven¬
it must contain everjdhing.” The eighth is even turous mind should cross. The monodrama
more gargantuan, but as in aU Mahler’s work size
does not mean loss of clarity or an overloading of Erwartwng (1900) is another fascinating work, hut
the structure. Part one — a mighty choral invoca¬ perhaps the unfinished Moses and Aaron {1Q82) is
tion — îs a -visionary getting of the mediaeval hymn Schoenberg’s masterpiece as its production at
Veni Creator Spiritm. Part two, which incor¬ Covent Garden in 1065 showed. Here, for certain,
porates adagio, scherzo, and finale in one, is a the composer matched his ob-vious Intellectual
setting of the final scene of Goethe’s Faust. capacities -with an evident emotional content and
Until recently ail of Mahler’s unfinished tenth managed to combine Sprechgesang (speech-song)
symphony that was ever performed was the and singing -with a real degree of success.
Adagio, but the musicologist and Mahler scholar,
Deryck Cooke, has recently completed the sym¬ It is only in recent years that Schoenberg’s
phony to critical and popular acclaim and thus music has had a real chance to make its mark
added a noble, and also optimistic epilogue to the through the essential prerequisite of frequent
Mahler opus. The debate over the quality of performance. If his idiom now seems approach¬
able, and a reasonably natural outcome of late
Mahler’s music is likely to continue: one fact,
however, that cannot be gain-said is his popularity 19th-cent. developments, it is perhaps because
other, more recent composers have extended the
-with an ever-increasing audience, many of them boundaries of sound much further.
young people. There must he something in his
uncertainty and intense self-inquiry that accords
with the mood of today. Schoenberg’s two most respected disciples were
Anton Wehem (1883-1945) and Alban Berg (1886-
1936). Webern’s output is small, reachhig only
to opus 31, and many of his works are very brief.
Schoenberg and the Second Viennese School, They are exquisitely precise, and delicate almost
Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) revolutionised to a fault. He was trying to dlstU the essence of
Western music by his twelve-note theory— a each note and in so doing carried the 12-note
system which uses all the notes of the chromatic system to its most extreme and cerebral limit.
scale “and denies the supremacy of a tonal His music has often been described as pointUllst
centre.” as Schoenberg himself puts it. This serial in the sense that one note is entirely separated
technique of composition, as it is commonly called, from the next, there being little disoemihle
naturally sounds strange to an ear acclimatised to melody. Beyond Webern’s music, there is indeed
music written, as it were, with a home base, but the sound of nothingness, and he -was rightly
Schoenberg and his disciples Berg and Webern described during his lifetime as the “ composer of
showed that the system could produce works that tte pianissimo espressivo". In his later works,
were something more than mere intellectual Webern tended towards a strict, and often in¬
exercises. None of the more recent advances in genious use of form and the Variations for Orches¬
music would have been possible, even thinkable, tra of 1940 are a good example of this and of his
without Schoenberg’s pioneer work. delicacy of orchestration. Webern’s influence has
perhaps been greater than the impact of his o-wn
Schoenberg always regarded himself as much as music, even though he has had no direct successor.
a composer as a theorist or teacher, and his works
are supposed to appeal as much to the emotions Berg’s music is much more accessible. Like
as to the intellect, although to he understood they Webern his -total output -was not large but nearly
do, of course, require the listener’s concentrated all his works are substantial additions to the
attention. To appreciate how his ideas developed repertory. He is also the diiectest link between
lb is necessary to hear first his pre-atonal music, Mahler and the second Viennese School, as Mah¬
^ch as the Gurrelieder (ISOO-l) and VerkUrte ler’s music influenced him sfaronglr. He studied
NaGd (18Q9), in which he carried Wagnerian ■with Schoenberg from 1904 to 1910. His music is
ômaticlan to extreme lengths. The (Jurre- more Intense, more lyrical, and less attenuated in
lieder, in particular, is a luxuriant, overblown sound than Schoenberg’s or Webern's. His
work that shows the Wagnerian idiom in an humanity and abiding compassion can be heard
ad-vanced stage of decay, in spite of many heautifol most strongly in his finest opera WozeeOc (1926)
pages of music. In his suceeediog worim the and his -violin concerto (1985), "written as an elegy
fueling of tonality began to disappear imtU in the on the death of Manon Gropius, a beautiftd 18-
Three Piano Pieces (opus ll), of 1900, he finally year-old girl. Both works are very carefully
rejected tonality, although the new 12-notesoheme designed yet formal considerations are never
is not yet evident; traces of the old order can stfil allowed to submerge feeling, and the note-row is
tie heard. The succeeding works were mosUy fully integrated into the structure.
abort, hl^y compressed, and very expressive.
Schoenberg -was reaching out for a new system, Both WomeJe and the unfinished hut rewarding
which would “ justify the dissonant character of Duht are concerned with society’s outcaste who
uiese harmonies and determine their successlonB.” are freated with great tenderness in both operas.
By 1923 he had formulated his 12-note system and The later work is entirely dodecaphonic, all ttie
the Plve Piano Pieces (opus 28), and the Serenade opera’s episodes being based on a theme associated
(opus 24) of that year, can thus be considered the
-with Lulu. Between these operas Berg -wrote the
first works that used a note-row as the ftmda- Wghly complex Chamber Concetto for piano,
mental basis of their composition. Between 1910 violin, and thirteen wind instruments (1926) and
and 1916, ho-wever, the Eussian composer Alex- the expressive Lyric Suite (1926). Among his
tmder Scriabin (1872-1916) had attempted to early works the Seven Early Songs (1908-0) and
define a new method of composition; of his o-wn the concert aria Der Wein (1929) are notable.
employing the “mystto chord ” of ascending
fourths, but his scheme proved comparatively
abortive when oompared-with Schoenbergs, Josef Stravinsky.
Hauer (1883-1969) also developed a 12-note
system which he propounded in 1019 and he Igor Stravinsky (b. 1882) is another -vital figure
always considered himself, rather than Schoenherg, in 20th-cent. music. If his influence has been in
as the true founder of the system. He later quite another and perhaps less drastic direction
worked out a system of tropes {i.e., half-series of than Schoenberg’s it is hardly less important.
six notes).
Indeed, future musical historians may consider
Ms achievement the more significant. He has
To return to Schoenberg, in later works he shows been compared with the painter Picasso in Ms
much more freedom and assurance in the use of almost hectic desire to keep up -with the times; yet,
his system. The -wind quintet (1924), the -varia¬ although he has written in a number of very
tions for oroheetra, opus 31 (1927-8), the third diffluent styles during the past fifty years, every
(1926), and fourth (1936) string quartets, and the work of his is stamped -with his own definitive
HISTORICAI. NARRATIVE THE WORUD OF MUSIC
*as
musical personality. His most revolutionary unerringly follovrs the
Mid seminal work is undouhtedly The Bite of stories im sets ws'âhimdant flow of
human beings, ât. and his ab^tont oi
Surinff (written for the ballet impresario Dmghi- soaring melody, are the r^sora ror mb
lev) which caused a furore when it first ap- easy, cta,
p Jared in 1813. and although it no loêr sho the pathetic
2pth-cent. coinporer mether it is tne parneim
tihe rhythmical energy, the fierce angular thematic
H&o«s
wrote a series of urfailmg. ^ ê b^ta his wmmo w ^nii g

the next thirty years Stravinsky
SfnSfieS« S. «rSSr
(1947) belong among his most attractive scores. fÛ^\armth.
himself in stage His orchestration is always subtle and luminous.

Stravinsky has not confined
*early opera;îsrfS-s'*raie atl^ is Other Italian composers J®(^5g5

were LeonoaTOUo 1858-
of narration, ^mime.. and ®ma«o^style of Puccim . and Oioraano i so
rS cSS
dance: £es Noces (1923) is a concise, ongmal 1919), Mascagm (1863-1945)
choreographic cantata for soloists and chori^; 1948).
Oedipus Rex (1927) is a dignified version of the
on
Sophocles play, which can be staged or given
the concert platform: either way it is a movmg prokofiev, Shostakovich, and Bachmamnov.
mtiterTenor-^hor^f aM Sergey Prokofiev (1891-1953) spent P/ft of Ws

life in ^918-
natê :Russia,^rt of it music,
SS^cid sc Jre sSe ^ war his most important creative
84) abroad, mostly m Paris, ^^“y
^ge work by far has been The Bake’s Progress apart from the popi^ Claîcal S^phony liaxo
(1951) with a libretto by W. H. Auden and Chester harsh, but on^ reto
Ihfe Scinating opera is deliberately 17) tended to be acid and
Kân
atm^l.
teeZn 18&iit K and the music itself is to Eussia his style, though ^tiP freauentl^
neo-classical, always attractive, sometimes haunt-
examples of the former Period, the

Stravinsky has been no laggard in writing for are good
ballets Borneo and
either finest of these (1941-44) and the (194« an^mth a949)

thl cStyal-rm symphomes of the latte^ His music jês me
works are probably the fervent impressive choral
SvSionyof Psalms (1930). the Violin Concerto impression of of^hla tê' nfano
^ts of several of to n p
(1931) and the aggressive compact Symphony m the oPt®riiiôyem this fierce drive is often leayeiMa oy
three movements (1945). Of hls chamber music sonatas, but
«shts °f to -
. a Duo Concmtant (1932). and the soft- .
th?o”JMm3)
•sipinfpf riQisS) are Drobablv the most important. His second, string <iuartet (1941), pernaiîP
aU the elements of his music in the kindest light.
blit no ffi. ev^toe St and Zst pedantic.
is without redeeming features. His strong leaning towards fantasy and mor-
Stravinsky is often thought of as an ôof. de- dant pôdy Oranges is f jiw earUCT
(1921) and J he
tached figure. He has been castigated for his of the TOree
lal of llrical warmth. But in spite of his ovm (1922-25). f
face of strong pressure from me Bovmi.
professed desire to drain his music of specific m the
emotion, craftsmanship and originality, often authorities.
Wltn a
with, a strange
alxctiji^c other-worldly
UtllCA-WUAXU.i.y beau
Iw7va<i*uj
ty (b. 1906) has also suffered
immistakeahly there throughout his many scores.
Quirky and annoying he may be, dull never. Dmitri Shostakovich (b. 1906) has too suffered
from attacks of “ formalism ”. He tod to con¬
form to Stalin’s reauirements for wntmgjt osic.
but he has survived and continues to produce
Busoni
jwiuavu, and
ouu. Puccini.
* music of universal appeal, .for e^fople, to
mobv recent ir X to
., nna
most recent string quartets. Prokofiev
Italian music in the early part of the century pisic falls into 1 viry vex-
was dominated by two very different cpmP9sers— humorous ^*J®£^te^pllSoto.
m ns impmai^^.
TTpyrnccio Busoni (1866-1924) and Giacomo sonal and often large-scale
all his symphoffies reach the expMsive detoto
Puccini (1858-1924). Busoni Is a difficult figure Hot six. and
tJK. Hls aratire. intellectual power is never of numbers one. five.
called in auestion. but he seldom, if ever, succeeded aU
and cello concert os are of iie n^
in translating his technical prowess into altogether eleven string 9)^rt * P +kp
successful compositions. ’We can admire the so far written
stre^h. honesty, and often beauty of such works auffitet (^
as ito huge Plano concerto (1903-4).
Gontrappuntisca (Wm— fox piano solo— and .to (1934. revised 1959). ong^^ m
opera Poktor Paust without ever capitn- Macbeth of toteMk. The ^t^rioro
unfinished
lating to them entirely. None the less, it has to (outside 1970
be admitted that those who have studied his toheheardattheAldehurgntostivaim
music closely have always fallen completely under .... , „ :_ _ T>oni,rY.oTiiT,nu- (i»78-tfi48)
and Altoough Sereey B^gamnov 194ffi

Ms spell, to style his musicwasis antl-Eomantio
an ardent atorer was bom m Eimaa. he left to home wumiy
often neo-Olassical yet he
of liszt and more especially of Liszt’s reabsation 1918. .disliking the Sovi^r6ê, ^dlivea m s y
in Switzerland and the Hmted States. music
nf'^ uoRsihilities of the Pianoforte. Busoni,
himself a great pianist, carried on where Liszt had is chiefly P°table for its Eototooi^^ •works
lôff in Ms own piano music, in 5^ch form and melody, hervo^ totuS^^ê
expression often find their perfect balance, its opportunities for displays of ^tuiMi^. xne
J^ktor Faust Is undoubtedly Ms most important first three Vtomtov ontoheto
opera but Die Brautwahl (1908-10) and Turandot the piano preludes. ^ the
(1917)havemanypomtsofiBtoresttoo.
m^ny^f hifsSnre
operas.
Puccini’s Turandot— ids last opera— is a much beautiful. He wrote three
grander version of the same Gozzl fable and the
culmination of this great opera composer s work.
His acMevement is at an almost directly opposite modem French Music.
pole to BnsoM’s. Not for Mm the swerity or T,xnaif n.ftpr
French music afto Debussv and Eavel was
intellectuality of his contemporary. He sought
to the stohtei compo^rs
and found an almost ideal flislon of stmight-for- dom^htto important of whom were Armur
music ieste. the most
TOrd lyricism and dramatic truth. Hls
Honegger <1892-1955. Swiss bom), Darius Milhaud current scene, and such works as Appalachian
(1). 1892) and Drancis Poulenc (1899-1968). Each Spring, Billy the Kid, and his third symphony have
has contributed muslo of some wit and charm to gained a certain amount of international recogni¬
the repertory. They were influenced by Erik tion and popiflarity. Samuel Barber (b. 1910)
Satie (1866-1926), an eccentric but interesting works along traditional lines and his music, like
flê, who wrote works with odd titles such as Copland’s, is essentially diatonic. He has con¬
Three Pear-Shaved Pieces. His music is enthely tributed to all the usual forms (symphony, con¬
unsentimental, often ironic. certo, sonata), most recently to opera with Vanessa
Much more revolutionary has been the work of (1958) and Antony and Cleopatra (1966), which
opened the new Metropolitan Opera Honse in New
Olivier Messiaen (b. 1908), who has turned to York’s Lincoln Centre. Roy Harris (b. 1898) bas
Indian music and, above all, to bird-song for written seven symphonies and several concertos
inspiration. He first came to notice as a com¬ which Include folk elements.
poser of organ music. Then his Quatuor vour la
Jin de temps, written in captivity between 1940 Charles Ives (1874-1964) has recently been
and 1942, his long piano pieces, based on bhd-song recognised as the most original American com¬
(often literally) and his gigantic Turanaalila
symphony show him experimenting with complex poser.
career in'While carrying
insurance, Ives yeton managed
a highly successful
to anticipate
rhythms, strange sonorities (using unusual In his works, all written before 1920, many of the
instruments such as the Ondes Martenot in the innovations which were later “invented” in
symphony), and considerably widening music’s Europe. His orchestral music is much influenced
horizons. Edgar Varfese (1886-1966) cultivated by the sounds, such as brass bands, which he
an even broader spectrum of sound, employing heard in his native New England as a boy. His
electronic tostruments to complement and con¬ Three Places in Neto England and The Unanswered
trast with traditional ones. Pierre Boiflez (b. Question have a beautiful, elusive quality about
1925). a pupil of Messiaen, bases his extremely them. In his five symphonies and Concord sonata
complex works on mathematical relationships. we notice the working of an original mind employ-
His music, other than that for the piano, mostly mg polytonality and polyrhythms in larger and
calls for a variety of percussion instruments often more complex works. An element of improvisa¬
combined vrith the soprano voice in evocations of tion IS sometimes introduced, another anticipation
of Erench poetry (Mallarmd in particular). The of latter-day technique. Ives is unlikely ever to
resulting timbre and sonorities are intriguing even become a popular composer — his music is too
when the intellectual basis of the music is but complicated and eclectic for that— but his impor¬
dhnly perceived. tance as a prophet is surely established.
Modem German Music. Modem English School.

The amazing 20th cent, revival of mnslo in
Kurt Weill (1900-50) is chiefly known for his England owes much to Ralph Vaughan Williams
sooio-politically pointed operas, such as Pie
Dreigroschenoper (1929), Mahagonny (1929), Der (1872-1968) and Gustav Holst (1874-1984).
Jasager (1930). amdEappyEnd (1929), all eflfective Vaughan Williams’s music is today suffering a
works on the stage, and for his particular brand of dwlme m reputation, but the best of his sym¬
brittle, yet fundamentally romantic musio. His phonies (one, four, five, and six), his Fantasia on
a theme by Tallis, his ballet Job, and the best of
influence on later composers has been considerable. to choral music have a sturdiness about them that
Carl Orff (b. 1895) has written chiefly for the no doubt weather the whim of passing fashion.
stage. BBS music is rhythmically insistent, avoids Bus music alternates between the forceftd and the
cotmterpoint. and is deliberately, even self-con- conteinplative and both moods are expressed in a
scious^ straightforward. Most frequently heard distmctivB musical vocahulary, based on modallsm
13 hla Carmina Burana, lively, rumbustious choral and 16th-ceat. polyphony.
settings of medlssval poems.
^ Holst was a more enigmatic figure, but to in-
Paul Hindemith (1895-1964) in his later years flumcâs undoubtedly been greater. Only to
wrote in a strictly tonal, often neo-classical iiiinm. ™te tme Planets and the choral The Hymn of
after being one of the most advanced intelleotnals Jesm have established themselves as repertory
of his time. As well as many chamber and worto, but his bold harmonic experiments and the
orchestral works, he wrote three formidable austenty. even mysticism, of to style as heard in
opewr Die Harmonic der WeU, OardiUao and the orchestral pieces Egdon EeaOi, Beni Mora, and
JUathts der Maler. the opera Savitri are perhaps more typical of this
Karlheinz Stockhausen (b. 1928), a pupil of contemplative original composer. His daughter
Messiaen, is another extreme innovator. He more Imogen, a conductor, has done much to promote
than anyone puts electronics to musical use. His imderetauding of her father’s music. Contem¬
scores are a maze of diagrams and instmotlons, poraries who deserve much more than a passing
referent are John Ireland (1879-1962) and Sir
which really need the composer’s presence for Arnold Bax (1883-1963),
their trae interpretation. It is too early to say
wbetlier his music is evidence of a passing vogue Frederick Delius (1862-1034) was the only im¬
or a real step forward in musical ideas.
portant
m school.Ûsh disciple of the French tmpresslon-
Hans Werner Henze (b. 1926) has rebelled He lived in France feom 1888 onwards.
against the musical climate in Germany, and now His most Important works are the atmospheric
lives m Italy, yet his muric combines the intellec- tone-poems for orch^ra. such as Bnto Pair’, the
tuahty of the modem German schools with the vocal and orchestral A Mass of JAfe, Sea Drift and
lyricism of Italian music. He has written five Appalach/ia, and the opera A Village Borneo and
symphonies, though none follow the traditional JuHeL
term, and nine operas, among them two impressive Of the more recent generation of English com¬
large-ê works. E6nig Eirsch. (1952-55) and posers the most important are imdoubtedly Ben-
Bassands (1966), to an Anden-Kalhnan
libretto. <b. 1913)^ Michael Tippett (b.
W06). AJm Rawsthcroe (b. 1906), and Sir William
Walton (b. 1902). BrittSi has done more than
anyone toêstabhsh Engli^ music on the forefront
American Music. of the international stage. Much of to
seeiM to have an immediate appeal to music large
It was not until the 20th cent, that American audiences Md certainly to noany stage works
music really got under way and an ATnftrina.Ti have earned him a quite exceptional prestige both
school came toto being. With the possible excep¬ B »t)rc)ad. Peter Crimes (1046), Billy
tion of MadDowMl (1861-1908) no earlier com¬ (^51), Glonana (1053), A Midsummer
posers are remembered or played today. Many Ntght s Dreow _(1900) all, in their very different
composers of the American school have, of course vrays. show to consummate mastery of stage
ên_ their cue firom Europe but the fafliimnn of technique and the first two are also moving
êncan 3^ and folk-song is also recognisable himaan documents. On a smaller scale he has
I -Litton Copland (b. 1900) ^hleved m much with to chamber operas — The
is probably the most Important flgiie on the Rape of Luoretia (1946), Albert Herring (1947),
glossary of musical terms El19 THE WORLD OF MUSIC
and 27ie Turn of the Screw (1954, based on a he has ploughed his own furrow of deeply felt
Henry James novel)— and wifch tbe two recent writing. His ideas are argued out with con¬
Parables for Churcb Performance — Curlew Mv f siderable lyrical force, and his astute regard for
(1964) and The Burnina Fiery Furnace (1966). form does not hide the underlying emotional con¬
If he had written nothing else, those dramatic tent of his music nor the touch of wit that per¬
worira would have maxhed him out as a composer vades some of his more lively movements. Among
of outstanding Imaginative gifts. his most important accomplishments to date are
his three string quartets, violin concerto, two
But there is more— the choral works culminat¬ piano concertos, and the quintet for piano and
ing in the War BecLuiem (1962), his various song wind instruments.
cycles written for the tenor Peter Pe^. the
Serenade for tenor, horn, and strmg, Jvocmme Walton’s outstanding contribution w&s made
for tenor and orchestra, the three (Danticles, and before the second World War in musm that was
the Spring Symphony are farther evidenc^m alternately gay and romantic. The irreyereni^
v&ty difforont m.ediai'ôf botli ids intone suLOtiopoi Facade (1923) for speaker and chamber orchestra
commitment and his technical skill. While l^Jhg falls into the former category, the poetic viola
strongly influenced by such composem as Schubert. concerto (1929) into the second. His first
Verdi, Mahler, and Berg, his style is entnely 1m symphony (1934-6) is an arresting, dramatic score,
own: it is a musical personality that mâges to and the oratorio Belshazzar’s Feast (1931) is a
landmark in choral music. Since the war his
combine, as it has been said. ** a deep nostalgia for
the innocence of childhood, a mercurial sense of works have never quite recaptured the same
humour and a passionate sympathy with the urgency of expression.
victims of prejudice and misunderstanding.
Lutyens (b. For
Elisabeth composer. is Britain’s leading
1906)long
This last aualitr is particularly evident m twelve-note shunned by the
musical establishment, she has now been awepted
Tippett’s emotional makeup as expressed in his
music, especially in one of his earliest sneezes, as an important and seminal figure in the history
the choral work A Child of Our Time (1941), which of 20th-cent. music. Her output has hem large
shows both his compassion and his ability to w^ and Includes numerous works for unusual, small
on a large scale. But Tippett is as much amyô groups of Instruments, often combmed wim a solo
and searcher as a composer and he is constantly Yoice. Benjamin Erankel (^, IMS). Etound
seeking new and different ways of -^den^ his Bubbra (b. 1901). Sir Arthur Bliss (b. 1891), and
listeners’ horizons, as may be heard m the ex¬ Lennox Berkeley (b. 1903) are other TOmpMerserf
ceedingly complex Vision of St. Avpitshne (1965), note among the senior school of liviiig Britisii
which tellingly sets to music the striving to under¬ composers. Egon Wellesz (b. 1886), AMtrian
stand the “ beyond " of Augustine’s words. bom. settled in this country in 1939. He has
written operas, choral works, symphonies, and
Tippett has also sought new means of musical chamber music, and is stUl active. There is a
expression as he has shown in his second opera thriving Junior school of British composers who
King Priam (1962). very spare and poteM in have already made theh mark, amo:^ them
idiom, and in the concerto for orchestra (1962). Alexander Goehr, Bichard Bodney Bennett,
These works, as well as his piano concerto (1956) WiUiamson, and Nicholas Maw, each of
ând his
and second symphony-:-a luminous work — perform whom has written one or more operas.
three string Quartets, are very difacult to
— and to get to know— but the effort to understand
the composer’s wide-spanning mind is always Where Does the Future LieP
richly rewarded. However, perhaps a newcomCT
to his music does better to approach him through It is anybody’s guess which way music will
the more strai^tforward earlier works, the develop during the next few decades. Are older
concerto for double string orchestea (1939), tte forms quite outmoded, as some recent innovators
Fantasia Concertante on a theme of Corelh (1953) suggest, and does the future therefore he with the
—a lyrically poetic piece— or the song cycles electronic music and/or percussive sounds — of
Boulez, Stockhausen, Luigi Nono (b. 1924), and
Boyhood’sTheHnd (1943) and EeaH’s Assurance
(1967). quality of his allegoriod opem The toAir disciples? Or will what has been recogi^d
Midsummer Marriage (1962). in spite of its in¬ as musical sound for several generations adapt it¬
volved libretto (by the composer), is now better self to the new mood abroad? Has atonaUsni stm
appreciated since its revival at Covent Garden. something to offer or Was it a passing phase,
The Knot Garden, also concerned with the umer already dated and out of faôn? Pertops the
life of the spirit and the external world, ^ tost only answer that can be given with certainty is
performed at Covent Garden in 1970. Tippett is that, as with other centuries, a dozen or so com-
an uncompromising individualist, writmg without THJsers’ murfc will survive to delight later genera¬
fear or favour, perhaps considerably in advance tions and that these geniuses will be found among
of his time in thought and achievement. composers who do and say what they must in
music without regard to fashion, patronage, or
Bawsthome’s style is admirably direct and fear of what anyone wxito ahput thenu May
honest. Eschewing the latest fashions in music they be worthy of their rich heritage.
II. GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL TERMS

A. Note of scale, commonly used for tuning | Air. A simple tune for voice or instrument.
instruments.
Atberli bass. Bhythmical aecoiroanying figure
Absolute Music. Music without any literary extensive¬
descriptive or other kind of reference. made up hy splitting a chord. Used
ly in 18th-cent. music and associated with the
Italian composer Alberti.
Literally "in the church style.”
Oapella. nied.
A Hnacoompa
AZieoreffo. Not quite so fast as AUegro.
Accelerando, Quickening of the pace. Allegro. Fast, but not too fast.
Accidfifltah, The sign which alters a note hy a
fiemitone, i,e*, S (slâxp) raises it; b (flat) lowers
Alto. Ah xmnsually blgh type of male voiee:_ also
a
it; restores a note to its original position. ! low range. part sung by women and boys with
the vocal
Accompaniment. Intianimental or _ pianp_ part into
background to a solo voice or instra- Ambrosian Chant. Plainsong introduced
forming
ment that has the melody. church music by St. Ambrose, bishop of abian
Ad. lib. (L. ad libiUml. Direction on music that (d. 397), and differiiig from Gregorian chant.
strict time need not be observed. Andante. At a walldng pace, not so slow as
Adagio. A slow movement or piece, Adagio nor as fast as AZZegreiio.
Anijnoto. Lively.
Aeolian mode. One of the scales in medteTOl
music, represented by the white keys of the Answer. Second entry in a fugue, usually in the
piano ftom A to A. domiiiant.
GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL TERMS E20 THE WORLD OF MUSIC
Anthem. Composition for use in church during a Cadenea. Solo vocal or instrumental passage,
service by a choir with or without soloists. either written or improvised, giving soloist
chance to display technical skiU to audience.
Anfiphonal. Using groups of instruments or
singers placed apart. Colando. Becoming quieter and slower.
AppoggMiira. An ornament consisting of a short Canon. Device in contrapuntal composition
note just above or below a note forming part of whereby a melody is introduced by one voice or
a chord. instrument then repeated by one or more voices
or instruments, either at the same pitch (canon
Arabesaue. Usually a short piece, highly de¬ at the unison) or at different intervals (canon at
corated. the fifth, for example).
Area. Direction for string instruments to play
with bow. Cantabile. Song-like, therefore flowing and
expressive.
Aria. Vocal solo, nsuiUly in opera or oratorio,
often in three sections with the third part being Cantata. Vocal work for chorus and/or choir.
a repeat of the first. An Arietta is a shorter, Cantilena. Su.stained, smooth melodic line.
lighter kind of aria.
Cantv.s
melodyfirmiis. Literally
from 14th to 17th“fixed
cent., song.” Basic
aroimd which
Ariaso. In the style of an aria; halfway between
aria and recitative. other voices wove contrapuntal parts.
Arpeggio. Notes of a chord played in a broken, Canzonet. Light songs written in England c. 1600.
spread-out manner, as on a harp. Carillon. A set of bells in tower of church, played
jirs antiqua. The old medteval music, based on from a keyboard below.
organum and plainsong, before the introduction Carol. Christmas song.
of Ars nova in 14th cent.
Atb nova. Musical style cmrent from 14th cent., Castrato. Artificially-created male soprano and
alto, fashionable in 17th and I8th cent. (The
more independent than the old style in the part- castration of vocally gifted boys prevailed in
writing and harmony. Italy until the 19th cent.)
Atonal. Not in any key; hence Atonality.
Catch. A part-song like a round, in vogue in
Aubade. SlomJng song. England from I6th to 19th cent.
Augmentation,. The enlargement of a melody by Cavatina. An operatic song in one section, or a
lengthening the mrisical value of its notes. slow song-like instrumental movement.
Ayre. Old spelling of air. Celesta. Keyboard instrument with metal bars
struck by hammers.
Cello. Eour-stringed instrument, played with
B. Note of scale, represented in Germany by H. bow, with a bass range. Comes between viola
Bagoielle. A short, generally light piece of music, and double bass in string family.
Beethoven wrote 26 Bagatelles. Cembalo. Originally the Italian name for the
Ballad. Either a narrative song or an 18th-cent. dulcimer,
chord. hut sometimes applied to the harpsi¬
drawiDg-room song.
Ballade. Instrumental piece in story-telling Chaconne. Vocal or instrumental piece with
. imvaried bass.
manner. Chopin wrote 4.
Ballet. Stage entertainment requiring instnmien- Chamber Music. Music originally intended to be
tal accompaniment: originated at Erench court played in a room for three or more players.
in 16th and 17th cent. Chanson. Type Of part-song current in France
Bar. A metrical division of music: the perpen¬ from 14th to 16th cent.
dicular line in musical notation to indicate this. Chant. Singing of psalms, masses, etc., in plain-
Barcarolle. A boating-song, in particuhir one song to Latin words in chvtrch.
associated with Venetian gondoliers. Choir. Body of singers, used either in church or
at concerts.
Baritone. A male voice, between tenor and bass.
Bdrome. A term applied, loosely, to music Chorales. German bynm tunes, often made use
written in the 17th and 18th cent., roughly of by Bach.
corresponding to baroque in architecture. Chord. Any combination of notes heard together.
See also Triad. ,
Bass. The lowest male voice; lowest part of a
composition, Ghording. Spacing of intervals in a chord.
Bass Dnm. Eargest of the drum family, placed Ghorus. Substantial body of singers, usually
upright and struck on the side. singing in four parts.
Bassoon. The lowest of the woodwind instru¬ Chromatic. tones. :
Using a scale of nothing but semi¬
ments, uses double reed.
Beat. Music’s rhythmic pulse. Clarinet. Woodwind instrument with single reed
in use since mid-lSth cent.
Bel canto. Literally " beautiful singing ” — in the
old Italian style with pirre tone and exact Clavichord. Keyboard instrument having strings
phrastQg. struck by metal tangents, much in use during
Berceuse. Cradle song. 17th and 18th cent, as solo instrument.
Binary. A piece in two sections is said to be Clavier. Used in German (Klawer) for piano, in
bmary in form. The balance is obtained by a England for any stringed keyboard instrument.
second phrase (or section) answering the first.
Bitonotitv. Use of two keys at once. Clef. Sign in stave that fixes place of each note.
Bow. Stick with horsehair stretched across it for Coda. form. :
Closing section of movement in Sonata
playing string instruments.
Brass. Used as a collective noun for aU brass or Coloratura. Term to denote florid singing.
metal iiîtruments. Common chord. See Triad.
Breve. Note, rarely used nowadays, with tone Common Time, Four crotchets to the bar, 4/4
value of two semibreves. time. :
Bridge. Wood support over which sfrings are Compass. Kange of notes covered by voice or
stretched on a violin, cello, guitar, etc. instruments.
Buffota). Comic, as in buffo bass or opera buffa. Composition. Fieoe of music, originated by a
composer’s
such a piece. own imagination: act of writing
G. Note of scale. Compound tame. Any musical metric not in simple
Gabaletta. Einal, quick section of an aria or duet.
Cadence. A closing phrase of a composition or a Con Brio. With dash.
passage, coming to rest on tonic (key note). Concert. ■ .
time.- Public performance of imy music.
glossary of musical terms OF MUSIC
THE WORLD
uts composi-
Gancerlato Wrttmg for several solo instrume
Time in which main division is two
CeSerf? WorSor one or more solo instruments
17th Dynamics.
parts forin small
work common music, Gradations of loudness or softness in
GmKrtrXs cent, Orchestral
and 18tli sT' with prominent
groups of instruments.
Concord. Opposite of discord, le.. notes that ^ Note of scale.
VCUbiuuaiX LD4.ji.Li in wA.»M(u - .
according to the age in which one lives.) sounds in music.
Conduct. To direct a concert with a baton. Encore. Eeauest from audience ome. for repeat of
Cmsecidi ve. Progression of harmonic intervals of
like kind.
work, or extra item in a progran
English horn [Cor anglais). Woodwi nd instru¬
Consonance. Like Concord. famiis'.
ment with double reed of oboe
vomtnuo. joasa Li V^miirine clSge of note between sharps and fiats,
music, for a alS^h note remains the same (E flat becomes
special skill from perfoimer. jj sharp, for example).
Contralto, A woman’s voice with a low range. Teamwork in performance; item in
Counterpoint, Simultaneous mo several singers with or without ôrus :
nr TYmrft Tnelodies to Create a satiBf3iing__ musical rrmnn of uerformers of no fixed number.
TmSmlodSrtS^M.aitttfTtoBmurtoJ S'i”„rp"SS3r5f'nr83M'imte.
SpcHonlacompoaaopomllTaTOrcd
S adjectiveE of ramtewiflnt is contrapu ntal. iPM.
from main aigiunent.
Counter-tenor. Another name for male alto. ^*onata form com “ *
Oov.rante.
mrante. A dance* to m taiple
triple time.
.ftime
. fo. . Exmession marks.
Expression marks. Indication by composer of
Crescendo. Getting louder.
rescendo. Getting louder. kow ke
j,o^ he wants
wants bis
hi music performed.
Crook. Detachable section of tubing on brass
tostruments that change the tuning. „ ^ i
value. . Note that equals two

Crotchet quavers to time F. Note of scale.
False relatim. A clash of
Cycle. works,
Set asof group. especiall y songs, intended to such as A natural and A flat,
be sung i when two notes,
neously or immediately
followin g one simulta
are played another.
Cyclic form. Form of work to ojmow moye-
recur.
ments to which the same musical themes Fcdsetto. The kind .of stogi^ *’5^
an
sounding hke
Cymbal. Percussion instrument; two plates above normal register and
struck against each other. unbroken voice.
Fanfare. Flourish of trumpets.
Fantasy. A piece suggesting frM
known
poser’s imagination, or a piece based on
times (folk, operatic, etc.).
capo tanur. ai.u.n ^
Da cSflabbS-CA. “ -Vj-r —
Ea “iLjf after
“emir'sa AvSs n“enlth^ ^
which the whole first section is repeated note beyond its normal length.
contrasting middle section. Fifth, Interval taking five steps ^ the A
ed)
Descant. Additional part (sometimes improvis perfect fifth (say. O to G) mcludesttee
whole
hed fifth is a
sung against a melody. tones 5^.nfl a semitone; a diminis
re.
ment. Working-out potion of movement .. . e.
mo a semiton
Develop semitone less, an augmented fifth
in sonata form. See Sonata.
form.See bonata. a R-hort nhrase. especially one that is
x/tutu/nu.
Diatonic. Opposite of .chromat
^ - - ic;
- - using proper repeated.
notes of a major or mmor scale. ■i?s„n.,rnr,n TT«e of fingers to play instrument, or
Diminished. Lespned TCrsion tie indication above notes to show what fingers
e,g., pmitone less than a perfect fifth is a ^kould be used.
diminished fifth. ^ Term indicating a lowering of pitch by a
Diminuendo. Lessening. , . semitone, or to describe a performer playmg
Diminution. Eedncing a phrase of melody by under the note.
shortening time value of notes. Florid. Term used to describe decorative
Discord. Opporite oi
Discora. uppoBiie of pas^ges.
passagcB. ...
sounded together produce a clash Of harmomes. Woodwind instrument, blown adways.
Dissonance. Like discord. • . jt is played through a hole, mot a reed, htowa-
Dw&rUmento. A piece, usuaUy orchestral, m aays. sometimes made of metal. _
several movements; like a suite. Folksong. Traditional tune,
Dodecaphonic. Pertaining to 12-note method of versions, handed down auraUy from generation
composition. , to generation.
to generauuu.
i/rm, VAJUAOD wj. y of .a ^ composition.
Dominant.
-4: Ftfth note of major or minor scale
nr,fo course TOhPu orill layout
various sections.
above tonic (key) note. especially wnen m vunuun _
sections.
ov/rtfi, interval utis-ui^ ivvu. *** ~
when m various
Interval taking four steps in scalp A
ess)ecially
to medisev^ Fov/rfh.
T)rmnn Mode One of the tiiR scales
white keys on the fmU.ii fsav. 0 to F) includes two whole
whole
■^3c.rrresented by the white keys on the
piano from D to D. uerfect fourth (say, O to F) includes two
tones and a semitone. If either note is sharp¬
Dot. Placed over note indicates staccato ; Placed result is an augmented or
ened or flattened, the
after note indicate s time value to be mereased a diminished fourth.
by lf. , Fugaio. in roe uiiimioi
by ha
half. manner of a fugue.
ugato. In the
Double bar. Two upri^t
A;«^P.Hlines nomking
nnofit. Contrapuntal composition for vôiM
the end Fugue. -hnsAfl on one or more subjects treated
"^Trc^porittouXaTeotonofir"" ^ one m more subjects treated
Largert and lowest instrumen t of imitatlvely but not strictly.
violin bass:
Double family; played with bow. . ,
Drone toss. Dnvarytog Bustled bass, similar to g,,_ Note of scale. /
the permanent bass note of a bagpipe. Qalant. Dsed to designate elegant style of 18tn-
Drum. Variety of peicusnon cent, music.
MM. UTBly »»"= atte to IBB. tent,

&TSImi/SSV
SI misphere
he
. or betore.
THE WORLD OF MUSIC
GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL TERMS - - - - .w.
Oavotte. Dance in 4/4 time, beginning on third I Eey-sigmtim. Indication on written miisiV
bar.
beat m bar . usuallT at
usually heriTinlTur of
the beginning
at the boot.
of each it-’
line, of the
Giusfo. Strict, proper. number of flats or sharps in the key of a com-
Olee. Short part-song. ® ^ j -dr
GHssmdo. Eapid sliding scales up and down ^côn sltion of an?Sto
instr cussion section or an orenestra.
piano or otherJL CALUOOAVU XUOUAument s.
Gloelcempiel. Percussion instrument
UAXlCliU consisting
LL/LU3JU3 UxU^ ^ .
Of tuned steel bars and played with two Imm-
of ham¬ cance. Musical piece of sad or deathly signifl
mers or keyboard.
Largamente. Spaciously.
Grace note. See Ornament.
Largo. Slow.
Grave. In slow tempo. Leading-motive (Oer. Leitmotiv). Short theme
Grazioso. Gracefully.
suggesting person,
throughout idea,to or
composition image,that
indicate quoted’
per¬
Gregorian, Chant. Plalnsong collected and super-
yfeed mainly by Pope
VXOW AUXtOAAtJ J. Gregory \U.
VrACBtXAJ (d. 604).
UU^t/. son,
BUJU, etc.
CllU,
Ground bass. Figure on theme used as bass in a Legato. In a smooth style (of performance, etc )
composition and constantly repeated without Lemto. Slow.
change. . , . of Spanish
b • v LAbretto. Text of an opera.
Gmtar. Plucked string instrument t.-.b _ _ » ,
Wolf,
origin,
pass. having six strings of three-octave com- 'nr,™ spe^
songs by Schubert. Schumann, reference
Brahms, and
Imte. String instrument plucked with fingers,
H. German note-symbol for JB. ™ed m 16th- and 16th cent, music especially.
Harmony. Simultaneous sounding of notes so as Lmdian made. One of the scales m mediaeval
to make musical sense. r®reseided by white keys of piano
string instrument of ancient “®w®®°fandP.
origin,Plucked
Rarv. the strings stretched parallel across its Lme. Ancient Greek plucked string instrument,
frame. The basic scale of 0 flat major is altered
by a set of pedals. Madrigal. Contrapuntal composition for several
RarpstRiord. Keyboard strêd instrument voices, especially prominent from 16th to 17th
played by means of keyboard similar to a piano cent,
but producing its notes by a plucking, rather Maestaso R+ntPitr
than a striking action . lU* | lumtoso.^ btateiy,
£[07nop?i0fiiGm WIAAJVOAUC
OpDosite VXof iXUlJ- JJLIUXUU,
Dolvolioiiic i & in- Ons of tiio two inîp. scabies of tlie toQsl
cheated parts
(heated n^s move
move together
together min aa composition,
mm-noRitin-n. a letween the third and
a fbiitr '^d thr‘'R/^nnr"
Bhi^ mek^y bete accompanied by block llth ’
chorda, as distinct from the contrapuntal move- ^ 7. , mode,
ment of different melodies. MamoUnie). Vlucked string instrument of
Hero. Brass instrument with coiled tubes. tîm orim.
Valves Introduced in 19th cent, made full Manual. A keyboard for the hands, used mostly
chromatic use of instrument possible. ^ connection with the oiân.
Hymn. Song of praise, especially in church, Bntoh
duties. court appointment
Ring’s , Musidk.
(or Queen’s) with no Title of
precise
Imitation. Eepetition, exactly, or at least re- Melisma. Group ofnotes sung to a single syllable.
cognisably. of a previously heard figure. Mdlodie. Literally a melody or tune; has come
Impromptu. .u. A nuu.u,
short, seemingly jmjyioviBBU
improvised piece
piece *0 mean a Ihench song (cf, German lAed).
Mdronome.
Of music, especially by Schubert or Chopin. Small machine in use since the
Improvise. To perform according to fancy or beginning of the 18th cent., to determine the
imagination, sometimes on a given theme. pace of any composition by the beats of the
In alt. The octave above the treble clef; in piusic, J SB 60 at the head of the music
altrssima, octave above that. indicates sixty crotchets to the mtnnte.
IiiHnmentation. Writing music for particular Mezw, Mmxi. Ct. = " half ”) Mezza voce means
the half voice (a tone between normal
iMtiaunents, using the composer’s Imowledge sii^g and whispering). Mezzo-soprano, voice
of what sounds well on different instruments. between soprano and contralto.
Interlude. Piece played between two sections of
T. ....
a composition. Muwn^ Note that equals two crotchets In time
used fOT plê^laye™1S;w^’aots ’of^Smsf ®rf- two main scales of the tonal
inknnl. Distance In pitch between notes. mSde“^f4sfwo&-*L“ôSte
Ionian^ mode. One of the scales in medtoval and melodic, the former having a sharpened
music, T^resêd on piano by white keys seventh note, the latter having the aivi-u and
between C ^d 0. identical therefore to modem seventh note sharpened.
i-B. Originally French 18th-cent. dance in
isorh^mxe. Term apphed to motets of 14th and time, then the usual third movement in
loth cent, where rhythm remains strict although symphonic form (with a contrasting trio section)
melody changes. , until succeeded by sdherzo.
Mixolydian mode. One of the mediaeval scales
Jig. Old dance usually in 6/8 or 12/8 time. G toa°*®^

„ ■ Modes. SoMes prevalent to the Middle Ages. See
Eettledrum (It. pi. Timpani). Drum with skin DorlaP. Ionian, Lydian. Mixolydian.
term wer a cauldron-shaped receptacle, can be Phrygian.
f +f handles on Modulate. Changing from key to key to a com-
nm. thus tighteiflng or relaxing skin. position, not directly but according to Tmiginni
Key. Lever by meansolMsifloation.
of which piano,
to organ, etc , ôlto.
relatively temmax
Much, ”.very; thus aUearo motto.
S^ôiorS rtoto&ii^^gM polyphotoc vocal composition,

or keyiiot^ iS m tne tcey of its tonic More loos^y. choral composition for use in
7r/nihnn4>/t T-r,..., . j i , l)p.t Jiot sct to wotdfl of tll6 UtUKy*
^Wco&il^w 0fS"^° tostrnments M^motif. Short, easily recognised melodic
TERMS THE WORLD OF MUSIC
GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL
written in another
Motto Short well-defined theme recnrrmg Pastiche. Hece deliberately
ttooughout a composition., composer’s style.
cf. Idie fixe in Pavante).
Berlioz’s Svm'phmiie FaniasUme. Moderately paced dance dating from
sections of a large-scale 16th cent, or earlier.
Movement. Separate
each ui in its own form.
composition, eacn
composition, ns uwu lutm. Pedal. Held
t-eaai. note in
xiciu uuic m bass
uaoo of composition.
MUSIC a-ciu.* v«rv.v*. uw - - - jTtiniiiivntv otdjit-. - -
Music a,imofiiTipa
drama. Term used to describe Wagner’s, pentatonic Scale. Scale ofother fivenotes
notes— usually
and sometimes nf.hftT
other laTOc-scalc
large-scale operos.
operas. iM'nnn’afi-crphiflf'htfivH
piano’s five black keys or or other notes in
m thesame
the same
Mutes. Deyices used to damp the sound of relation to each other. ^
yarious instruments. Percussion. Coilectiye title for instruments of
the orchestra that are sounded by bemg struck
by hand or stick.
Natural (of a note or key). Not sharp or flat. Phrygian Mode. One of the scales of mediseyal
Neo-classical. Term used to describe music music, represented by the white keys on piano
written mostly during the 1920s and 30s m the from B to E.
style of Bach or Mozart. Piano. Soft, abbr. p : pp = pianissimo, very soft;
Ninth Interyal taking nine steps, e.g., from C instrument, inyented in 18th cent., haying
upwards an octaye and a whole tone to D. strings struck by hammer, as opposed to ®e
Tif-pniiv a
Nocturne latemlly a "night-piece”, hence earlier harpsichord where they are plucked. The
piece , ne modem piano has 88 keys and can be either
usuaUy of lyrical character. “upright ” (yertical) or “ grand ” (horizontal).
Nonet. Compositim for nme instruments. pianoforte. Almost obsolete Ml Italian
name for
Notation. Act of writmg down mmic. Oie piano.
Note. Sii^le sound of specified pitch and dura- Exact height or depth of a particular
tion: symbol to represent this. musical sound or note.
Pizzicato. Direction for stringed totruments.
Obbligato. Instrumental part baying a special or that the strings should be plucked instead ot
essential rdle in a piece. bowed.
Ohoe. Woodwind instrument with double reed, Plainchant. Plainsong. Mediceval church music
descended from hautboy; as such, in use smce consisting of single line of melody without
cent., min mouern
16th cent., smce 18th cent.
form amuc
modem loriu harmony
- - - or
— definite
- , rhythm.
.. - . • ..ni-v
Interyal taking eight steps
Octave.nnu Vinf+.nm nntfta having same of scale, with Polka. D^ce m 2/4 tmie ongmating m 19th
top and bottom notes having same “ name : . cent. Bohemia.
0 to C is an octave. Polonaise. Polish dance generally in 3/4 time.
Octet. Composition for eight instruments or polyphony. Combination of two or more musical
voices. lines as in counterpoint.
Ondes Martenot. Belongs to a class of melodic polytonalitv. Simultaneous use of several keys.
of the hands not touching the instrument. - piece, - -

- Closi^ opposite of Prelude.
^ *
a™4brtiblS“?ofrolieTby^^^^^
Opera. Musical work for the stage with singing Presto. Very fast. Prestissimo. Still faster,
characters,
A/a-rvf
originated in early years of 17th progression. Movement from one chord to next
4-n *v.ol7-A WtllCinal aATIClP
to make musical sense.
and 18th
Opera seria. Chief operatic form of 17th librettos,
cent., usually set to very formal
concerning gods or heroes of ancient history.
Operetta. Lighter type of opera. Quartet. Work written for four instruments or
Opiis (ahbr. Op.) With number following opus voices; group to play or sing such a work.
indicates order of a composer’s composition. Quaver. Note that equals two seroiauavers or
Oratorio Vocal work, usually for soloists and half a crotchet.
choir with
(jUUJA yr*Ui4.instrumental . accompaniment.
- 7-^--^- - idWlnlAii* -vyôrk
VYUJ,*. written
WXlUliCXl for five instruments or
setting of a religious text.
generally with settmg voices; group to play or si sing such a work.
OrOwstra. Term to designate large, or largteh.
body of instrumenta lists, originated m 17th
cent.
Orchestration. Ait of setting out work for Rallentando. Slowing down.
ments of an orchestra.__ To be distinguished BecapiMation.. ggetion Section of of composition that
from IndrumenMion (a.®.).
in which rei>eats original material in. soraething like its
Organ. Elaborate keyboard instrument to sound original form.
air is blown through pipes by bellows
written in ordinary notation hut allowmg
since
and, also
stops has the 16th cent., a pedal key- rh^hmical licence.
bo^ been incorporated.
accompanimentrmS belowM”a
or above pa^ the melody or Beêr.flute. Woodwind Instrument, jforûnner j i of
plainsong. usually at the interval of a fourth OT peed. Vibrating tongue of woodwmd instru-
flfth; also, loosely, this method of singing m ments.
parts. , Begister. Set of organ pipes controlled by a
Ornament. Notes that are added to a given particular stop: used in reference to different
melody by composer or performer as an em- ranges of instrument or voice (e.p., cheat
hellishment.
hellislunent. register).
Overture. JLUBl/iUXllCXiUMa
UVeTlUTC* Instrumental Introduction or - -prelude Term used to indicate common key
iflvmsT wnrir iiRiiftllv***u*wv*vww*.^
oueia. Concert over-
over¬ nv a. mnioT and minor key.
to larger work, that:usually opera. Concert signature of a major and minor key.
tures are simply 4.e.. work to be played at
start of a concert. of opera
Member singers house's mnsical
BipMtew.
staff who coaches In their parts.
Bed. Notation of pauses for Instrument in com¬
Part. Music of one performer in an ensemble: position. having a definite length like a note.
single strand in a composition. Betrograde. Term used to describe a melody
Part-song. Vocal
pan-song, composition m
v oca* coiuyoaiwuii in several parts. play^ backwards.
- - — — . „ ^
Passacaglia.ismM
jTWi Compositionunu. in which a tune -- is EJiapsody. Work, of no definite kmd with s
constantly repeated, usually m the bass. degiee of romaaitic content.
Posawe. Section of a composition. Bhythm. Everything concerned with the time
Passion. Musical setting of the New Testament of music (ia. beats, accent, metre, etc.) as
story of Christ’s trial and crucifixion. opposed to the pitch Side.
THE WORLD OF MUSIC
GLOSSARY OF MUSICAL TERMS
Ritornello, Passage, usually instrumental, that I Symphony. Orcliestral wort of serious purpose
recurs
recurs in
in aa piece.
piece. I usually
urprUv min four
fmir movements,
■mnvprrtP‘n+.a occasionally
pr*/>ncrJf,r,an.,T given
Rcmanee, Somanza. Title for piece of vague song¬ name (e.g., Beethoven’s “ Choral ” symphony).
like character. Syncopation. Displacement of musical accent.
Romantic. Term used vaguely to describe music
of 19th. cent, that has other than purely musical
somce of inspiration. Tempo. Pace, speed of music.
Rondo. Porm in which one section keeps on Tenor. Highest normal male voice.
recurring. Ternary. A piece in three sections is said to be in
Eubato. Manner of performing a piece without ternary form. The balance is obtained by
keeping strictly to time. repeating the first phrase or section (though it
need not be exact or complete) after a second of
equal importance.
Tessitura. Compass into which voice or instru¬
SacJcbiit.
, T, 1 .r, 1- 1,
Early r
English name for , T-
trombone. ment comfortably
comfortably
j-essuura.
ment
(jompass falls.
mio wmen
falls.
voici
Sa^phone. Classified as wind instrument, al- Theme. Theme. Same as subject but can also be used for a
Same as subject but can also t
though made of brass, because it uses a reed. whole whole _ musical statement
statement as as in
in ““ theme and
Scale. Progression of adjoining notes upwards or Third. variations.”
Interval taking three steps in scale.
downwards. Third. Interval taking three steps in
variations.”
Sclmrzo. One of two middle movements, usually Time. Bhythmical division of music,
thud, in four-movement sonata form. Dis- ^
placed minuet In this t. form at beginning of 19th ^ ^mpam. See Kettledrum,
cen Toccata. Instrumental piece usually needing
Score. Copy of any music written in several parts. repld, brilliant execution.
Second. Interval taking two steps in scale, e.g., tonality. Key, or feeling for a definite key.
C to D flat, or to D. Tone. Quality of musical sound: interval of two
Semibreve. Note that equals two minims or half a semitones.
breve. Tonic Sol-fa. System of musical notation to
SmniQuaver. Note that equals half a quaver. simplify sight-reading.
Semitone. Smallest interval commonly used in Transcribe. Arrange piece for different medium.
Western mnsie. instrument,
tended. or voice than that originally in¬
Septet. Composition for seven instruments or Transition.
voices. „ ^ .f. ‘ Passage that joms two themes of
lower Repetition of phrase at a higher or imposition. _
lower pitch.
Seguence. pitch. Trmspo^. Perform amtended.
fium that originally piece at different pitch
Serenade. Dsually an evening song or instrumen Treble. Highest part in vocal composition: liigh
tal work. boy’s voice.
Interval taking seven steps in the scale, . v ■. ,
Sesdet. Composition
-omposition for
for six
six instruments
instruments oror voices.
voices. third and fifth above it, e.g., C-E-G. A com¬
Sharp. Term indicating a raising of pitch by a mon chord is a triad of which the 6th is perfect,
semitone. e.g., C-E-G or Ê flat-G. Thus major and
minor triads are common chords.
Shaiom. Primitive woodwind mstiument. fore-
ruimer of oboe. Trio. Work written for three instruments or
Simple voices: group to play or sing such a work.
beats. time. Division of music into two or four Trombone. Brass instrument with slide adjusting
length of tube.
Sinfonietia. Small symphony.
SMh. Interval taking six steps in the scale. Trumpet. Metal instrument of considerable
antiquity: modem version has three valves to
Solo. Piece or part of a piece for one performer malre it iuto a chromatic instrument.
playing or singing alone.
UiiUXlC. mT T^ IJ -tt
Sonata. Term to denote a musical form and a
inota. Temi to denote a musical form and a ^t?/f?mvilvls ^“strument with
type of composition. Insonato/ormacomposi- m , t mi-" .
tion is divided intoA exposition,
recapitulation. sonata is adevelopment
piece, and nêlve-note. Technique of composition using full
usuallv,
recapitulation. A sonata is a piece,
for one or more players following that form. usuallv chromatic scale with each note having equal
for one or more players following that form. " ’ order as the thematic
unportance. Notes are basisplaced
of works.
in particular
Song. Any short vocal composition.
Soprano. Highest female voice.
Sastenuto. Sustained, broadly. Unison. Two notes sung or played together at
Sotio voce. Whispered, scarcely audible, applied same pitch.
to vocal as well as instrumental music.
1» .H, Uffl, c«,».
1 "-“'-I “uufa. to add to brass instruments allowing them to
Steuxato.
manner. Penorm music m short, detached Play full chromatic scale,
Variation. Varied passage of original theme.
Siaff. ^Horizontal lines on which music is usuallv Such variations may he closely allied to or
written. depart widely from the
W4.UUiJ^ XlUiJU LXie theme.
llitillie.
stop. Ifver by which organ registration can be f^crismo. Term to describe Italian operas written
alter6a»
altered. m
m reaJisfc
realist ”
” style ji,f.
at tTiA
the fnm
turn nfof this centacy.
Slring(s). Strands of gut or metaJ set in vibration Fifirafo. Rapid fluctuation in pitch of voice or
to produce musical sounds on string or keyboard mstrument.
woDDle (ofExaggerated it is referred to as a
smgers) or tremolo.
instruments.
cellos, Plural
and basses refers to violins, violas,
of oxcheBtrT Viol.wobble
String” (ofinstrument
singers) or oftremolo.
various sizes in
Study. Intrtarummtal piece, usually one used for vogue until end of 17th cent.
7 V. I'lcuo, uBuauy one usea lor ■
exer^ or to display technical skill. Viola-. Tenor instrument of violin family,
tat^ft^ having artistic merits as well (e.g. violi^ Musical
““ ■'ritb four-string mstrument. played
- -or- group
Chopin’^ (aeme
Subjîs).
- -
of notes that fnmia viol atbow, of violin
beginning family,
of I8th cent.which superseded
prmcipal idea or ideas in composition. Virginals. English keyboard instniment, similar
Suite. Common name for piece in several move- to harpsichord of 17th and 18th oput.
. ments.: Vivace. Lively.
INDEX TO COMPOSERS THE WORLD OF MUSIC
Vduntarv. Organ piece for cliureh. use, but not Xylophone. Percuôn instrumentscalewitli pries of
during service wood bars tuned in a chromatic and played
with sticks.
Walts. Dance in triple time, fashionable in 19th
knees and
Whole-tone scale. Scale progressing by whole Zither. String instrument Md on
tones. Only two are possible, one beginning on plucked. Common m Central-European folL
O. the other on C shar p. music.
III. INDEX TO COMPOSERS
Adam de la Halle (d. 1287) 8(2) Donizetti, Gaetano (1797-1848)

Alhdniz, Isaac (1860—1909) . 16(1) Dufay (c. 1400-74) ....
Albinoni, Tommaso (1671-1760) 6(1) Dukas, Paul (1865-1935) . .
Arcadelt (c. 1614-c. 1570) . . 4(2) Dunstable, John (c 1380-1453)
Buparc, Henri (1844-1933)
Dussek, Jan Ladislav (1760-1812)
Dvof&k, Antonin (1841-1004) .
Bach, Carl IPhilipp Emanuel (1714-88)
Bach, Johann Sebastian (1685-1750)
Balaklreff, Mily (1887-1910) . .
Barber, Samuel (b. 1910) . . . ; Elgar, Sir Edward (1857-1934)
Bartdk, Bela (1881-1946) . . .
Bax, Sir Arnold (1883-1968) , .
Beethoyen, Ludwig van (1770-1827) Falla, Manuel (1876-1946) . . . 14(2)
Bellini, Vincenzo (1801-36) . . Famaby, Giles (latter half 16th cent.) . 4(2)
Bennett, Slchard Kodney . . . Famd, Gabriel (1846-1924) . . . 14(1)
Berg, Alban (1886-1935) . . . Franck, Cdsai (1822-90) . • • . 13(2)
Berkeley, Lennox (b. 1903) . . Frankel, Benjamin (b. 1906) . . . 19(2)
Berlioz, Hector (1803-69) . . . Frescobaldl, Girolamo (1683-1643) . 4(2), 6(1)
Binehois, Gilles (c. 1400-60) , . .
Bliss, Sir Arthur (b. 1891) . . .
Blow, John (1649-1708) ... Gabrieli, Andrea (c. 1610-86) . . .
. 6(1)
6(1)
Boccherini, Luigi (1743-1806) Gabrieli, Giovanni (1557-1612) .
. . 0(1)
Boito, Arrlgo (1842-1918) . Geminiani, Francesco (1687-1762)
Borodin, Alexander (1833-87) . , . . 6(1)
Gesualdo, Carlo (1660-1614)
Boulez, Pierre (b. 1925) . . . , 4(2)
Gibbons, Orlando (1683-1626) . 17(2)
Brahms, Johannes (1883-97) . . Giordano, Umberto (1867-1948)
Britten, Benjamin (b. 1918) • • . 11(2)
Glinka, Mikhail (1804-57) . . . 7(2)
Bru(5kner, Anton (1824r96) . . .
Gluck, Christoph Wilibald (1714r-87)
Busoni. Ferruccio (1866-1924) . . Goehr, Alexander . . . . . 19(2)
. 18(2)
Byrd, William (c. 1642-1623) . . Gounod, Charles (1818-93) .
14(2), 16(1)
Granados, Enrigue (1867-1916) . 18(2)
. 3(2)
Grieg, Edvard (1843-1907) . ,
Cabozdn, Antonio de (1510-66) . Guido d’ Arezzo (c. 990-1060)
. . 4(1)
Cacctni, GiuUb (c. 1668-1616) . . Guillaume de Machaut (1800—77)
Carissiini, Giacomo (c. 1604-74) .
Ckivalieri, Emilio di (c. 1660-1600) .
Cavalli, Pietro Francesco (1602-76) Haldvy, Jaogues Francois (1799-1862)
Cesti, Marc’ Antonio (1623-69) . . Etendel, George Frederic (1685-1769) .
Chopin, Frdddrio Francois (1810-49) Hauer, Josel (1888-1959) . . . .
Cimarosa, Domenico (1749-1801) . Haydn, Franz Joseph (1782-1809) .
Copland, Aaron (b. 1900) . . . Henze, Hans Werner (b. 1926) . .
Corelli, Arcangelo (1663-1713) Hindemith, Paul (1896-1963) . > .
Couperin, Francois (1668-1783) , Holst. Gustav (1874-1984) . . .
Cui, C6sar (1886-1918) .... Honegger, Arthur (1892— 1966) . .
Hummel, Johann Nômuk (1778—1887)
Debussy, Claude (1862-1918)

Delius, Frederick (1862-1934) 18(2) Ireland, John (1879-1062) . 18(2)
d’lndy, Vincent (1861-1931). 14(2) Ives, Charles (1874r-1964) . . . i • 18(2)
THE WORLD OF 19(1)
MUSIC
INDEX TO COMPOSERS
£26 14(2)
12(2)
Janacek, leoS (1858-1928) . . 4(1) Ravel, Maurice (1875-1937) . . .
Rawsfchome, Alan (b. 1905) . . . 15(2)
Josqaln des Prds (c. 1460-1521) 11<2)
Reger, Mas (1873-1916) .... 9(2)
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai (1844-1908)
13(1)
Rossini, Gioacchino Antonio (1792-1868) 19(2)
Koddly, Zolt&i (1882-1967)
Rubbra, Edmund (b. 1901) ....
Landini, Francesco di (c. 1326-97) . . . 4(1)

Lassus, Orlandus (c. 1682-94) .... 4(2) Saint-Saens, Camille (1835-1921) . . . 14(1)
Lawes, Henry (1596-1662) . 5(2) Satie, Eric (1866-1926) . 18(1)
Leoncavallo, Ruggiero (1868-1919) . . 17(2) Scarlatti, Alessandro (1660-1726) . . . 6(2)
L4onin (12th cent.) . 3(2)
Scarlatti, Domenico (1686-1737) . . . 7(1)
Liszt, Franz (1811-86) . 9(1) Scheldt, Samuel (1687-1654) .... 6(2)
Lully, Jean-Baptiste (c. 1682-87) . . . 6(2)
Schein, Johann Hermann (1586-1630) . 5(2)
Lutyens, Elisabeth (b. 1906) . 19(2)
Schoenberg, Arnold (1874-1961) ... 16
Schubert, Franz Peter (1797-1828) . , 8(2)
Schumann, Robert Alexander (1810-66) . 9(1)
MacDowell, Edward Alesander (1861-1908) 18(1) Schutz, Heinrich (1686-1672) .... 6(2)
Mahler, Gustav (1860-1911) .... 16(2) Scriabin, Alexander (1872-1916) . . . 16(1)
Mascagni, Pietro (1868-1945) .... 17(2) Shostakovich, Dmitri (b. 1906) . . . 17(2)
Massenet, Jules EmUe Frdddric (1842-1912) IS (2) Sibelius, Jean (1866-1957) . . . , . 13(1)
Maw, Nicholas . 19(2)
Smetana, Bedfich (1824-84) .... 12(1)
Mdhul, Etienne Nicolas (1763-1817) . . 8(2) Spontini.Gasparo Luigi Paciflco (1774-1861) 10(1)
Mendelssohn, Felts (1809-47) .... 9(1) Stradella, Aessandro (1642-82) . . . 6(1)
Messiaen, Olivier (b. 1908) ..... 18(1)
Stanford, Sir Charles Villlers (1862-1924) 13(2)
Meyerbeer, Giacomo (1791-1864) . . . 10(1) Stamitz, Johann (1717-67) . . . . . 6(1)
Milhaud, Darius (b. 1892) . 18(1)
Stamitz, Karl (1746-1801) . 6(1)
Monte, PhiUppe de (c. 1521-1603) . . . 4(1) Stocithausen, Karlheinz (b. 1928) , . . 18(1)
Monteverdi, Claudio (1667-1643) . . . 5(1) Strauss, Richaid (1864-1949) . . . 16(1)
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1766-91) . 7 Stravinsky, Igor (b. 1882) . 16(2)
Mussorgsky, Modest (1889-81) .... 11(2) Sweelinck, Jan Pieterszoon (1662-1621) . 6(1)
Nielsen, Carl (1865-1931) .... . 13

Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyich (1840-93) . . 12(1)
Neri, Saint Philip (1615-96) .... 6(2)
Tippett, Sir Michael (h. 1905) . . . . 19(1)
Torelii, Giuseppe (1668-1709) ... . 6(1)
Turina, Josquin (1882-1949) . . . . 16(1)
Ookeghem (c. 1420-96) ...... 4(1)
Or«. Carl (b. 1896) . 18(1)
Varbse, Edgard (1885-1966) .... 18(1)

Pachelbel, Johann {1668-1706) . ... 6(1) Vaughan Williams, Ralph (1872-1968) . 18(2)
Paisiello, Giovanni (1740-1816) . . . 8(2) Verdi, Giuseppe (1813-1901) . . , . 10(1)
Palestrina (e. 1625-94) . . . . . . 4(2) Victoria, Tomds Luis de (c. 1635-1611) . 4(2)
Parry, Sir Hubert (1848-1918) .... 13(2) Vivaldi, Antonio (c 1678-1741) . . . 6(1)
PedreU, Felipe (1841-1922) . 14(2)
P4ri, Jacopo (1561-1683) . . . . . 6(1)
Pfeottn (cMly 12th cent.) . 3(2)
Pfltzner, Hans (1869-1949) , . . , 16(2) Wagner, Richard (1818-88) . . . . 11(1)
PhUippe de Vitry (1291-1861) . . , . 4(1) Walton, Sir WilUam (h. 1902) ... . 19(2)
Poulenc, Etamcis (1899-1968) . . . . 18(1) Weber, Carl Maria von (1786-1826) . . 8(2)
Power, Lionel (15th cent.) . 4(1) Webern, Anton von (1883-1945) . . . 16(2)
Prokofiev, Sergey (1891-1968) .... 17(2) Weelkes, Thomas (c. 1673-1628) . . . 4(2)
Pnooini, Giacomo (1868-1924) .... 17(1) Weill, Kurt (1900-66) . . ... . 18(1)
Purcell, Henry (1668-96) . 6(2) Wellesz, Egon (b. 1886) . . . . . . 19(2)
Wilbye, John (1674r-1638) . . . . . 4(2)
WiUaert (1480-1662) . . , . . . 4(2)
Rachmaninov, Sergey (1878-1948) . . 17(2) Williamson, Malcolm . . . . . 19(2)
Rameau, Jean-Philippe (1683-1764) . . 6(1) Wolf. Hugo (1860-1903) . . . , . 11(1)
THE WORLD
OF SCIENCE
A contemporary picture of scien¬

tific discovery, designed to explain
some of the most important ideas
in astronomy, physics, chemistry,
biology, and antluropology, and to
give some account of recent re¬
search in various fields.
F2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Planets, Stars, and Galaxies 3

Origin and Development of the Universe 5
The Earth 8
Particles and Forces 9

Quantum Theory and Relativity 14
Properties of Matter in Bulk 17
I.
Elements and Compounds 20
AstrAcids
onomyand an
Bases 22
The Hydrogend Bond
CosmolandogWater
y -the Na re 23
Organic Chemistry — the Chemistry of tu
Carbon of the Universe
Compounds 24
Chemical Reactions 3-9 24
Some Useful Applications of Chemistry 25
I The CeU 26
I Multicellular Organisation 30
. The Animal Kingdom 32
Physics The Physiology of Animals 33
-the Fun of Plants
Classification 39
damen
Ecology — the Studytaofl Living
Scienc
Organisms
e of Min their Environment 41
The Geological Record att 44
The Evolution of Organisms er 45
9-20
I The Earliest Men and their Dates 47

I The Races of Man 49
. Anthropometry 49
The Wo Pigmentation 49
rld of the
Attributes
C of the Blood “ 50
The Study of hSocial Anthropology 51
The Notion of Roles em 51
Kinship and Marriage
i st 51
Authority Systems s 52
Economic Systems 20-26 52
Religion 53
Social Change 54
V
Scientific Findings from Apollo 11 Lunar Mission 54
. Plate Tectonics 57
Museums of Science and Technology 60
Gramophone Records Past and Present 61
Biolo
gy -t
he S
Tablecieof
nceElements
of L
i
f 66
e
26-47
F3
THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
In Part VI our intention is “ live aW ^ chapters. Parts IV and V.

technology. They are usnaJly contributed by scientists actively
en|I|l™tteVel-T H
the^ E
I. ASTRONOMY AND COSMOLOGY-

NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE
includes everything flrom the weU known British one te at Jodrell Bank and It
^^êst sub-atomic started working In 1957.
sters. The particle
scientific toview
the mightiest
of the uni- _ Other types of radiation from outer space
one we are con- impinge on the atmosphere. Cosmic radiation
here) is a remarkable achievement of consists of very fast-moving fundamental particles,
worth considering at inchidmg protons (E14). Cosmic rays are detect¬
ed by Geiger counters, by the minute tracks they
remarkable
1 about it. .îcniJfio view " is, and what is
leave on photographic plates, and by other Tneang,
»« something is always an inti¬ ine origm of cosmic rays is still uncertain, hut
mate misti^ of theones and observed facts, and many people think they must have an intimate
onp ^ ®®6thing and ideas
growing connection -roth the nature and evolution of the
general to¬ universe itself.
gether with arguments based on them. X-rays ^d detected,
arguments are designed to show that, if the general The neutrinostbe(F14) from especially
outer space
former by
ideas are accepted, then this, that, or the other satelhte-boi-ne detectors and
ttmg ought to be observed. If thi^, ttaôr tus buried m deep mines. X-ray the latter by appara¬
the neutrino astronomy astronomy and
^ aotualb^ are observed, then the theory is a are being bom.
By mterpreting
tmiiR the th^retieian
a^m. Thus5 theoretica
think °?5iiT l s have to these various routes,theastronomer
signals that reach us by
ments are continually subjected toideas and argu¬ s have formed a
the severe test remarkably detailed picture of its structure. The
of ^Î^jjson with the facts, and merest outline of this will now be given.
is done. are
this scientists On
the other hand, theories often suggest new things Great Distances and
Large Numbers.
^ look for, t.e., theories lead to predictions.
These predictions are freauently successful, and Let IK start with nearby objects. This raises at
I? too.
tJiat any distance Question of what ** nearness ” and
•^ theory is immutable; are m astronomy and how they are to
pentiflc view of any subject may, in principle, IK crtiressed. _ A convenient unit of distance is
be invahdated at any time by the discovery of the iwjit-year. i.e., the distance that
light, traveh
new ^cts, thoi^h some theories are so soundly Img at 186,000 nfiles per second, traverses la one
based that overthrow does not seem imminent. Since vast numbers as well as vast dis¬
A remarkable aspect of the scientific view of the tances will enter the Question, we need a shorthand
univê IB that same principles are supposed to for iMge nimbera. Ten times ten times ten will
operate throughout the whole vastness of space ,10 • Sts tens mnItipUed to¬
tie matto and radiation In stars are not gether (j.e., one million) will be written 10“, and
differmt from the inatter and radiation ^ hundred million miiif^
and their laws of behaviour are the same.on There-earth,
One divided by a^mfihon (i.e., one-millionth) will
for^theorira hard won by studies in terrestrial number obtal^d
physics md chemistry laboratories are applied at P^nOuot of fourteen tens
on<M to the whole cosmos. Astronomy and cos¬ light-year is 5-88 x 10“
mology are spectacular estenslons of ordinary miles, the radius of an atom is about 10-® cm.
mechanics and physics.
PLANETS, STARS, AND GALAXIES,
LOOKIKa AT THE TINIVEBSE. The Solar System,
_ Glhe imlverse is observable because signals from earii is thejihird, coimtiag outwards, of
it reach us and some manage to penetrate our nine planets revolving m nearly circular
atmo
« wut round the sun. Their names and some orbits other
Hrrt. there sphe
are waves ofre.
visible light together particular are given In the table (F7). The sim
wiffi mvlsible rays of somewhat longer (infra-red) and its ptoets are the main bodies of the solar
md somewlmt shorter (ultra-violet) wavelengths. Bystcm. Between Mars and Jupiter revolve
waTOs show us the bright astronomical numeroiK^ûnlre of rook called the asteroids; the
objects and, to make use of them, astronomers largest of th^, Ceres, is 480 miles across. Apart
have constructed telescopes of great power and from tbê, the solpr system
precision backed up with cameras, spectroscopes lated with m, dust, and smallis particles
tenuously popu-
of stone
and numerpiw aîliaries. The most continuously settles on the earth,
telescope, at Mt. Palomar, Halifomia, haspowerful
a 200- and freauently small fragments enter the atmo-
“Cn-dimeter mirror. The next major advance in êre, glow, and evaporate; these are meteors or
optic^ tel^cope performance probably awaits the ahopth^ stars. Bometlm^ larger rocks, called
ereppoJi of telescopes on satellites outside the meteorites , hit the earth. Comets are relatively
^ mresent ahts as a compact swarms of particles — containing ice ac-
dtetortiiw and only partially transparent ouitadn. cor^g to one theory — ^which travel In elongated
Secondly, there are radio waves of much longer orbits round the sun. Their spectacular tails
wavdength than light. These can be detected by ® tafluence when they approach
sensitive radio receivers with special aerial sys¬ It. .Not all comets stay Indefinitely in the solar
tems. These are the radio telescopes. The most system: some visit us and go off into space for ever.
THE UNIVERSE
F4 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
ma® ®of™loS maMel'f’soS.OOO^êfâS! ly wScted^bf Ja^ffaMoSi'fo^M ®

matter m such a state is caUed plasma. At the contain rêWv iou
sun’s centre the temperature haS the lintoagto!
able value of about 13 miiiinn degrees CentlaraX mn- ^ ^heel is our
(a coal fire te about 800» 0) Sf sSh con# Sbe#of t“aw that“h.°^ nfeht sky Z
tions the atomic nuclei frequently collide mm m SMm "thP 5® rather
one another at great speeds and reactions occur vpars n'wn^”*?’ Usbt-
beêen them. The mm co^ts iSly ” ®Skin7 ^st™«omically
whose net result is to turn hydrolSto ?S,p dust particularly in the

piis.is a process which rS® enw^ tot^ *’S^‘'®^îydrogen!
burning does, only these nuclear proceS Me in- hydroge#ês Vt gaseous
comparably more energetic than ordinary burn- lenefh nf ^ wave-
"o'iettaStfSfStSSK'i
sRhSS
SuSS'AS”’"” *•“— " £”£Jiu?*cEn
netic field based on the sun. In fact, the rSfon fleW TUs i?believ^tn^*,a->r?^*®° ™f5“®Mc
thfeVa nection^th thllSstaS.*^
streams
Planetaryandatmosphe
magnetic
resfielcte’ wWc^tea
causing, cr'^th
among gai^âre^mSier
thmga. auroras and magnetic other SYkre rouXlv oiôbSkfT^®
storms.
of membere. Because of its form and
deS? a
Stars “a-y be assumed to ha^ l^n
.
f yast .b’’^btness.
nun^Ms ofage.
otherand size the
stars. Only sim is p astronomers,
from stars Me theâme age?*
because they^sôf^MeattoSrat
can study differpncpB
aijout the sun—
i#out“Sfsf,rV^l1f^
it. is near ^ enough
there anything us
JpeeiS between stars of similar agVbut SentfS
PMsessi on of a systemto ofgiverevolvilife
ng „ , . ’
planets is not. according to some modem views Galames.
very unusual. v*cwb, Ar.^ i. r •
No star can radiate energy at the rate the Run a ^+i .assuming that such
does without undergoiag intenml chS^ to Ite but tWs fs^Mt so*’^ ^^®t the universe:
cpê of time. Consequently stam ^vând mSto of ^dro-
old procmes in them give rise to new The exacfc nation fnrri^m?? close exami-
nature of steUar evolution-lo fM as “
present understood-would be too comple? to stra^Slr t^mifti
liven to th#table (pT
describe here to any detail. It involves exDan- AndrnmpSa ^dky Way. the ^
Sion and contraction, changes of temoemturp ? f®^ other smaller
changes of colour, and ohSra to cheml^^Mvm’ Cm™®® of,“®t8r of galaxies called the LocS
position as toe* nucl^r S^^t to dfanSi, » so groups,
nSSfd
genMate new chemical elements by reaoSfi^h Sit distinct
as the conversion of hydrogen to h^mn hptoim +S ® ®^ ®' ““f that the universe is popu-
neon, neon to magnerf^fMd 8S™'4e^ T “f
ent stage of its life. Thus recorate îîdp^top\nfw^ ^^® /®22“®^thought to

many ty^ with chanatogly desori^vfSSSM but. after controversy, it
^ch as blue giants, sub-giants, red and ?f fbem were separate
dvrarfe. Bupergiants. * ’ ^“te ^/^t g^M, By ût 1920 it was Soto
^ ffiooS'Si'ta
TO exploding
tim^ stMtoewfllsun.
as fast as r^te“nli^^*'^°^
JapaneSand ^®r structures.
galaxies are among pK
the most beautiful
(but not Western) a^noSî^^^ Pbotographs ever
oc^nce to A.to 1054. and toe^tod^lL^ ttotofare# °“® ®^.?rad hasten to
now calted toe Crab nebula, can rtiU ^Sto SSpftu 2?!ronomy book. Eeoent
powerftil telescopes and form a clrnid co-operation between optical and radio-
Itoht-years
shows up asacross. While It la^^thêSl^n
an abnonnally briaiif igaJaSes“®MP*^^fr!^^®^
®re strong sources ®®®r® ■^®ry remote
of radio waves
(Sroups of Stars. The Expanding Universe.

2°*lt®“rpri8ing that 'ancient peonies saw discoveries about galaxies are of the utmost
^ *^® ®*e consteUations, however Importance. One is that, by andlMg
PbyfflcaJ ly connecte d groups of stars hnf e oSls
of galaxies ^ uniformly distritoutedtoa oMh
lUst happen to be pattems^
®^c«»tloa to ttos te to?
lte^m a ^ aara^.: t^
could into
SMarate ^^^“Pf.resolves viewmany
the Millrv Wavof
millions SiattSSL &1 nSflSIoSd to
waveleSXd?
auvîriTis'?*!?®®
mg n to be i* ®f®'*'fuuary
ms. Now body emits waves of
suppose toe body
THE UNIVERSE PS THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
approaches ns; the waves are thereby crowded THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF
together in the intervening space and the wave¬ THE DHIVEEtSE.
length appears less than L: if the body recedes
the wavelength appears greater than L. The Errors of observation and interpretation occur
Austrian physicist, J. Doppler (1803-53), dis¬ of coturse. But there are many chec& and
covered this behaviour in sound waves, and it repetitions made, so that, on the whole, the
explains the weU-lcnown change of pitch of a train descriptive account of the universe would be
whistle as it approaches and passes us. The generally agreed among astronomers, ’ên it
same principle applies to the light. Every atom comes to mventing theoretical explanations, how¬
emits light of definite wavelengths which appear ever. scieuM is on less sure ground, and indeed the
in a spectroscope as a series of coloured lines — tneory of the nniverae is aa arena of controversy’
different series for each atom. If the atom is in a at present. In most other sciences experiments
receding body all the lines have slightly longer can be repeat^ and the same phenomena oh-
wavelengths than usual, and the amount of the served imder differing 'out controlled conditions.
change depends uniauely on the speed. Longer Tto is very helpful. But, by definition, there is
wavelengths mean that the light is redder than only pne universe: one cannot repeat it or do
usual, so that a light from a receding body shows experiments with it. On the other hand, it must
what is called a “red shift.” The speed of he remembered that the light from distant
recession can be calculated from the amount of galaxies lias taken perhaps 10’ years to reach us.
red shift. so it tells us what the galaxies were like that
It was the American astronomer, V. M. Slipher, number of years ago. Therefore we are not con¬
who first showed (in 1914) that some galaxies fined simply to describing the present state of the
emitted light with a red shift. In the 1020s and miiverse: by looMng farther into space we are
19308 the famous astronomer E. Hubble (1889- looking farther into the past as weh. How, then,
1953) meiisured botli the distances and red shift does the state of the universe vary with time?
of many alaxies and proved what i now known
as Hubble’sof Law.
recession Thisisstates
galaxies that the to
proportional speedtheir
of
Evolutionary Theories.
distance from us. This does not apply to our
neighbours in the Local Group, we and they are _,On8. answer to this can be obtained from
keeping together. Hubble’s Law has been tested Einstein’s general theory of relativity. Some
and found to hold for the farthest detectable slight indication of what this theory is about is
galaxies: they are about 7 X 10’ light-years given on page F15, and its logical development Is,
avmy and are receding with a speed g of that of light. of course, a matter for mathematical specialists.
Does this mean that the Local Group is the It turns out that, if we assume that matter Is
centre of the universe and that eventhlng else is distributed uniformly throughout space (as
rusiu^ away from us? No: Hubble’s Law observation strongly suggests), then the solutions
would appear just the same from any other cluster of Einstein’s equations show how the state of the
of galaxies. Imagme yon are in a square on some universe may vary with time. Unfortunately
fabvdous chess board which is steadily doubling there are many possible solutions cofrespondlng to
Itssize every hour: all other squares double their expanding, static, or contracting universes. As
distances from you in an hour. Therefore the we have already seen, the actual universe is ex¬
farther squares from you must travel faster than panding, therefore the static and contracting
the nearer ones: in fact, Hubble's Law must be solutions can be ruledput. There is still a multi¬
obeyed. But anyone standing to any other square plicity of expanding possibilities : some correspond
would get the same imprôn. to indefinite expansion from an initially very
_ This extraordinary behaviour of the universe dense state, others to expansion foUow^ by con¬
IS one of the most exciting discoveries of science. traction to a dense state followed by expansion
Let ns envisage one possible implication. If the md so on repeatedly, i.e., &. pulsating universe.
galaxies have always been receding, then in the The dense state ” is presumably to be identified
past they must have been closer together. Eol- with the time when the receding galaxies were all
lowing this to its conclusion, it seems that all the concentrated near one another, possibly in some
matter in the imiverse must have b^n packed deme conglomeration of atoms. This initial state
densely together about 10“ years ago. Was this is thought by some to be the origin of the universe:
really so? The lack of any definite answer to this they would say It has been expanding and evolylug
question is one of the things that makes cosmology ever since. If the universe is pulsating, then
so Interesting. soonm or toter, gravitational attractions between
galaxies will slow the observed recession down and
turn it into a mutual approach aud so hack to the
Quasars and Pulsars. derme state. A straightforward application of the
^thematlcs makes this dense state infinitely
In Novemher 1962 Australian radio-astronomers dense, ^d presumably something must happen
located a strong radio emitter with sufficient pre¬ before this Inconceivable situation arises. For
cision for the Mt. Palomar optical astronomers to example, forces between atomic nuclei may play
Identify it bn photographs and examine the nature an important part and determine what the dense
of Its Ught. The red shift was so great that the state (if any) is actually like.
ohieot must he exceedingly distant: on the other
hand it looked star-like, much smaller than a
galaxy. By the heghming of 1967 over a hundred
of these ohjects had been discovered and other The Steady-State Theory.
characteristics established, such as strong ultra¬ _ A rival theory was proposed In 1948 by Bondi.
violet radiation and inconstancy, in some cases, of Gold, and Hoyle. They suggested fJiat the
the rate at which radiation is emitted. Not all universe is not changing with time: there was no
of these sp-oalled quasars are strong radio emitters: initial dense state and no pulsations : the universe
some show all the other characteristics except always has been, and alwa^ will be, like it Is now.
radio emission. It has been estimated that the This does not mean that no local ciianges can be
quiet ” Mad are about a hundred times more observed— this would clearly be contrary to the
numerous than the radio Mud. One great prob¬ facts. But it does mean that, on the large scale,
lem here is: how can such relatively small objects the clusters of galaxies have a atetrihution which
generate such inconceivably great athoimte of is uniform in space and unchanging in time. If
energy that they appear bright at such huge the numbers of dusters of galaxies in a large
distances? So far this is tmanswered: these] volume of space were counted every few thousand
quasl-stellar objects are a great mystery, though million ye&ia the answer would always be the same.
they are generally held to he an important pointer At flret sight this api>eats to contradict outright
towards a deeper understanding of cosmology. I the observed expansion of the universe. For If
_ Late in 1967 while tavestlgating quasars, . the galaxies are receding from one another how
Oambridge radio-astronomers disoovered pulsars, can the number in a given volume remain con¬
a new type of heavenly body. Their cbmacter- ' stant? The situation is saved by a bold proposal.
istic is the emission of pulses of radio waves every B is that matter, in the form of hydrogen atoms,
second or so with a repetition rate that Is regular is being continumisli/ created throughout space:
to at least 1 part fin 10®. At present they are This accumulates In due course into new
beUeved to he peculiar stars hardly bigger than ttie i galaxies, so .that as the old ones move apart the
Earth and situated Inside our galaxy. i young ones appear to keep the numbers up. The
THE UNIVERSE THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
necessary arnoimt of continuous creation can be electromagnetic radiation -with a distribution of

calculated and is eqmvalent to the appearance of wavelengths characteristic of the hi>b tempera-
one atom in an average-sized room every 20 mil- ture. As the flrebaD, i.e., the universe, expanded
absurdly smaU. try over a period of about 10’“ years it cooM, and
mIn a sphere of radius 10 lIcht-veaTfl. lengcns or wie ofradiation
one feature mcreaseis and
this process we-
the dlstri-
that their
lengths of the radiation increase and their dlstri-
ihe rate of oration is. however, much too small bution becomes characteristic of a much lower
to have any of the laws of ordinary temperature. In fact, the wavelengths should
Phyac3. a3ie famous law of the conservation of now be concentrated round about 1 mm to 1 cm
imtter ( matter neither he created nor de- (corresponding to about — ^270° C) and the radla-
steoyed ) is violated, but on such a small scale tion should approach the earth uniformly from aU
Mat physicists, it is said, should not complain, directions. Eadlation just like this has recently
Neyerthele^ some do complam and see in this been detected in several laboratories, first bv
violation a strong point against this theory. Penzias and Wilson in AmpriAn.AmpriVn. during 1965
imi
They used very sensitive radio receivers originally
m- „ . designed to detect signals from artificial satellites
The Formation oi Oalaxies and Stars. No plausible terrestrial or galactic origiu for the
On any theory of the universe, some explanation wncelved; the waves
has to be found for the existence of clWers of spmethmg to dp with the universe
lâxies. In all theories galaxies condense out a rational basis for the
from dispersed masses of gas. prinoipallyhydrogen. withm the steady-state theory which
Once a huge gas cloud becomes sufficiently Sjn- ffrdce. The
densed tocondensation
further be separatelygoes
identifiable
on insideas it.
a galaxy.
It is ®yolutionary theory survives so far.
believed on theoretical grounds that it could not
condenM Into one enormous star but must form The Formation of the Chemical Elements.
riSters hundreds
perliaps of^Ms. 'to' ttie^'^st^Sny^stere
or thousands or even minirma’-^stable nuclei^ is one thaU^ts
There indefinitely
Me 274 knownbe-
are bom at once. A small cluster, visible to of stable atoimc nuclei and little likelihood
naked eye, is the Pleaides. The Orion nebula ^bese nuclei are the
visible as a hazy blob of glowing gM i^he sword of (seePlO) of 81 different chemical elements:
Orion, is the scrae nSstSmi^ uranium and elements,
radium including,
are alwaysfor example
radioactive:
According to the evolutionary theory the abundant..^. The
" initialin dense
plasma a statestate ” consisted
of overaU of very hot
expansion. e^h are oxreen, siliTOn,
Se ex- Sfw rt L is
paudmg plasma was both cooUng and swirllne v atypical. It is especially deficient m
abouh The^d^swtttog protoi^friS^^ hydrogen, because the gravitational attraction of
ties in the distrlbSio^f the hot ga^^^^t bit?®* to prevent
would be rather denser, there rather less dense. escapi^ into space,
if a sufficiently* lajgB mass of denser eaa haunened *. ^ssible to examine the chemical consti*
to
tweenoccur, thenparticles
its own ^^^totioS^
would hold itatMoS he-
together and and to infer *^®
the compositionof
maintain its permanent identity even thoueh the Si ® ® v they ei^t. By such means, the con-
re.st of the ^ ^nUnVed to ^ Ld eând ’^®'^ that 98% of the atoms
Such a large mass would gradually condense into hydnên, 7% are helium; all
fragments to become galaxies the whole mass elements together account for about one
turning into a cluster of SS. *5® ^®“®
Gi^he steadv-stfif p xtIpw io •iTifn«»o+4Tii*i^ Avt/i hilemeuts (f 66) will show that hydrosên and
agnihcantly êrent. for, on this theo^^îies two elements; they are
^^SlU to ttldy-state theory, hydrogen
ones out of to are constantly being created. The evolu-
to be continuously created evmTwhere. Motp- theory suppose that the dense initial
over, this has to he done at just the licdit rate to ®' system of very hot protons and
maintain the galactic population density constant atoms. ]to either
•ôtherwise it would not be a stcodu-atefp thporv problem is to explain how the
creation was in fact provided bv steadv^^te ^ ^®*? ®' fbscmatmg combmation
cosmologMs but -5^1 not be outlined here h^^ alr^v“referw^t??h? fi,
^n^^seems that the steady-state theory is losing en
reactions ^
which turn hydrogen oril^tl^
into bRlin-m. Why
Is
la energy
enfiTOrv given
fflWTl out?
rinfnTo answer
ononra* this question
_ _ _ we
The Changing Scene. ??“? that nucfiei are made up of protons and
The 196()s witn^sed revolutionary develop- another steely— that ^ ^nucleSl^hffi^
theoretical
By 1966 to attractive simplicity of would have To
together. beseparate
to Thissupplied the particlS?™enMCT
forces. amountto ovMCome
of ener^ theis att:S>
called
forced upon ite protagonists by Undina energy and is a definite quauMy to werv
new evidence or theoretical objections. It is ^ kind of nucleus. Conversely, when the
siOTtoant fact that the apparent are brought together to form a nucleus the narticlea
binding
A resulted from energy is released in the form of radiations
*be charac- heat. Different nuclei consist of different num-
^^® ofbejr sciences, namely, to hers of particles, therefore the relevant quantity to
t suggests that êy are more abun- SK Now B is ■>»»>«» o' ely)
small (relativ B th,» 1. »
for Ught element r
fl™
SS.SeKf 13 like lithium, heUum, and ^bon; ft a
of OMShi^ steady-stato theory maxlTnnm to elements of middling atomic weight
®^“®® greater distoces correspond to like iron; ft faffs agali^rr^y
heav^d^^s
i’ccluires that the imtial douse Xt is the latter process fuaioii that fa irniTirF nji
THE UNIVERSE t 7 THE WORL.D OF SCIENCE
machines to hurl nuclei at one another to make Many ideas have been proposed, and the prob¬
them coalesce. In stars the necessary high lem is very intricate. One view is that the
velocity of impact occurs because the plasma is so sun and its planets formed in a steEar condensa¬
hot. Gradually the hydrogen is turned into tion, a feature of which was the pushing out¬
helium, and helium into heavier and heavier wards from the central sun of a disc of matter
elements. This supplies the energy that the stars which suhseauently became the planets. Such a
radiate and simultaneously generates the chemical process woidd be regarded as normal in stars, and
elements. not exceptional.
The very heavy elements present a problem. To On the other hand, the planets have been
form them from middleweight elements, energy attributed to the effect of a passing star whose
has to be supplied. Since there is plenty of gravitational attraction drew out from the sun a
energy inside a star, a certain small number of jet of gaseous matter which condensed into the
heavy nuclei wUl indeed form, but they will con¬ planets. Such an encounter between stars is very
tinually undergo fission again under the prevailing rare and, on this theory, the formation of planets
intense conditions. How do they ever get away must be an outside chance. This theory is not
to form cool ordinary elements, like lead and widely held now.
bismuth, in the earth? One view links them with The connection between steEar and planetary
the highly explosive supemovse. to which we have theory is brought out again by the existence on
already referred {F4 (1)). If the heavy elements the planets of the heavier chemical elements.
occur in these stars the force of the explosion How did they get there? If it be true that heavy
disperses them into cool outer space before they elements are hurled into space by exploding super-
have time to undergo the fission that would novse (see above), then at least one such explosion
otherwise have been their fate. The heavy ele¬ must have miugled its products with the wide¬
ments are thus seen as the dust and debris of spread interstellar hydrogen before the planets
stellar catastrophes. This view is in line with condensed. At one time Hoyle put forward the
the steady-state theory, because supemovee are view that the sun was once accompanied by
always occurring and keeping up the supply of another star (there are many such binary systems
heavy elements. In the evolutionary theory known to astronomers) and that the sun’s partner
some of the generation of elements is supposed to exploded. Some of the ejected gases, captured
go on in the very early stages of the initial dense by the sun’s gravitational attraction, later con¬
state and to continue in the stars that evolve in densed into planets, whEe the remnant of the star
the fullness of time. It cannot be claimed that recoEed from the explosion and got away into
the origin of the chemical elements is completely space. This explanation was later modified in
known, but we have said enough to show that that the exploding star and the sun need not he a
there are plausible theories. Time and more close pair but merely two of a cluster of stars
facts will choose between them. formed at the same time.
Before leaving this subject, where theories ate
more numerous than firm conclusions, one more
The Formation oi the Planets. question may be raised; was the earth fornied hot
or cold? There are adherente to both opinions.
Did the sun coEect its lamily of planets one by One aide would say that the planets condensed
one as a result of chance encounters in the depths from hot gases, became liquid, and subsequently
of space? Or was the solar system formed aE at cooled and soUdifled, at the surface if not through¬
once in some generative process? To this fimda- out. Others would say that dust, ice. and small
mental auestion at least there is a fairly definite particles formed in space first and subsequently
answer. The planetary orbits aE lie in about the accumulated into large bodies, whose temper¬
same plane and the planets aE revolve the same ature rose somewhat later on. With space ex¬
way round the sun. This could hardly have hap¬ ploration Iseginnlng in earnest, considerable fhture
pened by chance: indeed, it provides ahnost con¬ progress in rmderstanding planetaiy formation
clusive evidence for the alternative view. But can be anticipated. (See also Section L: Mars,
what was the generative process? Venus, Planets.)
THE SOIAB SYSTEM.
Sun
Mercury
Venus .
Barth .
Mars .
Jupiter
Saturn
Hranus
Neptune
Pluto .
SOME ASTBONOMIOAIi DISTANCES.
(1 light-year = 5*88 X 10^“ mUes).
Distance
from Earth
years).
Sun . . . Andromeda Galaxy .
(light-
1*6 X 10*
Nearest star (Proxima Galaxy in Virgo . .
Centauri) . . Galaxy in Gt. Bear 7*6 X 10’
Brightest star (Sirius) . Galaxy in Corona
Pleiades . . . Borealis . .
Centre of Mflky Way . Galaxy in Bootes 1*3 X 10*
Magellanic clouds (the 4*6 X 10’
nearest galaxies) Very
steEarremote
object . quasi-
THE EARTH fS THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
THE EARTH. grains of the same mineral. For example, the
kind of rock called granite can be divided into
Stmctee. glassy grains of the mineral quartz, milky white
Xlie eartli has the shape of a slightly flattened or pink grains of the mineral feldgpar, shiny black
flakes of the mineral blotite, and shiny colourless
sphere, -with an eouatorial radius of 6378 hm and flakes of the mineral muscovite. Both biotite
a polar radius 21 Inn less. Its mass can be and muscovite belong to the mica group of
calculated from Newton’s Law of Gravitation and
from measurements of the acceleration due to minerals. Each different mineral has a weU-
defined composition or range of composition, and
gravity, and is 6-97 x 10®* hg. The average a definite and characteristic arrangement of the
density follows from these two figures and is
atoms that compose It. There axe several thou¬
at>out 5-5 grams per cubic centimetre. This is
nearly twice the density of typical rocks at the sand known kinds of minerals, but only fifty or so
surface, so there must be very much denser areThere at all common.
are three main kinds of rock: igneous
material somewhere inside, and the earth must
have a definite internal structure. rocks, formed by the solidification of molten
This structure can be investigated using shock lava: sedimentary rocks, formed from material
waves firom earthauakes or large explosions. laid down under gravity on the earth’s surface:
These are received at recording stations at differ¬ and metamorphio rooks, formed by heating or
ent distances &om their source, having penetrated reheating of either of the other kind of rock.
to varying depths within the earth, and their Each of these broad groups may be further
relative times of arrival and characteristic forms subdivided. When igneous wcics solidify deep
enable the deep structure to be worked out. This inside the earth, they cool slowly and large crystals
consists of three main imits. a core at the centre have time to form. Ctoarse-gralned igneous rocks
with a radius about half that of the earth, the such as granites are known as plutonlo igneous
mantle outside this, and the thin crust, about rooks. Conversely the rapidly cooled fine-grained
35 km thick rmder the continents and 6 km igneous rocks that form the volcanic lavas, such
thick under the oceans, forming a skin surrounding as basalts and rhyoUtes, are called volcanic
the mantle. igneous rocks. Sedimentary rocks can be divided
The composition of these three maits can be into three kinds: Clastic sediments are those
deduced by observation and inference. For formed from mechanically abraded and trans¬
ported fragments of pre-existing rooks and include
example, from
surface meteorites
other which
parts ofarrive
the atsolar
the system
earth’s sandstone, mudstone, and clay. Organic sedi¬
consist of three main types, composed of Iron- ments are those composed, as are ihost limestones,
nlckel alloy, stony silicates, and a mixture of iron of fragments of organically produced material
and silicates. Could these have originated from such as shells, wood, and bone. Chemical sedi¬
the break-up of some planet Uke the earth? If ments are formed by direct chemical action and
so, then perhaps the core of the earth Is made up Include, most typically, salt deposits formed by
of iron-niokel alloy and the mantle of magnesium- evaporation of sea water. MetamoryMe rocks
rich silicates. Experiments on the physical are more difficult to subdivide. They are usually
properties of these materials at high pressures classified on the basis of their original composition
show strong similarities with the measured and/or the maximum pressure and temperature to
which they have been subjected. Chemical
properties of the earth's Interior. In addition, reactions in metamorphio rocks give rise to succes¬
rocks composed of magnesium-rich silicates are
sions of minerals as the pressure and temperature
found at the earth’s surface in places where
material seems to have come from great depth, change, so that examination of a metamorphio
such as in the debris from volcanic explosions. rock will often allow one to say how deeply it was
burled and how hot it was.
These may be direct samples of the earth’s mantle.
Core, Mantle, and Crust, Age o! Rocks.

By these arguments, and by many others, a There are two distinct ways of estimating the
picture can be built up of the intemm structure age of rocks. The first gives the retoiiae age. It is
of the earth. The core is composed of iron-niokel based on the principle that in a sequence of sedi¬
alloy. It is liquid at the outside, but contains a ments, older rocks lie tmdemeath and younger
solid inner core of radius about one-fifth of that of ones above, that igneous rocks are younger than
the earth. Convection currents flowing In the the rocks they intrude, and that folded rocks are
formed earlier than the earth movemente that
liquid part give rise to the earth’s magnetic field. fold them. Correlation of a sequence of rocks In
Outside this the mantle is solid, and is made up
mainly of magnesium-iron silicates of various one place with those in another is made by fossil
Muds. By studying Its physical properties faunas and floras. Thus a complete scale of
through earthquake wave observations, the relative ages can be built up, stretching back to
mantle may be divided into several zones, of tbe first rocks containing fossils (see the table in
which the most important is the asthenosphere. Part IV) . The age in- years can, on the other hand,
This is tbe part of the mantle between 70 and 300 be measured by using radioactive elements (Part
km depth In which volcanic lavas are formed. In II) contained in rooks. If the amount of a radio¬
this region the mantle is everywhere quite near to active element present is measured, and the
the temperature at which it begins to melt, and amount of the product of radioactive decay can
is thus rather soft compamd with the rest Of the also be found, then, using the known rates of
mantle. The presence of a soft asthenosphere decay, the time since the product started to
accounts for many of the surface featiues of the accumulate (defined for this purpose as the age in
earth, mountain belts and ocean basins, that make years) can be measured. This method la particu¬
it so very different from cratered planets such as larly useful for studying rocks that do not contain
the Moon and Mars. fossils (Igneous and metamorphio rocks, or those
The sharp boundary between-mantle and crust too old to contain fossils). By similar methods,
is called the Mohorovlclc Discontinuity. Above the age of the earth can be obtained. This turns
it. the crust is different under continents and out to be about 4-75 x 10" years. The rocks
oceans. The thick continental crust has a contairdng the first fossils are 2-6-3 X 10° years
composition that can broadly be called granltio, old, while organised life in abundance first ap¬
while the thin oceanic crust is poorer in silioon, peared about 0-6 x 10* years ago.
Bodium, and potassium and richer in calcium,
iron, and magnesium. The continental crust has
been built up over thousands of millions of years The Continents and the Ocean Floor.
by welding together mountain belts of different The outer part of the earth, namely, the astheno-
ages, while the oceanic crust Is made of basalt sphere and the solid mantle and crust overlying
lavas and is nowhere older than 250 million years. it. the lithosphere, is in a state of restless move¬
ment, and it is this movement that gives rise to
the formation of oceans, continents, and mountain
Books. ■ , ■ belts. The surface of the earth can be divided
Rocks ate naturally occurring pieces of the solid into a number of rigid plates of lithosphere, which
earth. If you take a rcxdr and break it up into move apart, or together, or slide past one another,
grains, then separate the grains into different gome of these plates are very large, such as the
heaps of Uke grains, ea<^ heap will consist of one which contains all of North America, all of
PHYSICS F9 the world OF SCIENCE
South America, and about half of the Atlantic that has led to these conclusions is too complex
Ocean. Others are no more than a few thousand to summarise here. It comes from a study of
square Idlometres in size. But they are all rock magnetism, earthquakes, the flow of heat
moving about relative to one another like ice from inside the earth and even from the shapes of
floes in pack-ice. Where two plates move apart, the continents, that must match across the oceans
hot material rises from the asthenosphere te fill by which they have been split apart. Conflrma-
the gap, partly melts, and gives rise to a chain of tion has come from a series of holes drilled in the
volcanoes and a thin volcanic crust. This is how ocean which has shown how the crust becomes
ocean basins form and grow larger. In the Atlan- younger towards the centres of the oceans,
tic, the Mid-Atlantic Eidge marks the line along Hates of movement of plates have been calcu-
which plates are moving apart, and where new lated, ranging from a few millimetres a year to ten
ocean is being formed. Long narrow pieces of centimetres a year. The faster movements can
ocean such as the Bed Sea and the Gulf of CaU- be measured directly on the ground by such simple
fomia mark where a continent has just begun to techniques as looking at the displacement of
split apart, and a new ocean is forming. Where railway lines, walls, and roads, but the slower
two plates slide past one another, a great tear ones, and those beneath the oceans must be
fault results. Such a fault is the San Andreas measured by more indirect geophysical methods,
fault which runs from the Gulf of California to The mechanism by which this movement takes
San Francisco. Jerky movement on this fault place is still unknown. Are the plates pulled by
gave rise to the great San Francisco earthquake their sinking edges, or pushed by their rising
of 1906 and could give rise to another earthquake edges, or moved by some other means? But it
there at auy time. cannot be doubted that the movement does
Where two plates move together, the result happen, and that it holds the key to the develop-
depends If
plates. on attheleast
nature
one ofof the
the crust
plates forming the ment
is oceanic, of the earth’s
first formed. See Hatecrust siuee the
Tectonics, Parttime
VI. it was
the oceanic crust dips down into the mantle and
slides away to great depths until it eventually
merges with the asthenosphere. Along this dip-
p^ sheet of crust, strong earthquakes occur and There is a lot more to the study of the earth than
mctlonal heating of the sheet leads to melting and has been possible to set down here. The oceaiB,
the production of quantities of lava. Examples the atmosphere, and the rocks of the crust all
of such boundaries are the Andes, where the interact with one another in their development in
Pacific Ocean dips beneath South America, and a complex way. The surface of the earth has
Indonesia, where the Indian Ocean dips below gradually changed as life has evolved over thou-
Asia. When both plates are continental, on the sands of millions of years and ice ages have come
other hand, the crust is too thick and houyant to and gone, changing the surface again and again.
sUde into the mantle, and a collision results. Just as important is the economic potential of the
givmg rise to a fold mountam chain. Eventually earth, on which we deiiend for ail of our energy
the movement grinds to a h^t, the plates weld and all raw materials. This section has given the
together, and the fold mountains become dormant, basic framework within which such farther
The Himalayas were fpnned in this way from the investigations are carried out, to help the reader
recent collision of India and Asia. The evidence understand as he reads more "^dely.
II. PHYSICS— THE FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE

OF MATTER
WHAT PHYSICS IS ABOX3T. posed of small units or particles, what ate they
. „ , , . . , like? How many kmds of particle are there?
Anyone compelled hy cunoslty or professional Do the particles posses mass? electric charge?
mterest to look into contemporary journals of magnetima? How do the particles influence each
pure physics research is soon struck by the fhct other? How can their motion be descêd and
that the_ old text-book division of physics into predicted?
“ heat, light, sound, electricity, and magnetism ” Once scientists became convinced that matter
has become very blurred. The indispensable did indeed consist of particles, the ammoemmt
periodical of research summaries, Physics Ab- of the particles in matter became an important
Btracts, contains about 3,000 entries a month, under question. This is the problem of stniciwe. It
many separate headings. This is very daunting was discovered, by von Lane in Germany and by
even to the experienced physicist and. as a token W. H. and W. L. Bragg in England, that the
of the human effort devoted to one single branch structure of solids could be inferred from the way
of Bclence,_ it is impressive for variety, for degree X-rays are reflected. It is well known that
of specialisation, and for sheer volume. How X-rays can penetrate solids. In doing so, they
can the main features of this great work be encounter successive layers of particles and axe
presented to the non-specialist? reflected from them. The reflections reveal
Two different, though complementary, sec- how far apart the layers are and how the paxticlra
tions can be distinguished. First, there is the are arranged in space. This is the tedmique of
physics concerned with the properties of matter X-ray crystallography. By now it has shown
in bulk, with solids, liquids, and gases, and with that most solid matter is crystalline, i.e., it con-
those odd but very important substances, such sists of a regular pattern of particles repeated over
as paints, plastic solutions, and jelly-like material, and over again to fin the volume of the solid-—
which are neither properly solid nor liquid. In just as a wallpaper is covered by repeated units
this vast domain of physics questions like this of design. The units in a crystal are very small,
are
Whatasked:
happensWhywhenis iron
solidsmagnetic, copper
melt? Why not?
do some often
them areaboutvery
10”“dose
cm together,
across, and the particles In
liquids flow more easily than others? Why do liquids, on the other hand, have no repeated
some things conduct electridty weU. others badly, pattern, but consist of particles which are jumbled
some not at all? During the last cmitury. partlon- up, though stfll very closely packed— like marbles
larly the last few decades, it has become dear In a bag. In gases, the particles are widely
that such questiona can be answered only by separatedand movingrapidly about: the average
raising and solving others first. In particular, distance between partides in air is about 10 times
we must ask: (i) Of what nature are the invisible ttiat in ordinary solids, and air particles have an
partides of which matter is composed? and (il) average speed of 5 x 10* cm per sec. (1,000
How are those partides arranged in bulk mat- m.pA.).
ter? In general, therefore, the stmoture of matter
The first of these two questions has generated is fairly well understood. This does not mean
the second major category of modem physics: that structure studies are out of date, but only
this is the physios of partides and of the forces that now they are devoted to duddating the
that particles exert on eadi other. In this Add. stractare of particular substances, often extremdy
wMoh represents adence at its most fundamental, complex ones such as are found in living matter,
questions like this are asked: If matter is com- We shall therefore say no more about structure,
_ ,
to THE WORLD OF SCIENCE

but turn to the major divisions of physics intro¬ tween the negative electrons and the positivelv
duced above: (i) particles and their forces: (ii) charged constituents of matter was elucidated bv
the properties of matter in bulk. the gi-eat experunenter Rutherford and the great
toeoretician Bohr. Their work, just before the
First World ar, showed that the positive charge
PAETICJLES AND FORCES. together with almost all the mass, is concentrate<i
m the central core or nucleus of the atom about
The idea that matter is composed of small îch the very light-weight electrons revolve
partjcles. or atoms, originated, it is true, in The (iiameter of an atom is about 10'“ cm. roughlv
classical times. Nevertheless, the modem viewB one thpe-hundred-millionth
need be traced back no ferther than the beginning central nucleus has a diameterpartabout
of an inch. The
10,000 times
of the nineteenth century, when Dalton and his smaller still. The nucleus and the electrons hold
contemporaries vy'ere studying the laws of chemical
combmation. By that time the distinctions them^^^
between elements, compounds, and mixtures were At this t*ecau8e of the electric attraction between
stage work could, and did, go on separate¬
al^dy made. Compounds and mixtures are ly along several different lines;
substances which can be separated into smaller
amounts of chemically distinguishable constitu¬ (1) Electrons could be studied on their own
ents. Hements (see N34) cannot be so divided. J^ft)■(radayB the handling of beams of electrons
In a mixture the components may be mixed in of all sizes and intensities has become a
any proportion and sorted out again by non- maior industry.
chemical means. In a compound the elements
Me combmed in fibred proportions by weight. (li) The nucleus could be treated as a
This last fact gives the clue to atomic theory. special problem, and this led to the mid-
cmti^ flowering of nuclear physics, to the
atomic bomb, and to nuclear power.
Dalton and Atomic Theory.
Dalton pointed out that the fixed combining im The beha-viour of electrons in the atom
weights of elements could easily be explained if toe analysed: this is the great domain
! of atomic
the elements consisted of atoms which combined physics which spreads into many
other sciences as well.
'P simple numerical ratios, e.g., 1 atom of element
A with (me of B, or one of B with two of C, and
instance, 35'6 g of chlorine combine Volimes Im-ve been written about each of these
fields, but we can spare only a few lines for
® sodium to m£ke 58-5 g of ordinary
salt. If we assume one atom of chlorine linii-g
sodium, then the atoms tbemselyes
mmt have weights in the ratio 35-6 to 23-0. The Electron.
This turns out to be consistent with the com¬ ElectroM are expelled from solids by light,
bining weights of chlorine and sodium in all other heat, electric fields, and other influenc
compounds in which they both take part. Some¬
times two elements combine in several different tUertfqre been possible to study beams ofes.electrons It has
on their own m vacuo. Electrons inside matter
proportions by weight. But this is easily ex-
plained by assuming that the atoms link up in either
CM alsoas beconstitue nts,by ortheir
temporar ily ble
in transit'
different numbers, e.g., one iron atom with one observed innumera effects.
These obsemitioiis all show the particles to be
oxygen, or two irons with three oxygens, or three mdlstmguishable one from another; all electrons
irons with four oxygens. Then the three different are the same wherever they come from. They
combinmg proportions arise from the three dif¬
ferent numbers of atoms, using in each case tlie
tiTO elMtnc charge, a magnetic moment, and a
same ratio of oxygen atom weight to iron atom weight. spm (mtrtosic rotatory motion). No
has ever subdivided an electron or obtained one an
Atomic Weight.
el^trio charge smaller than that on one electron.
Over the century and a half since Dalton, these The electronic charge is.therefore used
Ideas have been repeatedly tested by chemical imit of charge in atomic physios. Theas electron a basic
experiments. No one now doubts that every has come tei Im the best known of aU the “ funda¬
chenucal element lias atoms of characteristic mental particles.”
By convention the number 12*0000 is
^cribed to carton and called its atomic weight.**
The atomic weights of other atoms are expressed The early research programmes in nuclear
by giving their ratio to that of carbon, e.g., hydro- physios were greatly facilitated by the occurrence
gen, 1-008 : iron, 65-85. These numbers are only in nature of Mrtain unstable (radioactive) nuclei
ranos; the real weight of one single oxygen atom
IS 2-7 X 10^“ g.
which emit fast-mo-ring fragments. The latter
can be upd as projectiles to aim at other
M tareeta:_ the resulting impacts yield nuclei
J. J. Thomson and the Eleotroa valuable mtormation. This techniaue much
Matter is electrically uncharged in its normal nuclear Physics, though nowadays still the
'
projectile s are artificially accelerated by one or
state, but there exist many well-known ways of '
producing electric charges and currents— rubbing other of the large costly machines designed for
amber, or rotating dynamos, for example. It is <rue purpose.
thereiore necessary to have some theory of electri¬ ' most Important early discovery was that
city linked to the theory of matter. The funda- I of two types of fundamental
particae-—
raêiital e.xperiment in this field was made by J. J ieleotncallytheneutral
positively charged proton and the
Thomson when, in 1897. he discovered the electron, f neutron. These two are of
If you take two metal electrodes sealed inside a i *®'toP“* 1.800 times that of the
glass vessel, and xf the air is suitably pumped out electron), and like eleiJtrons, have a magnetic
<
and a high voltage applied to the electrodes, then
the negative one emits a radiation which causes imoment and spin. The proton charge is eijual to
* charge, though opposite in sIm.
the walls of the tube to glow. The rays are called (ôiMder
<of iron. moderate ly complex nucleus like that
cathode rays. The discovery of the electron was Tto usually has 80 neutrons and 26
essentially a clarification of the nature of cathode t
ton Its atomc weight therefore depends on pro¬ the
rays. Thonison showed that they were streams of ttotal number of neutrons plus protons, but the total
f
particles with mass and negative electric charge cCharge depends .only on the number of protons—
beha-vionr unlike any other atomic WMUtoer. The latter is denoted
particle known_at that time. The iinportance of c wMe at^tcthe total number
this discovery for the world of science cannot be Iprotons is called mass number andof denoted neutrons plus
I by M.
overestimated, and its technical progeny are in Ai specif of nucdeiia with given values of Z and
wery home and factory in radio valves, television M IB called a Z is also the number of
tubes, and other devices. 1electrons. in the atom, since
e the atom as a whole is
eleotrica^ neutral. The atomic number deter-
Rutherford— Bohr Atom. mlu^ the chemical nature of the atom (see below)
so that by altering the number of neutrons in a
Since the electrons emerge from matter, they nucleiM we do not^^change the chemical species.
are presumably parts of atoms. The relaticm be- It is therefore possible to find — -and nowadays to
1 THE WORLO OF SCIENCE
mate — ^nuclei of the same element which never- ; /3-rayB. On the other hand, y-rays freauently
thelem differ slightly In weight becanse they have accompany either a- or P-i&tb.
different numbers of neutrons. These are called y-rays pa^ through matter easily: in feet, they
isotopes. Iron isotopes are known with 26, 27, 28, are extra penetrating X-rays, a-iays can be
29, 80, 31, 82, and S3 neutrons, but all have 26 pro¬ stopped by thin sheets of tiê paper, a-rays
tons. Thus a set of Isotopes consists of the various brought to rest pick up a pair of electrons from
nuclides that have the same Z but different Jlf’s. the smxoimding matter and become neutral
helium atoms, and helium gas from this source is
Stable Nuclides. consequently found imprisoned in certain radio¬
active rocks. /3-Tays are intermediate in pene¬
The protons and neutrons in a nucleus are trating power between a- and y-iays.
bound together by strong forces called nuclear We must now try to interpret these observa¬
forces. In many cases, the forces are so strong tions.
that no particles ever escape and the nucleus
preserves its identity. There are two hundred
and seventy-four different combinations of neu¬ Radioactive Disintegration.
trons and protons of this hind, and they are A nucleus is a collection of neutrons and protons
called the stable nuclides. The earth is largely
composed of such stable nuclides, because any interacting with each other and possessing collec¬
tively a certain amount of energy. Just as some
unstable ones have, in the course of time, spon¬ human organisations lose their coherence if they
taneously broken up into stable residues.
Nevertheless, there are some unstable nuclei accept too many members, so nuclei can remain
left on earth. They give rise to the phenomenon not stable only if (i) the total number of particles is
too great, and (ii) neutrons and protons are
of radioactivity which was discovered by Bec- there in suitable proportions. Radioactive nuclei
Querel in 1893.
are the ones for which either or both these condi¬
tions do not hold. Sooner or later such nuclei
Unstable Nuclides: Radioactivity. eject a fragment, thus getting rid of some energy
they cannot contain. This is called a radioactive
Becauerel found that certain chemicals con¬ disintegration, and the fragments are the a-. 6-,
taining uranium gave off rays capable of blacken¬ and y-rays. a-smisslon relieves a nucleus of two
ing a photographic plate, and shortly afterwards neutrons and two protons and some energy:
Marie and Pierre Curie discovered more sub¬ y-emisslon simply carries off excess energy without
stances, including radium, which produce similar altering the number or kind of particles left be¬
but stronger effects. By now, about fifty chemical hind. ^-emission is more complicated. There
elements having radioactive properties are known are no weetrons normally present in a nucleus, but
to exist on earth, some. like radium, being strongly they are suddenly created and explosively emitted
radioactive, others, like potassium, being so weak if a neutron changes into a proton: positive
that the radiations are (flfflcult to detect. These electrons ate similarly generated if a proton
are called the natural radioactive nuclides.
The main facts about radioactivity are as changes into a neutron. /3-emisaon is therefore
a mechanism for changing the ratio of protons to
foUows: it is a nuclear phenomenon and (with neutrons without altering the total number of
minor exceptions) proceeds auite independently of particles.
whatever the electrons in the atom may be doing. Both a- and /S-emission change the Z of a
Thus, the radioactivity of an atom is not affected nucleus, and the product, or daughter nucleus, is a
by the chemical combination of the atom with different chemical element, a-emiesion also
other atoms, nor by ordinary physical influences changes the M. It might happen that the
like temperature and pressure. The radioactivity daughter nucleus is unstable, in which ease it too
consists of the emission by the substance of certain
klnda of rays. The early workers, Rutherford will disintegrate. Successive generations are pro¬
duced untn a stable one is reached. Part of such
beiog the giant among them, distinguished three a family tree is shown below. The symbols above
kiads of rays labelled a, 0, and y. These are the arrows show the kind of rays emitted at each
described below. Whatever kind of ray is ex¬ stage, the figures are the mass numbers, M, and
amined. it is found that the radiation firom a given the names and symbols of chemical elements can
sample decreases gradually with time accormng be foxmd at the end of the Section, P66.
to a definite law which states that the intensity of
radiation decreases by half every T seconds. a ^ ^ a a
The number T. called the half-life, is constant for
each radioactive material, but varies enormously ■{J2S8 a a
Pa,*®* —>■ TJ®” — > Tli®®“
a /3 j3
from substance to substance. Por instance, Ra®*® —>■ Rn®®® — > Po®“ — > Pb®“ Bf “ — >■
radium decreases its activity by a half every
« $ /3 a
1,622 years, whereas the half-life of one of the Po8w pj)«i) Bpio posjo pjjW
polonium isotopes is about 0*3 x 10"° sec. (Pb*”" is stable lead).
a-, and y-rays. This family exists naturally on earth, because

The three most well-kaown types of radioactive the head of the family. TP®®, has so long a half-life
emission are unite distinct from one another. (4*6 X 10® years) that there has not yet been time
(i) a-rays or a-partloles consist of two protons enough siace its formation for it to have dis¬
and two neutrons bound together. They are appeared.
ejected from the radioactive nucleus with one of
sevMal well-defined speeds. These speeds are Artificial Radioactivity,
high, often of the order 10® cm per sec. Two
protons and two neutrons are the constituents of Nowadays many new radioactive isotopes can
the nudeuB of helium, and a-partides are thus be man-made. All that is required is to alter the
fast-moving helium nuclei. M ox Z (or both) of a stable Isotope to a value
. (ii) /J-rays are moving electrons. They may which is incompatible with stability. The means
emerge from their parent nucleus with any speed for doing this is borribardment, i.e.. stable nuclei
from zero to a definite maximum. Themaximum | are exposed to the Impacts of atomic partfoles such
speed often approaches that of light, and is as streams of protons from an accelerator, the
diSerent for eadi isotope. The electron has a neutrons in an atomio reactor, or simply the a-
positively charged counterpart, the positron (see partieles from another radioactive substance.
below), and /3-rays are sometimes positrons. To The new material is called an oritfleiaZiv radio¬
distinguish the two cases, the symbols and j8+ active isotope. Artificial radioactivity is not
are used. The naturally occurring /3-radlations different in Uad from that of the naturally radio¬
ace almost all j3v. active substances, but the half-Uvea are usually
on the short side. Indeed, the isotopes in question
(ill) y-rays travel with the speed of light be¬
cause they are in fact electromagnetic waves would exist in nature bat for the fret that tbefr
differing from light only in the extreme shortnessôrt half-livra ensured their di8api>earance from
of thdr wavelength. They have no electric the earth long ago.
Suppose a piece of copper is exposed to the
It is unusual, though not unheard of. for the intense neutron radiation in an atomic reartor at
Charge''
same radioactive substance to emit both a- and Haxw^.
* the WORL.D
PHYSICS Pto -rue* OF SCIENCE
IDOrG S.buncl2illfc of t-llG two Stubic isotopes of UUCleaj* DOW^^t* rttHvAa a>\iT\a an#4 O'! 'U •
ordiuaiT copper has tMrty-four neutrons and difflniiK- f n wrif n It is
SSHi BSrpr^'-'sTiE
»»„n. -«gs-?e rSÊSI“£Sra.M,«
„„
unusual m that it gives out both S'" and B+ rava sfihiA tVioTi are some nuclei more
Some nuclei emit eSrom l& a aWS belêen neutro™Lid
nucleus with one more positive charge th^ unlto the Se^riSl ^rotons^^n‘^*
attracHAn’i Jleus are
copper, *.€., a ano nucleus IZ = ZO Jjf = 641 nucleuR m a between the
One neutron has become a proton, and the re^ ^ôr
hav^
ri“o£f process is one example of the artificial

*+««,= -»•«»«”— °f.s^
transmutation of the chemical elements which surrounded by its fuU comple
is ment
a commonplace of nuclear physics. It was of A electro
nucleus
ns surrounded
is an electri
hvcally
iis fiiu
neutial svstpm
ffieisr ““nor fts ^rmcleuB.

particle
“ fs'ss
counts as a " fundament»i
nor® because
»^ either can
the beatom ■ asa
subdivide dXT
electron
Lack of a Complete Theory. sinto
+
. -t more
^ collection of, say. one million more elementary parts, thus: “te
■ electrons + nucleus -
neutrons + protons
possible to tell epctly when any one of
them will
di^tegrat^ it is a matter of chance which ones
Amm^ after a time Thi
earn! "o &aj|llfro^ra\itf‘a eleTent“ch wT*gLt^^ the atoms of a given
IS\TSlTs.aeSoft^lV^“tatobS molof ^f thf
cifiate the half-Ufe theoretically one Xld hTe Ttached ^ rtiihttKAS^h
.p£#m¥a§sg
XT 1 electrons is so difflcult to
Nuclear Ksaion — Chain Reaction. ârrange that a special name has been coined
.ht.ig'Ks.affirSsya.s.'i'g?; s^”i^ *
aUy shows ite instability by e4ttii4 a- and vS' fa^ton iS^FSO (1)
SthSotXoSyûalS^^^^ ohlmifcSts'‘°'*d in ' sufficient

de?lfîS^&h"5^f^
disintegration. One is that the
two or three t
neutrons promote further disintemtioM ^
formula referred to in a para

gra^b^^fr
Application of these New Forces. il^ n^t
jgh^ted tomudeMTSinTeaSMT the atS Molecules.

conditions aTaSgedt^promoteaMeMoiê at^°^TioM''to°fn°“®
a tremendous and rapid ehato reTtiof l^^c th^ TRiRTf
of 'various kinds cause
compound groups. This
to an explosion: in the second the ^sto^ ^nÂiLm ®°i“5“^tion. and the
hberation of energy in the form of hTt io fniiTf; ooPoel;^hle fragment of compound which
trolled for uTto turbS Sih ^Tââ™?: chemical Identity of ^t X-
electricity or provide nronulsion ^ catted a molecule. Molecules have a
represent epoch-making teehnioal aohieveme^ff JTn ® f’ôm simple pairs of
but mankind has ô rtSTitsSfSibTof Intricate spirals and chains
beanng sêly the burden of respSbiUto which of thousands of atoms. See Part III.
used; Iiew^^gfelMnLi^lMiTC^êS'^.^'^ “tonw can be
ttoheat and radiation insldeThe rô^Tid^ trS^ whi^ “ °“® ®f ‘l^® ol®®"
“.oteer flelS of SSrion.^Â
.““CSS energy in the form of^.dent
light
whose colour is characteristic of the
atom involved.
PHVSics r IS the WORL.O OF SCIENCE
Herein lies the explanation of innumerable Particles may respond to some or, all of the
natm^ and technical phenomena, such as the forces. Protons are involved witb all of them,,
colours of glowing gases whether they exist in the hut electrons respond to aU except the “ strong .
sun and stars, in aurorae, or in street-lamps and interaction.” When new parycl4s are discovered
neon signs. Herein also lies the reason for the physicists try to find out thefr Qmdamental pro¬
importance of spectroscopy, which is the study
of the characteristic radiation from excited atoms; perties
to each and among
kind these isSome
of force. their'jjesponse
other basic (if any)
pro¬
for spectroscopy is not only a useful tool for the perties are: electric charge (if mass (if any),
chemical identification of elements (“ spectro¬ and the speed with which the’âttjcle
spontaneously into other types, v splits
„ >0 un.
scopic analysis ”) but was one of the main routes
along which twentieth-century physicists broke So many so-called elementary
through to a knowledge of the Inner nature of the been discovered (about a hundred) thak’bhenraole
.atom.
conception of “ elementary-nesa ” has been in
question. Are all the particles equally " elemen¬
tary ”? Are
binations some of them
of others? WThenexcited statesreaches
a family or com¬a
Maxwell and Electromagnetic Waves. hundred it becomes diflieult to believe they are all
Atonifi are held together by the electric attrac¬ grandparents. One current trend is away from
tion of the nucleus for the electrons. Finer setting up a hierarchy in which some particles are
details of atomic behaviour depend on the elementary and some composite and towards treat¬
magnetic moments of the particles. Any region ing them all as mutually dependent far their
of space subject to electric and magnetic influences existence. This, however, is a very difficult
is called an electromagnetic field. Before the problem, not yet solved.
discovery of the electron, MaxweU had perfected A few particles are stable but most decay into
a general theory of the electromagnetic field, products. The lifetimes of unstable particles
giviag to physics a celebrated set of eauations are extraordinarily short by everyday standards
which describe satisfactorily almost all electric but, even so, some (of about 10 sec. or upwards)
and magnetic phenomena. Inter alia, he proved are much longer than others (of about 10 ““ sec.).
that disturbances in the electric and magnetic The Table on page P14 contains the stable
conditions at one place could be propagated to particles and a selection of the moderately
another place through empty space, with a unstable ones with brief comments on their pro¬
definite velocity, just as sound waves are propa¬ perties.
gated through air. Such electromagnetic distur¬ The Table shows a rudimentary clas.siflcation
bances in transit are called electromagnetic waves, into four groups: (i) the photon; (ii) leptons—
and their velocity turned out experimentally to which are particles, lighter than protons, which
be the same .is that of light and radio waves — do not react to the “ strong ” type of force: (iil)
which was a decisive argument to show that both mesons — ^which are particles, lighter than protons,
of these phenomena are themselves electro¬ which are subject to all the lands of force: (iv)
magnetic waves. baryons — which include protons, neutrons, and
heavier particles, all of which react to the
“ strong ” force. Many of these particles have
Einstein and Photons. been produced for the first time in recent years by
bombarding matter with beams of high energy
In the years between about 1900 and 1920 this particles. Much of this work is done in the large
view was upset by Planck, Einstein, Millikan, accelerating maclunes at Brookhaven, New York,
and others, who focused attention on phenomena and the Eiuropean Organisation for Nuclear Ee-
(radiant heat, photoelectricity) in which light seaich, Geneva.
behaves like a stream of particles and not at all Forming particles into groups is an important
like waves. A wave and a particle are two quite matter. It Is comparable with arranging chemical
different things, as anyone win admit after a elements into the Periodic Table. The pattern
moment’s contemplation of. say. the ripples on a does not of itself explain anything but it strongly
pond and a floating tennis ball. The acute suggests where to look for explanations. The
question was: is light like waves or particles? classification of particles currently favoiwecl is
This oelebmted dilemma soon multiplied its horns. based on the very sophisticated mathematical
In 1927 electrons were shown to be quite capable of ideas known as group theory. Group theory is a
behaving as waves instead of particles, and this branch of mathematics which is finding increasing
is now known to be true of protons, neutrons, and application in physics and it had a resounding
all other fundamental particles as weU. success recently which iUostrates the value of
Theoretical physicists have devised means of grouping. It turned out that there was no known
having it both ways. To say that light behaves particle to occupy a vacant position in one of the
as particles means that the waves of the electro¬ family groups required by the theory. This
magnetic field cannot have their energy sub¬ particle, the omega minus, was sought and fotmd
divided indefinitely. For waves of a given with exactly the right properties in February
frequency, there is a certain irreducible quantity 1964. This is reminiscent of flendiog the missing
of energy that must be involved whenever light elements in the Periodic Table. The discovery
interacts with anything. This quantity is the of omega minus generated much excitement in
product hv. where v is the frequency and n is a the scientific world and many physiolsts believe
conrtant named after Planck. Bach such unit that a new and deener understanding of funda¬
is called a Quantum, of the electromagnetic field or a ments physics is just round the comer. The
photon and is cormted as one of the fundamental comer may be turned if three much sought after
particles. Freqnenoies and wavelengths vary but as yet undiscovered particles called the quarks
widely; typical wavelengths are: radio— hun¬ ate found. Some theoreticians believe that the
dreds or thousands of metres: radar— a few properties of all other particles could be explSned
centimetres: visible light — :6 x 10-‘ cm; X- by the behaviour of the three really fundamental
xays— 10"“ cm. quarks. The latter are hypothetical but are being
taken very seriously by those who are trying to
detect
It them
is nowexperimentally.
accepted that every ftindamental ■
Elementary Particles.
particle is a manifestation of the waves of one or
Nature seems to use four different kinds of feme other kind of field. Physicists speak of waves,
to make one particle interact with another. The particles, and fields in the same breatb or rather
weakest force is gravity; while this dominates the same equation. lattle is to be gained by
celestial mechanics its effect inside atoms is
negligible compared with the other three. The asking
particles ifor electrons
waves. ADor one
photons
can sayareis that
“ really
they
bindhig forces inside atoms are electromagnetic, are things whose behaviour is predicted and
e.ff.. the attraction of nuclei for electrons. Con¬ described by certain equations. Those who must
siderably stronger stfll is the nuclear force which visualise can Imagine particles in some phenomena
holds the nuclei together and this is called the and waves in others: neither conception contains
strong irderadion. The foinrth force is called the the whole trath. Why slionld the ultimate
weak inieract/ion and is intermediate in strength inviBihle constituents of matter be forced into one
between electromagnetic and gravitational forces. or other category derived from everyday experi¬
It is responsible for a number of phenomena of ence? For convenience, however, we shaU continue
which the best known is ^-radioactivity. to call tiiese things “ elementary particles.
G (80th Ed.)
PHYSICS F14 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
SOME MEMBERS OF THE ATOMIC FAIvrTT.V

brackets after the name denote first the electric charge and second,
unit and the electron mass as +I unit. Thus (+1 the mass Thp
SOTI tvipppo
the particle has a positive charge of 1 unit and a mass 207 tunes that of the
electeon. ^
Photon (0, 0) A quantum of electromagnetic radiation, e.g., light. X-rays, y-ravs
concept was mtroduced by M. Planck in 1900 when he desorihed The fhp
“ taMng
energy place mis proportional
of a photon “ packete ” r™r
to the tLS to a My
frequency dtte
ladiation and inversely proportional to the wavelength.
Leptons
Eloctron (—1, l) by J. J. Thomson in 1897. The number of orbital electrons in
chemical properties. Actual rest mass =
nuclei. A
Posih-oii (-fi. 1) stLte particle to tberadioactive electron. Predicted
th..oretiîlIy by P, A. M. Dirac in 1928 and first discovered in eosmfp
*4^- Andereon in 1932. Emitted as i3-rays by some radioactive
Mph^ntiiP^pd turn mto y-rays;electrons

consequentl y, positrons
collide only last
they usually annihilate
about
10 see. withm ordinary matter, but are stable in isolation.
iNeutrino (0, 0) and noth the speed of light and are distinguished from
ilnti-neutrlno (0, 0) one another bi the relation of then: spm to their direction of
positron during positive ^-decay: motion
and an
anti-neutoo with the electron durmg negative ^-deo^. Thriy
inter-
^ Postulated by PaSi in
i? ^■25®-., u-meson decay also produces
ami-nt.utrmos but m 1962 it was proved experimentally that neutrinos and
different species. Thus there are two Mn^ of neutrtao eachthese are a
Mthln
Muon (±1, 207) having’tUfferent'®im particles are distinguished from photons by

heavier than, the electron and positron: disintegrates into
electron (or positron if positive) -t- neutrino -t-anti-neutrhio.
Mesons
Pion (±1, 273) or (0, 264) The TT-meson. Chafed pions decay either into muons and
into electrons and neutrinos. Neutral pions dec^ neutrinos or
Kons are intimatelyiSn y-SX with
coimected toto
nuclear forces, i.e.. with the “ strong ” interaction.
Kaon
674) (dbl. 667) or (0.
^mesfil^SMl^dn&os.^^'' ways producing other

Baruons
Proton (+1, 1836-1) The positively-charged constituent of nuclei; the hydrogen
nucleus is one
t™sly toiSte.
Anti-proton (—1, 1836-1) ^ .^^^P^diiole of the proton. Its existence was long susneeted
îflmlly produced and detected for the first time in
Will react
with the proton to produce pions or kaons. win react
Neutron (0. 1838-6) î^^wick in 1932. The neutral constituent of nuclei.
When free it spontaneously dismtegrates into a proton, an
electron and
m anti-neutrino, after an average lifetime of about 18
through matter much more minutes Passes
easily than charged particles.
Anti-neutron (0, 1838-6) The ^ti-particle of the nentron from which it is distingnlshed
bv nrn
Lambda Particle (0. 2183) Discovered t“ucrpt

SSn in 1947. eM
DecaysoTk^^r plus pion. Bpin!°^l]l react with
into proton i^"
Sigma Partide (0 or neutrons, protons, mesons and
±1; about 2330)
Omega Minus (—1, 3270)
i&?s Brookhaven. New York, in
QUAOTDM THEORY AND RELATIVITY. tion cannot be rônably asked of a wave, nor the
Quantum Theory. second of a particle. Since electrons have some-
ttiing m common with both, one question cannot
be answered precisely for electrons without ig-
f S paragraph is charao- non^ the other; alternatively, both questionB
«
acTOpted au^tum tteory. which Is the cnirently
frmdamental theory of matter and
reasonably oai^ given an imprecise answer. As the wave-
ask at what position eJeotroos is intimatel y connected with
thm spera, one has to accept an accurate know¬
la
Is the wavelength ofa
a wave? Or. what, exactly.
But ledge of the speed (wavên^h) and Ignorance
the flrst ques¬ of
PHYSICS Fi5 the wohuo of science
position, or the converse, or inaccurate knowledge a way that there is very little change imiess the
of both. This is the famous Heisenberg Un¬ speed approaches that of light. Many experi¬
certainty Principle. Quantum theory is a set of ments on atomic particles demonstrate this. The
mathematical rules for calculating the behaviour interesting question now arises: do aU fundamen¬
of fundamental particles in accordance with the tal particles have rest mass? or do some have
Uncertainty Principle. In spite of its eauivocal- mass derived solely from their energy? The
sounding name, the principle has led to an enor¬ answer appears to be that photons and neutrinos
mous increase in the accuracy with which physical have no rest mass; aU other particles have. The
phenomena can be described and predicted. Table on F14 gives their rest masses.
Quantiuu theory includes all that previous theories
did and more.
Quantum theory grew up in the same epoch as Special theory of relaiimtv.
the Theory of Eelativity. Heroic attempts have
been made to combme the two, but with only Tdie ieading
mathematical developmentjustofreferred
Einstein’s
partial success so far. Relativity is concerned ideas, to the conclusions to,
with all motion and aU physical laws, but its constitutes the Special Theory of Eelativity.
characteristic manifestations occm- only when Stated more generally, the theory raises the
something is moving with nearly the velocity of question whether two observers in uniform
light. Quantum theory is likewise all-embracing, relative motion could ever detect, as a result of
but its typical phenomena almost always occur their relative speed, any difference in the physical
when something on the minute atomic scale is in laws governing matter, motion, and ihflit. To
question. Consequently, the vast majority of this. Special Eelativity answers: No. The
everyday mechanics needs no more than the clas¬ detailed theory involves special consideration
sical theory laid down by Newton, which is neither of the results the two observers would obtain
relativistic nor quantum. when measuring (i) the spatial distance, and (ii)
the time interval, between the same two events.
It turns out that they would not agree on these
Eelativity. two points. They would agree, however, on the
value of a certain quantity made up jointly of the
Historically, relativity grew out of attempts to spatial distance and the time interval in a some¬
measure the speed with which the earth moved what complex combination. The intimate
tluough that hypothetical medhun, called the mixture of space and time in this quantity has led
ether, which was supposed at that time to be the to the treatment of the three space dimensions
bearer of light waves. To take a simple analogy: and time on an equivalent footing. Hence the
smmd waves travel through stUl air with a certain
definite speed, v. If you move through the air frequent references to time as the “ fourth
dimension.” Minkowski devised an extremely
with speed v' towards oncoming sound waves, they elegant presentation of relativity theory by using
will pass inyoutheir
at thecelebrated
speed v -1-experiment
w'. Michelson and an extension of ordinary geometry to four
Morley, of 1887, dimensions. A line drawn in his four-dimensional
failed to find the corresponding behaviom’ on the space represents the path of a particle in space
part of light. This is so important an experiment and time, i.e.. the whole history of the particle
that it has been repeated, and repeatedly dis¬ Thus the movement of particles in the ordinary
cussed, ever since. In October 1958 the latest and world is turned into the geometry of lines in
most accurate confirmation of the Michelson-
Morley result was announced. It seems as if light Minkowski’s four-dimensional world of “ space-
always travels with the same sireed relative to an
observer, however fast he moves relative to any¬
thing else. Einstein put it this way: two ob¬ Eelativity and Gravitation.
servers moving with any constant velocity relative The apparently innocuous extension of the
to each other wUl always agree that light travels time.” ideas to Include observers in accelerated
preceding
past them at the same speed: this speed is denoted
by e, and is approximately 186,000 miles per relative motion opened up new fields of mathe¬
second. matical complexity, hut enabled Einstein to bring
grayitatlon into the argument. In speaking of
This postulate, logically developed, leads to re¬ atoms and particles we have not yet mentioned
markable conclusions. Eor instance: if you walk gravity. This is because the electrical and
from tail to nose of an aircraft at 4 m.pfh. and the magnetic forces acting between the particles
plane is receding from me at 300 m.p.h., then you constituting matter axe much stronger than the
recede from me at 304 m.p.h. “ Common sense,” gravitational: gravity need not enter atomic
Newton, and Einstein would aU agree on this.
theory at aU. But in the discussion of astronomi¬
But if you could walk at 0-26c and the plane cal problems and the movements of large-scale,
moved at 0-5c, the Newtonian mechanics would electrically uncharged bodies, it has been usual,
give your recession speed as 0-75c, whereas Ein- ever since Newton, to say that two bodies of
steinian relativity would give about 0-71c. Al¬ mass Ml and mj, separated by a distance r,
though at the everyday speed of 300 m.p.h., the attract erne another with a force proportional to
disagreement, though present in principle, is
absolutely negligible, at speeds near that of light miTOj/r®.
gravitation. This With
is Newton’s Inverse explained
this, Newton square law the
of
it becomes very pronounced. Many experiments movements of planets and comets and the falling
show that the relativity answer is right. to earth of the apple ftom his tree.
The apple’s fell is accelerated, and we observe
this by noting its position relative to certain
Emivalence of mass and energy. marks fixed with respect to us, and by timing
Another famous consequence of relativity is it with some sort of clock. This system of
location in space and time may be caEed our
the equation E == mc^, connecting energy, E,
with mass, m. c is so great that when mass is " frame of reference.” We therefore assert that,
converted to energy a small mass gives a large in our frame of reference, the apple falls down
energy. The grim demonstration of this was with an acceleration which Newton saw no
given to the world at Hiroshima: a more hopeful altematiye but to attribute to a thing called
gravitational attraction. Galileo had shown
one at Calder Hall, the world’s first nuclear power that all bodies fhU wltb tbe same acceleration at
station. The life-giving enerey of the sun is
derived from nuclear processes which consume all points, and we can now rephrase this by
mass and deliver energy according to this equation. saying that in our frame of reference there is a
constant gravitational attraction or uniform
gravitaUonal Mid. (This last statement and
Mass and rest mass. Galileo’s demonstration only refer strictly to
points fairly near tbe earth’s suifrtce: at greater
“Mass” is far from being a shaple notion. distances the gravitational field decreases and
Gfhe only complication we sb^ note here is that is therefore not uniform.)
the mass of a body is not necessarily constant. Now suppose a collection of ialUng bodies is
A stationary body can bo observed to have a mass observed by an intelligent creature, designated 0,
called its rest mass. If the body moves, it has who inhabits one of them. G has his own frame
energy of motion and therefore, according to of reference fixed body,
relative
Einstein’s mass-energy equation, it increases its neither his own nor toany
him. In C’s
of tbe frameis
othaoi,
mass. Mass thus :depends on speed, but in such accelerated, and therefore he has no reason to
PHYSICS THE WORi_D OF SCIENCE
gravifcational pull:
! Conservation Laws.
r relative
fall in. G’s toframe,
us, noundergoing accelerated
gravitational field iss Parity. Charge conservation and the conserva-
apparent. tmn of energy (P 17(2)) are only two of a consider¬
able number of eonseryatioh laws. Eeaders who
It looks, therefore, as if one has only to choose3 have studied mechanics will also be aware of the
the correct frame of reference for the measure¬ - conservation of momentum and
ments in order to remove the need for anyT turn. A conservation law is theof proposition angular momen-
that
assipiptiom about the existence of graidtational 1 m the copse of physical happenings such and such
fields. This is a simple illustration of the connec¬ ■s astant qupitity
value. _
tion tetween gravitation and frames of reference is conserved,” i.e.. maintains a con-
mr the measurement of space and time. Ein- • _ The establishmen
rtem s General Theory of Eelativity extends t of conservation laws is play-
1 mg a peat part in
this to cover non-uniform gravitational fields I elementary particles our growtog understanding of
although the things that are
shows ttot what Newton taught us to call and > conseped
the: IS called parity. are somewhat abstruse. One of them
grevitatioml field of material bodies is better
thought of as a peculiarity of the space and time ! reader who looks in a mirror knows that the
m the neighbourhood of such bodies. Since I left- and . right-hand sides of his face are inter-
space-time,^ as we mentioned aboye, can be I changed m the image. Eortunately mirrors do
exprêd in geometrical terms, Einstein I not also turn the image upside down, but. if they
transformea the theory of gravitation into has an
exercise (a drfflonlt one) in the geometry of space- '■caUed I ,? would
a parity then have undergone what is
transformation.” A screwdriver
time. Other physicists, in Einstein’s tradition, driving a right-handed screw downwards becomes,
are trying to tnm all physics into geometry, but transformation, a screwdriver driving a
whether this is really feasible. left-hmided screw upwards. The law of con-
All abstruse work is much more t.imTi • spvatiqn of parity is a way of asserting that any
demonstratmn of mathematical power and physical process that goes on to the world could
elegance. Observable phenomena which fall on— obeying the same laws — ^to a
outside the scope of Newton’s theory of gravita¬ parity transformed world. Tiere is nothing left-
tion are accounted for by relativity. One nanqed that does not to principle have a right-
the small but definite discrepancy between theis hanaed counterpart.
aotu^ orbit of the planet Mercury and the Eor many years this beEef was strongly held.
premctiona of Newton’s theory. Another is It came as something of a shock when, to 1967.
the bending of stellar light rays as they pass close mer theoretical proposals by Lee and Tang to
to the sun, an effect which results in the apparent America, Wu and co-workers proved that parity
dlsoplacement of the position of the star. A third was not always conserved. To understand
Wu’s
1® of a gravitatioiial field on the wave- epieriment, we must recall that nuclei can have
len^n of light emitted by atoms. Skoilar atoms totrinsie spm. Suppose the axis of spin were
m Merenfc places in a gravitational field emit dowiOTar^ into the page and the
moiafcions with slightly different wavelengths. an ordinary screw rotation
Into were
the
I or example, the light &om an atom in the intense pa<ff6« Then Wu sliowed that beta-rays from such
field of a star should have slightly longer wave- a nucleim are emitted preferentially upwards, i.e.,
lengthjhan ae corresponding light from an atom i direction of travel of the screw. The
effect has always proved very parity transfonne d version of this would have the
with certainty. However, beta^ys preferenti
Etostein s prediction was verified with moderate olrectlon as the travelally emitted to
of the screw and. ifthe same
parity is
accuracy to iô by a very subtle method which
terrestrial in its operation. The beta-rays to the experiment
atoms bfflig compared were placed at the
bottom of a water tower and the difference top and Md been enritted m equal numbers up and down,
to their
^Mon was detMted by means that belong tad E
beenj this feature transformed
conserved. too, and thus version parity would have
would have
rather to nuclear phj^cs than to astronomy*
tbe four types of force referred to on F laa).
the weak interaction does not conserve parity.
Quantum Theory and RelaHvity Combined. ' ¥ bound up with the
wtoch IS emttted simultaneously withanti-
the
atomic family table refers to “antipar-
tiqles. _ 5ae theory which first introduced such 1.® jt>PeMs that anttoeutrtoos
&ngB ra 10S4 is due to the Cambridge physicist an antmeutrmo , whichreceding
means from
that nsif
jDixao and was epoch-making. Dirac conceived an it woifid be seen to be spinning clockwise.
egmtion to describe the motion of electrons suh- Modem research on elementary particles is
.*9, jaws (ff both quantum theory and £^tly
relatmt^ ceM obey concerned to find out which tês of prm
wWoh conservation laws. The pOTlty
Hk achievement was
theê these two great ideas. Thethus to syn-
spin of the stimuJattog shocta that
electron was origtoally a snpposltiou that helped of work is lieir to. It is very much, in tbe
observations of or whose monumental
atoms. Dhae’s equation made contribution to physics was his demonstration of
Wto a laical con^quence of the union of relativity the need to analyse conservation laws.
and quantum theory. Perhaps even more im¬
portant w^ theelectron brilliantimplied
inferencethethat the equa- I Conclusion.
existence of
the same mass and spin
a negative electric development of the atomic
oha^m T& object is called the electron’s anti- ideM has brought a progressive, if jerky, increase
particle md is now well known as a positron. m tta BMthematical. precision of the theories.
A positron and electron can be created simul- physics, observations to
taneoi^yC pair they one part in a million, or even better, can
each other when production
collide. ”) and can annihilate exptaned, to . that level of accuracy, be
Every partMe is now beUeved to Imply an anti- by the
is conceivable that the universe the theories tap lost
(imt isn’t) an antl-universei i.e., fSf 1 visual definiti
*^*1® same
1®® on.bilitod
time,
solid An atimi
however,
iS
^ the el^troM and protons mi^t have been posi¬ was easy enough: so was a light wave conceived
trons and antiprotons and so on. The laws of
applicable, ho^^ an atom consisting of a mtoiatuie solar srstem
.rw* charged electrical
PartleJM are Efitipaitiolea but. ™®f®iy rataaêd the soBd
havely equM ballsMUiard
and wasbaUno forgreata
cnatgea of the opposite sign. ’Whenever charged obstacle to Tisoalisation, But stooe quantum
PHYSICS Fl7 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
theory and the Uncertainty Principle, every much discussion about the nature of heat. To
nnambiguoHS visualisation of fundamental wave- Joule we owe the now well-established view that
particles leaves out half the picture, and although heat is equivalent to mechanical work. In one
the electrons are in the atom, we can no longer of his experiments, in the 1840s, the work
represent them in definite orbits. The moral necessary to rotate paddle wheels against the
seems to be that visualisation is unnecessary, or resistance of water in a tank generated heat that
at best a partial aid to thought. All the caused a slight rise in the temperature of the
theoretical knowledge is in the equations, and water. Joule found out exactly how much work
these are very precise. Hence the non-physicists’ was equivalent to a given quantity of heat.
grumble — that physics is too mathematical these However, one can do other things with work
days — ^has some iustiflcation, and hence also the besides generate heat: in particular, work
growing distinction in physics between the creates motion, as when one pushes a car. Bodies
theoreticians, who are usually mathematically in motion possess a special form of energy, called
trained, and the experimenters, who can rarely kiaetlc energy, which is equal to the work done in
read the papers their theoretical colleagues write, accelerating them ftom a state of rest. We have,
but provide the results for them to write about. then, three closely connected ideas: work, heat,
and kinetic energy. Now according to the
views of the nineteenth century, which are still
accepted, any heat given to a gas simply increases
THE PEOPERTEES OP mATSEB IN BULK. the kinetic energy of its molecules; the hotter the
gas, the faster its molecules are moving. If, there¬
One of the most obvious and at the same time fore, the gas in our box is allowed to get hotter,
most wonderful things about the properties of there is an increase in molecular speed, and the
matter is their great variety. Thmlf of air, impacts on the walla become correspondingly
diamond, mercury, rubber, snow, gold, pitch, more violent. But this means the pressure
asbestos. . . . Even the differences of state of Increases, so we have another law: if the density
the same chemical substance are remarkable remains the same, the pressure increases if the
enough. Ice, water, and steam, for example One temperature does.
of the aims of physics is to reach an understanding
of all these different properties by explaining Laivs of Th&rmodvnamics.
them in terms of the behaviour of the particles
discussed in the previous section {F9-17). The Such considerations as these have been pursued
widespread success with which this imposing with great elaboration and subtlety. The notions
programme has been carried out indicates the of heat, temperature, energy, and work — familiar
maturity of physics. It is difficult to think of but vague in everyday life — ^have been given
any major property of matter in bulk for wMdh precise definitions, and the' relations
there is not some attempted theoretical explana¬ have been enshrined in the Laws between them
of Thermo¬
tion, though future physicists will no doubt regard dynamics. Enshrined is perhaps a. suitable word,
some present-day theories as rudimentary or because these laws are so soundly and widely based
incorrect. on experimental results that they have greater
prestige than any others In physics. If any
proposed physical law comes in conflict with
Physios, Statistics, and Thermodynamics, thermodynamics then so much the worse for that
Take a number equal to the population of law— it has to be revised. It is sometimes
London, multiply it by itself, and multiply the asserted that no one is properly educated who does
product by another mlHlon. The answer is not understand the Second Law of thermo¬
about the nmnber of molecules in 1 cubic centi¬ dynamics. We cannot, therefore, leave this
metre of ordinary air. They are constantly section without at leaA stating the two best
moving about and colliding with one another. known thermodynamic laws:
Even if the nature of the molecules and their laws of
motion were perfectly understood, it would clearly Eirat Law: If any physical system is given a
he impracticable to caleulate the exact paths de¬ Quantity of heat, and if the system performs some
scribed by each particle of so vast an assembly. work, then the energy of the system increases bu an
This difficulty brought into being a whole branch amount egual to the excess of heat given over work
of physios concerned with calculating the overall done. This law asserts that heat, energy, and
or average properties of large nmnhms of particles. work are convertible one Into the other, and that
Just as statisticians will provide the average all such transactions balance exactly. This Is
hei^t, income, expectation of life, and so on. of one form of a principle accepted as fundamental
the population of London, without knowing in all science, via., the Principle of the Conserva¬
everything about every individual, so statistical tion of Energy, according to which energy can
physicists can work out average properties of never be created or destroyed, but only changed
from one form to another.
molecules or atoms in large grotom. This impor¬
tant branch of physics is called Statistical
M&Smmcs. It was founded in the nineteenth Second Law: It is impossible to make an engine
century by Maxwell, Boltzmann, and Glbba and which will conMnvausly take 11001 firom a heai
is still being actively developed. source and, by Usdf, turn ii aU into an eoiMmlent
Consider now all the molecules In 1 cubic ■ arrunmt of mechanical work. Xiv fact, all engines
centimetre of air contained In a small box. They which produce work from: heat — steam engines
are continoally bombarding the waBa of the box ! for: example— always use only a fractimi of the
and bouncing off. This hail of impacts (It is i heat they take in and give up the rest to some
actually about 10** Impacts per square centimetre I r^tivBly cool part of the machine. The Second
per second) is the cause of the pressure wMch Law makes this obligatory on all work-from-heat
the gas exerts against the wallB of the box. Now : devices: This statement of the Second Law has
suppose we pump air in unttt there is twice as ' an engineering ring about it and. Indeed, it arose
much as before, though the box is still the same : from the work of the nineteenth-century Branch
size and at the same temperature. This means engineer Camot. Nevertheless, it can be re¬
that the density of the gas (i.e., the noass of 1 unit phrased in very abstract terms, and has been
of volume) has doubled. We should now expect applied with unbroken success to/ all fields of
twice as many impacts per second on the walls as science involving the transfer of heat and allied
before, and consequently twice the pressure. matters. It sets a definite limit to the kinds of
Wo therefore arrive at a conclusion that, if the physical process that can he conceived to take
volume and temperature are constant, the pressure place. Nothing has been known to contravene it.
of a gas is proportional to its density. This is
one of the simplest statistical arguments that can The States ol Matter,
be checked against observation; in fact, it The molecular motion in gases has been referred
stands the test very well. to in the previous section. Tacitly it was assumed
that each molecule acted independently of all
others, except that coUMons occurred between
Heat, teniperature, and merm them. In reality, mdlecnleB. exert attractive
The proviso about the temperature remaining forces on one another and. K a gaaia cooled so that
the same is an important one: far the following molecular movements became relatively slaggisb.
reason. In the nineteenth century there was a time comes when the attractive fbrces succeed to
drawmg the molecules close together to form a . Suppose we have walls papered with a regular
uquid. This process is called condensation. pattern of, say, roses, fuchsias, green le^m^
The molecules in a liquid are packed tightly to¬ Hiese repre^nt the different kinds of atoms in
Careful observation shows that the
gether and they impede each others’ movements. whole pattern is shimmering. The flowers and
On the other hand, movement still persists, and
the molecules straggle about lUie people in a mill¬ leaves are not stationary, bat are undergoin
ing crowd. Besides wandering about, the mole¬ shght random osciUatlons about their pro^g
cules vibrate. These motions represent the energy positions. In a crystal these movements are
contained in the liquid. vibrations and are never absent.
Tlie fact that the molecules, though irregailarlv The hotter the crystal, the more the vibration
packed, can still slip past one another and move and at a high enough temperature the vibrations
from place to place, explains the essential property become so great that the atoms get right out of
distinguishes them from solids — position and the pattern disappears altogether,
ability to flow. As a matter of fact, although the t.e., the crystal melts. Thermal vibrations are
rather vague assertion that in a liquid molecules essential to the theory of soUds, and are res-
are irregularly packed would be generally accepted pomible for numerous physical properties.
there is no agreed opinion on what the irregularity Next we note something extraordinary about
IS actually Uke. Indeed, not only the precise some of the papered waUs. On these the paper
structure of liquids, but the theory of liquids in has been hung in irregular patches fitted together
general, is fraught with such considerable mathe¬ like a not very weU-made jig-saw puzzle. T.âa of
matical difBcuities that the Uquid state is much roses which ahotad be vertical are horizontai in
less well understood than the solid or gaseous some ptches, obhque in others. This represents
Most solids are crystals. The popular idea of a the situation in most ordinary soUds, for they
crystal is of something which has a more or less consist of niMy smaU pieces of crystal irregularly
regular geometrical form with faces that glmt in Packed together. Such material is called volv-
the light — ^like snowflakes or and the smaU pieces are crystal grains
ciystaUiniby really depends on gems. However
a regular inner Orystal grams may ’oe almost any size, sometimes
pattern of the atoms, and may or may not show
Itself on the visible surface. ^ble to uhe naked eye. as often on galvanised
A lump of lead
for example, is oiystalline, though it may not However, on one waU. we see exceUent regularity
look it. no oh^9us patches at aU. The physicist
Tlie actual arrangement of the atoms in a would call this a single crystal, and several tech¬
crystal can be extremely complex. Some are niques exist for preparing them. Natural single
quite simple, however. The largest model of a crystal can be found, and there are some
crystal structure must surely be the 400-ft beautiful large single crystals of rook salt. But on
buUding in the 1958 Brussels examumg the single crystal wall paperhang
closely, er
we find
has
Jixhibition. This consisted of eight balls
representing atoms, situated at the corners of a tailed to make adjacent pieces register
cubQ,_ and one more ball exactly In the middle. there Is a slight disjointedness. Thisperfectly
occurs in
—
Imagine this repeated in aU directions so that crystals, and the line along which
every baU is the centre of a cube whose corners me structure fi^ to register is caUed a dislocation.
are the eight neighbouring bails. This is known These are much studied by physicists because
to crystallographera and physicists as the “ body- them bearw on the mechanical properties of of
centred cubic structme it is the actual arrange¬ aohds, on the yielding of metals unto stroM
ment of atoms in iron, sodium, chromium, and stress, for instance.
some other metals. If every ball, instead of This by no means exhausts the possibilities of
being the centre of a cube, were the centre of a the wallpaper analogy; several other phenomena
regular tetrahedron (a solid flgure with four equal can be formd. For example, in a place where
triangular faces), and had its four neighbours be a fuchsia there is actually a
at the comers of the tetrahedron, then we should daffodil— someth^ completely foreign to the
have the diamond structure.” This la how the pattern. Or perhaps a small wrongly shaped leaf
carbon atoms are arranged in diamonds. fe jmnmed betw^n the proper leaves in a place
In crystals the atoms are looked into a regular that should reaUy be blank. These represent
ordered structure by attractive forces which give chemicM unpiupity atoms. The first is callSi
the solid its rigidity and prevent It from flo-irtcig. substUutv^l. because it occupies the position of
The atoms are so close together that any attempt an atom that should be there, the second is called
to pr^ them closer mvolves orushing or distorting mtershhal, because it does not. Substitutional
the atoms — a process they resist strongly. ttiIh impunties of indium metah deliberately added
solids (and liquids too) are so the semi-conductor silicon, make possible to
dlnicult to compress. Oases can ea^y be com¬ rnannfaetpe of transistors {see Section L). Some the
pressed because there is so much space between derive their valuable properties from
the molecules. BtitiM carbon atoms within the iron pattern. inter-
The distinction between solid and liquid is not Bemember
IS commonly supposed. A lump of
What physidstB call a -vacancy would occur ing
if a
doi^h not bounce, but is plastic; a steel ^Mbratmg, we should not to
M-bearmg is very elastic and bounces excellently, supiMed if occasionally an atom jumps
but one cannot mould it in the fingers. Neither neighbouring vacancy if there happens to beinto<m^
a
dough nor steel qualifies for description as a The atom and the vacancy change places.
K Itater this may occur again. In the course of
can be moulded like ^lowever, substances which
plasticine into a baU that time, a rose which was near the ceiling may
very well on the floor like an Its way to the floor by jumping i^vacak
eliwtio sohd, and finally, if left on a flat table positions when they occur near enough.t This ^
TOfl spread toto a pool and drip off the edge Uke pro^. which the physicist calls diffusion, is also
B, .“0 point in trying to force analogous to the game in -which numbers or
such tji™{c^ mto rigid categories. One letters can he moved about in a flat
sliort. ârp impacts the may say
material toere is one vacant space to permit box because
adjustment.
behaves like an elastic sohd, but imder long- The more vacancies there are in a Crystal, the
sustained forcM it flows like a Uquid. The faster _toiMon occurs. It is, in fact, very slow
these, and many other anomalous m solids, but is nevertheless evidence that ap-
quiescent materials are ready internally
S'
ot “oreasingly engaging the attention
those who study the science of flow— rAeolow. i
important matenals ■*'? many famUiar and
exhibit pecuUar rheological
behaôu r— paint, dough. baU-pen
unset cement, and solutions of nylonink, Metals, Eleotrlcity, and Heat,
plastioB are only a few examples. and cheese*
other •
^êre
there are islarge
amplenumbers
e-ndence that inside metals
of free electrons. To
Illuminate this statement let na take sodium metal
Inside a Crystalline Solid. as an example. One single sodium atom has a
nucleus with eleven protons; there are therefore
We now return to our wallpaper analogy
crystal strtonre and give some free play to of IS easily detached,^ *be atom. The outermost one
living a positively charged
our
^ j v sodium ion behind. We may thiifli of these ions
visual imagination.
CHEMISTRY Fl99 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
arranged in tlie three-dimensionaJ pattern charac- liquids; li nor does sue between conductors
teristio of sodium crystals. It is tie same as the and a insulators. Over a hundred years ago,
iron structure preyibusiy described. The detached Faraday I knew of substances which would con¬
electrons, one per atom, occupy the spaces in dduct electricity, but rather badly. A common
between. The usual metaphor is that the struc- oone is the graphite in pencils. Others are the
elements selenium, germanium, and silicon, and a
ture ofallions
tike is permeated ofby fundamental
visuahsations a “ gas ” of electrons,
particles, ceconsiderable number of compounds. Such sub¬
this must be taken as a rough approximation, sstances are called seml-conductois.
Ihe important point is that the electrons in the Semi-conductors conduct badly because they
gas are not bound to Individual atoms but may 1have so few free electrons, many thousands of
wander freely about the crystal, hindered only by ttimes fewer than metals. In very cold german¬
the collisions they make with the vibrating ions, iium — say, 200 degrees below freezing — aU the
This is the picture as it appeared to physicists eelectrons are tightly bound to atoms and the
of the first decade of this centmr, and we can esubstance is an insulator. It differs from normal
explain many properties of metals with it. iinsulators in that, on warming it, the gradually
Naturally the theory has developed greatly since iincreasing thermal .vibration of the crystal
then thanks to the great work of Lorentz, (detaches some of the electrons, for they are only
Sominerfeld, and Bloch: it now relies heavily on imoderately tightly bound. The wanner the
ouantum theory, but it is sui-prising how little <crystal becomes, the more of its electrons become
violence is done to modem ideas by the simple (detached and the better it conducts electricity.
picture we are i^g. ^ ;By about the temperature of boiling water,
The free electrons move randonoly m all duec- there i are so many fr^d electrons that conduction
tions at thousands of mUes per hour. If the metal is i moderately good, though less good than in
is connected across a battery it experiences an metals. i This is basic semi-conductor behaviour.
electric field. Electrons are negatively charged Because . transistors can he made of gennaniim,
particles, and are therefore attracted to the and i because they are of such great technical
electrically positive end of the metal. They can importance, i more knowledge has accumulated
move through the metal because they are free: about i germanium than about any other material.
this flow is not possible to those electrons which See i also Transistor, Section L.
remain bound to the ions. The function of the
battery is to keep the flow going and, for as long
as it is going, it is the electric current.
The flow of electrons is not unimpeded. They Magnetism.
constantly collide with the ions and are deflected The most important thing about magnetism Is
from the path of flow. This hindrance is what that it is inseparahly coimected with aieotricity.
the electrician calls electrical resMance. The Oersted showed this in July 1820, when he
electric force, due to the battery or a dynamo, deflected a magnetic compass needle by pac¬
accelerates the electrons, thus giving them extra ing an electric current through a wire near it.
energy: hut they lose this to the ions at collisions Since then, many experiments have shown that
because the ions recoil and vibrate more than wherever a current flows there win certainly be a
before. The net effect of inmunerable collisions magnetic field in the surrounding space. The
is to increase the thermal vibrations of the ions, laws of this are very weU known now — they are
ie to make the metal hotter. This is the the Maxwell equations previously refeixed to
explanation of the fact well Imown to every user of (P13). However, most people first meet
electric irons: that electric current heats the magnetism when, as children, they pick up pins
conductor. If a strong current is passed through with a magnet. Where is the electricity here?
a wire, the heating is so great the wire glows, as in and what is a magnet?
electric-light bulbs, or melts and breaks, as m The explanation of magnetism exemplifies
blown fuses. heautifuUy the technique of explaining the bulk
If one end of a metal rod is heated we soon feel properties of matter in terms of fundamental
the heat at the other end: metals are excellent paTtic-lRP. In the atoms the electrons are moving,
thermal conductors. This is because the mobile and a moving electric charge constitutes au
free electrons carry the heat energy down the rod, electric current. Therefore each moving electron
passing it on to the ions by colliding with them. is a tiny source of magnetism. It does not im¬
Substances without free electrons cannot do this, mediately foUow that every atom is a sovuce of
nor can they conduct electricity well: so we have,
noagnetlsm because it might — aiid often does--
in the free electrons, an explanation of the feet happen that the magnetic effect of dmerenb
that the good electrical conductors are the good electrons in the atom cancel out. In hehum
heat conductors. Eor technical purposes, it atoms, for example, the two electrons havp equal
would be useful to have electrical insulators that bub opposed magnetic effects. Neverthel^.
would conduct heat weU, and vice versa-, but this some atoms and ions have a net effect cêd
is almost a contradiction in terms, and one can only their magnetic moment. This simply means they
comprom^. behave like tiny magnets. Crystals oontammg
such atoms weaker be magnetic, though the magnet¬
ism is much than in ordinary magnets
Non-conductors and Semi-conductors.
because the different atoms largely annul one
There are some elements, and numerous com¬ another’s effects. In a very limited number of
pounds, in which all the electrons are so tightly crystals, however, the magnetic ions act on one
bound to their parent atoms that free; electron another in a special way which forces au^ the
flow is impossible. These materials are electrical atomic masnetB to point In the same direction.
and thermal insulatoia. . U The total effect of many co-operating atoms is
liet us return to our Sodium atom. It_reamy very strong and the crystal becomes what we
loses its outer electron, forming a posltiye mn. normally oaU a magnet. Iron acts like thfc. so
The ion is very stable: indeed, its .electron do cobalt and nickel, the rarer elements gadplm-
alloys.
arrangement resembles the "olosed shell belong¬ ium and dysprosinm, and a fair number of
ing to the inert gas neon. The Corine atom, on On the whole, this behaviour, which is caUed
the other hand, would have a very stable structum, i ferrornagnetism, is very rare, The reason for the
resembling the inert gas argon, if o^y it could he co-operation of all the atomic magnets & TOot
given one extra electron to complete the_ dosed explained to everyone’s satisfaction yet, though
sheik If the outer sodium electron were even to the key idea was given by Heisenberg to 1928.
a chlorine atom we should have two Stable ions, In the section dealing with the electron it .w^
one positive and one negative. These woul^hen pointed out that every electron has. an vntrmsv:
attract each other and form a compound. _This magnetic momenta This is ini addition to any
just how common salt, sodiiun chloride, is formed,
and its crystals consist of a regular network d aeffect simplT due to the electron’s motion round
nucleus. The net effects of ions are therefore
alternate sodium and chlorine- ions. As aU the partly due to the intrinsic magnetism ol
electrons are bound to ions, it is not surprismg In the ferromagnetic metals the latter
that salt vrill not conduct electricity or h^t to any electrons.
Is by far the most important contribution. Thus
appreciable extents -Not all insulating com¬ we pick up pins, and benefit from magnets m
pounds are buUt on this pattern, but all have other ways, because tonnmerable fundam^tai
rtruotures which bind the electrons tightly.
We have seen (F18) that Nature does not permit partioles act in co-operation for reasoM that are
a hard-and-fast distinction between solids and ;1 whether stiH somewhat obscure. It is interesting to ask
the electrons responsible for magnetism
THE WORL.D OF SCIENCE
CHEftUSTRY F20 _ _
electrons ttot aUow the metals Conclusion,
to TOnducb electncity. It is thought not. uwuawu.
scorns si^H^pg
III. THE WORLD OF THE CHEMISTS

WHAl? CHEMISTBY IS ABOUT. Molecules, Ions, and Bonds.
The science of chemistry is concerned with the1 - The general tendency of matter is for those
properties of atoms, the laws governing their com- oh^ges that are possible to go on happening imtil
hmation to form molecules, and, more generaUy, _ a lastmg mpgement or stable stale is reacted
With the behaviour of materials composed of large i stable but atoms wito
numbers of molecules. Thus chemistry borders * ®^ achieve stability in several ways
on or. rattier. Interpenetrates physics— a fact
Illustrated by the esistence of professional journals I
devoted to chenucal physios” and “physical : of which two are as foUows: >=='-'=1 always,
chemstry. Phîcs is more concerned with the I (i) Electron sharing.
fmdamental nature of matter and radiation: When atoms share electrons, the resultin
chemistry (mncentrates on the ways in which structure, coiwosed of several g
atoms C(mbme, or can be made to combine, with a molecule. The simplest atoms, is known as
Mch other to form innumerable compounds. case is the molecule of
ClKmistry also merges with the life sciences where hyôgen, composed of Thratwoeach atoms
atom eachwill have
eontri-a
u deals, as m biochemistry, with the properties of shwe of two electrons which
the complex molecular building bloSrs of living amred to is the number re-
completely the inner shell. The
orgamsiM, e.g., proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic constitute a Oiemical bond and
acids. Because of its comprehensiveness, the ®ttollity on the resulting hydrogen mole-
science of chei^try has been subdivided into what
were at one tmie convenient sub-sciences, e.g.. is carbon tetra-
I
th e too electrons m its outer shell
2S?/i£®* ®-®ôf toe is bonded
trxxi, wo LU uubllU atoms each wWch needs atom
carbon with
to fom
one electron to
four
use by present-day chemists. complete a set of eight. Thus by sharinK the
iu6te 3hcu of 6igbt electrons. The properties
the resulting molecute species of
atomsdo can not form a com-
BUEiMEHTS Aim COMPOUNDS. wie tfl
resembla nce to the constituusually ent atoms
bear
Electron Shells and Stability. WhereaB moleeul^ chlorine
tetracMor is aa liquid
gas andwhich carbonfe
ide is finds
atom ^.^S'l.to.Part II ahrief description application as a dry cleaning fluid.
Mid definitions of atomic number,
atondc weteht, isotope, and other terms. The
simplest atom IS hydrogen (H) with atomic Hi) Electron transfer.
n^te 1. Some common elements numbers with are:—
t.™ir
carbon (0) 6; oxygen (0) 8; sodium (Na) 11: {c;te^fer metted
chtorine (Cl) 17; calcium (Ca) 20: silver (Ag) 47' of oneofelectrons
orcompleting Itselectron
more inelectrons outer ftom
Htieiia
shell anto
one with that number too few. Thus sodium
to (ae
mm^ electrons in atoms consideratoms ^th one electron te its outer sheU, will combine
SSl ^^move in well-defi ned 7*^®?®*®“* 1*^
eleetromoall e“e electron, âis
y stable species (ions),
cMled snells. If all the orbits in a sheU groups both of which canry electric charges. Thus
Tf^?u
^ledactually prênt in them iato well-defi ned have the
the sheU la ^9^ have a net positive charge of l
this TOnfers on the shell an protons, 10 electrons), whereas the
muBual stabihty or mertne®. Conversely, un- chlorine has an excess negative charge (17 protons
toe electrons in the
Incompletely filled slielis laiêly determine f-hp ®oto6pns 18 electrons). Because of these electric charges*
of ioô_
chemical and physicalTroSto 5 Kimm
t and this pmperty issulMances conduct
utilised in industrial electrify processes
S? lOietoeinner
^^ shell,ion
combinat i.e.,oftheatoms
one
nOMest thn nucleus, can accommodate
only two
i?*® element helium has Just thatmum- mete teir ^m®^)^ ^ extraction of
filled shells (vaJenoe electrons), and the shnnlesfc
rt “®^* lead, shells
radium,can have
hold many
eigdit each.
filled ^d n^t stable type of
slxslls ftnd, EfuSjecfc to spooisl exce^bfcioiia fTip- bonds are those tawôh
Mose in which there is a net transfer of electrons
coes and tlie outertoe_ innermay
sliell sheilabe are the 'filled tw
incomni pfp (an lomc bond). Sometime towed s, (a covalent
In order to bondlS
which have ecmal numbers of electrons attain a
in their outer êll resemble each other. Thus TOmpletetteelectrom
remure o SheU,
sharing of four a chemlca l’bond wUl.
complete electronir shtlte the are or
highlyeven six
reactive electrons
and wui
chemically unreactive gases, e.o** argon and
neon really , md sometitooms mes violent ly, combin
to achieve the egre^r with
înor co^tituenta of the atmosphere) Ele-
wlhll one electron in the outer shell are
w&f toose with mst one electron and too
potassium;
few are iMon Molecules must not be envisaged as rigid asepm.
^ two-eIe eoTO^
dT^’
bhes of atoms ^ electron
witti s uniform ctr5n
around the various nuclei. The lypropert distributed
ies of
CHEMISTRY F21 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
molecules are liest acceounted for by imagininqr the and 46 g of alcohol, both quantities will contain
atomic nuclei to be vibrating about mean posi¬ the same number of molecules. Similarly, 1 litre
tions the bonds acting like spiral springs, bolding of water with 342 g of sugar dissolved in it, and
the nuclei together. The electrons form a mobile 1 litre with 58-5 g of salt, will again contain the
cloud of negative charge which sorrounds the same nimiber of dissolved molecules because the
nuclei. The valence electrons, constituting the molecular weights of sugar (CuHsaOn) and salt
bond between pairs of atoms, also have no fixed (NaCl) are 342 and 58-5 respectively. In each
location but fluctuate about mean positions, more case the nmnber of grams taken is numerically
or less along the line joining the atoms. Al¬ equal to the molecular weight and this ammuit is
though the electrons are .shared, their mean called 1 mole of a substance or the gram moleeular
position is not usually halfwas^ between the two weight.
“
C[
‘ci’"'
Non - polar Water
Carbon tetrachloride Ammonia
Fig. 1. The arrangement in space of molecules CClj, KHg, and HÔ.
atoms but depends on the relative atomic sizes The word mole may also be used for atoms or
and charges. In the carbon -chlorine bond of ions and means, in general, that amount of mole¬
carbon tetrachloride the valence electrons are cules (or atoms or ions, as the ease may lie) such
subjected to electrical attractions due to 17 posi¬ that the total number of them is equal to the
tive charges on the cblorine nucleus and 6 positive number of atoms in 12 g of carbon (FIO). This
charges on the carbon nucleus. Although the nmnber, called Avogadro’s number, is approxi¬
forces due to the chlorine nucleus are partially mately 6 X 10“^. Thfis one mole of any .sub¬
compensated by the intervening negative charges stance contains 6 x 10®'“ molecules of that
of the complete electronic shells, they are stronger substance and this fact makes the mole a very
than the forces from the carbon nucleas, and the useful unit both in theory and practice.
valence electrons are therefore pulled towards the
chlorine atom which thus attains a net negative
charge, leaving the carbon with a coiTesponding Forces between Molecules.
positive charge. The magnitude of this charge is
less than that of an ion, and the carbon-chlorine Something has already been said (FI7, 18) about
the differences between solids, liquids, and gases
bond should be symbolised O - Cl to emphasise and we may now put the question: what forces
that separate positive and negative charges of are responsible for the organisation of molecules
equal magnitude are embodied in the structure, in liquids or solids and their disorganisation in
and are attracting each other as well as causing an the gaseous state? Questions of this kind are
electric field outside the molecule. of profound interest to chemists, physicists, and
A pair of equal and opposite charges like this is biologists.
called a dipole and is the electrical analogue of the
ordinary magnet which has north and south voles
instead of charges. Chemical bonds made with
dipoles are called volar bonds. Most molecules, unpolarizzd
both simple and complex, are bound with polar
bonds, but la the case of CCh the fom- bonds are
symmetrically arranged in space so that the
electric effects of the dipoles cancel each other
outside the molecule which therefore does not, as
a whole, act like a dipole. On the other hand, the ;■ + '!•. ■4“ i:
bond dipoles In a molecule may not cancel in this
way (Fig. 1) in which case the whole molecule
will possess the properties of a dipole e.g., when
subjected to an electric field it will rotate to align
its^ with the field just as a compass needle will
line up with a magnetic field. .
Atomic and Molecular Weights.

The masses of the electron and proton were
determined early in the 20th century by ingenious
experiments. The electronic mass is extremely
small, about 9 x lO'^g and the mass of a hydro¬ Fig. 2. Mutual polarisation polarized
of molecules by
gen atom is 1-7 X 10"**g, which indicates that the distortion of their electron clouds.
proton is 1,837 times heavier than the electron and
that the to
confined mass
the of the atom is almost completely-
nucleus. The forces -which act between molecules depend
The molecular weight of a compound is the sum mainly on the fact that the electrons orbiting a
of the atomic weights (FIO) of all the constituent molecule form a mobile cloud of negative charge.
atoms, e.g., water (HaO) and ethyl alcohol If a polar molecule is brought up to another
(C3H5OH) have molecular weights 18 aud 46 molecule, then the latter will become polarised,
respectively.
cule Thisthan
weighs more means
the that'
waterthemolecule
alcohol in
mole¬
the i.e., its electronic cloud -will be displaced with
ratio 46 to 18. If therefore we take 18 g of water respect to the nucleus. This is sho-sm in Fig. 2
and it is apparent that the formerly non-polar
mmmmimimmsmmmmmms-mmifmmm&m
mtermolecular forces. These forces are attrac n^ri i Fe+ + is termed oxidatimi,
tiona or binding forces. They Sn be disraited capable of
by violent vibratory or otter motiOM^hose aS nf oxidising
source is heat, as when a solid i.s first mefteu n^ri rJsfwi 9^. electron is
to form a gas. Since strong aStioSs ^rd{« to versi4 o?Fe+ h'to ‘=°“-
»i!cKEiESESfe1f„SSSS?.S SSE
m|ttogând ÎssSvS“fg*?llltSr f “ the'iôess:
Si “«
r.oT.VW4.rS llFs SSfoloT-SSoSS
S-SS
S”n'Jf.K’Sui
s^sr 1. tt, .„,o„ o,
iS“i,ss“SdLii£ia«
-2^=0 and 4o9°0 rw& ter'^mole-
enles are lihely to be liquid at ordinary temnern ??o ™®"c^JF23) provides a summary of
ture. and if the forces^ Wien tom even ments
stronger, they may be solid. Thus carbon the?r lSZ°to%
mi+pr oifoii^te of electrons m
tetrachloride, which contains five atoms boils at pifwp«?o i some of these
7 / 0, whereas glucose, with 24 atoms (OH n i SiotinioÛ .?tuinimnm, imdoubtedly poêss
is a solid, melting at 146''0. ChemicScom^mte mm metfd«°??^? rtf others, e.g., nitrogen, are
which are ionic in character are usually crystalline clearto^Snprt* always so
solids with high melting points (e a commnTi anit deimed and most of toe compounds formed
quicklime)
do exertbe™‘
molecules.
charges, strongerfois®,°WesfhirpeWn?nt
forces on one anWer toMco^vIfentWe^^"
‘ ' the centre of Table I are of thl
ACIDS AND BASES.

Metals and Salts. pH Values.
already been explained that chemical
rnements are conveniently classified according
the number of electrons in the outer shell, to)I Accord]^
A ^ tooccupies a unique structure
its electronic position in it Table
can be 1.
electrons which participa because
te inI1 one electron
w? to Ite outer sheU.
sodium It toerelfore
and potassium, as reaffly
having
chemical reactions and make bonds. Thus
ments with 1. 2, or at most 8 electrons in ele¬.> metal. Hîng H+ lost but
Its electron,
outer sheU (e.g., sodium, calcium, aluminiu toe rS^Si ®B'.&CPB, it can hardly
what be called isa
remains
m a proton (FIO). a stogie positive chm-^TrhiS
undergo reactions which
electrons, i.c.. they will attempt : Si^ compare sodium chloride. Nah Q-. wlto
10^0 compounds. These elements ! ST- „ I ’ w^hereas sodium chloride exists in toe
metallic, and when solid or liquid, conduct heat are
and but reatoly
Rnmti™”vrîonises
^ complete aheU ’ hfif'rlSrt'-i?® 1*^® m solution, Uciuid states anddoes
to
npirtî ■ o hand, elements which I® ®' .covMmt gasbecausein toe toe
pureH+ state,
ohlorme, oxygen respectively) can
ionic compounds by reacting with a metal,also form
though
toei^lves classed as non- a™£:
metals and can be gases, liquids, or solids at room typical example of what isSoâs
toperature. When a ietal K tee reac«'io».âii acid being defined as substanr
one or more atoms of non-metal, Si^s W
toe resulting which to solution can produce one a or severale
protons (hy&ogen ions),
of the metel sodium are toe chloride, carbona TOtetooe which csm acroptandprotons toe base as tetogli
ftom an
te
and sulphate. Other examples of indusfriaiiv to toe above reaction HCi is toe acid add.
important salts are silver CS and H.O
Bulphate (pSer?4ed to pffi
o^S B'Cid to base. Other common
t
and magnesium sulphate (epsom salts.) If 1^® reB<îon consists of the tracer
®?iS® hiclude
nitric fliCid (H"^sulphuric acid (2H+ -f lo!^-^)^d
ill nature but are found as compounds -{- 3SrOs"“), WiGu
a COTalent gas, is dissolved in water, an aiDTHn nifl ^
foresi acid
? complex structiue. The science
’”^*h toe extraction of reîoiylso occps: NH,
Jâtcr acts as -f HOH-j!
*^chr properties proton to the ammonia, acid, since it donates^
forming l!IHu+ toe
am usffl. Bmce many metals possess
mechamoal jmd electrical properties, nsefui ammoni^ ion. When a protoni
they find ile^^d’from
mowledge of their construction,
knowto.toP*®^f*^>.°f properties and
and hence toe
behaviour
conditions is of great Importance, cSl^’ top charged ion. is
only remember toe imperfectly imder-
Phenomenon of metal fatigue which
ted to
of the early Comet aircraft to appreci- orner M abaw. This phenomenon is called
other solvents. self-
othMâs*? ™ a«rfd mid the
lo
aS tJlUKrtSfi"'"*'”
CM iS'SitfS ' eacn thiM 1Orfull
xiy^^lf*?«
aiid^Wch
OH ■water
ions.ionises
However
is verywhen
smaU,n
compoimds are toe salts in whieh^ toe stronger acid, 4.e.. one that cratatos can produce more
IQ-^ moles
mâl is present as positive ion (cation), and toe each m-hydroge ^«r,rt
jB composed of one or sweral n ions increases and that of
^^^■toctslUo elements. Common anions are top iteafto^®nf’i?®i*^®®^ ts added, the coMen-
côride, bromide, iodide, nitrate, sulphate uhns- pûct of the amounts of H+
always and OH” ions will
nîip/^ te constant?®®® and
c^spon
equaltogly, so(s^
that toe
carbonate.
f°™ Metal
opfy sonewith of ione chemicalf^nff®.
type ‘simut to
equfiibrium). It is impoitaht to be able
Np
Na and + oPter shell elec^n foraSI this is done by
1 electron: calcium with two outertom reference to the concentration of
totei^dmp ®S!“SthB of acid solutions aSl
hydrogen ions. The numerical measure is ob¬ between two oxygen atoms. The actual strength
tained by taidng minus the logarithm of the of such a bond is only about 10 per cent of that of
hydrogen ion concentration and this number is an ordinary covalent bond, and not very much
called the pS mine of the solution. Thus in pure energy is required to disrupt it. In terms of
water, per
thelitre
hydrogen most chemical reactions the hydrogen bond is
moles and the ion concentration
pH value is 7.
is therefore 1Q~’
therefore not of great significance, but it is -vita!
Vinegar, -which is a dilute solution of acetic in reactions which occur with small changes in
acid in -water, has a hydrogen ion concentration energy, i.e., biochemical reactions, where the
of about lO'* moles per litre: its pS is 4. Thus, making and breaking of hydros'en bonds is fre¬
solutions with a pH value below 7 are acidic (they quently of supreme importance. It must also be
contain an excess of hydrogen ions) and those with
a pH value greater than 7 are basic (they contain
an
•s- Hydrogen Bond ->
mostexcess of OH"
biological ions).areMany
reactions chemical
extremely and
sensitive
to small changes in the pH and steps must fre-
auently be taken to adjust the pH to an optimmn
value for a given reaction. This is achieved by
means of substances known as buffers, which have
the capacity of mopping up or producing hydrogen
ions and to maintain a constant pH. An ex¬
tO'x-H
.X
. • Ox--H
"X
.
ample of this buffering action is the prevention of
stomach acidity by the use of bicarbonates.
H
THE HYDEOGEN BOND AND WATER.
Fig. 3. Formation of a hydrogen bond between
Where hydrogen is covalently bonded to a neighbouring water molecules.
small, fairly strongly electronegative atom, i.e.,
one which reauirea 1, 2, or 3 electrons to fill its
outer shell, the one electron which can be supplied borne in mind that all biological reactions take
by hydrogen is not shared equally by the two place in an aqueous medium which is highly
atoms hut is pulled closer to the electronegative hydrogen-bonded and it is well kno-wn that water
atom. The most common examples of this is the essential substrate for all life processes,
phenomenon are liquid water and ice. Here the although it is not always appreciated that water
electronegative atom is oxygen, as shown in is also the most anomalous of chemical compounds.
Eig. 3. The dots represent the outer shell It is one of very few substances that are denser in
electrons of oxygen and the crosses the electrons the liquid than in the solid state (ice floats on
contributed by hydrogen. The oxygen atom 1 water) and it is unique in that upon heating the
exerts a strong puU on the lone electron supplied liquid from its melting point to 4°C. a further
by the hydrogen, so that, at the position of the contraction takes place. From our discussion on
oxygen atom 2 it appears as though the hydrogen intermolecular forces it is apparent that a chemical
is in fact an ion (H-f). devoid of electrons, and eompmmd made up of smaU molecules, being not
since a pair of electrons of oxygen atom 2 are very easily polarised, should exist in the gas
already pointing in the direction of this hydrogen state at ordinary temperature, and this is the case
atom, a weak bond will be formed. Thus the for other substances whose molecules have ap¬
“ hydrogen bond ” consists of one hydrogen atom proximately the same dimensions as those of
Table 1.
ELECTRONS IN OUTER SHELL (VALENCE ELECTRONS)
3 4 5 6 7 8
,2 .
Hydrogen
Nitrogen Neon
Magnesium Aluminium Carbon Oxygen
Sodium Calcium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphiu Chlorine Aigon
Potassium Bromine
Silver Radium Iodine

Metals Non-metals
Positive ions Covalent Negative Ions
or covalent
Table 2
Class of Elements Example Origin or Use

Compound
Hydrocarbon C.H Octane Nat. OH deposit, ftiel
Benzene Coal taj, solvent, and raw material
Alcohols 1 0,H.0 Ethyl alcohol Formed by fermentation of sugar
Amides O.H,Oj!l i Acetamide ' Constituents of synthetic polymers, e.g., nylon
Lipids C.H.0 1 Olive oil Found in plant seeds, used as food energy
Carbohydrates C.H,0 Sugar, starch, Occur in Nature — sources of energy and plan
cellulose structural materials
Amino acids 0,H,N.O.(S) Glycine, alanine BuUding blocks of proteins
Steroids. 0.H.0 Cholesterol Hormone substances
Terpenes C.H.0 Qeraniol 1 Occur in Nature — perfumes
_
water. CO2 {carbon dioxide), NHs. and
The abnormal physical properties of water HCI.
are , ^
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
aue to the extensive hydrogen bonding which Governing Chemical Reactions.
liQuid and solid forms. Indeed, ice Large amounts of energy are locked nn wT+nirv
IS the most perfectly hydrogen-bonded structure, molecules and some of this energy
is usedî?'!^
electrical
retam some of tliis chemical and mechanical)
riactiom Like other &it is “of
subject to
energy
crystalline regions are short-hved, certain laws, such as the law of conservation
nf
second*^
Px^’iVrB times enough
a snapshot of short eveiT energy
or which but
destroyed, statescanthat energy cannot
be converted from be'
onecreated
form
Htjuiu xvater. during the reaction may be converted into heat
andAnother
this is freanently the case (FI*?).
very important law deals with the
ORGANIC CHEmSTRY-THE CHEMISTRY TOe^rUctton “of

OP CARBON COMPOONDS. combine to give ammonia, forms the basis of the
Of all the hnndred-odd elements which are now the molecular ffeSe?
llure\ r<4i6 of 1:3? f
two nSidOT S
combTu^hi'
detail, caibon. is luiique in the manner in which ammonia being produced ie No -I- ‘^TT _
It can conibme with itsed to give rise to very large Hoxvever, amiionia also deSjnmo^^^^^ Tn^4;
molecules (polymers) which can have molecular nitrogen and hydrogen and at a certniri Qi-Ho-fi
weights of several millions. Carbon compoimds rates of the two oSingreacd^^^^^^
at f S“s
Stet tysSoVpoSt oh'! ,£i 5';5raS»s''?ati'tharif Sf,
0^'fipaS%i”{fC%SSF"S'^d'*
stable than the ordinary covalent bonds so tS SeSf and fuel ®f
it^spsss
EL4“i“HIia“4
bonded to it. The remaining electroiS form ^
niobde pool, ,so that the wh5f molûle is easily very much
to form liquid water, but this
wlKould^bf^^^
polarised
other md can
substance s. Itbe follows
made to react with many “■ “® f <^rmed.
that a large variety
of compoimds can be obtained using onlv the
elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen if the c?(*tows(s.
c“l,B wS^S c&S.Tomtai*’^^^ ^

c|^cal*bond '^“ShTtl ^
“ilnlKthT^^^^
To achieve the gro^ of mmleS w’fche ~e^MpeSrei^» collisions
elongation of the dibon chaiS il n^ mu^y Snno *^®“ ^ de¬
feasible technically, although to natiie th^ iâ ®®®dtr with eplosive violence. In
common process, brought about bv emrvmps SGiall mimber of eoUfsions are of
(E25(l)). Hoêr, sS mSeetoes el^Sfv energy for reaction to take place,
fchose with four or six electron bonds can rea!? the energy of activation, is
with one another to form polymers fu ndfUfivS? np ^^4 ^P^rtant factor controlling the rate
many molecto^ can ^S^ rekctlcm?^^^ deaction. The combination of
to form more complex molecules with the elimi nf iiormally has a large energy
nation of a stoipirmoSe such as wtftr and the two gases do not react to
ammonia. Eixamples of the latter tvnp nfnîv^ ^though thennodynamics predicts
ammo-acid units (Table 2), the polysac^ridpi iT to® activation energy lowered.
(Ctobohydrates). such as starito mTcSos^ *^'® which one or
made up of condensed sugar molecules (Tabto It’ ®w”^ species are adsorbed. The
and synthetic condSSafion^ptoj^rs of ^?ds anli
alcohols known ^ nolvestera mirt-iô Platmim) and the reacting gan is strong . toe added solidenijugh
(e.?.,
Additional polymers alK) flgin« largely in ohMufetd on ^°di^ ^ toe moleonles, so that,
technology. exanipIesbStag pedy^td chtorir^ "^‘to.fdd®to« toolecide. reaction takM
(P\TI). polyolefin® (e.^rpolytheilto nnd nSl deatolf- The solid which itseE do®
styrene. mree (e.g.. poiytnene) and poly- caialvst. not participate to the chemical
Its function is to promote chSal
CHEMISTRY F2S THE WORUD OF SCIENCE
reactions between substances which, because of Surface effects become significant in processes
the high activation energy, would not react in its where the ratio of surface area to bulk volume is
absence. Catalysts find applications not only in large, for instance, where matter is finely dis¬
many industrial processes but are also extensively persed. This is the case in the technology of
used by living organisms, where they are called paints, printing inks, detergency, dairy products,
enzymes. Current theories hold that the reacting air and water pollution, and solutions of poly¬
molecule fits into a hole or groove, like a key into mers. The above-mentioned properties are also
a lock, on the enzyme protein where it is held utilised in processes which involve the deposition
while the reaction takes place: an example of an of substances on surfaces, e.g., textile finishing
enzyme catalysed reaction is the breakdown of (water- and crease-proofing), metal coating, herbi¬
starch by the body. This consists of several cides, cosmetics?, and adhe.slves. Perhaps the
steps, each of which is controlled by its own most important field in which surface behaviour is
specific enzjTne. These biological catalysts are one of the determining factors is biology. AU
much more efficient than those used in synthetic llvin,g cells are separated from each other by
reactions, both in their specificity and in the membranes, and nutrients and other chemicals
iowering of the energy of activation {i.e., the are adsorbed on, and diffuse through, these mem¬
increase in the reaction rate). Sometimes a branes, the nature and action of which are as yet
foreign molecule which bears a similarity to the very imperfectly imderstood (F27(l)).
molecule whose reaction is to be catalysed, will
combine with a catalyst. If this foreign mole¬
cule is very strongly held by the catalyst then the Photochemistry.
latter can no longer perform its function and is Like other forms of energy, light, both visible
said to be poisoned. This is also true for enzymes : and ultraviolet, can cause chemical changes to
e.g., carbon monoxide and cyanides act as poisons take place and, conversely, some reactions will
by combining with certain unportant enzymes and give rise to the emission of radiation, e.g..
thus inhibit the biochemical reactions on which fluorescence. The ultimate source of most of
the functioning of organs depends. the energy on each is the radiation from the sim
which, by the process of photosynthe.sis (PS8(1)).
can be converted by green plants into the chemical
SOBIE USEFUL APPLICATIONS OP energy stored in coal, oil, and carbohydrates.
The mechanism of photosynthesis is one of the
CHEMISTEY. most baffling problems in chemical kinetics.
The application of basic chemical and physical In photography a film of gelatin, in which are
principles to the manufacturing industries has led embedded small grains of silver bromide, is ex¬
to the technological revolution which began at the posed
This isto light, whentoa consist
believed " latent of
image ” is formed.
submicroscopie
turn of the century and is still gathering momen- specks of .silver in some of the grains, but the
tiun. Although it is impossible to cover fuUy mechanism of its formation is still imcertain.
the areas in which the chemical sciences find
application, a few of the more important fields The latent image can be “ developed ” into a
are noted below: negative
dissolving image
away (silver) which issilver
the unreduced then bromide.
“ fixed ” by
Electrochemistry. Analytical Cihemlstry.

Electrochemistry deals with processes in which This is an important branch of Chemistry and
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy deals with the identification and quantitative
or ince versa. The most common examples are estimation of substances, often in complex mix-
the dry battery and the lead storage battery (L13), tm-es. ’TOere a quantitative analysis is to be
although the generation of electricity by fuel cells achieved, the component under study has first to
(L43) is fast becoming of industrial importance. be separated in the pure state and then a suitable
Conversely, if a current is passed through an method must be found to determine its concentra¬
ionic solution, a chemical reaction will take place, tion in the mixture. In earlier days most analyti¬
and this principle is employed in the electrolytic cal techniques were based on chemical reactions
refining of metal ores and in metal plating pro¬ which were specific for the compound to be sepa¬
cesses. rated. Thus, sodium chloride and sodium sul¬
phate can be separated by making nse of the fact
that many metal sidphates are insoluble in water,
Surface Chemistry. so that if a solution of, say, barium chloride is
added to the mixture, barium sulphate wlU pre¬
Surface chemistry is based on the fact that solid cipitate as soUd and can be removed from the
and liauid surfaces have properties which are sodium chloride by filtration. If the amount of
different from those of matter in the bulk state. mixture initially used and the amount of pre¬
A molecule A situated in the bulk interacts with cipitated barium sulpliate are known, then, from
its neighbours, but the various forces will cancel, the chemical formulae for barium and sodium
as shown in Fig. 4. For a molecule B in the sulphates, BaSOi and NajSOi, it is easy to calcu¬
late the percentage of sodium sulphate in the
k Jfg original mixture.
During the last 26 years chemical analytical
techniques have gradually been superseded by
•<>-<>A<>-<><)<^0-0 SURFACE much more refined physical methods. Most im¬
o o o o portant among these are the spectroscopic methods
which can distinguish between small differences in
o o o o o o o o energies associated with the vibrational motions of
different chemical bonds. Some of these tech¬
o o o o o o o niques not only measure energy differences but can
detect minute amoimts of energy, such as the
Fig. 4— Siuface Forces: molecules within the energy liberated by a burning candle at a distance
solid (or Uduld) are subject to balanced forces, of 1 mile.
but for molecules iu the surface there is a The detection, identification, and sometimes the
resultant downward force. quantitative estimation of very minor constituents
of mixtmes is frequently of great importance in
industrial processes and products. For instance
surface there is a net inward pull. The surface the presence of I g of iron in a ton of edible oil will
is therefore a high energy state and thermo¬ rapidly cause the oil to turn rancid. Another
dynamics predicts that substances wfil try to example of the importance of traces of chemical
minimise their total surface area. In a liquid this eoihpounds is provided by flavour and aroma of
leads to the formation of spherical drops. The foodstuffs and perfumes. Frequently the charac¬
solid, on the other hand, will attract vapours and teristic, agreeable odour of a product is due to
liquids which deposit surface films and thus re¬ minute concentrations of one or several' fairly
duce its surface energy. One application of simple organic compounds which at Iiigher con¬
adsorbed films, catalysis^ has already been dis- centrations possess a quite unpleasant odour.
ouBsedi '
■ The isolation of these compounds from natural
CHEMISTHV Fae THE WORLD CF SCIENCE
products such as fruit or flowers and tlieir identifl- are being made not only to synthesise
new
but to "gain a betto
ingenuity of tne analytical clieinist, mecbanism
Ih-obably ofthe
drugmost
action,
si^flcant developments^
Conclusion. twenty years will occur in the field
It will now be readUy seen that the science of and gS fmctiom
chenustry covers a large field which extends from proteins has provided ofthe StealiKtte
impetus for further
occiOTtog molecules with tomole-
the tavestigation tato thfcheL™ry X phyto of
these and other biologically active moleeulpq
of K iuvolvpvery Other outstanding
nature of solved in the not too distant which
problems may well be
future include the
pto™3 the how and why mechanism of membrane action, muscle con-
0. ,-pparenOy simple chemical reactions, to the traction and nerve impulse propagation in mole
construction mai,eriate. sciencesterms. Where a hmted yS “gfthe
of physics, chemistry, and biology parted
new fields which have developed rapidly ways to follow their own separate paths they are
^®e®^t yeara ;^troleuin chemicals rankhigh. now seen to he converging and the areas of over
centered on the oil com- lap are gradually incrSiiiS. as the Xecular
p,t3iies, produces a large variety of substances, concepts of chemistry are providing a meaTi*^ nf
polymer raw materials, sol- studying biological woeeSses to terns to Sab-
nh?f 0^.1,, reftomg. waxes, frran by-products
Pharmaceutical lished physical laws and mechanisms. This part
of the story wUl now be taken up to the section
chemistry, too, is rapidly developing and attempts that foUows. secrion
IV. BIOLOGY— THE SCIENCE OF LIFE

WHAT BIOLO&Y IS ABOUT. chemistry, concerned with the physics and chem¬
istry of organisms, and Cytology, the study of
Biology embraces the study of all living things cell stracture, are losing such identity
which exist on earth at the present time and also once have had. Molecular biology asisthey may
a term
me recognisable remains of those that are extinct. frequently used in describing this rapidly expand-
Living things or organisms range from the I mg and fascmating field of research.
apparently simple micro-organisms such as viruses
and bacteria to the largest animals and plants.
Living Processes. Cells were first seen m 1665 by Eobert Hooke

The enormous variation and complexity of when he looked at a piece of cork under his
living processes make the task of understanding primitive microscope. It was not imtil 1839
and defining life a very difflcult one. Every living Imwever, that Schlieden and Schwann produced
organisin undergoes continual physical and the cell doetrme which visualised the cell as both
chemical change which, to spite of tiieir diversity, the structural and functional unit of living organ-
referred to as the metabolism of the organism. mtmn. Exceptions may be found to the eeU
Metabolism involves the processing of food doetrme. For example, some protozoa, n.igao
imtem^, the production of waste products, and and fungi show very complex internal organisatio
all the mtermediate stages between these whereby out me not divided into cells; they are usuallyn
energy andmatter are provided for tiie operation, cffled acelMar organisms. The viruses also con¬
maintenance, and growth to ihe organism. These stitute a dmculty smce to many waj^ they are
rearotions are under very exact chemical or nervous imennediafe between living and dead matter.
control at every stage and can be slowed down or They are absolutely dependent on cells of other
speeded up as the need arises. Thus the organism qrgamsnw for their continued existence. Outside
can react to changes to the environment to which hraig cells they are inert molecules which may
It lives, adjusting its activities in relation to the ex¬ take a crystalline form. Inside a host cell, how-
ternal changes. Ptoally, organisms can reproduce erer. they_ become disease-producing parasites
Mther in an identical or very slightly modified which multiply and show many of the other pro-
term. In this process new tadividualB are pro¬ perties of living organisms. They am minute and
duced and the species continues to survive. the complex organisation usually associated
Uifferenoes between ofifepring and iiarents can, wllto cells. Notwithstandtog their somewhat
under certain olreumstanees, act cumulatively ambôus position, the viruses are often treated
over many generations and so form the basis of as though they were stogie cells or parts of cells
evolutionary change to which new species of and theix extreme simplicity has made them Ideal
orgamsm are ultimatelF formed. ^tenal for many types of research at this level.
The bacteria also lack some of the properties of
cells but the diflfereuces are not so clearly defined
Molecular Biology. as they are m the case of viruses.
It has been evident for many years that the
most fundamental aspects of these living processes Structure and Function o£ Cells.
oooim in basic structural unitsknown as cells. We
shall examtoe this level of organisation first before Though the constituent cells of a multicellular
we atteiwt to look at the toger questions of the Organ^ are usually specialised to perform parti¬
etg^'ûtion of multicellular aniTriaia and plants cular functidns, they have a great many features to
Md tteir toter^tions to groups or populations. common. Thecenisoftensaldtobemadeupofa
The study of living processes at the molecular and substance called protoplasm, a term for the flmda-
oeu level has been given a tremendous impetus to mental^tenal of life which dates from the 19th
rec^t yearn by the advent of new techniques c^t. Protoplasm has two main constituents, the
imicn enablemicroscopic and submlcroscopic parts cytoplasm and the nucleus, and Is bounded on the
of to to examined. Physicists, chemists, and outode by a ceU or plasma membrane. Plant
matnepiaticians have found themselves working < ceUs generaBy have an additional wall composed
alongside biologists In this field and several of the prnuarily of cellulose and used for support.
’toen made by physical nucleus IS toe controlling centre of toe cell and The
has
scientiste. _ At t^ level of organisation the tradi- rather limited metabolic capabilities. The cyto-
tionm (UviBion to Biology into Botajoy, the study plaan contains various subutote which operate
to
ej m®’*its, and Eoology. the study of animals, has produce ener^ and new cell structure during toe
Uttle mining. Even the more recent Genetics, normalmetahoUsm to toe cell.
the study of mheritaoioe, Biophiîcs and Bio- Cells tSike up the raw materials for metabolism
BIOLOGY Fa 7 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
through the cell membrane from extracellular these substances in living organisms. The pre¬
fluid which surrounds them. The nutrients in¬ sence of a radioactive " labelled ” element in any
clude _ carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, of the products of metabolism can be determined
yitamins, and water. Fats and carbohydrates are by means of Geiger and scintUlation counters.
important principally as sources of energy, though The studies involving radioactive isotopes have
both types of compound are found in permanent shown more clearly than any others that living
cell structure. Proteins are complex substances of material is never static hut is in a state of dynamic
high molecular weight which contain nitrogen in equiUhrium. Substances are constantly broken
addition to the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen down and replaced by other substances so that an
found in the other compoimds. They are of organism may appear to be more or less unchang¬
fimdamental importance in the structure and ing but its components are always turning over.
function of the cell and are built up of a number
of sunple nitrogen-containing organic molecules lAgJit Microscopy.
called amino acids. There are twenty amino
acids occurring commonly in nature so that the Many of the particles which can he isolated and
number of possible combinations in large protein studied have b^n identified within the living cell
molecules is auite clearly enormous. A group of by means of the light micrcscope. Especially
proteins whose significance is well established are useful in this respect have been the phase contrast
the enzymes which are the catalysts of chemical and interference modifications which make struc¬
reactions in living cells. Each enzyme will tures of different refractive index visible and do
control and speed up a specific reaction even not depend on differences in light absorption as
though it is present in very small amounts and is does the ordinary instrument.
usually unchanged at the end of the process. A
large number of inorganic mineral salts are
essential for cells to function normally. Some, Electron Microscope.
such as sodium, potassium, and calcium salts, are In light microscopy true images of particles
needed in considerable auantity; others are smaller than the wavelength of light cannot be
reauired only in trace amounts and these include formed. Great difficulty is experienced in re¬
iron, copper, and manganese. The trace elements solving particles much smaller than 0-5 microns
are usually important constituents of enzyme (0-0005 millimetre) in size. The electron micro¬
systems. Vitamins are also nec^sary in very scope, which uses a beam of electrons instead of
small amounts and it seems reasonable to conclude light, is capable of much greater resolution be¬
that their function is also a catalytic one in parts cause electrons behave as rays of extremely short
of some enzyme systems. wavelengths. Details as fine as 20 Angstroms
(0-002 microns) have been resolved and a tre¬
mendous amount of structure has been revealed
I. CYTOPLASM. by this instrument. Howe-per, many of the
objects which are weU known from electron
For a long time cytoplasm was thought to be a microscope studies have not been isolated nor have
homogenous and structureless substrate in which ftmctions been ascribed to them. Conversely,
enzymes occurred as part of a general colloidal much of the biochemletry of cells cannot be linked
system. With the refinement of techniaues such to known structures. One of the great limitations
as electron microscopy and ultracentrfiugation, of the electron microscope is that it can only be
more and more identifiable components have been used to examine very thin slices of dead material.
found within the cytoplasm. It now seems certain
that the material other than these recognisable
particles is not a structureless matrix but a highly X-ray Diffraction.
organised and variable complex at the molecular A method which can reveal a great deal of
level information about the arrangement of constituent
parts in very complex biological moMcules is that
Identification o£ Components: recent technignes. of X-ray diffiractioa. In this method X-rays are
Ultracentrifuge. reflected from regularities in the molecular
structure so as to form a pattern characteristio of
When soft tissues such as liver are ground up in the structure. Studies of X-ray diffraction
a homogeniser, which usually takes the form of a patterns can be made on living material so that the
plunger fitting fairly tightly into a glass tube, the internal shape of biological molecules can he
cells are broken up but the smaller particles worked out and the changes, if any. foUovred
escape destruction. The particles ifflnain in a during phases of activity. In many -ways X-ray
highly active biochemical state if the salt concen¬ diffraction has been useful in filling the gaps
tration of the liquid into which they are released between biochemical studies of molecnlai behav¬
by homogenisation is more or less the same as that iour and the essentially static view of cell structure
within the oeU from which they came. Early obtained from the electron microscope.
failures to isolate cell firactlons were almost all
attributable to osmotic difficulties in which differ¬
ences of salt concentration led to the movement of
water into or out of the particles and to their sub¬ Constituents ot Cytoplasm.
sequent destruction. The homogenate can be The following are some of the particulate and
treated in a centrifuge in which high speed rotation membranous constituents of cytoplasm whlchhave
subjects the particles to forces many thousands
times ^nater than gravity. As a result the of been identified and analysed -with varying degrees
success by these and many other techniques:
heaviest particles, such as the nucM, are deposited
first on the bottom of the centrifuge tdhe. The 1. Mitochondria and Oxidation.
llaoid is then transferred to another tube and the
process repeated at a higher speed which brings Mitochondria vary ta shape from cylindrical
down subtly lighter particles called noltodiondrla. rods to spheres and in size from 0-2 to 8-0 microns.
The next collection of particles which can he When seen in the li-ving cell they are In constant
obtained is called the microsomal fraction. By motion. The \riiole structure is enclosed witl^ a
careful use of this teehnlaue. biochemists can pro¬ thin double membrane, the limer layer of which is
duce a variety of constituents which can he thrown Into folds extending acrtBS the central
studied in the absence of all the other reacting cavity of the mltoehondrion and dividing it into
systems of the coll. amali chambers. The function of mitochondria is
to pro-ride energy for the reactions of the rest of the
Radioactive Isoloves. ceU. Almost the whole machinery for the oxida¬
tion of foodstuffs is to be found in the mito¬
In many of the studies of ceil chemistry which chondria and, as might be expected, is related in
have been made on whole cells, on cell fractions, or some way to the complex structure. Slight
On isolated enzyme systems, progress has been damage to the mitochondrion -will render it unable
due in alarge part to the availability of isotopes. to carry out a complete cycle of oxidative proces¬
With the aid of compounds piepaared in the ses. Destruction of parts of the double membrane
laboratory and labelled with the radioactive Systran prevents the production of energy-rich
Isotopes of dements such as carbon, hydrogen, phosphate bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and pho^homa. bio¬ in which energy is stored and tranôrted about
chemists now follow the metabolic fate of the cell.
BIOLOGY F28 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
Tk^rebs Cycle. aad thus enter an excited state. It is thought
The oxidative reactions which produce the chlorophyll then loses electrons which pass
energy are quite unlike those in which hydro- either to a recently discovered protein called fer-
carbons are burnt in the laboratory. They pro- rodoxin or to another oxidising agent, plasto-
ceed through a large number of controUed steps aiunone. The electrons from plastoquinone are
during which the energy is slowly evolved. The transferred via a complex series of steps involving
basic fuel substances, carbohvdrates, fats, and cytochrome chain back to the chlorophyll
proteins, are broken down outside the mito- During these sequences oxygen is liberated from
ehondria to four major intermediate products ^™er molecules Md energy-rich phosphate bonds
which are pyruvic acid, oxalaeetic acid, acetic acid produced. The production of ATP in this
and ketoglutaric acid. These acids diffuse into reaction, which can only take place in the light, is
the rmtochondria and are oxidised in a cyclical ealled photosynthetic phosphorylation and, in this
system of reactions called the Krebs or citric acid respect, makes plants independent of stored
cycle which ultimately leads to the production eartohydrate as their primary energy source,
of carbon dioxide and water. The actual oxida- reactions so far described have not involved
tion of the various compounds participating in ppbon dioxide and though it is possible to make
the cycle is brought about by a series of ensymes system operate solely in this way it is not usual
descnbed as an electron transport chain. Oxida- “r it to do so. Normally the electrons from
non m these cases is essentially a removal of rerrodoxm are passed to another electron accepting
electrons from the substrate, invariably accom- system together with hydrogen ions from water,
panled by an equal number of hydrogen nuclei. same time, as recent isotope studies have
The electrons, sometimes with and sometimes revealed, carbon dioxide is combined with a 5-
without the hydrogen nuclei, are passed from one parbon sugar and the resulting compound immed-
compound to another until eventually they com- lately sphts into two molecules of a 3-carbon,
bine with oxygen to form water. One of the best Phosphoglyceric acid. The reduced electron
taown electron transport systems is that involving system which has oxidised ferrodoxln now comes
iron-containing substances called cytochromes. into operation and, together with energy from
. An example of a typical stage in the Krebs cycle synthesise sugar and starch from
IS the conversion of succinic acid to fumaric acid I'll®. 3-carbon compounds. The reactions in
under the control of the ensyme succinic dehydro- which carbon dioxide is taken up or “fixed”
genase. Both acids are compounds containm^ then reduced during the formation of sugar,
four carbon atoms but the latter has two electrons cup S® op ip tbe dark unlike those of photo-
and two hydrogen nuclei fewer than the former synthetic phosphorylation described earlier,
which is therefore said to be oxidised during the The Importance of this process whereby plants
conversion. The electrons are accepted by the oo-p make use of the energy in sunlight to fix
ur.st member of a chain of cytochromes which is carbon dioxide and produce carbohydrates is
thus reduced and the hydrogen is set free as hydro- duite clear. The whole animal population of the
gen ions. The electrons are passed down the world, including man, is dependent on plants for
Cham of cytochromes which are reduced in turn food smce_ even the meat-eating carnivores prey
and re-oxidise the earlier members of the chain. PPon herbivores. Although scientists continue to
In the final stage the reduced cytochrome is iPCike efforts to produce adequate food materials
oxidised by oxygen which accepts the electrons from simple compounds, there is still no better
and combines with the hydrogen ions to form machmery known for doing this than the plant
water. These steps produce energy, but this does ooU- Man is dependent on photosynthesis not
not all appear as heat because some is used to only for his supplies of food but also for much of
drive a reaction which consumes energy. The
first mw of thermodynamics states that such a
coupling is necessary if a high energy compound ./-S.
is to be produced. The energy consuming (P) (Pi
?®^Son IS the conversion of adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) with its - A T
ene^y-rich phosphate bond. The whole process S — S
IS known as oxidative phosphorylation. The ^ — r—
mitochondria produce far more energy than they
require and the ATP passes into the C3rtoplasm for /"AN /Cn
use m the rest of the cell. r-3C— , T a
S. Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts are particles found in cells in the
green parts of plants. In fact they contain the
green piment which is called chlorophyll. They
are mvolved m the extremely important process
taOwn as photosynthesis in which energy absorbed
from light is imed to synthesise carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide and water, oxygen being
formed as a by-product.
Chloroplasts are disc-shaped or flat ellipsoids
trom 2 to 20 microns across, possessing a complex
structure which in many ways is reminiscent of
that found in mitochondria. A typical double
membrane surrounds the structure and the inside
is made up very largely of a stack of discs consist¬
ing of paired membranes connected at their ends
to form closed systems. This seems to be a further
development of the type of lamellated structure
seen dividing tlie central cavity of a mitocliond*
rion. The chlorophylls and other pigments, such
as the orange yeUovs^ carotenoids, seem to he
arranged to layers a stogie molecule thick to the
ehloroplast discs so that they are maximally
exposed to light.
Fig. 1. Nudeio AeUt. A portion of a DNA molecule
Photosynthesis, I showing how It la made up of two strands of
nucleotides. âCh nucleotide consists of a base,
wliloh may be Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G),
In photosynthesis there are two somewhat
independent sets of reactions, one needing light or Cytosine (0), united to the Pentose Sugar, Peaoxy-
and the other going on to the dark. The primary riboee (S), in turn joined to Phoaphorie Add (P). The
nucleotides are linlied through the pho^horic add
process is the absorption of light quanta by the groups. The two strands are held together by hydro¬
chlorophyll which causes some of the electrons of gen, bonde between bases, adenine linking only with
its molecule to pass from one orbital to another thymine, and guanine only with cytosine.
BIOUOQY 1=29 the world OF SCIENCE
his fuel, since much of the conibustible material and the desoxyiibose of desoxyxibonnoleic acids
remov^ from the earth is of plant origin. In this (I)NA). We shall return to the latter when the
respect atemuc ener^ may eventually prove to be nucleus is considered. Four nitrogen-containing
an adecLuate alternative. bases occur in nucleic acids and in ENA — adenine,
cytosine, guanine, and uracil. In DNA the uracil
3. Endoplasmic reticulum, Eibosomes, and Protein ^ replaced by thymine.
Synthesis.
A network of elaborate and oriented double Protein Synthesis.
membranes e^t^ idthin parts of the cytoplasm Olhere is good evidence that ENA is manufact-
can be seen m the electron microscope. In the ured exclusively within the nucleus and sub¬
space between the pans of double membranes sequently moves out into the cytoplasm. Some
smaU granul^ are visible, either free in the space of it, called ribosomal ENA, unites with protein
or attached to a membrane. The whole system to form the granules, or ribosomes, of the endo-
is called the endoplasmic reticulum or ergasto- plasmic reticulum. Another form, called mes-
plas^ When the cell is homogenised and centrl- senger ENA. also migrates from the nucleus to
fuged the endoplasmic reticulum appears as the associate with ribosomes but does not become
microsomal fraction. Biochemical analysis after incorporated into their permanent structure. It
separation of the membranous from the gramdar is also well established that the ribosomes are
components reveals that the former is composed closely linked with protein synthesis in the cell
largely of phospholipids and cholesterol, which are because radioactive amino acids, when fed to an
compounds closely related to fats, and the latter animal, are always found first in the ribosomes
of ribonucleic acid (ENA). before any other cell structure. The specification
for a particular protein is not carried on the riho-
Nndeic Acids which is merely the factory for making these
™ ‘
The term nucleic acid covers a class of sub-, ENA
complexcarries
molecules. It is from
instructions thought
the that messenger
nucleus which
stances, usually of great complexity, bunt up from specify exactly the protein to be synthesised at a
smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide ribosome. This is done by means of a code in
consists of a base, united to a sugar, in turn united which a “triplet” of three nucleotide bases
to phosphoric acid. Nucleotides are joined codes one amino acid (Pig. 2). Thus on a long
together in a linear fashion by means of the molecule of ENA. three adjacent uracil bases
phosphoric acid residues to form a chain from would specify an amino acid called phenylalanine,
which the bases project at right angles (Pig. 1). If these were followed on the ENA molecule by
Two types of sugar are found in naturally occur- one uracil and two guanines then the amino acid
ring nucleic acids and these axe the ribose of ENA tryptophan would be specified and this would be
CZ3
Fig. 2. A portion of a molecule of xneasenger UNA, associated Tiith a riboaomc and synthesiaing a protein. The base
sequence on the messenger BNA has been determined by the helix labelled ivlth the downward pointing arrow in Fig 3.
Aden™ s^ciaes Uracil <U), Oytoalne spedflea Guanine (G), Thymiho specifies Adenine CA), and Guanine spedfiee
Ojôaine (O). The ribosome is moving down, the messenger BNA strand “reading" the triplet code. Amfao
acid 4, which is phenyialazdne spedfled by UTTU, has .just been joined to three other amino adds' and its canier
BNA released to the cytoplasm. Amino acid 5, tryptophan specified by UGG, la attached to its carrier ENA and
in position ready to be joined to the protein chain by the ribosome* Amino add 6, mftthfnnfaa spedfled bytTAG
is attached to Its carrier BNA but has not been brought Into position on the messenger ENA strand. Other aanlno
acids and carrier BNA molecules exist free in the côplasm and have not yet .
BIOLOGY
F3O THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
SSS-ISHSH
S |£=iSiS~£!
catalysing every reaction wltlun the cell will be
specified and built up on the appropriate ENA
la j understanding of protein synthesis
f™«îeutal importance to the whole of H. NUCLEUS.
Dioiogy and has particular significance in studies rTTi, „
soimding ,
on cancer where ceU growth becomes abnorWl. Known <,0,^1;,^?nuclear membrane, nucleus
a mass are
of material
the sur-
as chromatm, and a small sphere called the
a lino a i- nucleolus. The nuclear membrane is a double
4. The Golgi Apparatus. stracture very much like the membranes of'^the
The characteristic features of the Golgi appara- endoplasmic reticulum. Sug-
ti^ are nimibers of large vacuoles or spaces, made that these membranes
bordered by closely packed layers of double J** some regions within the cell,
membranes. The latter look very much like the v? was in doubt for many
meinbranes of the endoplasmic reticulum but do microscope studies reveal very
not have the ribosome particles along their edge. 111? the nucleus imtU the time when
They are theretoe known as ” smooth ” m^- nv®»S iH.it undergoing, division
branes m contrast to the “ rough ” membranes of St **■ number of discrete
endoplasmic reticulum. The function of the ®*rands, the chroniosomes. are revealed by
Golgi appâtus is not established though it may ® their cômatin content — the material
Pe^sociated with secretory activity of the ceU ^ ®tc,ms heavily with basic dyes,
me Golgi apparatusyears has and
beeniUnstrates
the subject
one 'of
of
iHu m working at the molecular CeU Division
ceU level. OJe Golgi structure can only be seen ™
electron microscopes after During division the chromosomes behave in
preparative regular and recognisable seguence. In the first
paration
p^Hon^^w itseu was responsible fox creating Pre- the f!®se Ûedprophase
tune the they appear and at the same
nuclear membrane breaks down Nevt
SSf
seen objects ui metaphase, tte chromosomes become arranged
would re^ly exist in the li'ving cell, Xhoi^ti the eoiuator of a splindle-shaned collpri- inn
there is now little doubt that th^lgl appSi of fibrils which appears to the S fSriH
nvA^wJ 0^* artefacts
the cytoplasm,
by thetheinvolved
general rn
piitltoed
which bythe the
two nucleus.
threads ofThen
each follows anaphase
chromosome, the
xp^ ^ many mvestigations remains a very FmaUy otomatito,m move
the last stage, poles
to opposite of the spindle.
telophase
mmbranes are formed round the two . s®arate n^leM
2?r™.9“,i’^^.®^,°rnosome material and the cyto-

6. Cell Membrane. Plam itself divides toto two. Thus two cells are
part^torosn^ttoe olirpmosomes aTtheîwent^dê <Îte^mter°a

^^yo>^ of lipid mole- appears and the possibility was considered of toe
ilmd large molecules probably outside toe ohromosom^_ being assembled as a prolude to
seem to be able to eve^ ceU division and then being dlspemed to the
»ueper8ea m me
iti ^ relation to their fat
ilie hypothesis of “uolear
.This suggestion is to direct^ conflict
sap afterwards. with toe
alpHSto'^^SteinSion to“toSr ^to^

Genes. ohromcsomes are toe carriers of genes.
mo“/lom l>®rea-
tration differences either into or out^ tbp toe medium whereby here-
flne microelectrode can be pushed intna touAti"^ transmitted from one ceU to toe
toe electrical poteito to d§tSmi?Sd or from pareSs
with respect to toe outside In all to^Sun ®®'®* Eicperiments
studied
to so fer there
membrane is a to
which Sntlal'^SnM ac?^
produc^hv to ? ^® ®®“®®and occupy
®? ctoomosomes toe
this reaUy
imfform distribution on eitor sfde of tom parSl of to^ continmty through toe life
âjly those of sodium, potasslina. tod tolSe Persist hidHi ®^®“ios9mes undoubtedly
Though these potentials have b^n stutod m toflpp HHVo i® certam why or how they
animal and pitot cells gener^y toev*aro IipS to become visible during division,
taown from the work on n^^to wherestidden wh fob ?w ^®9“ the nucleic acids of
changes m the membrane potential aF^he tels J condense
sisals
of nerve impulses. A great dpi 1 in "PP P^rrod of prophase. In toe resting
about the mechanism whereby toe potenti^ chromoson^ /Spy I*® much more
genes. The important material of the genes is effect was due to the failure to synthesise a
Uno'svn to be desoxyribosenucleic acid (DNA).
made up of nucleotides as is ENA, though in this neces-sary enzyme and so the hypothesis “ one
gene = one enzyme ” gathered currency. This
case the bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and view has now been extended to include proteins
thymine. The DNA molecule is large and com¬ other than enzymes and It is now certain that
plex. Two long chains of nucleotides are knovm specific genes control the synthesis of specific
to coil round in a double helix with the pairs of proteins. The DNA of the genes transmits the
bases on each helix directed towards one another insti-uctions about protein synthesis to the
and linked by means of hydrogen bonds (Fig. S). ribosomes via messenger ENA. In the nucleus,
messenger ENA is made with specific base
sequences in its molecule by using DNA as the
template: thus a group of three adjacent adenine
bases in DNA woiiid produce a group of three
adjacent urocil bases in the synthesised ENA and
this would lead to the specification of phenylala¬
nine at the ribosome as we have seen. Only one
of the two strands in the DNA double hells
participates in the production of ENA.
Within the nucleus, the nucleolus is believed to
play an important part in the sjuithasis of ENA
since its turnover of this material is very rapid.
It has been suggested that the nucleolus supple¬
ments the ENA produced by chromosomes and
acts as the channel through which this material is
released to the cytoplasm. There is now some
good evidence vrhich points to the nucleolus as the
source of ribosomal ENA since cells which lose
the nucleolus have no ribosomes.
The processes involved in nuclear control and
the transmission of information from cell to cell
is Slunmarised in the aphorism “ DNA makes
ENA and ENA makes protein.” The system of
carrying that information in the base sequences of
DNA molecules has become Imown as the “ genetic
code.” A remarkable landmark in the study of
DNA occurred when, towards the end of 1967,
Komberg and his colleagues managed to synthesise
a virus DNA in a test tube. The synthesised
molecules proved to be capable of infecting bac¬
teria in the same way that the naturally occurring
virus would. The DNA was synth®ised using an
extracted vims DNA molecule as template and
attaching nucleotides by means of appropriate
enzymes. The newly made molecules were then
separated from the template. It can hardly be
claimed that this is the creation of life in a test
tube since the template was extracted from a
living virus. The experiment suggests many
possibilities In experimental motUflcation of the
genetic constitution of an organism with all the
far reaching ethical consequences.
MDLTICELLULAE OBGANISATION.
It is axiomatic, if evolutionary theory is
accepted, that in the course of very long periods of
Fio. S. The actual arriingeiueiit of the two nucleotide time there has been a general change in multi¬
cellular organisation from the simple aggregation
strands in a double helix, with the bases projecting of oeUs with little individual differentiation, to the
and linking the two helices as shown.
highly specialised and differentiated cells and
tissu® seen in complex animals and plants. It is
Furthermore, if adenine is the base on one chain, fascinating to speculate on the environmental
thymine must be its partner on the other and variations and internal mechanisms which to¬
siinilarly guanine can link only with cytosine. gether produced this result. The problem is so
Because of this pairing off of bases there is vast, however, that a complete analysis is impos¬
sufacient Information in a single chain of nucleo¬ sible and even a statement of tbe sequence of
tides to resynthesise the double helix once more. Chang® is in many caa® highly controversial.
Thus if we examine a section of a single strand Another aspect of becommg multicellular,
of the helix and find bases in the order adenine, where the problems offer more hope of analysis, is
thymine, guanine, adenine, cytosine, we can pre¬ that the complex organisation must be built up in
dict that in similar positions on the other strand the lifetime of each animal or plant from the single-
we shall find thymme, adenine, cytosine, thymine, ceUed Stage of the fertilised egg. We have already
guanine. The capacity of one half of a DNA seen how cells can divide repeatedly, handing on
molecule to specify the other half exactly, enables self-replieating chrom®om® so that each cell is
the system to be self-replioating in a way that is apparontly Identical. H tide were reaUy so then
essential in a hereditary transmitter and fits in division of the fertilised egg would result in an
well with what is known of chromcsonie behaviour unorganised mass of ceUs showing no different¬
during cell division. iation. The essential problems in development
are: (1) how is the smooth succession of shape
Chang® produced during cell division so that an
appropriate and recognisable end product is
Transmission o! (Senetic Iniormation. reached?: (2) how do the cells differentiate during
Accepting that DNA is ttie material of the gene this temporal sequence so that those which form
it remains now to examine the nature of the in¬ part of the eye, say, are different from tliose of
liver and blood?
formation which it passes from ceil to cell and
organism to organism. Long before the structure
and significance of the DHA molecule was known, Method of Develoiiment.
geneticists were finding that alterations in a gene,
known as a mutation, iwually affected a particular There are some important differenc® in the
chemical reaction and this in turn caused the method of development in animals and plants. In
Chang® seen in the organism as a whole. The animals there tends to be a relatively short period
BIOE-OGY ■ F32 WORLD OF SCiEMCE
dming wMch tlw basic stmctui'e is produced and THE CIiASSIFlCATION OF 0EGAIII<5m<?
ujf ukuajmisjMS.
came wluch
after adjustment thanandmajor
repair,
growth,rather change.ma
replacement In ,,y to the biologists of the 17th cent,
higher plants, on the other hand, the apical ammala and plants could be fitted into dif-
regions of both roots and shoots remain in a mrent_ groups or species. John Eay, a leading
permanently embryonic state and add materiaL of the day, defined a species as a group
winch then differentiates, in a continuous process mdryiduals capable of interbreeding within the
throughout the life of the plant. In spite of these eroup. .This criterion, yith its coroUary that a
difterences— and in any case there are many soeoies is reproductively isolated from organisms
exceptions — the two main problems in develop- outside tbe ôup, has survived more or less un-
naent are essentially similar in both animals and “^sed to the present day. The early workers
plants. also saw that some species were very similar to
A great deal of work has been done on animal another while others were obviously dis-
nevelopment since this takes place in a fairly Systems of classification based on the
^reotjred way during a short period of time. S'milanties and differences were drawn np so that
The fertilised egg of an animal divides in such a **'4 orgamsms could be fitted Into an orderly
wp as to form a hollow baU of cells, the blastula, scheme and species could be given names in
which folds in on itself to produce a two-layered accordance with the scheme. The most famous
sac, the gastrula. A third layer, the mesoderm, is cojlector and eiassifler was the Swede, Linnaeus,
new added between the two layers, known as established bis reputation in the 1780s. A
ectoderm on the outside, and endoderm on the large number of animals and plants are
iiMide. At this stage much of the animal’s basic icnown by the names given to them by Linnaeus,
stracture is established. Many aspects of this
orderly sequence can be explained in terms of „ .
specific adhesive properties of celis, so that a cell . oystematics, as the study of species and of
will stick to others of the same type but not to ™sber fcroups of classification is called, acquired
unrelated types. Other mechanical properties ^new sigmflcmce after Darwin and the Theory of
such as elasticity, particularly in surface layers, Ji-yomwop- from the biological point of view tbe
are important in maintaining shape and pro- niost satisfactory chissiflcation became one which
ducing appropriate changes during processes when the evolution of the organisms classified,
one layer is folded in on another. Why cells ®y®tem, based on the phytogeny or evo-
should have the different physical properties mtionary history of a group, is called a natural
necessary to produce an integi'ated whole embryo omssiflcation. It is not always easy to produce
IS not known, but certainly it cannot be thought oeeai^ ancestral types tend to become extinct
that every cell has an absolutely fixed constitu- pP® problem then becomes one of recon-
tion and therefore a predetermined role In develop- fi™ branching system when only
ment. Large parts of developing embryos can be ^ branches are known. A great
removed m early stages and their places taken by of the work on systematics has. of necessity,
remammg c^ls sp that intact organisms are stiU r? .f “One on museum specimens which may be
produced. One is led to conclude that the sur- fossils or msiterial preserved in some way by tbe
roimdings of a cell have a great deal of influence oollectors.. The biological criterion of repro-
on the way it reacts and that there is a great deal “Otive isolation cannot be used to define a
of adaptability in the developing system, especially ®Peoi®s when the only available representatives
m its early stages. are m resort
must a preserved
to anstate. In this ofcase
assessment tbe scientist
struotm-al dif¬
ferences m an attempt to decide whether two
Formation
1! ormamon ox SnepisliseS Tiss
of topeoiailsed 'nconoo ues.
cigmimm are of different or the same species.
It has often been said, unfairly, that such
species
Thê pomts l^d us on to the second major concepts which exist only in the
Ctuestion concerning the differences which appear the systematist. lii recent years com-
proêssively In cells during development so that techniques have been used to compare large
speoiaited tissues are ultimately formed. TMh is npnhers of structural differences between groups
es^ntially a problem in the regulation of gene animals or plants. Physiological and bio-
actmty since we know that each cell division Cfenucai cbaraCteristics are also becoming part
wotoces (toughter cells which are genetically 9l armoury of the 20th cent, systematlst. All
identical. It seems likely therefore that instruct- ®®®®® teohmques have i^ to the realisation that
lop are carried on the chromosomes to cope with ®^®n tue species cannot be regarded as a static
all raqmrements of the organism, but that in 5?™® ^ evolutionary pattern. Some species
speciatoed cells only a small ftaction of this full w® .ow and others arise as conditions in the
Pptentml is realised. For a long time embryoto- cnviromnent slowly change. This essentially
giste have known that egg cytoplasm shows g3?iamio view of a Continually shifting equili-
reônal differences which make identical nnclei brium between animals, plants and their envlron-
bebave differently, and it is thought that regional ® ^’^®° ri®® t® what Huxley has aptly
Teclmlcmes
cytoplasm canfor inthesometransplantat
way control gene activity.
ion of nnclei in ^® N®^ Systematics ” in his book of
developing frog embryos have been perfected and systematlst shifts his attention to
It has l^n possible to put a nucleus from an ihtest- fhe higher levels of classifleation the problems are
mal ceu of a tadpole into an enucleate egg. Tbe 3«st as great as at the species level. Different
egg will go on to develop normally even though its f P®<“®s having features In common can be grouped
nucleus rame from a fifily speoiaUsed cell derived J®?®“®r mto genera, genera into families, famiiipa
from endoderm. ITie embryo will form blood orders into classes, and claases into
and muscle fl;om_ the mesodermal layer and all the PWa. The dividing lines between different
other components of an organism, under the in- levels is always dlfflcult and in the
fluence of a nucleus which normally would have analysis somewhat arbitrary since at these
inodu®d none of these things. One can conclude i®^®]® Y® biological criterion such
that aU_ the j^neaare pres®nt, even in the nuclei as I?!®*® for the species. Oaie evolutionary status
of specialised _ceI]B, but that they have to be ®f fae larger groups is also poorly fiefitiAd, Many
placed în a amiable cytoplasmic environment in recognised to be polyphyleUc, wMch is to
order M be activated. Similar nuclear trans- ®ay that there are several main evolutionary lines
plantation expetoents indicate that gen^ can running right through the group,
we turned off as weU as “ turned on " by an
wpropitote cytoplasmic enylromnent, even
thor^^ the nuifiel come ftom ceUs which are so THE ANEffiAL
' KINGDOM.
®eciajis^ as to stop dividing. The components THE ANZMAlt KINGDOM.
divided into about 24
dMêd into about 24
BIOUOGY F33 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
Otters move by putting out extensions of the body phylum in the other. The vertebrates have been
or pseudopodia into wMcb the rest of the body investigated more completely than any other
then flows. Protozoa are found in the sea, in animals because of their direct structural and
fresh water and in the soil. Some are parasitic functional relationship with man himself. There
and cause important diseases in animals and man are five well defined classes which are listed below.
such as sleeping sickness and malaria. The first vertebrates were the fish and from them
came the amphibia. The amphibia gave rise to
the reptiles and both birds and mammals evolved
cellular animals whose cells display considerab from different reptilian stock.
independen of one an Largely marinele.
The body wh ceic may becoother.
h me branch and plant-
Uke is supported by a framework ofedspicules and (a) Fish
fibres. The bath sponge is the fibrous skeleton of Cold blooded, aquatic animals breathing by
certain species. means of gills. Sharks, rays and dogfish belong
to a group known as the elasmobranchs charac¬
3. Coelenterates. — Hydra, jellyfish, sea anemo¬ terised by a skeleton made of cartilage. Bony
nes, corals. Simple animals which have a body fish, or teleosts. Include almost all the fresh water
only two cells thick surrounding a gut cavity with fish and the common marine fish such as cod,
a single opening to the outside. Largely marine. mackerel, plaice, herring, etc.
Many are colonial. Coral reefs are formed from
the calcareous skeletons of these animals. (b) Amphibia
3
. Po4.ri Platyhehninths. — Platworms, which are free Cold blooded, more or less terrestrial animals
livingferain. water,
— Sponge
and
s. liverryflukes and tapeworms, which have to return to water to breed. Hve
which are parasitic. AVethird, solid
prim itivblock fingered limbs are developed in place of the fins of
of cells,
the mesoderm, has been developed ebetween multi¬ the
fish. The egg hatches into a tadpole larva which
two layers of cells seen in the coelenterates. A is aquatic and breathes by gills. At metamor¬
simple gut may be developed and the reproductive phosis the larva changes into the terrestrial adult
system is complex especially in the parasitic forms. which possesses lungs. Some .amphibia such as
the axolotl may become sexually mature as a
5. Nematodes. — Êoundworms. The body is larva and so never metamorphose into the adult.
smooth and pointed at each end. Some of the The toads.class includes newts, salamanders, frogs and
most numerous and widespread of all animals.
Ikee living in all enviromnents and parasitic in
practically all groups of plants and animals. At (c) Reptiks
the same level of complexity as the Platyhel-
minths. Cold blooded and terrestrial. These animals
do not return to water to breed because they have
6. Annelids. — Segmented worms such as earth¬ an egg with a relatively Impermeable shell con¬
worms, marine worms and leeches. A system of taining the food and water requirements of the
spaces, the body cavity, is develoi>ed in the developing embryo. There is no larval stage.
mesoderm so that movements of the main body Present day reptiles such as lizards, snakes and
of the animal and movements of the gut become crocodile axe all that remains of a tremendous
more or less independent. Digestive, excretory, radiation of dinosaiu-Uke creatures which occurred
circulatory, nervous and reproductive systems are in the Mesozoic {P44).
aU well developed.
id) Birds
7. Arthropods. — A very large, diverse and
imimrtant group of animals which includes Warm blooded and adapted for aerial life. The
crustaceans such as crabs, shrimps and water characteristic feathers act both to insulate the
body
fleas; myriapods, such as centipedes and mille¬ surfaces against heat loss and to provide the airfoil
pedes: insects; and arachnids, such as spiders necessary for flight. The birds are an
and scorpions. The arthropods show many of the astonishingly uniform group and show less diver¬
developments seen in annelids and in addition sity of structure than much lower classification
they possess a jointed, hard exoskeleton. Paired categories (e.g., the teleosts) in other classes. The
appendages grow out from the s^ments of the relationships of the 19,000 or more species of bird
body and form antennae, mouth parts, walking are difficult to establish became of this uniformity.
legs, etc. The muscles within the skeleton are It is clear that the flightless forms such as the
able to exert a fine control over tbe moveinent of ostrich are primitive and that the penguins are
the appendage. In order to grow these animals also in a separate category but the typical modern
have to shed the exoskeleton periodically. birds are classified in a large number of rather
arbitrary orders. About half of all the known
8. Mollnscs.— Mussels, clams, oysters, saulds, species are placed in one enormous order called
octopods and snails. Complex body form but the Passeriformes or perching birds.
somewhat different from annelid-arthropod type.
Hnsegmented body protected by shell which is
variously developed in different types. It forms (e) Mammals
Warm blooded animals which have been suc¬
two valves In mussels and oysters, a spiral struc¬ cessful
ture in snails, is reduced and internal in squids in a tremendous variety of habitats.
and completely lost in octopods. Mammals are insulated from the enylronmenfc by
the characteristically hairy and waterproofed
0. Echinodenns. — Starfish, brittle stars, sea skin. They are, with two exceptions, vivipprous
cucumbers, sea urchins, and sea lilies. All marine which means that their young are horn alive and
and all radially symmetrical, nsnally with five in typical mammals at an advanced stage of
radii. Completely tmlifce the other advanced, development. In the marsupials of Australia the
major groups. Circulatory, excretory and ner¬ young are hom at an early stage and transferred
vous systems differently developed. Loco¬ to a pouch where they develop further. The two
motion and feeding by means of hundreds of tube exceptions referred to are primitive monotreme
feet projecting from under surface. rnammals known as the duok-hiHed platypus and
spiny ant-eater and these animals lay eggs. The
10. C!hordates.:-êa squirts, Amphloxus, fish, young of mammals are suckled by means of the
amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals. Seg¬ mUk producing mammary glands. The mammals
mented animals which at some stage in their life include aquatic whales and dolphins, hoofed un¬
have giU slits leading from pharynx to the outside gulates. flesh eating carnivores, rodents and in-
and a supporting notoriioid from which. In all sectivores, the aerial bats, and the tree climbing
cfaordates except sea squirts and Amphloxus, is primates to which man himself belongs.
developed a vertebral column or backbone.
Those animals with a backbone are commonly
referred to as vertebrates, aU those without as THE FHYSIOLOaY OF ANIMALS.
iuvertebrates. These are obviously names of
convenience having no phylogenetic, signifloance Some basic features of cell organisation have
since they lump together totally unrelated phyla already been dealt with, and in unicellular animals
in one case and ali^ these with a part of a single all life processes, such as respiration, movement.
BiOLOGY
F34. THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
sassssss li “S"
~js€f |Si
fimctional mterrelationshlps at the tissue fibrils Is mitaoTO ° central
of
andtheorganism
physiologist.
level of organisation is the province ummown.
2. Nutrition and the Alimentary Canal.
1. Movement, Fibrils and Skeletons. AU imimals must take in and digest food
matenals. As weU as water they require complex
(ffi) Muscles. — ^The prime movers in almost all1 orgamc substances, proteins, fats
ammal movement are large protein molecules in1 drates, togeUier with small amounts and carbohy-
the form of microscopic flbrlUar threads. In of salts and
1 Yitaimns. These materials are obtained
some way not yet fully understood these fibrils3 tte dead bodies by eating
_ of plants and other auiTn^
can convei't the chemical energy
nigh energy phosphate bonds of ATBstored in the' They Me taken mto the alimentary canal and
into mech- ; there broken down ot digested by enzymes into
amcal energy.^ In the long, thin cells forming the- simpler, soluble ammo acids, sugars and fatty
muscles of animals, it has been discovered that ' oaese substances are absorbed and dls-
there are two seta of fibrils, one formed of a pro¬ • tnbuted to various parts
tein called myosin, the other of actin, arranged in are used m cell metabolism of the body where they
(F86, 27) or stored
a rcCTlar, mtercligitating fashion. When the
muscle contracts the fibrils slide into one another
so that, althoi^h the fibrils themselves do not I for future use.
change in length, the muscle as a whole develops ; (a) The Size of Food— Microphagy and Maoi'ophagy.
^lon and shorten. This, the SUding Filament ' Many animals, called macropha
Of Muscle Contraction, was formulated in take m relatively large masses ofgous feeders,
0950 by A. F. Huxley, H. E. Huxley and J. such as frogs and snakes swallow food. Some
Hanson. Fine hndges extend from the myosin ■ hut many break their food whole
fibrils to attach on to the actin and it is here that ; modified appendage it up first. Arthropo ds have
the conversion ot chemical to mechaiiical energy tor cuttu^, s arranged round the mouth
goes on. some molluscs have a rasp-like radula
with wMch to scrape off particles, and many
mainmata break up their food with jaws and teeth.
Kie teeito are usually weU adapted to the type of
(6) Skeletons. — În order for muscles to work lood. Carnivor es have large, sharp canines,
effectively it is necessary for them to operate in premolars and molars
sort of skeletal system. Contraction but with which to tear the flesh
not relaxation is an active process; muscles must teeth to
be arranged in antagonistic pairs so that one ?£ grip the fish and herbivorous imgulates
muscle can extend the other. A skeleton also have flat ^dmg teeth with which small peg-like
they break up
proTides a system of levers so that the muscles
hard plant
Bu contra^, mat eri al. collect fiTnnU^
CM do work against the environment in an particles
efficient manner. A simple type of skeleton by continuous of foodnucrophagous feeders
material from the environment
loimd m fairly primitive animals is the hydro¬ filtration. In bivalve molluscs
static system of coelenterates and worms. Here j M^y marme worms water currents are pro-
the animal can be thought of as a fluid flUed hag ^ced by beatiDg cilia. I’ood is trapped
toe confined space through which the water witliiii
or tube which can change shape but whose volume flows
remains constant. By contraction of circular toe Pl®i3tifnl supply of sticky mucus hi
niMcles the tube will become long and thin hairs mtering region. Some Crustacea use fine
to sieve off food material, often from water
and conversely contraction of longitudinal
muscles makes the tube short and fat. Exami¬ îrrents cre^d
The most startling by the swimming
nation of an earthwoi-m will demonstrate how of filter feeders is themovements.
whalebone
whale swims forward a stream of
altematmg waves of activity of this type passing water flows in at toe front of the mouth and out
teom head to tall can move the animal over the via sheets of whalebone which filter
ground, ihe earthworm shows an advance over off the organisms on
the simplest systems because the hydrostatic tube which the animal feeds.
Iho^h macrophagy seems to favour the attain¬
is brolmnnp l^p small units by the segmentation ment of larger size there are exceptions ! Another
pt the body. This makes local responses possible,
iiic next advaiiice to bs seen is tli6 dovelopnieii trae of particulate feeding is seen in those a.nima.ia
winch
animals such as arthropods and vertebrates tof ina hmally eat deposits of detritus as do many worms,
some animals take in only soluble food
“fP which museiea are directly feeders include internal
attached, me skeleton can then be used to sup¬ parasites like the tapeworm which
port the body and to engage the environmen absorb sub-
t. rtmees over toe surface of toe body, and insects
It «ems to matter Mtle whether an endoskeleton such as toe aphid wito
(vertebrates) or exoskeleton (ai-thropods) is de¬ sucking mouth parts.
veloped ance m both cases a tremendous radi¬
ation of flm for swimming, legs for walking and (h) Reception and Storage,
wingaFr flyiiiK can be seen. However in other
respects these two types of skeleton show signlfi- which The food now passes into the alimentary f-ana.i
emt differences. The exoskeleton for exMople usuallymay be fairly simple, straight tube but more
offers more protection than the endoskeleton while boconies lon^ and coiled. The gut tube
apparently setting an upper size limit. AU the several fonotional com-
really big ammals have endoskeletons. poneuts thou^ the divisions must not be regarded
as absolute. The first section is usually involved
m the selection,^ by taste, smell and texture, and
(c) Cilia.— -Fibrillar systems are also seen in the the reception of food. A lubricating mucus, to-
fine hair-like cilia which project from the surface gether with some digestive enzymes, may be added
ot some cdls. Cilia are important in a number of at this stage from glands such as salivary glands.
ways. They are the organelles of movement in A large crop for food storage occurs in animals as
many Protozoa, they are used to produce water diverse as nêcts and birds but in TnammniH i-.Uih
currents past the bodies of some aquatic
ammals, aaid they are of great importance in rô^remains as a simple tube called the oeso-
nmving fliud within the body of almost all animals.
Ihey beat m a regular fashion, the effective
(P) Mixing, Grinding and Early Digestion.
stroke being accomplis with the oilhim held' ' Waves of contractio
straight out from the hed surface and the recovery n in the muscles of toe gut
stroke with the oilimn'flexed at the base. move toe food onwards. This peristaltic action
Ciha possess the same structure no matter Ijaeiivers toe food to a region known variously
in
BI0I.06Y F35 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
different animals as the stomacli, gi2aaid or gas¬ (b) Bas Exchange in Water.
tric mUl. _ Here the further diAitegratlon and Aquatic animals, except those such as whales
mixing with enzymes is accomplished in many breathing at the surface, have to obtain their
forms simply by contraction of the muscle of the
stomMh wail. Stones may assist the action in oxygen from the supplies which are dlskilved in
the gizzard of birds for example, and more bizarre the water. This presents several problems be¬
modifications are seen in some crustaceans and cause water is a dense medium, there is not a lot of
mollnses. In the former there is a complicated oxygen in solution, and Its dffiusion rate is low.
gastric mUl with grinding surfaces, teeth and a For these reasons there is a surprising functional
filter, and in the latter a long rod, called the uniformity in gill systems and they are very dif¬
crystalline style, is rotated by ciliary action against ferent from lungs. GUIs are fine, finger-like pro¬
a hard pad on the opposite waE of the stomach. cesses with a good blood supply which are held
In the ruminating mammals such as sheep and out in a water stream. The water current is
cattle the stomach is divided into four chambers. brought very close to the giU filaments so that the
The function of the first two of these is to miv food length of diffusion pathway for oxygen is minimal.
with a bacterial culture which exists in this region There is a “ counter current ” flow of water and
and to regurgitate the cud for further grinding. blood so that the water containing most osa’gen
The bacteria break down plant cell walls and so comes into contact with the blood just leavlag the
benefit the host which cannot deal imaided with gill. This ensures that most of the oxygen can
the main component known as cellulose. The be transferred from water to blood through the
final two chambers of the ruminant stomach are thin giU cells. The efficiency of “counter
more typical in function. current ’’ systems is well known to the engineer
A variety of digestive enzymes are released into but they were invented by aquatic animals long
the stomach region. Carbohydrates, fats and before they were by man. These features can be
proteins are all broken down to some extent. The seen in the gills of molluscs, Crustacea and fish.
main enzyme In the stomach of vertebrate animals The prunping devices which maintain the water
is a proteinase which works under acid conditions. currents also operate economically. Flow is
maintained in Crustacea by appendages modified
I to form beating paddles, in many molluscs by
(d> Final Digestion and Ahsorpflon. ciliary movement, and in fish by the operation of
The finely divided food now passes on to the a double pump in mouth and opercular cavities.
intestine where digestion continues, using enzymes In almost all cases there is a continuous current
liberated in the preceding region, or under the over the giUs, the water coming in one way and
action of new enzymes released from intestinal going out another. Thus the animal avoids re¬
glands. In the vertebrates the pancreas secretes versing the flow with the consequent waste of
a number of enzymes acting on all types of food energy in accelerating and decelerating a large
material, one of the most important being the mass of water. Fish, for example, take water in
at the mouth and force it out through the gill
protein-breaking trypsin. The pancreatic secre¬ sUts (sharks) or operculum (teleosts).
tion is liberated into the anterior end of the intes¬
tine known as the duodenum and operates in an
alkaline medium. (c) Bas Exchange in Air.
Soluble products of the process of digestion are Air breathing animals do not encounter these
absorbed through the wall of the intestine into problems since the medium is less dense, contains
the blood stream. Blood vessels carry the food a great deal (20%) of oxygen and diffusion rates
material to the liver where it is put to use in the are high. Limgs are therefore in the form of sacs
animal’s metabolism or stored as liver glycogen. whose walls are well supplied with blood. The
The surface for absorption is increased by tremen¬ area of the walls may he increased by folding so
dous folding of the intesrine interior, seen as finger- that the lung becomes spongy and full of minute
like villi in higher vertebrates or as the so called air spaces called alveoli where the gas exchanges
spiral valve in some fish. goes on. Only the main airways receive fresh air
as the lung expands; oxygen is renewed in the
(6) Processing ol Waste Material. alveoli by diffusion. Ventilation of the lung is
accomplished by a tidal flow of air in and out of
The undigested remains of the food now pass the same tuhrilar opening known as the trachea.
through the most posterior regions of the alimen¬ The actual ventilating mechanism varies in dif¬
tary canal known simply as the hlndgut in many ferent animals. In the amphibia for example air
forms or as the colon and rectum in others. A is forced into the lungs when the floor of the mouth
major function of this region, particularly in is raised with the mouth and nostrils shut. The
terrestrial animals, is the removal of water so as lungs are emptied by elastio recoil and by lowering
to conserve this vital material. In the rectum the the floor of the month. Higher vertebrates use a
faeces are formed and stored before being elimi¬ costal pump which changes the volume of chest
nated from the body. and lungs by movements of the ribs. This change
in volume is further assisted in mammals by the
diaphragm, a sheet of muscle which lies beneath
8. Bespiratlon. Bills, Lungs and Tracheae. the lungs and separates thorax and abdomen. In
many animals sound producing organs are associ¬
The oxidations which consume oxygen and pro¬ ated with the lungs and trachea. The larynx is a
duce carbon dioxide go on at the crilular level as vocal organ in frc®s, some lizards, and most
explained earlier {F20). All living cells respire notably mammals, m birds voice produoHcm
and remain alive only if supplied with oxygen. takes place in the syrinx situated farther down at
In a multiceEular body, however, many cells are the base of the trachea.
remote fl:om the oxygen of the envlroiuaent and A completely different gas exchanging system
the need arises for an efiOicient respiratory system is seen in insects. Branching tubes, known as
by which oxygen can be taken up and carbon tracheae, run thronônt the body and carry
dioxide released. In addition a circulatory oxygen directly to the cells without the inter¬
system is necessary to transport the oxygen to and vention of a blood system. The tracheae com¬
ftom the respiring cells. municate with the outside world via a series of
holes called spiracles. Although the main tubes
may be acUvely ventilated, diffusion In the system
accounts for a large part of the movement of
Animals such as protozoa which because of oxygen between the outside world and ceUs.
their size have a high suriace area to volume ratio
do not need special structures for gas exchange. 4. Birculation.
Diffusion over the whole body surface ensures an
adecLuate supply of oxygen. Much lareer aniVnals In simple, small animals there is no blood system
su(fii as earthworms also find it possible to rely on and dissolved oxygen, nutrients and other materi^
diffusion alone, partly because their consumption move about the body solely by diffusion, assisted
of oxygen is fairly low, and partly because their to a certain extent by streamiug movements of
bodies are permeable all over. For various protoplasm within the cells. In larger animals. a
reasons most animals restrict the permeability of transport system is necessary to convey materiais
the outer layers of the body and under these con- about the body and in many, but not all, it is in
ditions special respiratory areas, have to be the form of a blood system. Blood systems are
developed. of two types, closed and open.
BIOILOGV P®® THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
(a) Open Systems. tration, as it is in the lungs, combination occurs
to give oxyhaemoglobin. If the concentration of
, In an open circulatory system blood is pumped oxygen is low, as it is in the tissues, dissociatio
trom the heart into a few major arteries but these occurs Md oxygen is given off leaving reducedn
very auickly give way to large tissue spaces or haemoglobm. Carbon monoxide wiU combine
sinuses so that the tissues and organs of the body more readfly than oxygen with haemoglobin so
are directly bathed in blood. Blood flows slowly that m carbp monoxide poisoning the blood can¬
from the sinuses back to the heart. Both molluscs not transport oxygen. The haemoglobin of verte¬
and arthropods possess an open system. The brates IS contained in high concentration in red
heart in most arthropods is a long, tliin tube in blood corpuscles. The amount of haemoglobin
the dorsal part of the body, pumping blood to¬ and, hence, oxygen carried is greater than if the
wards the head. Auxiliary muscles may be at¬
tached to the heart to pull it out and refill it after pigment is not in corpuscles. In mainmnia the
oxygen carrying capacity of blood is thirty times
the pumping cycle. Mollusc hearts on the other that of a sunilar quantity of water. Other blood
hand are of the chambered type, with thin walled pigments are the blue haemocyanin found in
prides receiving blood from the giUs and pump Crustacea and molluscs, and the violet haemery-
mg it to a more muscular ventricle. The vent¬ thrm found In some worms. Also present in the
ricle in turn contracts to pump blood to the body. blood are various types of white corpuscle which
In squids and octopods two auxiliary hearts are Me part of the defence meebanism of the body and
seen, receiving blood at low pressure from the body ingest myading bacteria. Special blood protehis
and pumping
mam heart. it through the gills and thence to the such as flbrinogm, causing clot formation, and
antibodies effective against foreign substances
occur m the plasma.
(b) Cflosed Systems.
In a closed system blood is pumped round the
body m a branching network of arteries, and 5. Excretion, Ionic Regulation and Kidney
comes into contact with tissues and cells via very Tubules.
walled vessels called capillaries. Substances
diffuse into and out of the blood through capillary As the cheimcal reactions included under the
walls. From capillaries, blood enters the vems term metabolism proceed, so numerous waste
and so returns to the heart. Blood flow in the products accumulate. The most Important of
tubes of a closed system is much more brisk and these are compoimds containing nitrogen, such as
blood pressures tend to be higher than in an open ammonia, luea and uric acid, arising from the use
system. In annelids the closed system is fairly ot protem as an energy source. In terrestrial
simple with a vessel above the gut in which blood aâls they are removed from the blood by the
moves forward coimecting to one below in which jndney. The basic unit of a kidney is the tubule:
blood moves backwards. The blood is pumped by m woriM these tubules are not concentrated into
peristaltic contraction of the vessels and this occur, a pair in every segment,
system must be regarded as the precursor of a right down the body. The kidney tubule begins
localised pomp. Simple hearts are in fact seen in withân end sac, corpuscle or funnel which is
some annelids. closely associated with the body cavity or the
In vertebrates a well defined heart is always blood system. Fluid is filtered from the body
present, situated ventrally at the level of the fore¬ cavity or blood into the corpuscle whence it passes
limbs. In fish there is a single auricle and ven¬ to the tuhifle proper. During passage down the
tricle and the latter pumps blood directly to the “seful materials are reabsorbed through
gills. From the gills the blood is collected into the tubifle cells into the blood whereas unwanted
a dorsal aorta which then branches to serve the materials remam and pass to the outside world.
rest of the body. Associated with the develop¬ ^thoi^h it is usual to think of kidney function
ment of lungs and loss of giUs in the tetrapods, we hemg primarily one of nitrogenous excretion, it Is
see a progressive modification of this Himpia quite common to find that in aquatic animaiB the
pattern. The most posterior gill vessel is taken kitoe^ are hardly used for this purpose. In these
over as the lung or pulmonary artery and slowly aniinaLs the tubules are primarily concerned in
a completely separate circuit evolves, 'rbis in¬ regulatmg the salt and water levels in the body,
volves the division of the single heart into right nitrogenous wastes being eliminated by diffusion
Mid left sides, the former pumping blood to the through any permeable surface. In fresh water
lungs and the latter to the body. In the birds for example all animals have osmotic problems
and mammals where the division is complete the since the body ^flmds have a much greater osmotic
system can be seen to be functionally satisfactory. pressure than the environment. Water tends to
Blood flows along the following route; left auricle enter the body and salts tend to leave. Fre^
to left ventricle, to body, to right auricle, to right water animals produce large quantities of very
ventricle, to Itmgs. to left auricle, and so on. Thus ûte the urme,^ filtering off a lot of blood plasma
blood charged with oxygen in the lungs returns to into tubules but reabsorbing all wanted
the heart before being pumped to the body. In matenals including the Invaluable salts. Fresh
the lower tetrapods, division of the heart is in¬ water Crustacea, molluscs and fish aU possess
complete and considerable interest centres on the tubmes of different morphology which show very
fimotlon of these apparently imperfect systems. similar functional properties.
Amphibian hearts have two auricles but only a Different environmental conditions impose dif¬
smgle ventricle. In spite of this, evidence is ferent deman^ on the osmotic and ionic regulating
accumulating to show that blood from the inugg mactoery. In very dry conditions, such as in
and body is not mixed as it passes through the deserts, it is obviously of advantage to reabsorb
ventricle. A further complication in amphibia Is as much water from the tubule as possible. All
due to the moist skin also being used for gas ex¬ animals do this but it is interesting that only birds
change. Some oxygen is thus contained in blood and manunals have discovered the secret of so
retrammg from the body. Heptiles show a con^ntratmg the urine ttmt its salt concentration
further advance In that the ventricle is almost is higher than that in the blood. This is done by
system appears mesM of a Mrpm-iike loop in the tubule called
stfll to be funotionally Inadequate because one of the lioop of Henle, another example of a counter
the major arteries to the body leaves from the current device.
deoxygenated side along with lung vessels.
(0) Function of the Blood. 6. Co-ordinating Systems.
Most of the materials transported by the blood
such as nutrients, waste materials and hormones thatOveri^ co;ordination
it functions of the animal’s body, so
as a whole and reacts appropri¬
are earned in solution in the plasma. The res- ately to environmental changes, is largely the
PJrato^_ gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, are provmce of two systems, one chemical or hormo¬
present m greater quantity than would be possible nal, the othw nervous. In one respect these are
If they were m simple solution. Carbon dioxide s^tems for^ homeostasis, that is for preserving the
is CMned in the form of bicarbonate and oxygen stoiMS quo, m spite of considerable environmental
combing with blood pigment. The best known fluctuation. Paradoxically they can also initiate
01090 pigment is haemoglobin which is change as. for example, one can see in the daily
vanety of animala and gives the red found in a
colour to mpertmre of complicated behaviour patterns pro¬
blood. Wheu oxygen is present in high eoncen- duced by almost any animal.
biology THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
F37
(a) Nervoxis Systems. always accomplished by contraction of flexor
muscles which bring the Ihnh in towards the body.
(i) Sensory Information. The reflex is polysynaptic, i.e. several intermediate
Before appropriate reactions can be produced neurones connect the sensory nerves through to
to any stimulus it is necessary to measure its the motor neurones. More complicated still m the
intensity, position, duration and, most important, scratch reflex in which an animal is made to
character. Tliis is done by sense organs wMch scratch its flank In response to an irritation or
are usually specialised to receive stimuli of a single tickling in that region. This reflex demon^rates
modality or character. Thus photoreceptors some of the more involved properties of the C.N.b.
detect light, mechanoreceptors detect mechanical For example a dog wiU continue to scratch for a
disturbance and chemoreceptors detect specific time after the tickling has stopped, so tliat the
chemicals. In all cases the sense organs produce C.N.S. must continue to he active in the absence
a message about the stimulus in the form of nerve of sensory stimulation. This has been called after¬
discharge.
impulses (see F30-Cell Membrane) which travel
up the nerve from the sense organ to the rest of
the nervous system. Change of stimulus intensity
is usually signalled as a change in frequency of (v) The Brain.
nerve impulses. The position of the sense organ The C.N.S. functions in a more complicated way
which is active indicates the position of the than is suggested by study of the reflexes and m^t
stimulus withiu or without the body. The dura¬ of these higher activities are co-ordinated by the
tion of the repeated discharge of nerve impulses brain. A greater condensation of neiu'ones is s^n
indicates the duration of the stimulus. at the front end of the C.N.S. of aU animals be¬
cause of the larger numbers of sense orgi^ in that
(ii) Shnvle Netviorks. region. Brains, which become the dominant part
of the C.N.S.. can he seen in arthropods, moUuscs
The simplest type of nervous system is the net- and vertebrates. Tlie close association with
vmrk of interconnected nerve cells (neurones) sense organs is illustrated by the vertebrate bram
found in the coeienterates. Branching processes which is divided into three regions: (a) forebram
of the nerve cells communicate with neighbouring (nose), (6) inidbrain (eye) and (c) hindbrmn (ear
processes at special regions called synapses (P30). and taste). However, the brain is much more
Quite complicated behaviour is possible even with than a relay station for these stimulus modalities
this relatively simple system. If a sea anemone and it receives information from other parts or
is prodded violently it will close up equally the body via the spinal cord. AU this mformation
violently, showing that activity has spread is correlated and activity patterns initiated and
throughout the network. If it is tickled gently it transmitted to appropriate regions. In lower
will respond with local contractions around the vertebrates, the roof of the midbrain (the optic
site of stimulation. The movements of feeding tectum) is the important correlation rantre and
and locomotion are very delicately performed at its effectiveness has been weU estahhshed m
appropriate times. studies on instinct and learning in flsh. Mother
region of the brain of importance in all vertt-
(iii) Cmilral Nervous Systems, brates is a dorsal upgrowth of the hmdbrain called
the cereheUum. This is a motor co-ordmatmg
In the majority of animals all the nerve cells centre which ensures that aU activities are pct-
tend to become collected into a solid mass of tissue formed in a smooth and weU balanced way by the
referred to as a central nervous system (C.N.S.). muscles and limbs of the body. In reptiles, the
Within the mass the nerve cells are toterconnected forebram begins to take over the correlation role
via synapses in the same way as in a nerve net. and in mammals this development reaches its peak
The connexions with sense organs and muscles are in the cerebral cortex. In man the cortex over¬
made via long processes called axons. Numbers shadows the rest of the brain and contains some
of axons are usually boimd together with con¬ 1000,000,000 neurones. It is easy to see the
nective tissue to form a nerve trank. In annelids magnitude of the problem of imderstanding a
and arthropods the C.N.S. is seen as a ventral cord
lying beneath the gut with a swelling or ganghon system offewer this complexity. The bee’s brain with
in each segment of the body. In molluscs, the haviour far, far ceUs can initiate complicated be¬
such as the hive dances. The possibili¬
ganglia are usually more closely grouped around ties offered by the human cortex se^ vastly
the oesophagus, with the possible provision of a greater, though they are often realised m ways
pair of ganglia farther back in the viscera. Verte¬ which give cause for concern. At the moment it
brates possess a dorsal nerve cord which is uniform would be quite impossible to build a computer
in diameter and not ganglionated, though nerves ivlth the properties of the human brain. To do
emerge from it in a segmental fashion. The seg¬ this in the future would depend on major advances
mental nerves arise in two separate brmdles or in computer technology and even greater advances
roots. The dorsal root is made up entoely of in the Imowledge of central nervous systems.
sensory nerves conveying information to the
C.N.S. The ventral root consists of motor nerves
which convey nerve impulses to the muscles of (b) HormonM Kegulation.
limbs and alimentary canal together with other Many aspects of an animal’s metahoUsm are
effector organs such as glands. regulated, nob by the nervous system, hut by
specific chemical siîals known as honnones
whlifli are circulated in the blood stream. Gromh,
carbohydrate metabolism, salt balance, activity of
A reflex, in which stimulation of a sense orgm ovaries and testes and tlielr associated structures,
or sensory nerve results in the almost inomediate and colour change are aU regulated in some way
contraction of a muscle, is the simplest type of by hormones. The substances are secreted by
C.N.S. activity. Reflexes have been studied m endocrine ânds or ductless glands as they are
all animals but the best known ones can be sMn often called. The important endocrine glands in
in frogs, cats, dogs, and sometimes hmnans. ^ The vertebrates are the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
very simplert is the stretch reflex, in wMm a pancreas, the sex glands, and the pitnitary.
stretched muscle is made to contract by activity In the past the endocrine and nervous systems
coming into the C.N.S. from Stretch receptors m were regarded as exerting an independent control
the muscle. The activity is relayed directly to in slightly different fimctiohal areas of the body.
the motor neurones of the muscle concerned, It is dear now that the integration of the two
making them active and thus causing the muscle to systems is much greater than was formerly em
contract. This reflex is monosynaptic, t.e. there vlsaged and in vertebrates is accomplished through
Is only the single synaptic connemon between I the pituitary gland. Seeretions of this gland regri-
sensory nerve and motor neurone. The knee jerk l late almost aU other endocrine glands and the
in humans is a stretch reflex, the stretch being secretions of the pituitary are either produced In
caused by hitting the muscle tendon as it passes the C.N.S. with which it is directly connected or
over the knee. Much of the recent work on are controlled by CN.S. secretions. iAn astonlsh-
reflexes has been done on this simple system, mg. parallel development of other neurosecretory
notably by Ecoles. The flexor reflex, which is systems, such as those of the pituitary, has been
seen as the sudden withdrawal of a lunb from any found in a variety of animals and in all typts the
painful stimulus, is more complicated. jUthough neurosecretory organ complex is the domioant
the stimuli may vary, the withdrawal response is endocrine gland of the body. In Crustacea the so
BIOLOGY Fas the world of science
t5ie eyestaOi. This iavolvea the ftjsion of two cells, the gamete
and in insect® neurosecretory cells conneeting to produced by develops
adult individuals, and rach^mf^
factional thiis formed into au individaal oMhe
positioiD. of Ijie vertebrate pituitary. Tliey all next generation, The gamete are of two irinria
regulate grow^, metabolism and J^productive the large, spherical, Iminobile ova nrodueed hv fho
lkrir.Z: :r ^ v^wwvxj wx wiac xiaclu- icuuuB Konaa or ovary ana tne much smallAr
ation of other endoonne gland”,s. motile
testis. gomd
female sperms or b“ of theand
produced
The motUity bysperms
the male
helps gonad
them or
to
reach the passive ovum, which contains food
7. Animal Behaviour. reserves to support the early development of the
Tn rllRmiRfllnff f.Ho nownncs aTrofarvi wrv Tv«-rro «T_ BHlbryO,
In discussing the nervous system we have al- ®™Pryo.
ready de^t with simple mechanisms such as the Worms.—
reflex Very much more complicated are the formsrhave The flat worms nariicni-iTiv
comnuLtedWp
instinctive and learned patterns of behaviour hermaohrodlta pa/'h ^
wMeh me studied by anhnal psychologists and Stoale o™ Cro^feSS^n
ethologists such as Lorens and Tinbergen. occurs" spêîromone^w^S^t^^B^^^^
M dncedmto the female duct of another. The round
(a) instmct. ■worms are unisexual, and internal fertilisation also
Instinct is inborn behaviour which does not *^®’5'rrs. Of the annelids the polychaete worms are
have to be leamt and is usually performed in a out the ova and sperms are shed into the
stereotyped way. For example a gull will re- where fertihsation takes place. However,
trieve an egg taken out of its nest by shovelling ^ ^“®,feech^ are hermaphrodite.
It hack with the underside of its beak. The gull oross-tertilisation takes place and the eggs are
will never replace an egg in its nest in any other ™ cocoons.
way. for example by using awing or leg, and once sr/i,-/,..,.,.?- t ,
it has begun a retrieval it will usually continue the +T,n,'^, ' ‘ crmtacea are unisexual,
naovements back to the nest even tbongh the egg henna-
^ taken away. An instinctive bekaviotir pattern fertilisation may occur, but in
IS triggered, off by a particular stimulus or “ re- crayff^ pairing takes place and the
leaser which may be a very small part of the deposited on the tail of the female,
total environment. A male stickleback will ^hm the eggs are shed they become fertilised and
attack a very crude model with a red belly but attached to the abdominal appendages.
wiU not attack an exact model without it. The cetacea have motile larval stages into
red underside appears to be a much more impor- 3 6g^ first develop. In Daphnia, the
tant stimulus than general shape. A particular water-flea, parthenogenesis sometimes occurs, i.e.,
instinctive pattern cannot always be eUeited and develop without being fertilised. The
the reaction of an animal very largely depends on are separate m the araolmida and there are
when the behaviour was last produced. The **?n^y no stages except in the primitive
longer the time that elapses, the easier it is to msects are also unisexual, and
trigger off the instinctive pattern xmtU eventually ''“® fertilised eggs are laid after copulation. In
it may appear in the absence of an appropriate set f ^-^-^^won-flies, an immature nymph similar
of environmental oireumstances. ™ 5“® adult Is formed, but in flies, beetles, moths.
5^0 majori others the egg hatches Into a larval
(b) Learning. fe™' Pus then develops Into a pupa, from which
5., 4. 1 j the final ariult or unago IS produced. In the social
^ts nest the workers are sterile females with
organism shfe oime as a result of experience. Evi- large heads, reduced eyes, and no wings
dence of learning has been seen tn many animals males and aueens are winged, and inHP.minnfinT,The of
frcm worms upwar^ though, aamight he expected, the latter occurs during the “ nuptial ” flight
the more complicated types of leamhig are found " '
®”lf to those animals with elaborate nervous , Molhisca and Echinoderms.— Most lamolU-
systems. A simple type of learning is seen when branchs are unisexual, although some species
ânimal, upon repeated exposure to a stimulus, of scallops and oysters are hermaphrodite
gûaUy deweMea the normal response which is There axe motile larval forms, and in the swan
usually one of flight, unffl evmtually the response mussel, Anodonta, the larvae develop In the
iw disappear completely. This process is called mantle cavity of the parent and when liberated
complex are the conditioned become attached to the gills or fins of figiv where
reflexes, which were flmt discovered by Pavlov, they remain parasitic for some t.ima gome
^ amma can to some way connect a gaatexopods are unisexual, hut the slugs and gnafla
^ ^ with an axe hermaphrodite. La the latter Ss-fm:^^
stimulus such as meat, so that tlon occurs, the two approaching gna.iia being
evmtually it salivates when the bell is rung. Trial stimulated
of calciumto carbonate
copulate by toto
firing each
gma.n otfae?
âm daS®
The
+^tb?rA more complicated eohtooder^ are unisexual, and fertilisation takes
iSii', retrospective eluent place m the sea. The egg first develops into .a
bânse the reward at the end of the maae comes dilated larval form, aeveiops mto a
after ^ the rewonses. Many animals can run
,’'''¥feF®'*^?®*^®®“®^®iisivelyused Vertebrates. — -The sexes are always separate to
to ex|»rinients of this nature and there is a huge the vertebrates. In some cartUagtoous flsh ea
hterature
of learningon tl^ one animal.
be called A final categofy
insight learning: to this dogfish, internal
are laid in fertilisatio
protective sans. Tn cfmtraoir
^S^^S
resoivmg a new nsh sued ova and sperms toto the water, where fer-
-This type of ti^tion tak^ place. Although paSrm^ to
the perception of relations be- place in the amphibia, ferriUsation occurs to water
different pm'ts of the environment and smd there is usually an aquatic larval stage.
ex^ples in arthropods and reptUes, birds, and mammals are independent The of
®fearest evidence of it is seen in the water for fertilisation as eopulatton toS^toace
behaviour of birds and mammals. and the into
sperms
darkly the from the Most
female. ^le^ iSC
reptiles and all
- Reproaucti
». _ ^ on. the embryo6ggBin "With hard shells.
maisupial mammalsDevelopment of
b^ns in the
A single animal may live for a shoTfi nr innf*- wntinued in a ventral poudli
time, but eventuaUy i/dies, and the conthiJmce teat of the mammary gland,
of the species is dependcTit. upon reproduction living speoiM of monotreme mammals
Some protozoa, su^ as iSaf Sdu^ ® »®"®h-
aaexually
to pttoce bytwothenew
stoiple division of the cell ^ eutheiian mammals the embryo
UiridS ^SfaJ re-
produotion also occurs to some coeienterates, ®"^’i®®“ s^se.
BIOi-OGY F39 the world OF SCIENCE
very mucli a matter of chance, and large numbers resistant spore within the ceU. They do not
of gametes are produced which offset the great possess chlorophyll, though a few are pigmented.
losses of gametes and embryos that this method in¬ Most obtain their food already formed, and are
volves. Internal fertilisation is more certain, and thus either saprophytes or parasites. The
is also independent of external w,ater — an impor¬ saprophytic bacteria occupy a vital position in the
tant factor in land animals. In vertebrates par¬ living world. They are responsible for most of
ticularly there is increase in the care of the young the decay of dead organic matter, and it has been
by the parents, involving the development of truly said that without them the surface of the
characters of behaviour as well as those of struc¬ earth would soon berome completely covered with
ture. Some fish lay their eggs in holes or nests the dead bodies of animals and plants. Bacteria
which are protected by the male. Similarly, a few also play a vital part in the circulation of nitrogen
frogs build nests, while others carry the eggs about. in nature. By breaking down organic material,
The eggs of birds require a constant high tempera¬ ammonia is released and ammonium carbonate is
ture for their development, and they are usually formed in the soil. Tbls Is oxidised by other
incubated by the pjirents. After hatching the bactmla to form nitrates, which can be absorbed
young are fed and guarded by the parente until
they can leave the nest and fend for themselves. by plants again.
atmospheric Yet and
nitrogen, other
one bacteria
species. can_ “ fix ”
Shizobium
In the eutherian mammals the embryos are leguminosum, occurs in the root nodules of plants
attached to the uterus wall by the placenta, via such as clover and lupins. These plants are often
which food materials pass from the mother. The grown on poor soils and ploughed in, thus im¬
period of gestation is long, and after birth the proving the fertility of the soil. The parasitic
young are snppiied with milk from the mother bacteria are also of great importance, as they are
until they are weaned and can feed themselves. responsible for many diseases of plants, animals,
Another feature in mammals is the period of and man. (See P7{1).)
“ childhood ” during which they play and learn
and are protected and fed by their parents. The
internal fertilisation, internal development, and 8. Fungi. — This is a large group of plants, none
care and protection of the young after birth which of which contain chlorophyll. Hence, Uke the
is so conspicuous in the higher vertebrates results bacteria, they are either parasites on other living
in the reduction of losses during the vulnerable plants and animals or saprophytes which live on
embryonic and young stages, and in consequence dead organic matter. Some are unicellular
relatively few progeny are produced by a pair of aquatic plants, but naany have a body called a
individuals. mycelium composed of many branched threads or
hyphsB. In the higher fungi (e.g., toadstools,
bracket fungi, and puff-balls) complex reproduc¬
tive structures are formed. All fungi produce
THE PLANT KINGDOM. spores. In the aquatic species these may be
motile, but the majority form minute, airborne
There are various ways in which the main spores. The spore output is often very gr^t,
classes of the plant kmgdom can be grouped, but and a single mushroom may produce 1,800 miluon
a simple, up-to-date arrangement is given in the spores. Some fungi are serious diseases of crop
chart. Vascular plants are often known as the plants, such as potato blight and wheat rust.
Tracheophyta because they all possess woody
conducting elements. These are absent in non-
vascular plants, and the bacteria, fungi, and algse 3. Algae. — These ace essentially aquatic plants
are often called TluMophyta, i.e., they have a which contain chlorophyll. They range fâ
relatively simple plant body or thallus. Many of microscopic forms to the large seaweeds. The
the bryophytes also possess a thallus, but in some green algae {Ghlmophycem) live mostly m fresh
there is a stem bearing leaves, although a true water and may be unicellular, motile or non-
vascular system is absent. Many thallophyte motfle, or filamentous, though a few found in
are aquatic, whereas the tracheophytea are mostly tropical seas axe more complex. The brown
land plants in which the development of woody algffi (PitoeovJiycea) are mostly seaweeds which
tissues can be related to the attainment of the land possess a brown pigment, fucoxanthln, which
habit as the plant kingdom evolved. However, maate the green ohlorophyU. They Include the
the chart should not be taken as indicating the bladder-wraCks (JPucm) and kelps (Laminaria) of
evolutionary relationships of the various groups. our coasts and the seaweeds which fonn dense
It is more a convenient arrangement which floating masses over hundreds of square mUes of
reflects the relative complexity of the plant body. the Sargasso Sea. Other groups are the red aJgas
(Ehodophyceoe). mostly seaweeds of delicate form,
the uniceUulax motile diatoms (BadllariophvcerB).
1. Bacteria.— This is a vast group of minute and the blue-green algse (Cyamphycem). All
organisms of very simple structure. They are algse possess unlcenulax reproductive organa
spherical or rod shaped and may exist as separate Vaxions types of life cycle occur, the most complex
cells, some species being motUe, or as long chains being found in the red algse.
or irregular masses. Their minute size makes
the elucidation of their structure very difliCult.
There is a wall of complex composition, and cyto¬ 4. Bryophyta. — ^These are the liverworts (Bepa-
plasm which contains glycogen and fat. Elec¬ ticca) and the mosses (Jtfitsci). They axe all small
tron-microscope studies have revealed the presence plants characsterised by a sharply defined life¬
of structures which appear to consist of nuclear cycle. This consists of an alternation of geneisi-
material. Multiplication is by simple division, tions. the “ plant " being a gametophyte bearing
whichmay take place very rapidly. For example, sex organs. The latter are multicellulax, the
Badllus subtilis can divide every 20 minutes, so female archegonium containing a single stationary
that in 8 hours a single cell may give rise to ovum and the male antherldium producing many
16 millions. Eeoent research indicates that a motile sperms. The latter are released and swim
sexual process may also occur. Bacteria can sur¬ in water to the archegonium, where fertilisation
vive unfavourable conditions by producing a takes place. After this a sporophyte is formed
Plant Kingdom
Non-vasciuar Plants Vascular Plants
Bacteria Fungi Ai^ Bryophyta Psflopsida Sphenopsida Lyoopsida Pteropslda
Filicinae Gymnospetmae Angiospermae
Monocotyledones Dicotyledones
SIOlÔGY THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
de^dmt on t]te gametophyte larches (Larix), and yews {.T<mis\ The o,r/.o^
pe brrophytes aie of little economic importance, bS gin^ to bot^Sl cSens^f
si“s.^,«.r^r“.sss^‘>8Sh^^
m many phmt communities, and gpecies of the usually borne on cones The m'lip nniiofSL'^^
te-mo® Spftapn«MCPVBr large areas where rain- Sdonnell a, are carried by
which L cQuiyalent’
the femê cone. The pollento wind
the to the ovule of
MCTos?OM“?f
germinates and the
6. Mopsida.— This is a small group of primitive. gametes to the
vascular, spore-beaitog plants. Its only living fnnu5f tbe female pro-
reprêntativesê two rare genera of the Southern ® ê-
Hen^hsre. However, a number of fossil forms foSu ovule on the parent plant,
are known &om the Devonian period. The best fertilisation an embryo is formed, the pro-
known are ê found to the chert at Eh^ to f®o<i store or endosperm, and
SeotlMi ajie ptonts are exceUently preserved, '^s ssed coat,
and their mtemal structure can be easily seen if snd retam a primitive feature
They wme probably marsh plants with prostrate Srif+p f ■?« they
and erect
simple leafless stems, although Ast^roimlon had
leaves. ™ archegoma from the pollen tube,
the
n, Anrfospex
Aagiospermm.—
Bos In theTheCretaceou
apparent sudden isrisestill
s period of
6. Sphenopsida. — ^The only living members of the abominable mystery” it was to Darwin.
P „ group are about twenty-five species of horse¬ Vanous suggertions have been put forward,
tails iJSQwisetuTn), In the Carboniferous period nothing but
is known about the origin of the
m^ tree forms existed {e.g., Oalamites). the re¬ 4^?sP®tms or floweitog plants are
mains of which are very common to coal deposits.
now the dpmmant
surface of the earth, group over most of the land
and at least 250.000 species
are known. Apart from the natural vegetation
7. Z^copsida. — În the Carboniferous period the the majority oiûr crop and garden plants are
^tubmosses were also prominent members
of the forests (e.g., Lepidodeiidron). They often
reached 100 ft. to height, were branched or un- habitat
ôgierms.and rangeTheym form
occurfrom
to gigantic
every™! trees to of
omnched, and had large simple leaves. They intoute plants, such as the duck-weeds. Some are
also had extensive root systems. The only living of'bsrs succulents, and a number have
members Mong to a few genera of small her¬ reverted to the anuatic habit. Although most
baceous clubmosses, such as Lycopodium and poêss chlorophyll, a few are partial (e.g.. Mistle¬
Smmnem. Like the true mosses, they have an toe) or complete parasites (e.g.. Dodder).
altâtlon of generations, bnt the elaborate plant
with stem, leaves, and roots is the sporophyte See^.—fChe diagnostic feature
and the gametophyte is very small. In iJvco- of the CTpup is the production of seeds, which are
pmtum otoy one kind of spore is prodnoed, and completely enclosed_^thin the female part of the
the rraultant gametophyte is bisexual. Sela- owy. BMto^y a flower is a short re-
oiwm produces numerous smali microspores preductive shoot which bears several whorls of
lateral organs. At the base are several, often
whteh give ^ to the very reduced male game- ®een. protective sepals forming the calyx, and
tophytes and motile sperms and the few large
megagwres which produce the female game- above this are ae often brightly coloured petals of
tophytes. The latter are formed within the the corolla, Withm this are the stamens of the
megaspore wan. which splits to aUow the sperms andînm or male part of the flower, (êntrafly
to reach the small archegonia. IS the feê gynoeoium of one or more carpels con-
tata^ the ovul®. The parts of the flower may
be firee, as to the buttercup, or fused together. In
8. KlictofiB. — These are the true many species the petals are fused (sympetalous)
some cmasiflcations are put with ferns, which to
the horsetails the stamens are bomeon the corolla (epipetalous),
and clubmosses to the Pteridophyta or vascular tiiB csipds are fused to form a conipoimd
^TPâoB l^.e.. vascular plants without seeds). gyncecium (syncarpous). The stamens possess
The have a long fc^sil historv* and remains others, which produce pollen grains. These are
Shed and iMJried by insects or wind to the receptive
very- simiJai to the Hving lUjyal ferns (Osmunda)
are known from the Carboniferous. The ferns are sa^s of the carpels. Each produces a tube
wid^reând partioularly abundant to tropical Which grows down the style to the ovary and
forerts. The majority are herbaceous perennial miters an oviile. The ovule is a complex struc-
mante, but a few are aauatic, and there are some t ture contamtog an ovum and a primary discharged
endo-
tr^ ferns, which may reach 20 ft. to height.
Most ferns posMss a^m bearing roots and large ■ one fuses with the ovum
leaves ox fronds. The plant is the sporophjl and_ the other fuses with the prim^ endosperm
e nucleus. After this " double fertilisarion
and produces^ numerous spores in sporangia
home on the ^nds. Each spore gives rise to a en^ô is formed which is embedded to the
nmnute gx^ freÛvtog gametophy nutritive endosperm and the outer tissues of the
te known and
archegonia as ovule form the seed coat or testa. The ovary of
autoeridia. After fertilisation a young sporo- the carpul develops into the fruit containiim the
see*. Ernlte are of various kinds, being either
giyte_devdops, whiito at first draws nourishment ael*cent Md opening when mature to release the
Mm the pTOthûs. Thus, as to the Bryophyta.
fixten^ watCT IS essential for the motile spenns to s^da or todebiscent, with a succulent or dry wail,
swim m, Md thpi is a clearly defined alternation dme todebiscent fruits are shed as a whole, and
of generetions, but the sporophyte is a complex often contain only a stogie seed. Seeds and fruits
mdependent plant, and the gametophyte is show great variation to structure, and often have
reduced though free-living. ad^tations assisting dispersal. Some have hairs
or wl^ which aid wind dispersal, whereas others
have hooks or are sticky and are transported by
9. Gyiimosperins8.---The3e were the dominant anlm^. Some have flotation devices and may
land plants to the Mesozoic eta, although fossil re¬ be carried a êat distance from the parent pin.ni.
mains are found as far back as the Devonian. The by ymter. Seeds vary to size from the micro¬
“embers stni form large forests in the scopic seeds of orchids to those of the double
ôrth Temperate regions. They are mostly which may weigh 40 lb. Only about
tall evergreen trees with roots, stems, and amsH 10^ of the weight of a seed is water, and the
leaves. The conifers include the pines (Pinits) embryo, although alive, is dormant. The bulk of
BIOLOGV F4t THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
a seed consists of stored food material, commonly Farticle sizes, ranging from the coarsest gravel
fats or starch and proteins, which may be con¬ soUs. through sands and silts to the finely textured
tained in the endosperm surrounding the embryo, clays, have extensive effects on the flora and fauna
although in some species the endosperm is of any area. Coarsely textured soils are obviously
absorbed during seed development and the food is penetrated most easily both by roots and by soil
stored in the one or two swollen seed leaves or animate. SoUs of this type also allow the rapid
cotyledons of the embryo. movement of water and soil gases, but they have
the serious disadvantage of poor water retention.
The level at which water saturation occurs is
Glassification of FloiccHno Plants. — John Bay known as the water table and is an important
(1627-1705) was the first botanist to recognise the abiotic factor. The terrestrial environment tends
two great divisions of the Angiosperms — the on the whole to dehydrate organisms and there
dicotyledons with two seed leaves and the mono¬ is always a marked dependence on water
cotyledons with only one. This primary division supplies.
of the flowering plants has stood the test of time
and is still recognised. Other differences are also Soil characteristics also vary with depth. A
found between the two groups. The dicotyledons vertical section through any sou is referred to as
its profile and has considerable bearing on the
usually have net-veined leaves and the floral parts ecosystems in which the soU is involved. The
are in fours or fives, whereas the monocotyMons
usually have leaves with parallel veins and the layers, or horizons, of a soU profile vary enor¬
mously from one soil to another. Below a surface
floral parts are In threes. layer of organic debris one can, in general terms,
distinguish a layer of soil from which substances
have been leached (A horizon), soil containing the
leached-out substances from the layer above (B
horizon), the weathered parent material (0
ECOLOGY— THE S-roDY OF LIVING horizon), and finally the parent rock or some other
ORGANISMS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT. stratum beneath the soU (D horizon).
Hmnus, which is formed from animal and plant
So far we have examined biological organisation remains and is located in the lower parts of the
at the level of the cell through to the whole, multi¬ A profile, is of great importance in providing food
cellular organism. The important branch of for soil organisms and chemical elements such as
biology which deals with the relationship between nitrogen, phosphorus, and oalciiun for plant
living organisms and their environment must now growth. It is also important in maintaining good
he considered. Iiivlng organisms and the physical soil structure and, though inorganic fertilisers can
environment in which they exist form what is supply chemical elements, they have little or no
termed an ecosystem. Obviously it would be effect on structure. Soil reguires careful culti¬
possible to regard the whole world as a giant eco¬ vation, and structure is easily disturbed by such
system, though for purposes of study it would be things as heavy farm machinery. The smearing
extremely unrewarding and impractical to adopt of soils by spinning tractor wheels as wet land is
such an extreme attitude. A pond, a rooty or ploughed, or the winter harvesting of crops such
sandy shore, a forest, and a peat bog are examples as sugar beet in adverse conditions, eventuaUr
of ecosystems on a somewhat smaller scale, leads to the creation of impermeable layers with
possessing different properties and containing the disastrous exclusion of oxygen and oxygen-
populations of animaJs and plants that are dif¬ consuming organisms.
ferent both in number of individuate and in species
represented. The ecologist seeks to understand
why a particular species is present in certain
numbers
interactionin with
an ecosystem
all other inliving
termsorganisms
of that species’
(biotic (6) The Agnatic Environments.— Iferine and
factors) and with the physical (abiotic) factors of fieshwater environments together cover more than
the ecosystem. 76 per cent of the earth’s surface and, since they
can be occupied throughout their entire depth,
offer a much greater volume of living space than
does the land. There is only a slight difference
1. Abiotic Factors. between the density of water and of living tiKues,
so that the bodies of aguatio organisms are very
AH living organisms will show ranges of toler¬
ance for abiotic factors such as temperature, largely supported by the environment and do not
humidity, salinity, oxygen levels, amount of light, need strong woody stems or powerfully musded
etc. dearly, if any factor in the environment limbs to hold them np. Water has a high speciflo
moves outside the range of tolerance of a species, heat, which means that large amounts of heat are
it becomes limiting for that particular species needed to raise its temperature. The result is that
wbieh is then excluded from, the environment. aguatio environments tend to show much smaller
Within the range of tolerance there will be an fluctuations in temperature than the terrestrial
optimum value for each abiotic factor at which a ones. In general, the larger the volume of water
species wifl survive best. the smaller are the fluctuations in temperature,
There is not a firm line separating suitable and and so the fauna and flora of the oceans wiU not
tmsuitable environments, but rather a steady shift show wide temperature tolerance, whereas that of
&om optimum values into conditions in which an small pools will, but in neither case wiU the toler¬
ance be so great as that shown by many terrestrial
organism finds it more and more difficult to sur¬
vive. The interaction of different ahloUe factors forms. Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentra.-
in an environment produces a complex situation tions are very different in vrater and in air and
which will make the environment suitable for one this has led in animals to the development of gffl
species hut will exclude another species having systems for gas exclmnge rather than the lungs;
slightly different abiotic optima from the first, or hmg-type structures, of terrestrial forms. Gas
even though the conditions are not outride the concentrations are also variable from one agnatic
tolerance ranges of either species. Thus trout and environment to another, making them suitable for
carp show considerable overlap in the ranges of the support of different fauna and flora.
temperature, oxygenation of the water, and speed Ah important difference ^tween the sea and
of water current in which they can survive and it freshwater is seen when their salt concentrations
is possible for both species to live in the same pool are determined. This is usually done experi¬
or tank. In the wild, however, they tend to form mentally by measuring the temperature at which
part of different ecosystems because trout have a t^ medium freezes, because a weU-establlshed
lower temperature optimum, need more oxygen, relationship exists between the salt concentration
and are more active than carp. Trout are found in a solution and the extent to which the freez^
in rapidly-flowing, cool, unpolluted chalk streams point is lowered below that of the solvent (in this
whereas carp live best in shallow lakes which are case distUIed water) alone. Thus, freshwater
somewhat warmer and rather stagnant. freezes at 0 "C or just below whereas sea water,
One of the most important abiotic factors in an witii its hi^ salt content, freezes at —1-9 °C. and
envlromnent is the nature of the substrate upon a mixtm'e of half fresh and half sea water freezes
or within which an organism moves and settles. at —0-95 ”0. Organisms living in fresh or in sea
water face guite dissimilar iwoblems in osmotic
and ionic r^rulation. life evolved othdnallr to
(a) The Terrestrial Environment.— rSoil la the the sea and the salt concentration in the blood or
commonest substrate for terrestrial organisms.
'marine molluscs, crustaceans, and eohinodeimSi
BiOILOGY the world of science
for example, produces precisely the same freezing bolic pathways directly to synthesise new virus
point depression as does sea water itself. Marine material.
organisms have, on several occasions in the course Many parasites (and other pests which mar
of their evolution, moved into freshwater. Ee- disturb the comfort and health of man) can now
presentatives of the worms, crustaceans, molluscs, be controlled to some extent, and, for a variety of
and vertebrates have all independently invaded reasons, such control procedures have extensive
this very dilute habitat. What is more, all these effects on the ecosystems involved. The regula¬
animals show approximately the same types of tion of some bacterial parasites by means of anti¬
modifloation _ to cope with the change. Their biotics, and control of the insect vectors of
outer layers, in the main, become impermeable and organisms such as the malaria parasite by means
the salt concentration of their blood is reduced of insecticides, have both been important factors
considerably (to a freezing point of — 1-0 °C in in the increase in human population. Though the
tish and to a spectacularly low level in the fresh¬ beneficial effects of pest control of all types are
water mussel, depressing the freezing point to a clear, the process is not without its difficulties aud
mere — 0-2 °C). The kidneys become enlarged dangers. Indiscriminate use of many chemical
and produce a large volume of dilute urine. By agents has led to the development of resistant
these means freshwater animals can cut down loss strains. In any group of organisms, some will
of their salts to the dilute medium and can also naturally he more resistant to a pesticide or anti¬
remove the large volume of water that enters their biotic than others and these will be the survivors
bodies by osmosis. It is interesting that all of any treatment that is less than totally effective
terrestrial vertebrates, including the mammals, They will form the breeding stock for subsequent
have retained a salt concentration in their blood generations and so progressively more and more
of about half the seawater level and this is partly resistant types will evolve. Thus, there are now
attributable to their freshwater ancestry. The many strains of bacteria resistant to penicillin and
transition between seawater and freshwater was other antibiotics. Even more alarming is the
achieved via brackish water estuaries and the recent discovery that this resistance can be trans-
oreanlsms which live imder brackish water con¬ femed in an infective way between bacteria of
ditions today are of great interest in showing how different species. Another complication associated
tolerance of substantial fluctuations in salinity can with chemical control is that the agent concerned
be achieved. The ultimate development of salin¬ frequently affects a wide spectrum of organisms,
ity tolerance is seen in such animals as the salmon incliiding those that are in no sense injurious to
pd eel which move from fresh to salt water and man or Ms crops. Thus DDT MUs bees and other
back again during their life cycle. pollinatmg iiusects uniess its application to a crop
is very precisely timed. In addition, the accumu¬
lation of quantities of cMorinated hydrocarbons
such as DDT in the environment is known to have
S. Biotic Factors. an injurious effect on organisms other than insects.
Because these chemicals are broken down very
to) Associations between Organisms. — ^No organ¬ slowly they now form a serious problem in environ¬
ism can be considered to be independent of any mental pollution.
other organism in an ecosystem but in some cases
close associations of various types can be de¬ Predation. A less direct association than that
veloped between diflTerent species or different between parasite and host is the one which exists
members of the same species.
between predators and the prey which they
capture and kill. However, interactions in both
Commensalism is an association which benefits parasitism and predation have features in common,
one member but has little effect on the other. particularly those affecting population numbers.
Small organisms can live within the protective It the abundance of prey increases, the effort and
covering offered by a larger individual, as, for tune required for a capture is reduced so that the
example, commensal crabs living within the hVip|1 rate of predation must also go up. Eventually,
of some species of oyster. however, predators do not respond to further
increases in prey: because they are satiated, or
SymMosis is a somewhat closer association in for some other behavioural reason, a maximum
vhich both members benefit, as do certain species predation rate is reached in a population of a
of green algae and the coelenterates in whose body certain size. Increased prey density also tends to
tissues they live. The algae are protected and the result m larger numbers of predators, produced
coelenterates benefit from the food produced by either by aggregation from outside areas or by
the photosynthetic plant. Some ssunbiotic organ- increased reproduction rate. The density of
mis are nnahle to survive outelde the association. predators then begins to have its limiting affect on
The hchens which are associations of algae- and the rate of predation. The total response may
fungi, are examples of this type of symbiosis, as lead to stability in numbers but more often
are some of the food-processing micro-organisms periodic oscillations in the number of both pre¬
dators and prey are seen.
together
they hve.with the animals in whose intestmal tracts
Social animals. In some cases animals of the !source(6) The Food Factor.—
of organic food for Plants are the The
all animate. ultimate
most
same species form social groups In which co¬ important food plants are those capable of photo¬
operative effort and division of labour makes them synthesis (P28) in which organic material is
more sncoessful in exploiting a particular envlron- synthesised from carbon dioxide and water, using
m®t. Social development is most obvious among radiant energy from the sun to drive the reaction.
oertam insects such as termites, ants, wasps, and
tees, and among the vertebrates. Social organisa- Pood Chains. Plants are eaten by herbivores
groups may lead to the development
of different behaviour patterns and ultimately, as wMch in turn are eaten by carnivores. It is
m ants and bees, for example, to the evolution of possible to see many such sequences, called food
a variety of structural modifications so that dif¬ chains, in all ecosystems. For example, in the
ferent castes are recognisable. opemsea, grten algae are the important photo-
syntoetio organisms: these are eaten by a smnii
crustacean, Calanus, wbioh in turn forms a large
, Parpitism. Hot all associations are of mutua part of the diet of the herring. Feeding relation-
benefit and when one organism becomes snffl sMps are usually of much greater complexity than
ciently BPMialised so that it can live successfullj w suggested by a simple food chain. Thus,
on materials extracted from another, the latter « Oalanus represents about 20 per cent of the
always Aversely affected. Parasites, by causing herrings diet but it is also eaten by many other
disease in, and sometimes the death of, the host noatine animate as weU. For exiimple, it forms
can Influence population growth and size. Im about TO per cent of the total diet of larval sand
portant groups are bacteria, protozoa, fungi eels. The larval eete are eaten in turn by the
nematodes (roundworms), and platyhelminthf herring and may form 40 per cent of its diet.
(tapeworms and liver flukes). Viruses are alsc Because an animal’s diet is usually quite varied
important disease-producing agents wMch art and one species of animal or plant may be part of
mcapable of an independent existence outside tht the food of a wide range of different animals,
cells of the host and utilise the host cell’s meta¬ mteractlons are set up wMoh are referred to as
biology F43 the world of science
food webs. The more knowledge there is about intensive farming practices are being empoyed to
a particular food web, the more complex it be- improve conversion, rusually by harvesting plj™
comes. However, for general comparative pur- material, processing it, and bringing it to the
poses it is possible to disregard the detail of species animals which are housed in special buildings,
and to group together all organisms with similar This cuts down on the wastage of plant food be-
food habits. When this is done a relationship cause it can be grown under better conditions and
known as pyramid of numbers often appears in less of it is consumed by animals other than the
which organisms at the base of a food chain (the cattle. Careful breeding and the limitation of the
primary producers) are extremely abundant, whUe period over which livestock is raised to that of
those at the apex (the final consumers) are rela- maximum growth efficiency have also contributed
tively few in number. to conversions of some 35 per cent, achieved in the
case of broiler chickens and calves. The moral
problems raised by these methods and the circuru-
stances which make them necessary give rise to
Productivity. The validity of using numbers of widespread concern. , t ^
individuals in such an analysis is often open to Tish are also an important part of mans diet
anestion, especially when ecosystems are to be and again an understanding of the ecology w food,
compared. For example, a comparison between fish is Important in running efficient fisheries,
numbers of herring and numbers of whales as final Many populations have been overfished so wiat
consumers in two pyramidal systems is not very returns have gone down in spite of intensified fish-
informative. This difficulty is partially overcome lug effort. The fisheries scientist is concerned to
by using estimates of the total weight (biomass) of discover the limit at which the maximum number
organisms at each level rather than their number, of fish can he taken without depleting the popu-
Bven this has disadvantages because detenni- lation year by year. Research is also going on
nations of biomass give a measure of the amount of into possible methods of enclosing and farming
material present at any one time (the standing areas of the sea or estuaries,
crop) hut give no indication of the amount of
material being produced or the rate of its pro¬
duction (the productivity). In some parts of the
sea. for example, the biomass of small animals
forming tbe zooplankton is greater than that of the population Dynanfios.
plant life or phytoplankton on which it depends ,
for food. Xl3s seems to contravene tlie pyramid IFactors sucli as those outlined aoove interact
concept. However, the rate of production of new to deternê the size and cteacter of any popu-
material by the phytoplankton is very much lation of hvmg organism. Study of the numbers
greater than by the zooplankton so that, if taken ot orgamsms m a population, together wth their
over a year, the total a.mmint. of plant material change and regulation, forms a branch of the suh-
produced would far exceed the total production of jeet of considerable practical importance known as
animal material. Productivity is a concept of population dynamics.
great practical and theoretical importance. It Nmnbers of animals and plants tend to increase
may be deteimined in terms of the actual organic up to the capacity of the enviromne^* at "^^^h
material produced in an area over a set period of stege so^ essentiffi resom’ce will ®xert a lumtmg
time or. more usefuUv, in terms of the amounts of effect. The rate of increase wffi be deterimned by
energy transferred and stored at each food level, thebalancehetween reproductionrate andmortal-
again over a set period of time. ^ty. As Malthns appreciated, adifits ot
Under natural conditions only 1 to 6 per cent of orgasm tend to repine themselves by a êaWr
tbe light falUng on a plant is converted by its number of progeny and, m the absence of losses by
pbotosynthetic system into chemical energy^ con- mortality and other factors, there is a vast
tained in the material of its tissues. Similarly potential for mcrme m ^ populations. If m
wiU
herbivores which consume plants will pass on to organism doubles its number m a year, there
their predators only some 10 per cent of the energy be a l,0()0-fold increare
rncrease in 20 ^ W
years.
contained in the plant material they eat. These niilUon-fold
so
low values for nhotosvnthetic efficiency and eco- type soon leads to shortages and overcrowding
logical efficiency respectively are due to the fact that mortality goes up, the net rate of inciMse
appears as heat during the diminishes, and finally an eaulbbriuioB re^hed
that most of the energy
metaboUc reactions needed to sustain life and only ^th no ofttoe
a small amount is Incorporated into new tiê.
Tf see f.iis.fi tbe form of fl< pyrsdnid of follows un S'Sbaped curve, staxtmg slowly
oflow eco- becoming faster and faster, and then slowing down
logical efficiency, as can tbeiTterms
1^ e^latoed observation tbat a to eouiUbrium. xi.,.
food fijiain rarely bas more than five links- Tbe Wben a population rei^bes e<îl^rium, iê
loss of energy at eacb stage must me^ tbat each numbers
fliieeeeflincf ^tage becomes smaller and smaller m as competition for food, refuge, or space, xnese
munber^d S tbe number of stages is severely factors are said to
greater numbers in tbe population mtensity tJie
uuuwu. competition and increase mortality, lower nuêrs
decrease competition and favour survival. Abun¬
dance is therefore regulated by density-dependent
HiwBa^PopMZaJicnandFood. The presentvery process arising from inteîons. ^. ^tween
large Increase in human iwpuiatlon and the pre- indlviduaJs making, np the population, Mn-
million in 1068 to 6,000 secondly, between the population under
dieted rise from 3.300 pwffiatio^
mUfimi in the year 2000 has led to a pressing need sideration and other prMators. or food. The levffi
for the controUed exploitation of food resources m may be oompetitoi^ may
the world. Consideration of the processes of of abundance at whi^ this regulation ocems le^ m
energy transfer suggests that man should be vary êatly and will_be detemined, at such. M
maMy herbivorons. They also suggest that by general enyuronmental fiictore
present agricultural crops, with the possible excep- temperatiM, ramfaU, amomt of sunlight, the
tionofsngarcane.donotaoMeyeashiâprimary of tbe vêtation. and M on. , ,
productivity as that encountered in some natural Human population te
ecosystems. Crops rarely achieve complete plant rate. presentAli)^. ™^^;biûre of th^^m deatt
cover of the land throughout the growing season Food preffiuotion Is also biciâ^, b^ m
so as to trap the maximum amount of simll^t. some areas of the_ world supply and regu^ment
It would be necessary to mix crops to do this are so eyeifiy^matcb^ that drought or wm me
effectively and there would then he oompUcated Inevitably followed by “
harvesting uroblems human population has not yet readied the stage of
remalDS an omnivore, as he alm(« equflibriuni. it is dear tot df^tely it musttot be
certainly wUl, then his domestic food animals ’will subject to forces_ of regffiatton similar to those
continue to he herbivorous as they are at present, control population of other orgî^. Birtt
though whether they will be the same herbivores rate cannot exceedBylumtlngthesiz death-rate inde^tdy m Mf
is 1^ easy to predict. Beef cattle raised on grass- hvingorp^m. eoffamilinit
4 per cent intoof the energy in the is possible for m^ to ^dueve a poptotion eamli-
plants of tbeironly
land convert environment similar chemical bnnm at levels lower ton those mw
must
energy in their tissues. At the present time lative factors such as famine or aggreôn
BIOLOGY F44. YHE world OF SCIENCE
control of birth-rate 1 the Silurian period, there arose a new form
Io3a«on ^ fishes somewhat similar backboned

to the antoals.
sharks' pSmitiTC
pd in the (hylsion of the Upper erf today
Paleozoic
known as the Devonian, they had come Era
to mult’Dlv
®EEE GEOLOSIO&L EECOBD.
so greaHy that this is freauently described as "the
.%**»w**w viwt«bv»9 *JU». UXIV JJUSbULy tjllKS tsortu
can he Tarions
read bystagte in the history of the
the geologists earth
in the strata or
Fishes,
solidify and It is In these rocks, too. that the Plants.— It is aboutol

down since the planet began to
record of life upon earth may be traced. animals
aiâl and and plant
plantslife
hadupon
acute
the problems
dry land. Both
to solve
before it became possible for them to live out
No Me Ro<to -d3ie earliest rocks In the record &1unnS
?ted
are known aa the Azoic (no life) rocks because surrounding water and
they show no trace of living things, and these in the
layers are of sneh thickness that they occupy more If solved
than half of the whole record. That Sto^y, for pTantR wtp lungs,
more than half of the earth’s historv nothin^ Pleats were able to mvade the land because of the
living existed upon any part of the cuticle which
millions of years the surface of our planet was water lo^ and alsp the development of
notWng but bare rock without soD or sand, swept watOT^con^
^ln^^^Slm ®
by hot wmds exceeding In violence
tornadoes of today, and drenched by torrential the wildest ®°™nctmg system for the whole plant body,
Amphibia and Spore-bearing Trees.— The first
e-sewli6r^ gradually tore a^ray tli6 stirfEco to form type of vertebrates (backboned animalft)
sandy sediiMnts at the bottom of the seas. In upon dry land was the fo
Buoh ancient moka pushed above the surface by Carboniferous Age. whi^ group of amphibia in fhn
later upheavals we ran stlH tod^ renrMeJpd
the marks of by the newts, tS ^d Si^d^ Tn
luimeval oceans as they rippled upon the barren all these forms the eggs give rise to n fnii-nniA ofoo-a
shores or of raindrops which left their imprint ^th lois ^ch S
greSê tiSie
perhaps 1,500 million years ago. form of La™
water: lung whiche lisenables the nnimn.!
Sva°^clTo to live
a SSi^
Primitive Soa-life.— As we move unwards EE™ ®°' ®™Pbibia are restricted
througbthestrata, however, traces of life begin to or marshy land, and
appear and ^dUy increrae^rrame to th^
more recent levels. The
what ia known as the Early earliest signs appear In nf -E most abundant forma
to treF^Hto
some writers as the Proterozoic Ageirwhen we clubmosses. and fe^, the
find the fossilised remains of ahellflsh sea- which are found m the coal
weeds, and trilobites — the latter were creatnrpR burned as household coal. But
somewhat like the plant-Hoe of modem times amphibia,
these Primitive arfmate Sd Stsdi^ to ^ swamps and
shallow tidal waters of ancient seas • for as vet fife p’ freed Itself from
had not invaded eithra toeX Itod or toHran exigence to the waters of the
oceans. It Is. of course, cleax^t these features rpnmdnt? nf^p*® in order to
of Early Paleozoic times were not the first Hving ^® bighlands and the deeper
things; they were the fl^,Tlat^ ®“Pty of living
rapable of leaving fossilised remains, and without ^ period had
doubt must have had more pit^tiro ancestors-- ®^ wpmth and abundance, the
ammbic-llke forms. ieiS^. *®,^ ®“^ 5
whose bodies were too soft to leaTC^y traces to ®S“' long-term
the record of the rocks. “ shifMng
E^p ® changes were due. it is now supposed, to
of its axis of rotation, changes in the shape
The Age oi Fishes.— Towards the end of thp tL masses, and so on. Long before the
Early Paleozoic Era. to what uwe xiuw
now jmow
know as
as the
S 2 rooks of alternatmg ^®®.‘
periods of ®®® ™
warmth and
THE GEOLOOIOAL TIMB SCALE

AGE
PERIODS age
(millions of years)
Pleistocene
Pliocene
OAENOZOIC Miocene
Oligocene Birds,
MoUuscsMammals andmodem plants
Eocene
.Dinosaurs, Cycads; Earliest Birds:

Ammonites and Sea-urchins
Permian 270
350 First mammals; Early reptiles
Carboniferous
Devonian 400 Amphibians, tree-ferns, first Insects
PALAEOZOIC Fishes, first land plants
Silurian 440
Ordovlcjian 600
600 I Mainly invertebrate animals: no
Cambrian >■ life on land. Trilobites and
graptolltes
PBE-CAMBRIAN (also PROTEROZOIC. ARCHAEOZOIC) 5.000 Ufe

2,000 Age of Barth
emerges
â0mmmsmm3im3m3emmsm9m
Mf3isi»MMMSais0!Ma6sM9M0!/0t4s^^

cold as far back as the Azoic and Eaily Paleozoic THE EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS.
Eras. This long cold spell at the close of the
Paleozoic era came to an end about 220 million Introduction. — It is commonly thought that the
years ago, and was succeeded by a long era of great 19th cent, naturalist Charles Darwin was the
widely spread warm conditions — the Mesozoic first person to suggest that life had continually
Era, the so-calied Ase of Eeptiles. evolved. However, the idea that species of living
organisms could change over long periods of time
was considered by some Greek writers and, mnch
later, by the Frenchmen Buflon and Lamarck
The Mesozoic Era. — ^The reptiles first appeared at the end of the 18th cent. Further, the work
in the Permian, but it was during the Mesozoic of the 18th cent, geologists such as James Hutton
era that they became the dominant group of
and William Smith provided a basis -without
animals. The giant reptiles included the stego- which Darwin’s contribution would have been
aurus, the gigantosaurus, the diplodocus, and
many other kinds which were far larger than any face impossible. Hutton showed
had undergone that the
prolonged earth’s sur¬
upheavals and
land animals living today. Some, for example the volcanic eruptions with conseauent changes in sea
diplodocus, were 100 ft. long, although they were level. This implied that the earth W'as much older
vegetarian in habit and were preyed upon by than had previously been supposed. Smith deve¬
other almc®t eaually huge flesh-eating reptiles. loped a method of dating the geological strata by
Some species, such as the plesiosaurs and icthyo- means of the fossils found in them and demon¬
saurs, became secondarily aauatic, while the strated that -widely difi'erent types of animals and
pterodactyl poroessed wings with which it could
gbde and perhaps fly short distances. However, history.plants existed at different
As described periods
la the of thesection
previous earth’sa
they all differed from the amphibia in that they general picture is presented of the evolution of
had hard, dry skins, their lungs were more organisms from the simple to the complex and from
efflcient,
development fertilisation ■was organs,
of copulatory internal and
duethey the the afluatic to the tenestrial environment. These
to laid
discoveries were in conflict with the Biblical
eggs with hard, protective shells. account in the book of Genesis and, although
It was also during the Mesozoic era that the
warm-blooded birds arose. The birds, like the various attempts
or discredit them, were made abundantly
it became to explain them
clear a-way
that
reptiles, lay eggs with hard shells, and they have through millions of years life has been continually
several mtemiil features foimd in the reptUes. changing, with new species constantly arising and
The fossil bird Axchaeopterys, three specimens of
which have been found in Germany, lived in the major many contribution
dying out. to Before considering
the theory Darwin’sit
of evolution
Jurassic period. Although it was obviously a will he appropriate to ontline briefly the various
bird, it retained many reptilian features. Earliest Unes of evidence which indicate that, in fact,
mammals are recognised in rocks of the late evolution has taken place.
Palaeozoic but in the Mesozoic considerable evo¬
lution of the group took place. The fossil Tri-
tuberculata which are also found in the Jurassic,
are believed to be related to forms from which
both the marsupial and placental mammals arose. The Evidence lor Evolution.—
Although insects were present as fax back as the 1. The Oeological Record.— It has already been
Carboniferous, it was in the Mesozoic that many
of the groups we know today first appeared. pointed out that successively younger rooks con¬
tain fossil remains of different and relatively more
Great changes also took place in the plant cover
complex organisms. The spore-bearing plants
of the land during this era. The spore-bearing preceded the gymnosperms and the angiosperms
giant horsetails and tree clnbmoss^ declined arose much later. Similarly in the vertebrate
and were replaced by gymnospexms — ^trees bear¬ series the fish appeared before the amphibia which
ing naked seeds. One large group of these, the were foEowed by the reptfles and later by the air
cycadeoids, has become extinct, but the conifers breathing, warm-blooded birds and mammals.
and a few of the once abundant oycads still
remain. The flowering plants or angiosperms gnreater On a more restricted level the rocks pro-yide even
support for the occurrence of evolution.
also made their appearance, and towards the end For example, the evolution of the horse has been
of the Cretaceous their evolution was extremely worked out in great detaU from the smaU Eohlppus
rapid. In fact, many of the fossil leaves found in which was about a foot high and had four digits
rocks of Cretaceous age axe indistinguishable flrom on the forefeet and three on the hind feet to the
those of some present-day flowering plants. large one-toed animal Uving today. However,
such complete aeries are rare and the geological
record is very incomplete. There are a number
A New Era. — But, perhaps 160 million years ! of gaps, i)articularly between the major groups of
later, aU this seemingly everlasting warmth md organisms. No satisfactory fossfl evidence is
sunshine, the lush tropical life, the giant reptiles known of the ancestore of the angiosperms (F40)
and although some may be discovered it could be
who had ruled the world, were "wiped out by a new that they did not grow in conditions which favoured
period of bitter cold which only the hardy species
could survive. A new Era known as the Ckenozolo their preservation as fossils. On the other hand.
was beginning, ushered in by a period of upheaval Archffiopteryx provides an indisputable Enk
between the reptfles and the birds.
and volcanic activity, foilo'wiag which the map of Another important point should also be made
the world came to resemble more closely the
picture we know today. The cold period may about the geological record. Although we talk
have lasted several million yearn, and the main about the age of fishes, the age of reptfles and so
species to survive it were those which had come on it must be emphasised that these are the periods
into exi^nce towards the end of the Mesozoic during which particular groups were abundant or
Era. the seed-bearing flowerir® plants, the birds, even dominant. Each group probably origi¬
and the mammals. The once aU-powerful nated many miflions of years before it became
widespread. Further, some groups, such as the
reptiles ftom this time on'waids are represented
oifly by the comparatively few and relatively giant reptfles and the seed-ferns, died out com¬
smaU reptilian species of today: the snakes, pletely whereas others, the fishes and true ferns
lizards, crocodllea, and alligators. It was at this for example, are stfll common today. However,
time, too,, that, long after the creation of the even in the latter groups there is evidence that
moimtains Of Scotland and Norway (the so-called they have continued to evolve so that many fishes
Caledonian revolntion). or even of the Appalachian and ferns that exist today are very different from
mountains (the Appalachian revolution), there those of the Devonian and Orboniferous periods
arose the great masses of the Alps, the Himalayas, (F44). On the other hand, the geological record
the Rocky Mountains, and the And^ These are also shows that some species, for example the
the mountain chains of the most recent, the i Maiden-hair tree, have remained unaltered for
Oaenozolc revolution. IhitlaJly, as we have seen, many miflions of years.
the climate of the Caenozoic Era was cold, but
the weather grew generally warmer until a new
period of abundance was reached, only to be 2. Geograîhical Distribution. — Nearly all the
followed at the end of the Pliocene by a period of marsupials or pouched mammals are found in
iriaciM ag^ generally known as the lîrst. Second, the Australian continent which -was cat off fstim.
Third, and Eourth Ice Ages. the mainland about 60 million years ago. All the
BIOLOGY 6 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
fossil CTidence indicates tliat at that time the another and such differences are found in other
mherian or placental mammals did not yet exiat. organisms. No two animals of the sa.ms species
The maraupials are the only naturally occurring (except perhaps for identical twins) are exactly
™ Australia (F33(2)) but since the isola¬ alike and when
tion of the contment the group has given rise to exammed a large
it is clear thatnumber of individuals’
they vary are
considerabl y
m structure, colour, activity and so on. Darwto
a large n^ber of species very similar in appear- also pomted out that generaUy these variations
ance to those which evolved elsewhere in the
world among the eutherian mammals. There were passed on from one generation to the next
are marsupials which look like wolves, dogs, cats for eir^ple, the children of taO parents tend to
and sqmriels: yet they have no close biological STOW tiSJJ..
relationships to these animals. Further, some
nmimpials such as the kangaroos have evolved
S. Survivca of mo mtest.— If there is an intense
i^ch are unlike any other creatures in the rest struggls for oxistonco in t>li6ir nOftiiml Gnviron-
of the^ world. Quite clearly the isolation of mmt among individuals of a species having
îstolia so long ago has resulted in the evolution
characteristics, those which are best
«
etfect of? isolation
.distinct types. A similar small-scale fitted to a given set of conditions are most
was studied by Darwin in the
Dalapagos islands where each has its own distinct êly to suTOve to maturity. These will repro-
Horn and fauna which differ also from those of the du^ and the features which enabled them to
S. American mainland. survive will be passed on to their offspring.
process is liable to continue and a species will This
be-
3. Anatomy. — ^The comparative study come better adapted to its enviroimieiit.
development and mature structure of the ofmam¬ the
malia body provides much evidence that all the 4. Natural Selection. — Over
evolved from a single ancestral stock, a long period
the euTOomnent of a given species is never ofstable
time
^though the arm of am ape, the leg of a dog, the out will change m various ways. As it does so
nipper of a whale and the wing of a bat appear the characters which beat fit the individuals to the
very dfflermt extemaUy they are all built on the changed environment will be selected (not
same skeleW plan. It would be difficult to es- Mnsciously of course) and the species
plain such similarities unless they had all eyolved The emuronment may change only to will change
part of the
mom a common type. There is evidence that rawe of the species and thus lead to divergence
the ^rly development of an animal recapitulates
Its and one.
the production of a new species alongside the
biological history to a certain extent. For old
ex^ple, the slits found in fish are formed
during the early stages to the development of a
mammal although later they disappear. Finally, Darwin and Lamarck. — Darwin pictured evolu¬
apparently useless vestigial structures sometimes tion as a slow continuous process with natural
occur which would be inexplicable unless re¬ selection operating on the small inheritable varia-
garded in the light of an evolutionary history. tiOM found between the individuals of a species
In man a small appendix and vestiges of a third which are undergoing intense competition. Thia
eyehd occur but these are functionless although neglects the miportant effect of the environment
^ 2*?® animals such structures are well developed on the growth and stmcture of the individual. It
and functional, e.p., the appendix to the rabbit. IS obvious that external conditions will affect the
development of an organism, for example the
4. Buman Selection. — ^During his brief history effect of various soil conditions on the growth of a
on ^h modem man has continually selected and plant or the amount of food material available to
bred anlm^ and plants for his own use. We
have cmly to look at the various breeds of dogs p animal. Lamarck maintained that the charac-
which have been developed from a sinê wild type ters aoqêd by an individual owmg to the effect
ofats en-ônment could be passed on to its off-
to s^ ttot under certain circumstances great ^rtog. Undoubtedly characters are acquired by
structural divergence can occur to a species even the mdipdual
m a relatively short time. during its growth but to spite of
many attempts to prove otherwise no eYrwrirYiPnfg
tove been done which prove conclusively that
these ^ inherited by the offspring. Thus
lAmarek.s theory that evoluMon has occurred by
The Darwinian Theory oi Evolution.— Darwto the inhentanoe
theory that evolution
of acquired has is
charactera occurred by
not gener¬
am^d a great deal of information such as that aUy acceptable of
» mhentanoe today.
acquired charactera is not gener-
outlmed above which convinced him that evolu- acceptable today.
^n of life had taken place over millions of years.
His was the flist real attempt to collect aU the
emence scienttocaUy and no other satisjfaotory Hutation Theory. ^The data
alternative explanation of aU the facts he pre- Darwto showed tlmt— the accumiiKtefi hv
vaSoM bS^^nirisr
Perhaps even more vidiials of aspect a^S^Kd eSo^ne
£ ^ tE® dSK’ aboT^

period of time might shiftthepSonomernS
theory
uuBiar.recountmg the main pomts of hia he ^d not see how it could bring abouAthe^-
contatoty necessary for the establishment of a
1 „ totmot new species. De Vries in his AfM(a«ion
le dear that ôry published to 1901 put forward theêw
in ^^5S!?i=^^’®T^ ®j27®restragglefor existence to ^hat evolution depend, not on the accumulation
an animals and pl^te. Over a pmdod of time the of continuous minute variations, but piimailly
mdivtouals of a species to a given com- raon large discontinuous variations or mutationJ
rrary greatlp This impUes that unirartance of such spontaneous " sports "
Pw>?^ wMoh survive to become considered by Darwin but he rejected the idea
??®re or less replaces because when toey appear they are nsuaUy
ones that die. Gmerally monstrous . Such individuals are less "fitted”
productive output of a species is their environment and therefore they wiU not
example, a stogie to produce and give rise to a new species,
produce half a mlUion Kiat mutations are important factors to evolution
which 18 potentially capable of ^ imdoubtedly true but modem work has shown
^ mchyidu^. Obviously nearly whole problem is far more complex than
progeny
the chance die before reaching maturity and
of any Darwto or De Vries supposed,
smgle one snrvivtog is very
remote,- ■ .. '■■■■■■
SCIENCES OF MAN THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
F47
laws which are the basis of modem genetics. a population and are not diluted or lost. Al¬
Mendel investigated inheritance in the garden pea though they may not be of importance when they
and published his results in 1865. i.e., at the time first appear they may be so if the selection pressure
that Darwin’s work was being widely discussed. changes and they become of survival value. Thus
However, Mendel’s important discoveries were not .specific characters may change or diverge and
generally known until 1900. When he crossed a evolution will take place. His investigations also
pure breeding tall plant with a pure breeding showed that recombination of factors could give
dwarf plant all the progeny were tall. When rise to plants with new characteristics. By
these plants were self-poUmated the nest genera- oroHsing a pore bred tall plant having round seeds
Second
generation
tion consisted of approximately one quarter with a dwarf plant having wrinkled seeds he pro¬
dwarf plants and three quarters tall. Iftom this duced in the second generation some tall plants
and similar experiments Mendel deduced that the with wrinkled seeds and dwarf plants with round
“ factors ” iKissed from parents to offspring were seeds. When a Large nmnber of characteus are
paired, only one of the pair came from each parent involved it is obvious that considerable variation
and that one could be dominant over the other. and recombination occurs upon which natural
When he dealt with two pairs of characters, e.a., selection can work.
tall or dwarf plants and round or wrinkled seeds, Mendel was fortunate in his choice of experi¬
he found that they segregated and recombined mental noaterial with its easily recognisable con-
independently and in predictable ratios. trastfaig characters. It is now known that his
The importance
evolution is that of
it Mendel’s work there
showed that in relation to
was no factors ” are the genes carried by the chromo¬
somes in the nucleus of the cell. At the present
blending of the characters in the offspring. time the biochemical basis of heredity is being vig¬
Mutations can he hidden as recessive characters iu orously investigated. See F31.
V. SCIENCES OF MAN
A biologist interested in classification might with the study of man in society. There we shall
supplement the account of the animal kingdom in stop, not, of course, because there are no further
Part IV with the foEowing further description of aspects to consider. Psychology, with its many
Man: different approaches, is the study of mind, and
something of the natme of mind and mental
development will be found in Section Q.
“ Man is a member of the order of Primates
which is sub-divided into two sub-orders:
Proshnil and Anthropoldea. The Prosbml
include the lemurs and the Taxsier; the
Anthropoidea include the monkeys, the apes PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY.
and man. The anthropoid apes form a
famUy caUed Pongidae and the extinct and The EarEest Men and Their Dates.
Eying forms of man together constitute the
famfiy Hominidae. Although these two PossE Primate.
famiUes constitute one saperfamfly, the Some fossE forms are known both in the Eocene
Hominoidea, there are many differences and the OEgocene periods {E44). However,
between them in both body form and func¬ during the Miocene period In East Africa many
tion. Apes progress by over-arm swinging i variette of Primates appeared, probably as a
in trees and they are usuaEy quadrupedal on direct result of major climatic fluctuations in the
the ground: hominids habitually stand and area. These Miocene primates possessed attri¬
butes later to be more fuEy developed either
walk upright.” among the Pongids or among the Hominids.
Thus Proconsul, a common form in Miocene East
But human beings have many remarkable attri¬ Africa, was less speciallaed in locomotion and in
butes and it is not surprising therefore that besides
biologists, scientists of many kinds contribute to thecranial detail than are the apes of today. During
the study of man. Even anthropology, which Miocene some of these East African primates
left the trees and learned to walk upri^t, gradu¬
literaUy means “ the study of man ” is not a single ally adapting thdr pelvic and leg hones to an
■weU-deflned science but has become diversified ertot posture. By freeing the arms and hand this
into a number of parts which have compEcated
opened the way to tool-using and eventuaffy to
connections with biology, archaeology, sociology, tool-makina also.
history, psychology, and many other studies.
Physical anthropolc^y, with which we ahaU deal
first, is much concerned with the description of
those physical characteristics of man whl(fii Man’s Distinctive Attributes.
distinguish race from race, and man from animals. Man has been variously defined as a large-
Such a study Is important if we are to learn how brained hominid. as a bipedal hominid and also as
man evolved. To describe physical characteristios a maker of tools to a set and regular pattern.
quantitatively, suitable measurements must be These criteria imply both morphological and
made, i.e.. we must have techniques of anthropo¬ functional attributes. In tracing man's ancestry
metry (man measurement). Physical measure¬ we do not find aE of these characteristics appearing
ment of the body cannot however exhaust the simuitaneously. The further back in time we
study of man. and therefore we shall also look at
some of the current ideas of social anthropology proceed, the fewer of these attributes are recog¬
nisable. BipedaEsm is an early feature; the other
which is one of a number of disciplines concerned attributes were to foUow later.
SCIENCES OF MAN 8 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
The Australopithecinae. jL^Do equally
I 1065 equiiuy ancient
ancienii remains were found at
êse creatures probably lived during tbe Vertezollos, Hungary, and. these are also of the
Pliocene and Lower Pleistocene periods. For ônto erectus type,
many years controversy raged as to whether they
were to be classiaed as Pongid er as Hpminid. Absolute and Relative Dating.
Many dental features, for example, mdicate their t t ■ ii.
hominid aifinities and they were, moreover, hi- Ip trîcing the emergence of man it i.s de.sirable
pedal. However, their brains were very small and the various tods should be dated as accurately
fall witbin tbe Pongid range. They might well possible, berth in relative terms and also, if
have used tools, a widespread propensity among possible, m absolute terms. Various methods
many Primates, but it is far less likely that the 5®,™ devised and the results are often es-
South African forms were capable of making tools ^ eivmg the date as so many years b.p.
in the manner described. It may well be that the Ar® initials b.p. stand for before present ” and
use of bones, teeth and wood as tools might long conventionally means the year a.d.
have predated the use of more durable stone lôO.
artifacts. On balance, however, the Ausbralo- The potassiiun-argon method, depending on the
pithecinae
Hominida. might be described as the earliest ^ i for i'3-aioactive
dating decay of pouassium
material to argon
from 230.000 to 26is
Many fossil remains of tbe Australopithecinae old. For more recent finds up to
have been found and they have been given a ^t)out 50,000 ârs old, the Carbon-14 method is
variety of names. It appears, however, that in ^-PPropriate. JJating with this method depends
South Africa a single genus existed probably with pp establishing tl^ ratio of Carboii-14 (the radio-
two species. Of these, one is small, generalised êtive isotope of Carbon) to Carbon-12 — ordinary
and lightly built, and is termed Australopithecus êthod of relative dating is called
or A. africanus, while the other is larger, more 5^®, method depending as it does on the
specialised and robust, and is termed Faraiithropus fossil bones contain fluorine in proportion
or A, Tohtistus, It is improbable that either of v 3 Relative dating may also be
these South African forms constituted a major deduced from the depths at which fossil bones are
source of the later, more advanced hominids. found in imdisturbed strata. Belative dating is
In the Lower Pleistocene Bed I in the Oiduvai possible from the known sequence of glacial
Gorge, Tanzania, a fossil rather similar to the more (mring the Pleistocene. ^ During this period
nigged Austraiopithecines of South Africa was of northern Eurasia witnessed four major
found. Zmjantliropiia boiseU as it was named, is awances, the so-called ice ages, Ghnz,
now frequently referred to as Australopithecus ^pdel. Kiss, and Wurrn. Milder periods or
hoiseu Estimated to be some 1.700,000 years old. Interglacials separated the Ice Ages and geological
but it is likely that Hoino hahilis^ a more advanced characterised by the remains of the distinc-
bomlnid contemporaneously existing at Oiduvai, flora and fauna whicb they contain, provide
was the maker of the numerous Oldowan stone S' tomework for dating fossU man. Thus two
tools found in Bed I. Oldowan tools, widely human stolls from the second, Mindel-Eiss Inter-
distributed in Africa, represent the first tool- gmcial (130-180,000 b.p.) are known in Europe,
making tradition, and with this culture the Palaeo- those o^temheim, (Sermany. and Swanscombe,
lithic Age begins. «
Acheulean latter wasculture.
hand-axe associated
No with the Mid-
artifacts were
found with Steinheim man. The Steinheim
Homo erectus. cranium is much more complete than the Swans-
coinbe remains and in size it approximates to
andRemains are very the
they represent widespread
next majorin thestage
Old World
in the Sm
are similar™to modern
Some 0“ itTmoKSTf
man- ealm^
otherHfn^MnOpr fhfli
the Middle Pleistocene period. The bmiu is now mL. " fortoZ
micestor co^“'
both these msiiorfaW a^|e“Sed
humaTi T'hA
much laêr thah in the Austraiopithecines, though Swanscombe bones are sometimes similariv intpr
smaUer than in modem man. The skuK bones are pS though havf^ oc^^^^
very thiând the skull exhibits massive bony S nearly form of So saSnrS
present. The first
ridges. There tods awere
is neither chin made Middle NeMderthalS
nor ainforehead samem, pre-aatmg the
Pleistocene deposits in Java by Dr. B. Dubois. „ i, „
This creature. PiOiecanfhropm erectus (Emm Neanderthal Man.
indimitehly erect and Neanderthaloids are foimd in Upper Pleistocene
von Koenigs- times during the early part of the Wtlrm
wald discovered more specimens of the same particularly in Europe West and Oentml glaciation, Asiamirt
general type in Java and he also found the remains North Africa. Early discoveries
more rugged form which he in the Neander valley in Germany included those
Gibraltar Spy
?r maîve jaw which he (Belgium), and Krapina (Jugoslavia) . Subse-
found Me^ctnihropus palaeojavanicus — ^probably quently many other finds were made includiTiff
repre^nts the Australopithecine stage in Java and example; La cKle for
V - - ... VWMAJ. êSrik-T^h
m J-WdUaU
(Morocco).
(H^M^)Haunay^h\Scaaa^
In 1927 and 1929 the
,„r“
first remains ui
uuc msL
of Pekin Man
x'eian man Early protO-iNeanderthalers
Jiiariy proto-Neanderthalers, suchsuch as Steinheim,
ns StninheiTn
{Sinanffiropus peMnensis', Eenno erectus pekinensis) w-ere followed by the “classic” Neanderfhai
were found in Chou Kou Tien cave near Pekin, forms, conventionalised as of brutish
annearance
These remains were Middle Pleistocene contem- with massive eyebrow ridges slonlng foreheads'
long, large, maSaSeSettrnue^^^^^
made m East Africa m Tabnn on Mt. Carmel, Israel, yielded remains of
fifties and sixties, particularly at these “ classic ” forms, while the nearby
known cave contained remains of men much more similar SkhuU
KsiiSfpSSS “ah A “mo“‘Sffi«SaSSShfwS'

wntatives of Hotjio ereefus. The Ternltoe (AHo?i- modem type of man The skull was for lonv
firopm)
found at3'aws
Sidi asAhderrahman,
weU as very similar mandibles
near Casablanca, thoS
However, tmin be1961
itome.
a similarnot hiz^
skull was aWa
found at
Morocco, are accompanied by hand axes of the Saldatoa Bay m the toe ‘^viS of ton h
so-called Acheulean culture.. The Oiduvai Homo Africa. aS are eari? Hnnm PlfstoSne
idsf ™ J™fe rimalMher^^^
European fossil remains d
poraneons with Pelnn Manapproximately contem- m^ be the direct descendant of
include the massive *in
without associated artifacts in fiouth E^toil Both iSeto
are sometimes regarded as variants 3of tolo%n
the basin
1907 near Heidelberg in Germany. In 1964 and NeaStliaJ type. variants of the basic
SCIENCES OF MAN 9 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
Homo Sapiens.
dently of the physical featiues need in race deli-
Homo sapiens emerged during the fourth, |®ree typgg of Mendelian populations or races
mrrn, glaciation. precisely date^^^ sometimes distinguished: (1) Geographical,
the radiocarbon technique among others, j ^ (3^ Microgeographical or Micro-
"
Neanderthal Man seems to have lieen replaced by
Homo sapiens, of completely modern appearance,
certainly te some 30,000 > ears b.p. ,1) Geonmplikal Race.
Neanderthal Man s stone tools were made on -
flakes, and in Europe constituted the so-called Uijg jg a collection of Mendelian populations
Mousterlan industry. Post-Neanderthal men such as occupy whole continents or large islands
were technically more advanced, their stone tools jûd separated by major barriers such as moun-
including small knife blades and engraving tools i^îns and deserts. The Australian Aborigines
specialised for different purposes. Xliis is the ^he African Negroes provide examples,
typical Upper Palaeolithic tool assemblage, of the
Aurijmacian, Solutrean and Magdalenian, ana (o) Local Races.
other tool-niakini? cultures. It was during this
Upper Palaeolithic period that man. though still These are frequentlysub-populations within the Geographi-
ewywhere a hunter and gatherer of foodstuffs, cal Races, corresponding witti totinct
fir’=st sshowed artistic t-endencies. isolated breeding populations. They are
Capelie in soiithem Central Prance ad.apted to local environmental pressures and are
CoS
bamert, which
Yielded the earliest known skuil (approximately maintained by social and physical
Zi 000 years b.p.) of completely modern type in prevent gene flow ,^tween them._ Examples
tte tribas within the Amerindian Geo¬
w^stSn Eurasia and Africa. Tlie Cromagnon include and Gypsies.
people were somewhat later (20-30,000 years b.p.). graphical Race, the Basques. Amu
Phv.sica!!y, the Cromagnon people were tall, with
long heads, very large brain cases and .short, broad i.3) Micro-races.
faces. Approximately'
faces. Approximately simii^
sinill^ brmians
hiiniaps have^ên
have _êu n^hese are
are the
the numerous
numerous distinct
distinct popiilat!On.s
populations
qmese
KouTien, andaskull J?,fa’skull'
^^S?'^Tlt'fT tromthe >iahC<we from
^^S?'^Tlt'fTJ?,fa’skull'from wWclf are, not , distintmished only statistically.
in^^^^
«ons and can be distinguished only statistically.
fTat?ri Tlboilt IVooO ve^r?^^^^ existence is demonstrated by v.ariatious in
l-uaw!frenra^ln?ativeof
tojTra!lfde"cSnteofSd%?inm^^^^ ated country Many of mans physicm
^ . Many"of"m-m's%hys ^^^^ atwi
the \Vadjak people of about 10,000 years b.p.
These are similar to the Australian Aborigme.s and ’+ It ve a cenfuc comnS? then thev
with a skull theê traits hay e a ^ tnen .
roughly contemporary
they may he near Melbourne yvhich indicates that also are characteristic oi micro races.
from Keilorwas populated in late Pleistocene or
Australia
early' post-Plelstocene time.s. Again in Upper Anthropometry.
there were pwple "mmopuiu y ^ ^
Pleistocene
with very large brain Africa
Southern cases and with features This constitutes a system of techniques for the
rather like the present-day Bushmen and Hotten- measurement of the skeleton and of the body,
tots. The Boskop skull is of this ty-pe. No From the early 19th cent, onwards anthropometry
skeletons showing characteristic Negro features was an important means of giving quantitative
have been found in Africa before post-Pleistocene expression to the variation in physical traits
times. This suggests a late evolutionary emer- among human beings. In fact until fairly re-
gence for the Negroes. The Americas were cently, anthropometry has been the mainstay pt
peopled by immigrants from North East Asia physical anthropology, preoccupied as it was with
some 15-20.000 years ago, and subsequently, the problems of evolutionary descent. _ihe
Some of the early groups of immigrants have been measurement of the skeleton was stressed since
described as “Archaic White”, as have the Ainu of skeletal remains constitute the mo.st direct evi-
Northem Japan, but it is more generally accepted d.ence of earlier populations. The shape ot the
that successive waves of Mongoloids moved into living body and of the skeleton can precisely he
the Americas from Asia, the Eskimo being the last expressed metrically, but it is usual to use rela-
group to arrive. tlvely few measurements, and these normally
Even today the total number of known fossil represent the major features, including, for
human remains is smaU for the long time span of example, stature, shoulder width, head length,_ana
human evolution and it is very difflcult if not im- head breadth. The latter two were specially
possible as yet to trace the precise ancestry of each favoured and the cephalic index was obtained by
of the races of man. expressuig the breadth as a percenta^
length. Long heads, with low cephalic indices
(below 75) were termed dolichocephalic, while
The Races of Man. round heads, with high indices (above 81) were
The species Homo suiM’ews to which all living men are known to varv
belong is cUfferentiated into local variant popnla- Thus
tions which are interfertile and not always sharply pg Kjiotes of the Sudan have an average
distinguished from one another. Mmv attempts ..(.otnTe of 1'78 m the African pygmies average
have been made to classify mankind into races, . Dolichocephalic heads' are jirevalent
tnras “mch teid” Bh*^TC stûra ® Australian Aborigines while hrachycephaly

Mongoloid
?cflom^ ISt
features of hmnan variation but in somewhat I" sucl^ as these
artificial if not mlsleadii^ manner, since the im- , immutable and it has been shown in studies
pression is created that the species is naturally Haw^^
partitioned into discrete, discontinuous groups, ^ tne U mw nawam develop bodily
teSoS S^when SS with thiir parents or wh^^^^

thln^hbmpt
Slain aThS'an’ôS.st^v Site to'^srXette^t^^^ So” mam Ire
ridI raht e'V°
n between is best ex- Sh
them S&f mole-Ies°' l^^terogeneous as a result
ot suen procet»se&.
ease, the distinctio
pressed in statistical terms as differences in average
values. Discrete variables such as blood groups pigmentation.
are usually foimd in most populations but with imriitiminilv
different frequencies of occurrence. Hair, skin, and ej e colour were traditionally
teimis or dee to
A race is best considered as a Mendelian popnla- described either in inib,icctive
_ Both prm
tion, that is. as a reproductive community of reference to matching standiwds. mreliabflity
individuals who share in a common gene pool, cedmes presented serioiis lmiitations
Agaui a race has been defined as a group of people and in comparability of resifite j^rs
of much more sMiMactoiy
who have the majority of their physical attributes have witnessed the use
in common. It is manifestly improper to refer to objective procedures
stuch^. inê
religious or linguistic groupings as races since meters m hair and skin colour
the percentage of light of a
cidfurai attributes obviously vary quite indepmi- instruments record
SCIENCHS OF MAN FSO THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
increasing in frequency from North to South; 0
nximljer of Imo'wn specified -wavelengths reflected
from a surface relative to the reflectance from a varies from 38-54 per cent, increasing in frequency
pure white surface. In general the darker the from South to North. B shows less variation,
specimen, say of hair, the lower the percentage of though it is most prevalent in the Celtic areas.
light which it reflects. Using such instruments The regional fluctuations are not random hut
precise and reliable Quantitative estimations of systematic and statistically highly significant
hair and skin colour are possible: the genetic basis despite the enormous migrations within Britain
of the traits may be clarified and comprehended during the last few hundred years, which might
and the selective advantages of skin and hair colour v;ell have masked or minimised the underlying
may be examined quantitatively. Dark skins variability.
confer advantages in hot, sunny areas since they Globally the ABO variation is also striking.
protect the body against the harmful eflects of Thus the percentage of the Wood group B exceeds
ultraviolet radiation, minimising the incidence of 30 among the Mongoloids of Central and East
skin cancer for example. Light skins are advan¬ Asia but the B gene is virtually absent in the
Australian Aborigines, the American Indians and
tageous in cloudy areas -with low insolation since in the Basques. Many Amerindian tribes are
they facilitate the body’s synthesis of Vitamin D, 100 per cent O: some others have very high A
thus reducing the incidence of rickets. The cor¬
relation between dark pigmentation and high frequencies.
levels of solar radiation is high, hut it is impossible In the Ehesus Wood group system all humans
to state how much of the geographical distribution are either Eh-f (DD or Dd) or Eh— (dd) (see
of skin colour mirrors the spread of dark- and Index to Section P). AH the Amerindians and
light-skinned peoples from one or two sources and Australian Aborigines, and most of the East
how much of the patterning is due to independent Asians are Eh-)-. Eh— individuals are more
adaptations in many hiunan groups in the past. frequent in western Asia, in parts of Africa and
especially in north west Europe where the Eh—
percentage is approximately 15. The Basques
Physiometrio Observations. are distinctive in having a 40 per cent Eh—
These cover a range of phenomena including frequency. Eacial variation is partly explained
by selection via haemolytic disease of the newborn
handedness, the ability to taste phenylthiocarha-
mide fP.T.C.), colour-blindness, and fingerprints. {erythroblastosis foetalis), whereby Eh-i- offspring
Tlie genetic basis for many of these attributes are of Eh— women (possible if the father is Eh-1- ) may
well known. Thus red-green colour blindness is die before birth owing to their Eh Wood group
a sex-linked character, males being far more incompatibility with their mother.
frequently affected than females. Within Britain 2. haemoglobins.
percentages of colour-blind males range from 5-4 Haemoglobin exists in alternative forms in man
in N.E. Scotland to 9-5 in S.W. England. Non-
European populations generally exhibit much and these are genetically controlled. The fre¬
lower frequencies. quencies of some of the genes which control
The tasting of P.T.O. is controlled by two genes, haemoglobins vary markedly among human popu¬
T and t, the former being dominant. TT and Tt lations. The principal technique used to show
individuals normally experience a bitter taste variant haemoglobins is electrophoresis— the
sensation when they sip P.T.C. solutions; tt movement of charged particles In an electric field.
individuals either cannot taste the substance at Normal human haemoglobin comprises two
all or else only in very strong concentrations. different haemoglobins (A and Al2). An interest¬
The tt Indl-yidnaJs are termed Non-tasters: TT ing variant is haemoglobin S. This may be indi¬
and Tt individuals are termed Tasters. BQgb cated by electrophoresis and also by a sickling
frequencies of Non-tasters (exceeding 88 per cent) test. Eed cells containing haemoglobin S placed
occur in parts of Wales and. in Orkney, while low m an oxygen-free atmosphere assume sickle
values (approximately 24 per cent) occur in North shapes. Indivldnals who have inherited one S
Lancashire and Northumberland. A clue to the gene CAS heterozygotes) have a mild, non-fatal
selective significance of this trait is provided by anaemia — the sickle cell trait. Homozygous SS
the excess of Non-tasters among individuals with individuals suffer from the severe sickle ceil
anaemia which is usually fatal before maturity.
nodular goitres (thyroid abnormalities). Non- Some abnormal haemoglobins including S, E, and
European populations usually have lower per¬ C have high frequencies and their existence, since
centages of Non-tasters than the British figures
quoted. all of them are deleterious to some extent, pro¬
vides opportunities for viewing the action of
natural selection and gene flow In human popula¬
Attributes oi the Blood. tions. Haemoglobin S reaches very high frequen¬
1. Blood Groups. cies among some populations in southern Asia and
particularly in much of tropical Africa (10-40
Many blood group systems {see Index to Section per cent), despite its severe effect on individual
P) are kno-wn today in addition to the ABO system viabUity and fertility. Haemoglobiu G Is most
which was the first discovered and which matters prevalent in northern Ghana and contiguous
so much in Wood transfusion. The mode of in¬ areas while Haemoglobiu E is found principally in
heritance of the numerous Wood-group substances South East Asia, with frequencies as high as 27
is known. Blood grouping is relatively simple per cent IWOambodia.
depending as it does on reactions between antigens Homozygous SS individualB hardly ever live to
on the red Wood cells and specified antibodies transmit the S gene and without a compensatory
derived from the Wood serum. effect the gene would be totally lost except for
The ABO system basically tuvolves three genes, certain cases possibly occurring as mutations.
A, B. and O. Every individual inherits two of Compensation is through positive selection la
these genes from parents and so the genotype favour of AS individuals who are more resistant
(genetic constitution) must be one of the foUowhig: to and so protected from falciparum malaria.
AA, AO, BB, BO, AB, or 00. 0 is recessive to Again AS females might be more fertile than AA
both A and B and thus there are four possible females in certain populations, and this again
phenotypes (genetic constitutions detectable by would help to maintaia the high S frequencies.
blood grouping): A, B, AB, andO. Other polymorphisms include the haptoglobins
The ABO genes coistitute a polymorphic sys¬ (proteins that bind the haemoôhin of old and
tem, that is several genes occur with frequencies broken-down red blood cells), serum transferrins
such that the least frequent of them occurs with a (proteins in the Wood sera used in transporting
frequency exceeding that due to mutation alone. iron within the body) and the enzyme Glucose-6-
Certain selective advantages and disadvantages of phosphate DWiydiogenase (G€PD) and selective
the ABO genes in human populations are known. agencies are operative on these also.
Thus stomach cancers are more frequent among The non-nnUorm distribution of blood group,
individuals of group A than they are in the popula¬ haemoglobin, and other gene frequencies in the
tion at large. Again, duodenal ulcers are almost races of man may be explained In terms of natural
40 per cent more common among x>ersonB of Wood selection, gene flow between populations, random
group O than in individuals of the other ABO genetic drift, the foimder principle and the deve¬
groups. . lopment of geographical and socio-cultural isola¬
Both on a global and on a local scale, the ABO tion. As a principal agency only natural selection
genes display marked racial variation. Within can account for the magnitude of the population
Britain A varies from 31 per cent to 63 per cent. differences and for the maintenance of the
SCIENCES OF MAN FS 1 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
observed balanced genetic polymorpliisms in man. No man can recognise for social purposes all the
Known freanency distributions suggest that there individuals with whom he has a common ancestor
is some relationship between the environment and somewhere in the past, or even know of their
the incidenoe of. for example, the blood group existence: their number increases with every
genes. Both the variability and also the geo¬ generation. In every society a selection is made,
graphical gradients for the A and B genes are from the whole universe of genealogically related
consistent with the hypothesis that these genes persons, of certain categories towards which an
are influenced by environmental selection and it individual recognises specific obllgatloiB and on
seems rinlilcely that such a phenomenal relation¬ whom he can make specific claims. Such cor¬
ship Is confined to the ABO system. Human porate groups of kin have a permanent existence:
populations or races are defined in terms of traits, they recruit new members in each generation m
only some of which have here been indicated, accordance with recognised rules. Khi ôups
which are brought into being and maintained are concerned largely with the transmission of
primarily by natural selection — ^by the incidence property, and for this and other purposes they
of disease, blood group incompatibilities, diseases recognise the common authority of a senior man:
of the new bom, and by differential fertility. they are also religious groups, performing together
rituals directed to their common ancestors.
The common patrimony of a Mn group normally
THE STUDY OF SOCIAL ANTHBOPOLO&Y. consists in land or livestock: in societies of more
What ihe Subject is About. advanced technology it may be a boat, as in. Hong
Kong, or even, as in Japan, a family busmM. It
Social anthropology is concerned with the way may have non-material resources too. such as the
men live as members of ordered sooiette. It has right to supply chiefs or priests for the society as
been described as a branch of sociology, or as the a whole; this may be put conversely as the ri^t
sociology of the simpler peoples. Neither descrip¬ to hold political or religious office. Those who
tion is wholly correct. A social anthropologist share a common patrimony have a craimon
seeks to identify the strudure of the society he interest in preserving and increasing it. Wrongs
studies and the processes of social interaction done by their members to outsiders are compen¬
within it. His method is direct contact — ^what sated from their collective resources, and they
has been called "participant observation. have joint responsibility for seeking compensation
Therefore he must deal with a unit small enough if one of their own members is injured, particularly
to be manageable with this technique. Nation¬ in the case of homicide.
states, such as sociologists commonly work among, Descent.
are too large. Most social anthropologists have
done their work in what we call “ small-scale ttiti groups may be lecmited according to a
societies; that is, peoples who lacked such media number of principles. A principle widely followed
of communication as writing or money, let alone in small-scale societies is that of unUineal descent:
mechanical means of transport, until these were that is, group membership is derived ftom one
brought to them from Europe. A social anthro¬ parent only, either the father {patrilineal or
pologist may choose to work in some section of a agnatic) or the mother {matrilineal). Property is
society that possesses those techniques — în the administered by men in either system, but in the
ancient countries of the East or In Europe or matrilineal system it is inherited from the mother;
America. In that ease he confines himself to a hence its control passes from a man to the sons of
microcosm such as a village or a fiwstory. When his sisters. In a unilineal system every individual
he is writing of societies alien to his own and that recognises kin linked to him through the parent
of most of his readers he is obUged to describe from whom he does not trace Us desist; this is
their cuUure as weU as their social relationships, the principle of complementarv JUiatUm. The
since without such a description his readers would complementary kto are matrilaleral where the
not be able to picture, or even undemtand, the descent rule is patriliueal, patrUederal where it is
social rules that are his main subject of study: matrilineal. A unilineal descent group is called
this would be superfluous for a sodolcîst tatoig a lineage. . „ ,, . .
modem machine society for granted. Culture has Descent can also be traced cognahcallv: that is,
been called the raw material out of which the all descendants of a common ancestral pair may be
anthropologist makes his analysis of social struc¬ recognised as forming one Mndred. In such a
ture. It is the sum total of standardised ways of system there is no iieimanent group patrimony:
behaving, of lore and te<*nique, of belief and people inherit a share of the propady of both their
symbolism, characteristic of any given sodety. parents, and this is often conferred upon them
when they marry, while their parents are still
The Notion d Roles. living. Or all the inhabitants of a village may
All the world, as Shakespeare said, is a stage, man share rights in its rice-fields or fishing ponds; a
chooses among what Mn he will live, but he
and this is a key metaphor for sodal anthropolo¬ can have rights in one village only. In «aA a
gists. Every indlvidud does indeed play many system there are no continuing groups defined by
parts, not consecutively hut all together: for descent: the permanent group is territorial,
every sodal relationship carries with it the expec¬
tation of society that the parties to It will behave consisting in the inhabitants of ilie yfllage.
in approved ways. Father and children, ruler Marriage.
and subjects, buyers and seEers, husband and KiTTOhip status is defined by legitimate birth,
wife: every one of these words Is the name of a and this in ite tarn by legal marriage. There are
■role to be played by the person it describes. The always rules agMnst marriage with spedfied
playing of rdes involves ilie recognition of claims categories of ktn, though these are not necessarily
and obligaaons as wen as appropriate modes of near kin. Some socMes consider that the ideal
behaviour in personal contacts. Afl these rulM marriage fe that between the children of a brother
are called norms', when they are concerned with and a sister; If such marriages are repeated
rights and obligations they are iuroA norms. A through the generations they create a pennanent
sodal norm is what people think ought to happen: link bdween two lineages. Marriage between
unlike a statistical norm, it may or may not he members of the same lineage is nearly always
what happens in the majority of cases. forWdden; this is expressed in the term Kaeage
eseogamy. The general effect of the prohibitions
•ginthip and Marriage. is to spread widely through a society iiie links
In sodeMffi of simple technology most roles are created by marriage; links that impose an obliga¬
ascribed', that is. the parts people will play in life tion of friendship on groups that without them
are given them at birth by the fact of their parent¬ would be mutually hostile.
age and of the group in which this makes them In a matrilmeal system women bear children
members. In other words, the most important for their own lineage; it is expected that they
principal of organisation is kinship. W. H. B. should be fathered by a man who has married
Bivers called this “ the social recognition of bio¬ their mother accarding to the approved procedure,
logical ties." The ties in question can be called but a chUd’s h'neage membership is not affected by
genealogical: they aU derive from the recognition the marriage of its mother. But in a patrilineal
of common ancestry. Such ties may be fictitious, society wives must be brought from outside to
as when a child is adopted. But in the vast bear diildren for the group. Associated with this
majority of cases the relationships that are recog¬ fact is the payment of brideweatih, which used to
nised are actually biological. be mistakenly interpreted as the imrehase of vrives.
SCIENCES OF MAN Fs2 the would of science
grade are the fighting force, and may also have
This payment
children is what
; all those she fixes
bearsthewhile
status
the ofbridewealth
a woman’s the police functions of summoning disputants and
is with her lineage are reckoned as the children of witnesses before the elders, and seising property
the man on whose behalf it was paid, even if he is from a man who has been adjudged to pay com¬
dead and she is living with another partner. In pensation and does not do so volunt.ar!ly. Some¬
a matrillneal society the maJdng of gifts is part of times specific public works are allotted to them
the marriage procedure, but they are of slight such as rounding up stray cattle or clearing weeds
economic value in comparison with bridewealth. from paths or springs. It is also possible for
The difference is correlated with the difference in community responsibilities to be shared in more
what the husband acquires by the marriage: in complicated ways, as for example among the Yakci
both cases of Nigeria, where the adherents of particular reli¬
services andhe sexual
gains fidelity,
the right but
to his wife’s
where domestic
bridewealth gious cults are believed to cab on the spirit which
is paid he can also count her children as his des¬ they worship to punish persons guilty of particular
cendants and call on their labour when he needs it. offences.
In societies where most roles are ascribed by the Wliere there are hereditary chiefs, both public
fact of birth, marriage is the most important field works and the maintenance of law and order are
in which there is freedom of choice. But the the responsibility of the chief and his subordinate
choice is comniouly exercised not by the couple but officials. Resources are accumulated for public
by their lineage seniors, who are more concerned purposes by the collection of tribute, and labour
with alliances between lineages thim with the is obtained for public works by the recognition of
personal feelings of the pair. Polygamy, or the the principle that persons in authority can claim
simultaneous marriage of a man to more than one the labom- of those subject to them. Expectations
woman, is permitted in lineage-based societies; are attached to the role of chief as to any other.
indeed it is the ideal, though only a minority of Chiefs are expected to dispense justice fairly, to
men attain it. One reason why it is valued is that be generous to the poor, to reward loyalty, and to
it enables a man who has the resources necessary be successful in war, and they are reminded of
for successive bridewealth payments to build up these expectations in the course of the elaborate
a network of alliances. rituals performed at their accession. The pros¬
perity of the whole land is commonly held to be
bound up with the health of the chief and the
Authority Systems.
favom-able attitude towards him of supernatm-al
Every society has some arrangements for the beings. He may be obliged to obey all kinds of
maintenance of order, in the sense that force may ritual restrictions to this end; for example it was
be used against those who infringe legitimate believed of the ruler of Ruanda, in east Africa,
rights. In every society theft, adultery, and that he must not bend his knee lest the country
homicide are treated as offences. Where no indi¬ be conquered. Chiefs are either themselves re¬
vidual has authority to punish these on behalf of sponsible for tbe performance of ritual on behalf
the community, self-help is the approved course. of the whole populace or must maintain priests to
Lineage membership is significant here: a man do this.
who is wronged will go with his kin to seek re¬ Social anthropologists have recently turned
dress (for a theft or adultery) or vengeance (for their attention to the process of competition for the
the homicide of a kinsman). Vengeance can be commanding roles which any society offers.
bought off by the payment of compensation; Some would claim to have discarded the idea of
but because the taking of life is a serious matter structure altogether in favom- of that of process:
in the most turbulent of societies, there must also yet the structure must be taken into account as the
he a solemn reconciliation, with a sacrifice to the set of rules in accordance with wlilch the game is
ancestral spirits, between the lineages of killer and played. There are societies where it is the rule
victim. The recognition of an appropriate that on the death of a chief his sons must fight for
method of dealing with injuries has been described the succession to test who is the strongest and has
as “ the rule of law ” in its simplest form. the largest following. There are others where the
Within a lineage the senior man is expected to rule of succession may seem to be clear, and yet
settle quarrels, and the ancestral spirits are be¬ there can always be dispute as to who fits it best.
lieved to punish with sickness juniors who do not Sometimes people pursue the struggle for power
listen to him. When quarrels break out between by accusing their rivals of witchcraft: sometimes
members of different lineages, tbeir elders may by masshig their followers behind them in a show
meet and seek a solution. Where there is no of strength before which their adversaries retire;
hereditary authority individuals may attain posit¬ the first is the method of the Ndembn in western
ions of leadership in virtue of their powers of Zambia, the second that of the Pathans in the
mediation by persuasion. Swat Valley in Pakistan. Such confrontations
In addition to the maintenance of rights, most occur at moments of crisis, but the process of
societies require at some time arrangements for building up support is going on all the time. The
the organisation of collective activities. It is study of these processes is among the most inter¬
possible for there to be no ascribed role of organ¬ esting new developments in social anthropology.
iser; in such a case leadership is a matter of com¬
petition. Competitive leadership in economic Economic Systems.
activities is characteristic particularly of the very
small societies of New Grfinea. What Is needed Ill societies where money provides a common
here is not only powers of persuasion but resources standard for measuring the relative value of
to reward the participants. The very important different kinds of goods, people who exchange
principle, to be discussed later, that every gift goods can make very exact calculations of profit
ought at some time to be returned, is the basis of and loss, It is often a.ssumed that where there is
their position. A man who can put others in his no such common medium of exchange people do
debt can call upon their labour. It may take a not make any economic calculations, and dispose
long time to build up the necessary resources for of their property in ways that are the reverse of
acknowledged leadership, and leadership may be businesslike. The principal reason why this
lost to a rival and is not necessarily passed to an assumption is made is the great importance
heir. attached in societies of simple technology to the
Responsibility both for law and order and for making of gifts. Iffie essential difference between
collective activities may be shared on recognised a gift and a commercial exchange is that no return
principles among the whole adult male population. is stipulated. In the commercial world goods are
This is done where society is organised on the basis sold, services hired, at a price, and anyone who
of age, a system widely found in east and west fails to pay has broken a contract and is liable to
Africa. In such a system aJfi adult men pass be punlriied. The obligation to return a gift is a
through a series of stages at each of which appro¬ moral one. Moreover, to compete in the giving
priate tasks are allotted to them. In its simplest of gifts seems at first sight the very opposite of
form the division is made into ' warriors * and competition in the acquisition of wealth. But in
‘ elders ’. This principle may be complicated in most societies people who have a surplus of wealth
various ways, but the essence of it is that men in like to have a reputation for generosity; only in
their prime are responsible for activities requiring the affluent world of machine production people
physical strength, impetuosity, and courage, feel the need to have many more material posses¬
while their elders have the task of mediating in sions before they begin to think in terms of surplus.
disputes, discussing public affairs, and perfonnlng (Die exchange of gifts plays a particularly large
sacrifices to the ancestors. Men in the wara:ior part in the societies of Melanesia, where men
SCIENCES OF MAN F53 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
form partnersliips for the express purpose of giving A small number of social anthropologists have
and receiving valuable objects, and earn prestige at speciah'sed in the study of the economic s^mtems
least as much by giving as by receiving. This of small-scale societies, and have asked whether
exchange of valuables, mostly shell ornaments, is the concepts devised for the analysis of monetary
so important that it hM a name in the language of economies — such notions, for example, as capital
each society. The first such exchange system to and credit — can be applied to people who gam
be described by an anthropologist was the knla their livelihood directly from the resources of tteir
of the Trobriand Islands, observed by Malinowski. immediate environment. Starting from the
An important man had a partner in an island on assumption that there is always some choice m
either side of his own home; from one he received the allocation of resources, they have observed
armbands and returned necklaces, from the other how these choices are actually made in the socie¬
he received necklaces and returned armbands. ties where they have worked. They have asked
These objects did not become part of a store of how the value of such goods as are obtained by
wealth for any man: nobody could hold one long barter is measured: how labour is obtained, how
before It was time to pass it on to his partner. To directed and how rewarded for such enterprises
receive his gift a man sailed by canoe to his part¬ as the building of a canoe or a temple, which call
ner’s home: he was there welcomed peaceably, for the co-operation of large numbers. They Imve
and while he was mahing his formal visit the crew examined the use of media of exchange, aslnng
were bartering their goods on the shore with the how far any of these fulfil the functions that we
local populace. Thus the kula partnership had associate with money. . x,, ,
the nature of a political alliance; it was a means The general conclusion of these studies is that
of maintaining peaceful relations between popu¬ peoples of simple technology are perfectly capable
lations which would otherwise have been hostile. of rational calculation in tbe allocation of their
In the highland area of New Guinea identical resources, even though their calculations are
objects are exchanged, so that the relative value comparison with those of the ente-
of amounts given and received can be cMculated. preneur rou^ by in an industrial society. They know what
In some parts the ideal is that a return gift should to regard as an adequate return when they are
be twice the original one. Naturally it is no small bartering goods. They withhold goods from con¬
achievement to carry on a prolonged series of sumption when they are planning an enterprise:
exchanges at such a rate. Very few men manage that is to say, a man who proposes to imtiate such
it, and those who do are the acknowledged leaders an activity as canoe-building arranges to be able
of their community. For each large gift he has to feed his labour force.
made a man wears a little bamboo stick hung
round his neck: thus his munificence is publicly Religion.
proclaimed. A new partnership is initiated by
making the minimum gift. Men makB thrae At a time when people questioned whether
partnerships with others not bound to them by “ primitive ” societies could be said to have reli¬
kinship, notably with their relatives by mamage. gion. E. B. Tylor offered as a “ miitoim . defl-
Bach partnership extends the range within which nition of religion “ the belief in spiritual tein^.
a man can count on friendly treatment. So All societies of simple technology have such behefs,
widespread is the idea that gifts should be repaid, and think that unseen personalised beings mfiu-
and services rewarded, after some delay, and at enee the coiuse of nature by direct intervention,
the discretion of the man making the return, that causing rain to fall if they are pleased with the
where the highland people have taken to growmg actions of men and -withholding it if they are aiiCTr,
coffee for sale, the large-scale planters do not pay sending sickness as a punishment and so lorth.
wages but employ young men for planting who In the great majority of such societies the most
get their return by coming to them later for help important sptrite to be worshipped am thc^ of
in difliculties. Of course the young men would dead ancestors. But there may also be a Mief
stop giving their work if they judged that the in gods responsible for particular aspects of the
return was not adenuate. . , , world, to whom offerings are made for protection
Gift-giving, then, is an investment, but not one or success in their special fields. Many pre-
that produces a direct material return. One ‘high god’ from whona
anthropologist. E. F. Salisbury, has called it an literate spirits believe
all other peoples in a power,
derive their and one school
investment in power. The extreme case of such of anthropology sees this as evidence of an ori^M
an imeconomic use of goods vras found-before state of higher religious consciousne® from wmch
it was forbidden — în the potladh, of some Indians of man
held. has declined: but this view, is not -widely,
the north-west coast of Americsa. There a m^
who was insulted would challenge the offender to EituaJs involviog groups of people are commonly
a competition In destruction. Great quantities performed on occasions when changes of status
of fish-oil would be poured on the fire, and sheets are to be signalised, A child becomes a meinber of
of copper thrown into the sea. The challengeâs soifiety not by being bom, but at a naming or
demonstrating how much wealth he comd afford showing ceremony. A youth or girl becomes adult
to destroy. ^ ^ , . at initiation. Marriage, which mak^ a couple
Certainly this is not turning resources to into potmtird parents and links ikeir km groups,
material advantage. No more is the giving of a is another such ritual. , , ^ ^ ,
very expensive dinner-party in Ijondon or New In funerary rites the dead person is made mto
York. But eaually certainly, it is not done with¬ an anc^tor. and his heir adopts his social per¬
out oalorflation. In the affluent society pewle sonality and his responsibilities. The aocôn
display their superior affluence because tm of a man to political office is surrounded by ritual,
demonstrates their prestige rating, just as in the and chiefs frequently observe annual rites at me
votlachx and they keep on good terms, through time of barvrat, when it is the season, not the
the hospitality they offer, with people from whom person, that is changing. These are confirmamM
they may later seek a return in professional deal¬
ings. rather as in the Melanesian gift-exchanges. rituals, designed to keep society ^d the -world on
an even course. When sometlilnK goes -wrong,
The difference between the uses to which resource a drought or epidemic or an Individual sickness,
are put in societies of simple and of complex twh- viacular rituals are performed to make peace with
nology is one only of degree. The proportion that the spirits responsible for the disaster. , . .
is devoted to securing non-material advantages is An essential aspect of many of ttee religions
higher in the small-scale societies, and so is the is the belief in witchcraft— that is that it is poîble
proportion of fflft-giving to commercial exchange. for humans to harm one another merely by hating
In gift-givtng there is no bargaining, but there is them. Witchcraft supplies an explanation of
a clear expectation of return. The initiation of undeserved misfortune. Di-viners employ a
new social relationships by the makto of hmltitnde of techniques (wMch antlixopolo^ts
not by any means confined to New Guinea. Bride¬ rather inaccurately call oracles) to detect whether
a disaster is a merited punishment or Is due to
wealth which legitimises children is the most wide¬ witchcraft.
spread example. Pastoral peoples in East Africa i .
also make gifts of stock to selected friends in dis¬ Every small-scale society has its myths-^^-stories
tant parts. The friend on his home ground is which teU how the world as people know it came
a sponsor for his partner, and he is exi>ected to to be. Sometimes their ritual re-enacts the nofth;
mê return gifts fix»m time to time, and may he often the myth tells how the ritual -was first per¬
asked for a beast if his partner is in dlffloulties. formed and thereby gives a reason for its oon-
One could think of such an arrangement as a type ttnuanoe. Then there are myths telling Mw
of insurance. death and evil came into the world. Some myths
SPECIAL TOPICS THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
F54
Jend authority to the existing social order, and tionships that people can form. A man may
pîoularly to the claims of ruling groups, by choose to be dependent on an employer rather
telling how the social structure was divinely or¬ than on work in co-operation with his km or
dained. Under the induence of the French village mates. He is more likely to rise in the
anthropologist Levi-Strauss, many anthropologists world by going to school and getting a city job
are beginning to see both myths and the symbolism than by earning the respect of the villagers or the
of ntual as man’s earliest attempt to order intel¬ approval of a chief. Small-scale societies are
lectually the world of his experience. now becoming merged in larger ones, and the close
ties of the isolated village are loosened. In the
newly created industrial areas new specialised
Social Change. associations are formed to pursue professional and
other Interests. The social insurance that kin¬
STo doubt aU the societies that anthropologists ship provided is lacking, and it has not as yet been
have studied have been gradually changing replaced by what the state offers in the highly
throughout the centuries when their history wa.s industrialised societies. The minority that has
not recorded. But they experienced nothing like whole-heartedly adopted the values of the indus¬
the rapidity of the changes that came to them trialised world now produces the political rulers
when they were brought under the rule of Euro¬ of new states. They are impatient to carry the
pean nations and introduced to mass production majority along the same road, but there are pro¬
and a money economy. The effect of this has been found conflicts of value between them and the
in essence to widen the range of choice in the rela¬ still largely illiterate masses.
PART VI. SPECIAL TOPICS

SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS PROM THE APOLLO 11 NASA organisation to go ahead with a landing and
LTJNAB MISSION. in the event this televised information proved to
be absolutely reliable. Despite some expressed
The moon has been an object of scientific study fears that a landing craft might sink in con¬
ever since Galileo turned his new telescope on to it jectured lunar dust, this did not happen, for the
in 1609. However, 360 years later a new era manned craft on arriving found a firm landing on
began when, on 18 July 1969, two members of the soil-covered rock. As is now widely known, the
crew of the U.S. Apollo 11 mission stepped do^vn astronauts spent several hoinrs on the moon since
on to the surface of the moon. There they made they were expertly furnished with a fine life¬
numerous novel observations, deployed certain supporting system. Commimlcations were per¬
notable experimental arrangements, and a few fect between them (it had to he radio communica¬
days later safely brought back to their base some tion, of course, for there is complete silence on the
11 kg (24 lb) of lunar rocks and a similar quantity airless moon) and indeed superb television pic¬
of lunar soil. Before the mission began there had
been anxiety that lunar rocks and soil might con¬ tures were sent back dui-ing the famous " moon-
ceivably carry organisms and spores which could walk.” A major
lunar material objective was the retrieval of
for study.
be deadly to earth Inhabitants. This was really Three kinds of material were brought back,
only a remote possibility for there is no atmosphere
on the moon, no water was expected, temperatures namely (i) rocks, (ii) fine surface “ soil ” scooped
at the height of the lunar day could be i50°C up into
soil bags, by
obtained and hammering
(in) two cylindrical “ cores
hollow tubes ” ofa
in to
and at the middle of the lunar night could well depth of some 6 inches, the idea being to secure
drop much lower even than —160° below zero, some evidence of stratified layers, if any. Much
and added to that the intense radiations from the preparatory work and training went into the
sun (not thinned out at all by any atmosphere, as design of the collecting tools and the storage
on earth) would act as a fierce sterUlsing agent on
any organisms. However, purely as a precaution, packages. In particular, contamination prob*
both the crew and the materials retrieved were lems were studied, and in the end tools of stainless
steel and plastic packings were found best. Since
strictly quarantined for 50 days and subjected to there is no atmosphere on the moon all the objects
exhaustive biological testing. Plants, animals, were effectively picked up in a first-class vacuum.
and so on were all “ infected ” with moondust. They were therefore sealed in vacuum-tight con¬
It turned out to be completely sterile.
This being so a total of 7 kg of the retrieved tainers which on return to earth were opened in a
vacuum chamber. This was essential for those
material was distributed in selected small quanti¬ observations concerned with evaluation of slight
ties to 160 scientific laboratories, for a meticu¬ gas content In the lunar material.
lously planned exanmiation: planned with the . Considering the relatively trivial quantity of
eificienoy of a complex military operation. Most rock and soil recovered an astonishing number of
of the laboratories, chosen for their expertise and basic scientific findings have already been made.
for their specialised equipment, were in the U.S. A. ; In a conference on progress held in Houston in
some fourteen in Great Britain and a small handful early January 1970 preliminary findings were
in various other countries. Since in most of the announced. The expanded reports from this
laboratories selected, examination of the material conference flU 3 massive volumes, a total of some
was carried out by a multiple team, it wiU be seen
that several hundred specialists, mainly geo- 2,500 closely packed pages of measm-ements made
logiats. mineralogists, chemists, and physicists over an extensive variety of geological, chenfical,
(together with a strong force of technicians) and physical properties. In this article we pick
out some of the highlights from this report.
pooled their sldUs into a well co-ordinated and
concentrated attack on this precious unique cargo,
which had been brought back at such enormous
expense, ftom the south-western part Of a region
on the moon known as Mare TranqulUitatls, the Apparatus on the Moon.
location being 0-67° H and 28-49° B; that is to say The lunar mission was valuable for reasons
from practically a lunar equatorial region.
Before the Apollo mission, the U.S. space team other than the retrieval of the precious lunar
had successfully “ soft-landed ” spacecraft on the material. The astronauts made very many
moon — the Surveyor craft. These had sent back notable visual oteervations which they recorded,
some very excellent television pictures of the and brought back a mass of close-up photographs
moon’s surface which had Indicated that the (in colour) showing rocks, etc., in sUu before
terrain was barren, pitted, and very foreboding. collection, information of very pertinent signifi¬
Furthermore, they had shown that, where they cance to the practical geologist. (Strictly speak¬
landed, the surface was covered with a firm soil ing, one ought to talk of a “ selenologiet,” not of a
capable of supporting some considerable weight. ‘‘ geologist ”). They noted physical properties of
It was such information which encouraged the lunar soU, brought hack comments on varieties
SPECIAL TOPICS FSS THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
of craters, conducted a brilliant original television on earth) and to the absence of a resisting
transmission seen by tbe whole world, and suc¬ atmosphere.
cessfully deployed three prepared experiments. Surface colours were reported to be variants of a
The first was to set up a seismograph, a recorder of chalky grey. I^ny boulders littered the scene.
" lunar auakes.” an eauipment designed to tele¬ Most craters had raised rims but none were really
meter back to earth moon-auakes and trembles, if sharp-edged. A considerable range of rock frag¬
any. This functioned for three weteks and indeed ments were noted, some being partially hidden
sent back numerous strange signals. It is not in the soil. Over the whole scene was soil looking
clear yet whether these were due to meteor im¬ like powdered graphite. It proved to cling to
pacts or indeed to gurgling venting of residual clothes and Implements. Indeed it made the
fluids from the spacecraft left in the vicinity. rocks slippery to foothold but it took very firm
The second experiment consisted In setting up a well-retained footprints, many of which appear on
large light-reflector. Later, this functioned in a the surface pictures recorded. The top layer of
remarkably successful way. From the base on the soil was distinctly of a lighter grey colour than
earth an extremely intense short pulse of light the rest, the top one inch being quite distinctive.
(from toa this
special light source called Below this, for some 6 inches, there was a sand¬
sent reflector and the time a taken
" laser for
”) was
the like zone. Later observation on retrieved
light beam to reach it and get back was measured material showed that the surface layer was largely
with the greatest precision. The time is only microscopic particles. The difference in colour
2-5 seconds, but it can be measured to within a with layering is proof that some kind of surface
thousand-millionth of a second by modem devices. alteration is going on despite absence of weather¬
Since the speed of light is accurately known, this ing (through absence of atmosphere). Possible
timing permits of an assessment of the distance eause.s of this are (i) radiation from the sun,
to the moon with verj' high accuracy indeed. In (ii) bombardment continuously by micro-meteor -
fact with the first set of measurements already ites, (iii) changes due to fierce expansions and
reported, the moon distance has been measured contractions occasioned by the gross teiuiieratiue
to within an error of only four metres! This differences experienced once a month between
astonishing performance opens up a new era limar night and day.
in observing the orbit and wobblings of the
moon. In future it is exi>eeted that scientists
will be able to improve on this precision and Examination of Retrieved Rooks.
measure the distance betiveen the testing
station and the reflector to within a mere 6 Once the retrieved lunar surface material had
inches! passed through the very strictly imposed biological
The third experiment set up by the astronauts quarantine, intensive studies of a considerable
was intended (and succeeded) to measiue the con¬ range of physical and chemical properties were
stituent atoms in the “ solar whid.” It has for initiated. Samples were sent for distribution to
some time been recognised that the enormous various laboratories, most of which had prepared
high temperature activity of the sim leads to the in advance for the handling of the material. In
hurling the event, many of the researchers received
energeticoutatoms
from ofthe various
sun of akinds.
vast “ Onwind earth,
” of
samples of only 5 g each but, despite the relatively
these are trapped in the upper atmosphere. The small quantities, astonishingly complete reports
moon has no atmosphere, hence the solar wind have appeared. Three distinctive types of
atoms arrive on the surface, indeed they bombard material were brought back. The first kind was
it violently. Actually this was at one time con¬ what the geologist calls crystalline igneous rook,
sidered a possible dangerous hazard for lunar arising in formation through heat processes.
astronauts, but since they were well protected, it The second kind (widespread on earth) goes by
proved Innocuous. Sometliing of the nature of the name of breccia. This is material consisting
the solar wind has been assessed by the experi¬ of small crystal fragments cemented together by a
ment set up by the Apollo team. A sheet of subsequent heating process. The third kind of
aluminium foil of area 4 square yards was exposed material
on the moon to the sxm's raj-s for one and a quarter consisting (usually
of quitecalled
small " particles.
fines ”) is in effect a soil
hours. It received in addition to light the atoms The crystalline igneous rocks appear to be of
from the solar wand which were caught and typical volcanic origin and do not differ out¬
trapped in the aluminium. The foil was rolled rageously from similar rooks found on the earth.
up and brought back. When heated in a They include many weU-known earth minerals,
Vacrami In the laboratory it released gas which known to the mineralogists as. for example,
had been trapped and by using highly refined clinopyroxine, plagioelase, Umenite, olivine, and
testing methods solar wind particles could be so on: some native iron is present also. Very
identified. In particular, atoms of helium, neon, few neio minerals have been detected although two
and argon were found as eonstituente in the solar minor ones appear certain. These include a
wind. This fact has had a considerable part to mineral rich in the metal titanium (It has been
play in other observations carried out to attempt named Armalcolite) and a new form of an iron-
to assess the age of the moon, of which we shall rich mineral called pyroferroxite. This poverty
write later. For similar gases have been foimd in In new minerals compared with the earth must
lunar soil and the contribution of solar wind to play its part in later theories about the origin of
these plays an important part in calculations the moon. They bear on the question of whether
made. the moon was spun off the earth or not.
However, a notable very olstinctlve feature is
the presence of a remarkably large quantity of
Direct Observations made by Astronauts. glass on the moon, glass in a variety of shapes and
forms. True, some glass is (rarely) found on
On touch-down numerous craters were observed earth either volcanic in origin, or widely dis¬
and described. Crater density is practically tributed in smaU individual lumps. The small
inversely proportional to size— the smaller the individual lumps of glass found on earth are called
craters, the more abundant they are. In the Tektties, but none of the lunar glass at all re¬
neighbourhood of descent, craters ranged from sembles earth tektite glass. Not only is the
1 foot to 60 feet across. On a grander scale, of lunar glass distributed in spatter lumps hut in
course, they range to sizes of hundreds of miles addition many of the retrieved rocks show
in diameter. The Interest lies in ahe report of the numerous small glass-lined pits on the surface,
smaller features not visible even to the largest pits perhaps two mlUbnetres or more across.
telescojpes on earth . On landing the engines stirred One obtains the strong impression that the rocirs
up a big obscuring stream of surface dust but no had been “ shot blasted ” with many small glass
lingering cloud was formed. This was to be spheres (indeed we believe this Is actually the
expected for on the moon, which has no gaseous case). Furthermore, on some rocks there are
atmosphere to support fine particles, the curious locally thin gla^ crusts, apparently created by the
situation exists that a small piece of dust falls spatter impact of a larger molten glass globule.
xmder gravity just as fast as a great boulder. Many of the retrieved and observed rocks have
The familiar dust clouds on earth owe their rounded edges, as though they have been sub¬
existence entirely to atmospheric support. In jected to some erosion process, despite lack of
like fasten the astronauts noted later that atmosphere or weathering. They look, m fact,
when they Meked dust, it travelled surprisingly as if they had been rounded by a kind of “ sand
far, due both to the low gravity (one-sixth that blasting’* operation. Chemical examination
SPECIAL TOPICS
f 9ll lunar dust andcreated Ijy outside. Nevertheless by tUs method an ase for
the Ixinar the rocks on the surface of the moon has been
calculated to be about 3,000 million j/eaw nS
formation remains as yet a problem. fact very different from the upp nf
One of the really important findings made on the calculated in similar fashion Mother
^ KO case whatsoever calculation involves the radioactivftrSma^ Sho^ of
, fu- present winch reyure tion of an isotope of the metal rubidiuSifoSiu
Acrystals found
All ci are what the chemist Btructure. moon rock) into an isotope of the meM stroXuS
calls, and this has given the auite near vnine nf ?
anhydro.^ Clearly there is no water at all on thl raiHiorXs ItoSly. thi radi J^Mye
4?a?
the surface rocte thorium (also in moon roX) is KS
finding IS obwously closely form Itself into the metal lead (see Fl]^)) ®o LiSs
associated with questions as to whether or not method has given 4 900 million wnrsFnr
Jlf® ®»fted on the moon in the p^t. Without air. lies So more
somewhere
or less the resXfrX
between about the
3,000 mdmXods 6 OTO
™P^®.haDie. „ . , . nfillion years, a relatively close agreement since
It IS considered by some of the investigators earth rocks are of somewhat simto age tlfis
that lunM minerals are rnore like meteor mmerals information bears closely on
the XîoXf the
than earth mmerals. Most
containinvestigators of origin
morethat
appreciablyagree of the moon i- on or me
One most significant finding is that the con-
thM correwondmg earto eentration of carbon is quite low, i.e., some 200
rocks. (This might only be a local factor for the parts per million. The lunar cavhAn m
early results of the studies from Apollo 12 differ particular region may even be
‘Iiaf beeXe we cm certatalf a Koodeêct rlciisime
Ipho
carbon in the solar wind, and in over 3 000
that many of the retrieved lunar minerals have million years the solar wind mav invc brenf^hi-
experienced severe shock, men a crystalline relatively SSiS m
material IS subjected to severe Impact or to a shock very low carbon content qXK of JarboX
has an imnorffl-nf in
wave passing through it froin a nearby explosive flueye on Sfes X to whêôr
impact, rôgnisable deformations take place in the ever been living material on the not ha^
crystal structme. Simh evidence together with no evidence of such moon Although
the esstence of a great deal of fragmented angular needs be cautious, hafy^ bTeXoXd me iXt
moon s surface has been ex- retrieved comes fromXce aU the iSXSl
one very small region and
posed to a.m^titude of meteoric impacts, large elsewhere things could be diS™
small, m the
andDuplicated chemical of its complex
course analysis hist
shows that more ory. umerenr.
than half of the known elements found on earth
occur also in the lunar rook retrieved. This is o.,5t
even more than one could have anticipated from hrmar Soil.
p restricted a region. As yet no new elements The returned lunar soil the fine-Errain
have been fomd. The fact that the surface has turns out to be of striking and unusual interest’
bem exposed for immense ages to those fast It Is grey In colour and aXledenXthantTOicai
particles from outer space called cosmic rays, has earth soU. It has, of comse! no organic cênt
created in the surface layers an anticipated degree and is a powdery material which sticks to anv-
of radioactivity. This in turn has led to the thing with which it cXîifro cmtact On^he
the atomic products following radio- moon, the top six Inches was easily penetrated
active disintegrations of atoms. Mwroscopic
^ter which examination of all samplesresStmt:
the soil beSe™e® of the
retted soU reveals most unexpectedly that
pphaps Imlf of It consists of finely broken down
The Age oi the Moon’s Surface. piec® of glass of varying eolom-s. Included too
A
ki^ number of duplicated attempts of various fiS iren? Som"kofthe fronXaUol?d^^&kl^^
have ton made to assess the age
surface of the moon. There is relatively ofclose the in tCtfpM fa^XSXn
no douM
to meteXto ^
agreement between the different approaches, meteorites.tWsTheto exMence ton brouSt to bv
be fOTH^ by various metbods, shows that it has remamed in S/ a completely airless
tlw best of the^ being based on measurements of and waterless situation
what are cmed isotope abundances. An analogy togmtos S swXd on the moon T’he
syXnXXosimtitto
imght aîst the uninitiated^ here. Suppose we Yet there te cS^XS^wS^dX^^rv
imagine the existence of identical twins who look strongly suggest that there
has been some mpch
in weight, behave
mdeed alike
such but
thatMe weslightly different
can only Tto coSd
dis- longedrepeatedimpactfromavervl nre.*
arB'p'nnTnhpi-
tmg^h one from the other by weighing. A ofâll metoric h^SbStol
simUarmtuation happens among atoms. Take a Such boXartomteM th^
metal Tike l^d, for tnsttoce. There are three glass, for glass is molten rOd^m baXcreS^d^lfe
iMtoktoite of tead atonm,;^ looking and behaving impacts could locally loCk and anv enereelic
raise
S shghtlT to weight. These melt surface ro(k into gS the temperature to
three kinds of aton^, wMch require special could then break down older sucSS toacte
teotoques to dlstingi^ one from the other, are {rssmenta. if S glass nieces inte finv
toptos
called Wto»es of lead. Practically all types of eno^h? This e^lSlon we ?eneatS often
te s^Xted
Iike_ oxygen, solids like fact that the chemical composition of the soil
c^bon, or metsis like iron) have several isotopes, material resemble that of
the surroimdinir rock^
implying tStt^TdSt aSdsoaS
tu oTiiier mncis oi atoms.
cê locall^dnothroThttofrZSSem^m
Inis we call as some have thought Ah nirpaHv TnA-nHf\Ti£>/t
as a radio- there Is of course so^ meteoric material also
ofâMfonnatlonis very Slow but it can Undoubtedly the most striking nronefrv of the
bera of small glass spheres (glass “marbles") and
Mswiawon with potîum (and it cannot be equally huge numbers of glass evHndeKi eiilTL
^be shapes, pear-shapes, and dumbbeUânM Tf
Xto^^t^^^for
1? 5?^ the^frSSsFn^X^®'*®
tor the transformation process to anything reaUy
peculiarity highlights
of lunar soil it the special
ia thenp diôtlve
&\naa
on to ^cumulate this particular amount. Although by weigdit they only represent a few ner
Unfortunately the calculation can be upset by the cent of
“®88 the are
they wUiS, in beca^f
ybich it is created. Also we do know kinds of glass spheres abound Most ttra !«« thsTi
that the Bolax wmd is bringing in argon from 1 miUlmf^ aSâltoXh om
SPECIAI- TOPICS THE WORI_D OF SCIENCE
grapns taken on the moon shows such an object narrow zone, and these are the main locations of
about an mmi acro^ (the object itself was not earthnuakes, those within the plates being few
retrieved). Both colour and degree of trans- scattered, and weak. It is at the plate boundaries
parencr of the glasses varr. The majoritr are that geology really happens, where dynamic
^ j S coloured, some are grey, and pale greens processes take place. The interiors of plates are
Md Wues have also been found. The smfaces of marked by slow heavmgs and sinkings and bv
the objects may be shiny and highly specular, or quiet deposition of sediment or quiet erosion, le^s
they can be coated with a hard diiQ layer of moon dram.atic processes by far than are foimd at the
dust. Many objects have internal voids and plate boundaries,
vacuoles.
Chemical analysts shows that increasing depth
in colour is usually asisoeiated with increasing hit „• »
content of titanium metal. The soil itself also Hovmg Apart.
contains angular glassy fragments similar in At estensional plate boundaries, as the plates
^pearance and composition to tte ohmously of lithosphere move apart, soft mantle
material
m^t‘formed smootli spherules. Both the ir- from the asthenosphere {see F8)
wells up to fill ip
spherules have, on occasion, the gap. As it rises, it partly melts, and the lava
entrapped, thus such objects can be comes to the surface as a volcanic scum,
leading
^ f magnet. . The_ range of to the formation of a line of volcanoes along the
^ supris- plate^boundary and resulting in a capping of
The writer of ttos article extracted
by hand, soUdifled lava about 5 km thick on top of the
200 cooled and rigid asthenosphere which has now
reasonably sized sphendes and other shapes, become part of the lithosphere. This crust is the
merely using tweezers. If this be representative thin ocean crust, found everywhere
Estensional in the deep
plate boundaries tbm
moon awt. But thte is vastly outnumbered by lead to the formation of new ocean crust, and to
toe smaller similar objects easy to see tmder the the increase in area of the ocean basins. Such
mcroscope, which m the îter s sample reach the processes are happening in most of the world’s
extraordinary number of 300,000,000 per kg of ocean basins, where estensional plate boundaries
„ V , i. , , are marked by broad gentle rises, such as the Mid-
of the larger spherules have been .shoivn to Atlantic Eidge that runs down the centre of the
tove once been high-speed projectiles on the Atlantic Ocean from Iceland to the Azores, past
moon, probably havmg ton violently ejected at Ascension Island and near Tristan da Cunha
formation k droplets of molten glass, through Another great rise of this kind runs from the Bed
some fierce impact mechanism. Any satisfactory Sea. through the Gulf of Aden, across the Indian
theory ofthe origm and formation of the lunar Ocean, around the south of Australia and New
^rfaee wiU have to aceorat for the glassy Zealand, across the Pacific past Easter Island and
^he^^. (They are equ^y abundant at the the Galapagos, ending up in the Gulf of C^mnih.
Apollo 1^ site, sonae 800 imles away .) While the Along these rises, and along many smaller ones, the
larger glass spherules may be splashes from a melt plates are moving apart and creating new ocean
created by impto, the tmy ones may have ton crust. Especially interesting are the places such
melting of glass fragments as the Bed Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Gulf of
already m the moon dust, the melting having California where continents have been split apart
come about through radiation or conduction fairly recently (not more than 20 million years
heati^ from some nearby meteoric impact event, ago) and where new oceans are fonhing. In other
of ^ch there mto have been vast numbers. places, sueh as Baffin Bay, it can be shown that
ihere is a great deal of past history locked up In extensional plate boundaries did exist at one time,
the lunar soU and further researches and future but are now dormant.
Umar retneyals may supply the answers.
Plates Sliding Past One Another.

Shearing plate boimdaries, where plates slide
past one another, are perhaps the most approach¬
PLATE TECTONICS— -A DYNAMIC MODEL able kind of plate boundary. If the plates on
EOa THE EARTH’S OUTER LAYERS. both sides are continental, as they sometimes are,
then shearing plate boundaries are marked by
Over the last few years we have developed a
new way of looldng at the geology of the earth’s great faults on the earth’s surface, which can be
visited and inspected directly. Sueh faults are
surf^ which gives a much clearer picture than the San Andreas fault of California, the Alpine
we had before about how such features as ocean
fiiult of New Zealand, and the North Anatolian
basins, continents, and mountain chains are related
fault of Turkey. Along these faults the two plates
to one another, and how the earth’s surface has move Inexorably past one another. Where the
developed during the several thousand million
fault slips well, roads, walls, and railways running
years of geological time. This article will explain
across it are slowly, steadily displaced at easily
first what this new model is, and how It worto, measurable rates of up to 10 cm per year. Parts
and then describe the evidence that has persuaded
of these faults stick, though, and in such places
most geologists that it does wort. To avoid the stress In the rocks builds up, while the faffit
repetition it is assumed that the reader will
does not i^ve. Eventually the stress breaks the
Eart I {E8-9> where the basic structmre blockage with a sudden sharp earthquake which
of the earth is described and technical terms may. If the accumulated strain is enough, be
explained. It will also be useful to be ready to immensely destructive. Such am earthquake was
turn to the Atlas section for maps of the parte of the San Eranoisco earthquake of 1906 and similar
the world under discuffiion.
earthquakes are associated with most other
shearing boimdaries.
Plate Tectonics.
Plates Moving Together.
The surface of the earth can be divided hito a
number of plates of lithosphere (see PS) (hence the Gompressional plate boundaries, where the
name for the theory— tectonics means the study plates are coming together, are more complicated,
of earth movements). These are rigid intomniiy but they have fimdamental importance In the
and active only on their edges. They range in development of mountain belts and continents.
size from a few thousand square km, to plates The best approach is to consider the development
NortE America. South America, and of some hypothetical compressional boundary
half of the Atlantic Ocean taken together. The ftom the time it starts until it stops, while drawing
plates are in constant motion relative to one parallels with plate boundaries in different âges
mother, so that any boundary between two plates of development in different parte of the world.
is of one of three Idnds, extenslonal (the plates Imagine a compressional plate boundary In an
are moving apart), cbmpresrional (they are ocean basin, to that the crust on both sides of
movmg together), and shearing (they are sliding the boundary is oceanic. As compression involves
past one another). These boundaries are marked shortening, one of the plates is over-ridden 1^ the
by strings of earthquakes aE oonoentrated in a other and the over-ridden plate is pushed, or
SPECIAL. TOPICS THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
F59
slides, down into the mantle. This thrusting plates can be measured and appear to be between
involves eonslderahle Metion, as might be several millimetres and several centimetres i«r
imagined, and along the descending cold plate is year. Thus the Atlantic at the latitude of the
developed a zone of earthauakes that represent British Isles is widening at a rate of 2 cm per year
fracture of the plate until such depths as it has (= 20 km per mUUon years).
warmed through enough to be incorporated in the
soft asthenosphere. The frictional heating of the
down-going slab causes the ocean crust attached Evidence for Movement.
to it to melt and form volcanic lava which rises
to the surface to form a chain of volcanoes over The evênce that the plates are moving as has
the descendlr^ plate. In this initial stage, then, been described is rather complex, bub some pieces
there is an ocean basin containing a chain of are more easily described than others. The
volcanic islands (an island arc), outside which is simplest of all is the fit of the continents. Clearly
a deep trench, marking where the down-going if continents have been split open by extensional
plate disappears, and a zone of earthquakes (the plate boundaries, the two edges of the split should
Benioff zone) extends from the trench under the match when they are brought together in the
island arc. Such simple compressional plate direction along which the extensional movement
boundaries are found in, for example, the Byukyu has happened. Such a fit can be demonstrated
arc between Japan and Formosa, the Caribbean for the North Atlantic continents, Europe,
arc in the West Indies, the Aleutian arc in the Scandinavia. Greenland, and North America, and.
north Padflo. The next stage in the development most spectacularly, for South America and Africa
of compreônal plate boundaries, which may not across the South Atlantic. Other fits that have
occur for 100 million years or so, is that eventually been successful are the two sides of the Bed Sea
a continent arrives at the boundary being carried and the Gulf of Aden, and those of the Gulf of
on the plate which is being consumed. Now California.
plate tectonics only make sense if we make an It is possible, by examining tbe records of the
assumption here, a reasonable sounding one, but earthquake waves from a single earthquake at a
one not proved, that continentsd crust is too large number of receiving stations at different
thick and too buoyant to be carried down the places to determine the orientation of the fracture
Benioff plane (i.e., downwards into the mantle) in the earth, the fault on which the movement of
as oceanic crust is carried. At this stage the the earthquake has taken place, and the direction
direction of the downward motion must reverse, of this movement. If plate movement is taking
so that the oceanic crust previously over-riding is place, then the fault orientation and direction
now over-ridden, the island arc becomes welded of movement on the fault should be consistent
on to the edge of the continent, and a new down¬ with the predicted plate movement. This is
ward flow forms dipping under the continent. foimd to be the case wherever it Is attempted, and
Now there is a deep trench next to the continental provides a further piece of evidence.
margin, a zone of earthquakes reaching imder the More technical evidence comes from Investiga¬
continent, and a line of volcanoes along the edge
of the continent. The continent has grown, too, ting the earth’s magnetic field. Surveys hy ships
towing magnetometers that measure the strength
by the addition of the Island arc to its edge. This
process happened a few million years ago when of the earth’s magnetic field from place to place
show that, parallel to the mid-ocean ridge crests,
New Guinea collided with the Indonesian Mand the postulated extensional plate boundaries, are
arc, picked up the arc, and reversed the downward long linear magnetic anomalies. These are areas
flow so that now it dips down under the continental in which the magnetic field is either stronger or
crust of New Guinea. Such a proem must also weaker than is expected, and they axe caused by
account for the trench along the west coast of the magnetism of the rocks at the bottom of the
South America and the volcanoes in the Andes. oceans. The size of the anomalies observed is
greater than would he expected from reasonable
variations in the magnetic properties of the rooks,
Colliding Continents. and their origin was for some years a mystery.
However, it became clear that the earth's magnetic
Eventually, at some stUl later time, a continent field had periodically reversed its direction at
approaches carried on the oceanic plate that is different times in the past, so that the north
now being consumed. This continent will be magnetic pole became the south niagnetio pole and
carrying with it a prism of sediments draped over vice versa. Measurements of the dlreaion of
its edge and on to the nearby ocean crust, formed magnetisation of volcanic lavas together with
by erosion of the contiuents and transport of determination of their ages by their content of
material into the sea. As the two continents radioactive elements enabled a magnetic time
meet, neither can over-ride the other, they collide, scale to be built up showing epochs in which the
squeezing up the prism of sediment between them magnetic field had the same direction as now
into a moimtaln chain, and becoming welded to¬ separated hy epochs in which the field was re¬
gether. The plate boundary is then destroyed, versed. The lengths Of these epochs In the last
and both plates are joined together into one large 6 million years range from a few thousandl years
one. Such an event is just ending in the Hima¬ to a few hundred thousand years, and they Ml
layas, where India has collided with Asia. Further into a characteristic irregular pattern.
in the past Italy collided with Europe to form the Now, ff new volcanic crust is being continuously
Alps, and 400 million years or so ago America created at extensional plate boundaries, then,
collided with Europe to form the Caledonian when the magnetio field is in one direction a strip
mountain chain, fragments of which axe found of crust magnetised in that direction wDl he
today from Spitzbergen through Norway, Green¬ formed, and later, when It reverses/ a strip mag¬
land, Great Britain, Newfbundland, and as far netised in the omposite direction will be formed.
south as Georgia. This chain was split apart So a pattern of wrips should result reflecting both
later by the initiation of an extensional boundary tiie magnetic time scale and the rate of extension
that gave rise to the Atlantic Ocean. at that plate boundary. Oompadson of the
TMs is essentially how plate tectonics works. observed linear magnetic anomalies with calcuto.-
It provides a new way of looking at changes taking tions based on this model showed that by this
place now, and those that have taken place in the means the magnetic anomalies could he accounted
past, and gives a framework tiiat Mates oceans, for without demanding extraordinary magnetic
moimtaln chains, and continents together as properties in the ocean floor rocks. The anomaly
different sides of the same process. pattern fits the reversal time scale very dcsely,
As fax as can he estimated at present, the rate and is symmetrical on each side of the plate
of creation of new crust at extensional plate boundary. Thus this is strong evidence that
boundaries is balanced globally by the rate of creation Of ocean crust at exteuslonai plate
destruction of crust at compressional plate boundaries does take place. Conversely, it also
boundaries. The surface area of the earth seems alloTO estimates of the rate of extension to be
to he remaining about the same, but some oceans, made wherever magnetic surveys over extensional
such as the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean are plate boundaries are available, by comparing the
growing, while the Pacific is shrinking. The area magnetic anomaly pattern with the reversal time
of the continents is gradually increasing by the scale. By this means the rate of plate movements
welding on of Island arcs to tbeir edges, and so the
ratio of ocean area to continental area is gradually canFinally, there has
he determined. ' recently been a series of
decreasing. Bates of relative movement between holes drilled through the sediments in the deep
SPECIAL THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
TOPICS F
oceans the American JOIDES project. This Study of what other people have done and are
has involved positioning a drilling harge using a doing stunulates the intellect and the imagination
ring of engines around its circumference, and Md provides signposts (and no entry signs) along
lettmg a drill string down through the five or the way of a creative life. If such a philosophy
water to the ocean floor, where seems at variance with some current educational
It anils and cores on instructions from the surface. theory, which lays stress on discovering for oneself
Two mam results relevant to the plate tectonics rather than on learning by the experience of
hypothesis have come out of this project. others, and also seems to ignore the marked pre¬
First, as would be expected on the hypothesis, ference of the yoimg for making their own
the oceans are all very young. The oldest sedi¬ mistakes, then the museum man must fortify him¬
ment so far recovered is no more than 180 miUion self by studying the attendance figures. He -ivill
continents are more thnn find that museums are becoming more popular
2,500 nulhon years old. Second, a series of holes everyyear.
was driUed across the South Atlantic at points H is difficult to discern any trends towards
where the magnetic anomalies indicated that the particular types of collections in this increasing
ocean crust was of weU-deflned age, if the plate popularity. In London, the Science Museum
teotomM hypothesis was correct. The holes draws the largest attendance, but it has done so
dnfled through the sediments and into the volcanic for a long time, and there is no sign that there has
rooks beneath, and in each case the date of the been a swing away from the Art museums.
sadiinent in the hole agreed very closely There is no evidence that increasing popularity is
with the date suggested by the magnetic anomalies a i-esult of museums being better than they were
tor the crust at that site. This was concrete Dpb. unmodemised galleries are quite as well
eyideMe of a kind very diSerent from the inferen¬ êd M some colourful and spacious ones, and the
tial evidence of magnetic anomalies, earthauake
waves, and continental fitting, and finally con¬ •V. 5 ftl8;ce in Florence demonstrates that crowds
•wiU still come to a picture gallery where half
vinced many geologists who had up to then been pictures on display simply cannot be seen. Tothea
tliat plate tectonics was a reasonable museum man the present situation presents an
hypothesis and that plate movements are happen¬ opportumty rather than a cause for self-con¬
ing. Some remain unconvinced, but it is probably gratulation.
true to say that most geologists nowadays are Museums of science and technology are in one
wiUing to use plate tectonics as at least a working respect better placed than art museums or
hypothesis. muse^s of local history, when it comes to ednca-
mg tms large and variously motivated pubHc.
Mechanisms for Plate Movements. ihe things they display not only need inter¬
pretation, hut can be seen to need it. The
• situation in plate tectonics at the moment Science Museum has a century-old tradition of long
and learned labels, the first paragraphs of which
p that, wMe most people are convinced that plate
tectonics is a useful way of describing the evolu¬ may suffice for the less curious, and are de-ylsed
tion and development of the earth’s siuface, very to do so, while the full extent may even flniah
tew; agree on what forces drive the plates, initiate wfrh suggestions for further reading. These long
motion and continue it so inexorably over such labels are sometimes criticised for being aimed at
a
long periods of time. For some this is an intel¬ very small minority of visitors, or on the general
lectual stumbhng block— unless they can be ground that a label cannot he de-sdsed to suit a
eonvmced of a mechanism for plate movements, tode variety of types of readers, or (perhaps most
they are mw;illing to agree that plates can move ptten) for spoiling the look of the display. There
at aU. But it is difficult to justify this point Is something m all of these criticisms, but they are
of
more likely to be met br more and better labels
vie'^ The
the people find no dlffloulty in using
Law of Gravitation, even though it is not at tuan by reducing these to the level of descriptive-
^ clear how gravity works or why it works in ness^ tjîfied by the time honoured phrases
the way it does. However, the search for a
mechai^ra has a certain fascination, and should ^pruhitive passerme bird” or ‘‘Flemish, 15th
on for the sake of completeness.
,, Mechanisnis proposed so far fall essentiaUy into
three classes, convection currents, pushing Museum Education Departments.
mechamsms, and pulling mechanisms. The
convection ^current hypothesis holds that the
of the earth is stirred by slow-moving museums, the Science ft®-*’
Museum among
and our
the national
Natural
convection currents, and that these are, directly
Histip- Museum should have the busiest eduea-
/®®onsible for plate movements. tlon departments concerned with the exploitation
Althor«h the transfer of material in plate move¬
j th® museim collections for purposes of formal
eaucatlon.
ments is rather like convection, with hot material Both museums deal largely with
oomlng up at extensional boundaries and cold subjects which figure in school and university
^terial going down at oompresslonal boundaries, cuiTiouIa. In the Science Museum, a noticeable
the shape of the plates is unlike any reasonable consequence of the broadening of educational
convection flow pattern, and other difficulties minds m recent years is the large demand for tours
are
also found, Push^ mechanisms suppose Md lectures for history students, and also
that the
plates are elevated by expansion in the mantle frepent requests for lectures on light, colour,
at extensional boundaries, and then slide off side¬ materi^, and design for ait students. This last
ways, pushing the rest of the plate ahead. Pulling ffi^trates the kind of useful extra-curricular
mechanisms, on the other hand, postulate that activity which becomes possible when the museum
as
the oqe^ erast sUdes down the Benioff zone at education department has a high reputation and
a
convMging boundaries, it becomes transformed base of regular demand upon which to build,
to a yep- dmise matenal. which then sinks, pulli^ ê assurmce
worth while to of a large ■” cUentele ” makes it
arrange special series of lectures
theAllrestof ofthese
the plate after it.
mechanisms munm. for older children, given by Inyited leetnrers from
are nnRfl.HBFantory in
one way or another. Possibly the answer industrial or university research departments.
lies in It
some, comhinatioh of them, or perhaps is also poîble to arrange a regular programme of
in
mecflianim yet to be thought V. &re some scientific flhiw md to offer the general public
dSI i a
appear, however, to be general agreement range of entertainments on a far more lavish scale
that
tbm would otherwise be justified.
Si foj
heat ofenergy necessary to move
the earth’s interior, and The CTowth of the education service in the
has almost certainly been due to
M^s ômes better understood, the mechanisms ;
mfficulties within the schools. There have been
should become clear. “ riiortages of qualified teachers and of equipment.
These shortages have persisted and even grown
worse. whUe science itself has advanced faster than
MUSEUMS OP S(3IENCE AND oeiore, .This is a situation, in which one museum
TECHNOLOGY
however great, can do very little, even though
it is
Aims, Possibilities, and Problems. explori^ ways of spreading its influence by
puhhcatlons. by opening its galleries to the televi¬
A museum has no purpose which is not ulti- sion teams, by training teachers and staff for other
educational, and the basic philosophy of museums. _ It is quite clear that every scientific
a
ihnh must include the belief that; the miêum m the country, including general
1
SPECIAL TOPICS F61 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
museums with considerable scientiflc, technological collection requires contextual material if it is to
or industrial collections, could find work to do to engage the attention of any but the most informed
this field. and dedicated student. Many small museums
One important point must be stressed. The have specialised collections of scientiflc material,
education department must not be a poor relation often the gift of a local collector of notability. It
•within the museum, grudgingly afforded a little is easy to see how such a collection of, for instance,
imused space and staffed by seconded teachers early photographs and equipment can be vitalised
■widely regarded as unwelcome by the rest of the by putting it to the context of the history of photo¬
staff. Such has been the case occasionally to the
graphy, certainly, but also of optics, of photo¬
past, but where the job to be done is of such chemistry, and of ait, and by aiming eventually
importance, it must be done by people of high to include ctoematography and such aspects as
intellectual calibre, whose role to the museum is photolithography. In this way even a stogie
not merely that of exploiters but no less that of collection can enhance its value to the casual or
advisers. These are the people who -wUl have the purposeful visitor Immeasurably.
greatest contact with the thoughtful visitors, of The aim of a small museum to the scientiflc field
all ages, and who -will represent the management should be to some way to expand, because there is
of the museum to the eyes of most of its public. virtue to sheer size and variety. This adds the
Their ideas for the Improvement of the collections element of comparison to that of context and so
wiU come from their practical experience of the increases the intellectual stimulus, but, of course,
value of those collections to the most interested it increases the problems of organisation and of
people, and their knowledge of the subjects will be interpretation. The extreme example of this is
enriched by contact 'with many visitors who have the alienee Museum, where the richness of the col¬
specialised knowledge of those subjects. lections makes it possible to put most of the
objects into several different contexts. However,
only one basic set of references can be used for the
What Do the Visitors Want? physical layout of the galleries, so the museum is
arranged according to some fifty subject divisions.
Even to the Science Museum, group visits Even these require some duplication of material.
accoimt for less than 10% of total attendance. It It is perhaps to unravelling another fifty subjects
woidd he extremely difficult to do a statistical from the same material that the education service
analysis of the motivations of the rest, and it has performs a task peculiarly its own. These sub¬
not been attempted. Some indications have been jects are partly perfectly obvious academic-type
^ven by casual visitors to public lectures on ones, such as electronics, kinematics, or wave
Saturday afternoons. As these represent perhaps mechanics, and lead the student {of electronics, for
2% of visitors on that day, and a probably mi- example) through collections labelled Atomic
representative sample at that, rmdue importance Physics, Eadio and Television. X Bays, Naviga¬
cannot be attached to -what they said, but, at tion, Time Measurement and Mathematics. They
least, over some years these people have given may deal -with particular materials, such as rubber
answers conforming to the same pattern. or plastics, or with periods of history. Ideally, a
There were always a few who had come speciaUy museum of great size should have ways of referring
to attend the lecture because they were interested its ■visitors to all these paths of knowledge which
to the subject. They were invariably people who lead over many different fields, preferably by
had visited the museum before, most of them fre¬ means of publications but perhaps also by means
quently. All the rest had come to the lecture of large photographic displays.
because they were to the museum and had seen the A museum which is not too large or too crowded,
lecture publicised within the building. The ques¬ and which takes its educational function seriously,
tion then put was; why had they come to the might well dispense entirely with the practice of
museum? The rather vague answers provided by imposing a logical physical organisation on its
this predominantly adult set of people suggested collections. The assumption would have to he
that almost all had been before and thought the made that every ■visitor wo'uld be equipped with
museum a splendid place. About a third had the particular guide to suit his requirements. It
an evident desire to increase their store of know¬ could be argued that it is more economic to print
ledge. The rest simply wished to experience more guides than to attempt to coax awkward
pleasure of a not very intellectual kind, by seeing material into possibly unpractical juxtapositions.
things of beauty (which are not the sole preroga¬ The advantage from the point of view of display
tive of art museums), by seeing other people, by and of convenience ■within the biiildtog would he
great, but the intellectual advantage might he
enjoying
ness and the comforting
even sensations
by feeding nationalof pride.
man’s great¬
Such stiU greater. It is becoming increasingly impor¬
motives are not to be despised, and would suffice tant that young scientists and engineers should not
for poets, novelists, and even painters, but a be trained to think along the lines of a stogie sub¬
curious point is that very few of these people ject or part of a subject, but should be aware of the
made a habit of visiting art museums, whereas, possibility of other ways of thinking. Not only
among the more purposeful third this was quite ■will this make them better scientists in the first
common. place — it will also equip them better to reapply
A possible reason for the popularity of the their soientifle training in another field should this
Science Museum, and of other museums such as the be necessary.
Museum of British Transport, -with relatively un¬
motivated visitors, is that such museums approach
history, or science, or art. 'vda the workaday world Types of )EIxhibit.
to which they feel at ease and able to contribute
some Tmderstanding. The art museraus start A particular difficulty confronting mnseums of
science and technology is the extraordinary variety
right at the top, 'with what are usually the pro¬
ducts of an dlite for an Alite. and on the assumption and extreme range of size of their objects on view.
that we needs m'ust love the highest when we see A locomotive may wei^ 100 tons, and an insect
it, devote more care to presentation than to inter¬ be only 'visible through a microscope. This
pretation. The result is often a good deal of immediately poses the question of whether a
public embarrassment. Even though this division model of the locomotive would not do as well, or a
of museums into two kinds is an absurd over¬ microphotograph of the tasect. The answer to
simplification, it remains true that practically this te no, but to some cases it is only no by a
everything in any museum can be made more narrow margin. It depends upon the visitor.
accessible to the public by treating it as if it were There is a type of visitor who comes to a museum
a scientiflc mystery rather than a self-evident especially to see the real thing. In the case of the
masterpiece. tosect reality is already once removed by the micro¬
scope, but it is stiU worth while to display one or
two in this way. and to back them up ■with a large
Organisation ol Collections collection of photographs of other varieties. In
the case of the locomotive, size Is of its essence, too,
The smaller the museum the smaller the problem and its beauty (or ugliness) is partly scale depen¬
when It comes to organisation of coUections, but dent. as is all beauty. Its relationship to the men
the greater the challenge of trying to turn scraps of that handled it and crawled about it is historical
information into a body of knowledge for the evidence, and its technology is far more readily
visitor to acquire. No fact contributes to know¬ grasped to the toll size. Elnally. at the present
ledge if it stands alone and a small scientific time it can be obtained for about half the price of a
H (SOthEd.)
_ _
THE WORL.t> OF SCIENCE

SPECIAL. TOPICS
toe quality model (and tf a mraeum model is not mics. Tlie arts
cannot be properly imderstnnri
of toe quabty It is useless). without tbe sciences, and eve^ aS or^SS?^
Thereisatypepfmnpum exlubit yhiohisnota is a technologist too. The -risitor
who loS^
proper museum Piece at aU, but a didactic display Victorian furniture
in one iSim md at ^
or demonstration.. One way of using such Victorian locomotive
in anothet^^w^ decirip
^tenal 18 to explam an adjacent rnuseum piece, that the locomotive is the mom aSSic “ ^
This is really an extension of the label. The other intimately ail museums
devoted to natural history areSem
which areL^fhmm
not snipir-
arrange a senes of them M a complete lesson m ideas. As such, they
have similSes
some
ably insubject. This hasbutbeen
some museums, it candone quitedone
be best admir-
in a than their differences. imiianties greater
lecture theatre, with a lecturer who can answer
questions. Unless a museum is buUt specially as
a teachtn^g tool, this kind of thing should be OBAMOPHONE RECORDS PAST AND
plamed to put the ^museum pieces proper into PRESENT.
C031*v63CTr t
Inevitably, museum pieces wUl mean different X^T*
things to different people. A piece of eighteenth Eor countless centuries,

man has sought to
century apparatus— a Herschel telescope perhaps make permanent records
of his emoSom Sol thS
— wiU be an optical imtnment to some, a personal
rehc.of a CTeat man to others, a symbol 9f astro- events that have encompassed hlin
the graphic and tactile aXattost
B^wav of
noimcal discovery, a piece of elegmt funuture, or sketchy but crato
later touching the heights of master-
2“ interesting example of a mechanical handling piece, and by way of Se critic^ aeWevpmmtoJ
device to others agam. It is all those things,
to presentation and labelling should at least and
not
learning to write, man has evolved means of cnm^
mimicking not only^th his contem^^^^ w
obsci^ auy of its quaUtles . Museum modern
objects earlier technologies of painti^ oUs mdprtotto
wi™™e geSl^ ô? « tto g
developments make the ideas behind them appear inks, of engraving and casthS tn
ofTtod4cac1oiûter.“*®“'°*"^^ forermmers of toe l^fône feto in “ôn^they were

up to date can we be? reacts no more thm the transcript oft TOêch“a
set of instructions for the musician to produce his
A small, speolahsed museum should try to keep own version of the com-nnipâ Urof ,
pace with developments in its field, even though adbest he coifid: ® performance.
UiVOlVG ulSCHiXdlHS' XRfltGrisj. Wllicll iTot SUnSirisillsr iiTlPTl ii i£*
eventually proves to have been of ephemeral of to
interest. The pubhc wdl expect this of to to Tnn.irp SSh cmtu^rmiMvmtOTr
Bermauput WnrSa pf
museum. But for an establishment of the size of meShas uttered
music as
to Science Museum this is simply impossible It sSnl! fhSceto^
eê^tl&hp
must be highly selective in its choice of toplcaU- “ somid recoX” wMhhôito
ties, not only ta trying to judge their lonf-tem prS? hp
the orlgiitoSid
si^flcanee, but equally m judging their essential
suitability for museum treatment. Asan. ht, a-
example, organ transplant operations, tough Acoustic Eeeordmg.
selves
sef^ to museum display.
mme^dto^v^®’^ rôrding
J-he nê, was
not athe of “ thereabouts,
veryerahappy acoustic
one.
of such
refersrecording.”
to to use
■What Should the Public Think? for the In^totoound^âriaW^â hOTE^
maps should to on sale. The evidence should be

pPdiÎay, If any attempt is made to go beyond _
this, the public will cease to enjoy the museum. Had a Little
acoustic LambJ the Phonograph.
recording machines made use of
_ . „ , rach an acoustlc-meehanlcal transducer, in one
Science Museums and the Others, form or another. Of these preonmors S to
technology are less well endov^ rap^Xuy to ^ spoken, and reproduced, a nursery
treatment, to give to Impreffllo^f S^gSte Pôkwork mechan-

place to be to. with a little ô^ty aûUtot is
round up-and-down
the corner, but no s^ Kng hi^te^y wax âce
drawn on. It is better for the visitor to ^me or tess mdented more
agam than to feel he has to see it all Tu fhp ^ give an undulating
Science Museum, there is no tot ^ ^ ^®^
ev« see it all~it would be a toll toe job* t t^S
textUe machtaery to woveTfebrl^ Ta miffl ^tto“to

enough progression, as from chemistry to ^ to teack^lfh^^d^ a^dT^^S^ to
1
SPECIAL TOPICS r63 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
cylinder once more. The track itself was made to correspondmg electrical currents, the forces
form a spiral on the surface of the cylinder by required by the cutting stylus, however large,
attaching the horn and stylus to a lead screw could he provided hy way of the recording
arrangement, identical in principle to that of a amplifier. Furthermore, it became simple to
screw-cutting lathe. make the degree of amplification, or gain, depend
on the sound frequency, so as to compensate for
deficiencies in, for example, the cutter head or
The Qramophone Proper. microphone.
One very serious limitation of the Edison
machine was that, although it made a permanent if Electrical Pick-ups.
crude recording, this recording could not be
duplicated or copied. In present-day jargon, Within the next decade, by the mid-thirties, the
each recording was “ a one-off.” Fortunately for equivalent of the electrical sound box — ^the
the gramophile, there was an almost concurrent gramophone pick-up — ^had also come into com¬
mon use. This transduced the mechanical
introduction of Beriiner’-s Gramophone. This vibrations of the needle into electrical signals
used a transducer similar to that of the Phono¬
graph, but there were important differences. which could be amplified, and thence made
The rotating element was not a cylinder, but a audible in a loudspeaker. Its impact on quality
disc: the stylus moved “sideways”, not “up of reproduction was dramatic. The use of fre¬
and down ”, so as to make a lateral-displacement quency-dependent gain could be further extended,
recording rather than a vertical one: and the not only to correct for deficiencies, but also to
recording medium, the disc, was of wax-coated record and replay over a much wider spectrum of
zinc. frequencies. Hitherto, it had not been practic¬
The way was now clear to copy recordings ; using able to reproduce sound much lower in pitch
a technique borrowed from the electrotype trade, than about the octave below middle C. Frimarily
the recorded disc was coated with graphite and this was because, in order to reproduce a sound
then thickly electroplated. When the electro¬ pressure which is constant at every frequency (in
plate was peeled off it did. of course, carry the order to give a constant sound intensity), the
groove pattern in relief, so that it could be used lateral displacement, or sideways movement, of
as a die by means of which copy recordings could the stylus must be inversely proportional to
be pressed. In essence, this is the way in which frequency. Therein is a fact of acoustical life,
recordings are copied today, although many re¬ and if this inverse frequency law were applied
finements to ensure exact copying have been rigorously, it would follow that as the pitch of a
developed. Many curious recipes were at first sound is lowered, groove displacement would
used for the pressing material, which eventually have to increase in proportion. That is. for each
emerged as one of several mixes of three main octave reduction in frequency, the groove dis¬
ingredients: shellac, lamp black as a lubricant, placement must double! If the low frequencies
and a filler such as slate or mica dust. The were not selectively attenuated during recording,
mixture was necessarily thermoplastic, albeit one groove would break into its neighbours on
made up of natural compounds, in order that it fortissimo passages, unless the groove spacing
could be pressed while hot and soft. were to be unacceptably coarse. Indeed, the
Progress could now be made to improve the choice of groove spacing was. and to some extent
basic inventions: better spring- drive motors to remains, a compromise between groove isolation
give more constant pitch to the recorded sound and length of playing time. So the bass fre¬
(spurious pitch variations are referred to, also quencies were attenuated during the recording
evocatively, as wow and flutter) ; changes in the process; and whereas with acoustic replay there
mix of materials used for the pressings, so as to was virtually no simple way of recovering them,
reduce both the background noise, or needle hiss, the electrical replay chain could be compensated
and also the wear: and many substantial improve¬ (equalled) to give extra amplification to the low
ments in the transducers. frequencies and thus make good the deficiencies
in the low notes.
Since the copy recording or “ pressing ” could
now be played on a separate machine, it was For the reason explained above, the weight
possible to design one transducer — the cutter home by the needle of a sound-box was necessarily
head — to cut the master recording, and another — large — often many hundreds of grammes. The
called the sound box — ^to replay the pressings. pick-up, with its succeeding amplifier, could do
Much inventive talent was expended in the design much better than this, since its needle did not
of these transducers and their associated acoustic have to move a diaphragm and a large mass of air.
horns. Early pick-ups tracked with a playing weight of
10-30 g. and today a weight of 6 g would be
thought excessive, 0-5-2 g being usual.
“ Electric Eecordings.” Again, reducing the demand for work to he done
The crucial limit to indefinite improvement was by the moving parts of the pick-up meant that
the fact that, in the recording process, aU the work these could be very much smaller, lighter, and
done in displacing the cutting stylus had to be more freely moving. These reductions in both
carried out by the sound wave. Similarly, on effective mass and stiffness in turn made it
replay, the force necessary to actuate the dia¬ IMMsihle, and indeed desirable, to abandon the
phragm of the sound box had to be transmitted traditional needle, replacing it by a minute
(from the driving motor) via the walls of the jewdled tip attached directly to the moving part
groove and the needle, ill this militated against of the transducer. The stylus is then capable of
refinements of design which could yield better tracing the groove pattern at much shorter wave¬
lengths (higher frequencies) than hitherto. In
high-frequency response, lower non-linearity
distortion, and reduced pressures at the needle early days of electrical recording, the highest
recorded frequency was probably not much
tip. However, by the mid-nineteen-twentles. the
technology of electronics was exploding: the radio greater than 4 kHz (3 octaves above middle O):
valve was being developed and exploited for all at the inner part of a 78 rpm disc, the wave¬
commmiication purposes, so that in 1924 a new length is then about 20 micrometres, or 6 thou¬
sandths of an inch. Today, despite the reduced
form of cutter-head was invented by Maxfleld turntable speeds, the upper limit of recording is
and Harrison. It was essentially an electro-
magnetically operated stylus, wherein a varying usually not less than 16 kHz, the concomitant
electrical current rather than a soxmd wave wavelength near the inner grooves of a 33i tpm
caused the stylus to vibrate. This was an electro¬ record being less than 3 micrometres, or 0-7
mechanical transducer, and so a second trans¬ thousandths of an inch.
ducer, an acoustl-electrioal one, was necessary.
The latter already existed as the microphone, the
electrical output from which could be magnified by
a valve amplifier before it was fed to the cutter By the mid-1940s. the limit of the traditional
head.
êllao-hase pressing had been reached with the
Electric rôrdlngs, as they were called by the introduction of the Decca “ full frequency range ”
ad. men, facilitated another large improvement in recordings. These mcorporated a somewhat
recording quality. The microphone was a com¬ smaller groove than normal, to improve short-
paratively small design problem on the acoustical wavelength tracing; a degree of high-frequency
side and once it had turned the sound waves into pre-emphasis, whereby the higher frequencies
SPEC.AI.TOP.es
F6A the WOHED op SCENCE
emphasis to iw arranged for in the rerfay^mlifler thm to ™ mcroôove

to reduce needie-hiss ; a variable-pitch* recording, ment of their intrndn.'f^Ti too'o achieve-
such that on loud passages the groove spacing is S,nt than The incmfln? ®*8n‘fl-
automatically increased, thereby allowing TSne itself inception of electric recording
iSs“Ma,s.,S,'sss,gs„!''iS ai,t‘ir4W^.‘?e‘Sd''‘£.irir‘ '>'9» ■■»■

followed by a comprehensive re-thhik on the similT^ flnh » used a
convCTtional 78 rpm shellac disc. ^terial Ite sneed n°“ ftailar
(‘The word “ pitch ” above is ambiguous in the
Sitter than that^f tte iTdio^-
disc recordmg context : it can refer to the physical centre itsTCrv larsp how ^^nckened
concomitant of freciuency or as here to the wapp nii +!iUAw,^^K?m ^ mch diameter
number of grooves per inch of radius, by analogy
eSger ^th a simnle^chTfn
to screw toeads, the pitch ofwhich is the distance cKf mechlS^ Tt nWAwf
between adjacent turns of the thread.) changer has long since gone out of nrodneHrm
$M“te&ng-p]ky° ?r“bim^ |,“jd
bP- but the discs persist as a medium for short
Cioldmar k of the American

^ OMs re-appraisal was carried
exercise Columbia out by ““‘ably of the pop Idnd.
Company . „ ,,
Its object was to mcrease the playlng-tlme of the Stereo.”
SiKm TS8 ‘Sf.SS'SS;“ti5‘S Jsra'S-“'r' “•.'■s- « ™<ieni

range , of loudness that cordd be WdiPd_« » of sound wh^^^
“ fcfy ■^.re”SssK.“sf'2.,S trSisS^ v'ssj't s

fSSwraSelteS’JK'S.SrtSl „5S'',hr)’'i*S°y.'“'-»‘«reoplonp b boma up
^ .. S*.»p5a<’eS5»Ifi'
auSri£'“i,c^,r“
s^rSf;
is gêd reduction, anci lli ^ ®Sfd by ine ’ ^he system is named a binaural
^âl^%ril®'te^lrctlon "&er . l°>i<1®eaher facilities are reauired.

carries with it the penSty^ of shorter °f .personal if not socM con-
lengtes. To make these more readily traceable are, it is necessary to
by the stylus, the groove profile was considerahlv means more
stsis«s*i“s 'Si'S ifSsis^'^pa. “t'to bfss£.s(;i

bhoS^tto ^f aTto^.*^ Thl’i^V^yll teftwa
^ni. T1 bond’s the Ser “o^v^w™“hit bl^tee htte?l° lFT-
aruFSES-.5”SA-i>SI
x«“
improvement of 6. i|S« 4Ms?,7a.ss‘5£i
•^^meu oisc, a tune teey had to wait on the development of the
, Shorter wavelengths, even if they are made bP- .dlsc. These having
traceable, exacerbate the surface noL proWem ^Tawd^ cv^m ®tereophomc tapes and discs
because the desired deviations of groove^heenmA onwart^. Stereo discs.
thermoplastic, a co-iotoer of pSyvSyl ace^ eventuaUy ap-

and polyvinyl chloride (5240.))^ The a
merlsed vinyls are at onte 'lîootto. ^?e*
mixes. Theh use, partictdMl^f ôdSedS rfmT.ÊAAnf aoove by. causing the stylus
gbe luhrloant la^p-black^d a is in effect both a
filler, not only improves the wear nronArtiAQ nnf recording and a lateral recording,
most importantly reduces the âim notee^mmy *’^4.^2 iransduolng de¬
tunes ; sufficiently, that there cc^lteadow^^d ^r?i^ Â,4wt ^ that its vibration is
extension of recoiW level on add pmteTf the It would
programme, to the benefllt of thedTOaS ramSP ^ toe vertical and lateral
Variable-pitch recording smd h f nr?TwmS,f?E 5?®®rdlng3 carry separately the I, and E signals,
were perpetuated ® Pre-emphasis For a numto of techifical reasons this is not done:
In total, these substantial changes to thA aoTt, ,■ at right angles, are
gramophone record yielded the^ fnlinwin^ 2?2^ . to tb® record surface, so that
improvements: yioioeo the toUowmg the groove walls, also inclined at 45“. separately
, „ , , . receive the L and E information. Eeplay with
increased playing time an dement which is purely lateral-respoMive i e .
reduced tracing distortion a . monophonic pick-up, therefore generates a
mcreased dynamic range mlxed.(L -f E) signal. The mode is Sd 45/45
somewhat unproved freunency range rteordmg. .
reduced needle-hiss . On replay, the stereo pick-up stylus performs a
reduced breakage-rate. amiilar, compound vibration, and Its two trana-
SPECIAL. TOPICS THE WORLD OF SCIENCE
Fes
channels before application to a pair of loud- pressure variations. Moreover, if the sound is to
speater systems. The designed-for differences in be audible, and by definition it must be so. the
arrival times and intensities of the tvro signals pressure variations must not occur too slowly — the
can then give a subjective effect of sound dis¬ comparatively slow change of pressure with change
tribution, valid over a reasonable area in front of of altitude, for example, causes a sensation not of
the loudspeakers. sound but of ear blookê. Nor must the varia¬
tions be too rapid— the “ inaudible " dog whistle
Tomorrow. sets up air-pressure variations which are too
frequent to be heard by the human ear, and we
The superiority of the modem l.p. over the enter the realm of ultrasonics (LllS). The rate
original Berliner records is very clear, in respect of at which the pressure variations reom, called the
every important performance criterion. The frequency, is the physical concomitant of the
scratchy, sub-telephone Quality of the early pitch of the sound.
discs has to be compared vnth the noise-free, It transpires that the person with average hear¬
stereophonic sound of the best of the l.p.s, ex¬ ing can sense variations occurring not less fre¬
tending as it does over the whole of the audible quently than about 20 per second and not more
spectrum, and of quality limited chiefly by the frequently than about 15.000 per second, although
capability of the replay equipment. Is there age and state of health have something to do with
room for Improvement? Does there remain to be the exact range of audible frequencies.
heralded another major innovation in the So a requirement of the ideal sound-recording
development of the gramophone record? system is that it shall respond to air-pressme
To prophesy accurately In such matters de¬ fluctuations within the range 20-15,000 Hz
mands genius or luck. However, it is to be (cycles, or complete fluctuations, per second).
noted that the technical performance of the con¬ (With pressure changes there are a®ociated
temporary disc leaves little room for improve¬ velocity changes, and some recording systems are
ment. It is true that the technique of tracing a velocity responsive, rather than pressure respon¬
pre-cut groove with a stylus carries certain in¬ sive. This does not alter the tenor of what is
trinsic distortions with it, all of which introduce said here about frequency range, etc.)
spurious harmonic and inharmonic tones not
present in the original performance; and one Loudness.
recent development has been the introduction
during recording of a kind of inverse distortion If it is to simulate the ear. in order that it can
which on replay tends to cancel out the replay later reproduce the sound for the benefit of
distortion. But this is refinement, not a major another ear, the recording system must also cater
innovation. for the range of loudnesses which the average ear
Similarly, there is always the quest for increased will accept. This range is very large Indeed, for
playing time without sacrifice of quality. It is the greatest loudness an ear can tolerate without
difficult to see its achievement with the tradi¬ actual paiu or damage Is set up by a pressure
tional disc-recording medium. In view of the variation at the ear, of a magnitude which is
extreme delicacy of pick-up necessary to achieve perhaps 10 million times the pressure magnitude
the prevailing standards of quality at the pre¬ corresponding to a sound which is barely audible.
vailing record speeds. This gives a measure of what is often referred
It might be felt that a major change could be to as the “ dynamic range ” of the recording
made — downwards — in the price of records, by system. The dynamic range is the difference be¬
some novel production-engineering venture. Yet tween the loudest, or highest-level, sound which
of the components of the selling price, the produc¬ the system can handle without naalftmction, and
tion cost is less, sometimes much less, than the the smallest signal which it can handle.
sum of the other costs, all of which are unrelated
Noise.
to the recording medium: artists' fees, royalties,
publicity, tax. and so on.
The truth Is probably that the disc record has The question of the very small signals that re¬
nearly reached the end of its technical exploit- present the very quiet sounds arises because of a
ability, and that it is susceptible to improvements third important factor which has to be taken into
in detail only. The disc has survived competition account: this Is the residual noise level. A cer¬
from other media, notably the magnetic tape, tain level of noise and hum exists inescapably
because of its convenience of use la the domestic within the recording system, and because sounds
environment and because It is supported by a which are quiet enough to lie just above, below, or
massive and long-established production effort, at the noise level are in practice the smallest that
dealing with a similarly large and established can usefully be handled, the dynamic range is
repertoire. In short, both manufacturers and the reckoned with the noise level as its lower limit.
general public know and accept the gramophone
record. Other days bring other ways, though. Distortion.
The disc will survive for many years, but not as
the medium of the future: the latter may already We are deriving some of the most important
exist as the coated-plastio tape — or it may await features by means of which recording systems can
invention. be judged, and in addition to the three referred to
above (frequency range, dynamle range, and
noise level), there is one other. It is non-linearity
distortion. This is a general name given to any
Appendix. imperfection of the system which degrades the
Some Explanations oS Terminology. way in which the system responds to sounds of
various loudnesses. For example, if the original
The better to appreciate the problem of sound- soimd doubles in loudness, does the reproduced
recording, consider the nature of the sound itself. sound do likewise? If so, there is no non-linearity
The ear responds to sound (i.e., it gives the sensa¬ distortion present. On the other hand, if the
tion of hearing) by a complicated mechanism reproduced sound does not change in exact pro¬
which is imperfectly understood, but which cer¬ portion to the original, non-linearity distortion
tainly oririnatea in the vibration of a diaphragm. exists. The ear is not very tolerant of the effects
This is the ear drum, which is a thin membrane of of non-linearity, whicffi shows itself in the produc¬
cartilage completely closing the entrance to the tion of spurious sounds which were not present in
middle ear and to other parts of the hearing system the original. These spurious signals may be over¬
further within the skull. The motion of the ear tones, or harmonies, of components of the original
drum is conveyed by a linkage of three small (the so-called harmonic distortion), or they may be
bones, the ossicles, to the inner ear. wherein a inharmonic signals (inter-modulation distortion)
conversion is made from mechanical vibration to
which grate even more offensively on the listener’s
nervous signals Which are transmitted to the ear. An everyday example of non-linearity dis¬
brain. Sec also Q18-18. tortion at work is the public telephone service:
the reproduction at the telephone earpiece is
distorted very badly by comparison with the
Pitch. ■■ original speech, or Indtod by comparison with a
Vibration of the ear drum results from vibra¬ reproduced sound of high quality, such as that
tion, or periodic alternation, of air pressure. from a good v.h.f. receiver tuned to a B.B.O.
Hence, the source of sound must itself set up air- v.h.f. broadcast.
8
8
6 TABLE OF ELEMENTS THE WORLD OF SCIENCE

7
ELEMENTS
- Elemeut Atomic
Atomic Atomic „ ,
Atomic I , || Elemprit.
(Symbol)
- Number Weight ^^’^ncy
26-9815 naolybdenum Number Weight *â'lenoy
actiniom(Ac)* .
aluminium (Al). (Mo) . . . 20-183
248 3 144-24 30
americium (Sb)
(Am)*. 3. 4. 6. 6
antimony 39-948
90'?
121-76 3, 6 neodymium (Nd)
argon (A) . . neon (Ne) . . 237
68-71 4.
2.36.
74-9216 3. 6
0
arsenic (As). . 92-906 8, 6
nickel (Ni) (Np)*
neptunium . . 14-0067
astatine (At)* . niobium (Nb) . 3. 5
264
barium (Ba) 9-0122 nitrogen (N)
249
137-84 3,4
2 190-2 2. 3
berkeUum (Bk)*
beryllium (Be) . nobelium (Os)
osmium (No)*
bismuth (Bi) . 4 2
208-980
10-811 3,6
boron (B) . . oxygen (0) . 106-4 2. 4
79-909 30-9788 3,6
bromine (Br) . 3
1.3. 5.7
paUadi-om (Pd) .
112-40 2 phosphorus (P).
cadmium (Cd) . 40-08 2 platinum (Pt) . 16-9994 2 ’
calcimn (Ca) 6
249
californium (Cf)* 12-01116 2, 4 plutonium (Pu)*
carbon (C) . . 3.4 7
polonium (Po)*.
cerium (Ce) 140-12 8. 4 potassium (K) .
caesium (C!s) . 132-905 1 praseodymium
chlorine (Cl) 85-458 1 1, 3,
1. 3, 5. 7 (Pr) . . .
chromium (Cr) . 61-996 2. 3.6
3, promethium
cobalt (Co) . . 58-9332 2, 3
copper (Cu) protactinium 226
231
2 (Pa)* . . . 222
curium (Cm)* .
dysprosium (By) radium (Ka)* .
(Pm)* (Ee) .
rhenium
264 radon (Bn)*
rhodium (Eh) . 102-905
einsteinium
erbium (Er) (Es)* 167-26 3 rubidium (Eb) . 3, 4, 6. 8
europium (Eu) . 151-96 2, 3
nithenium (Eu) 44-950 2,3
252 1186-2
01
samarium (Sm) . -0
fermium (E)
fluorine (Em)*, 18-9984 1 scandimn (Sc) . 7
228 1 15
selenium (Se) . 0-
28-086
franclum(Er)* . silicon (Si) . 35
157-25 8 78-96
22-9898
gadolinium (Gd) 69-72 2, 3 silverium(Ag) . . 107-870
gallium (Ga) . nt
72-69 4 ro r r)
germanliun (Ge)
196-967 1. 3 st phu (S . 32
gold (Au) . . u l )
s (8 . . 06
hafnium (Hf) . 4-0026
178-49 0
4 4
tantalum (Ta) . 180-948
helium (He)
holmlum (Ho) . 164-980
1-00797 3
1 tellurium
technetium(Te) .
(Tc)* 99
terblxun (Tb) . 127-60
hydrogen (H) . 168-924 !1
thaliinn (Tl)
indium (In) 114-82 3 204-87
126-9044 thorium (Th) .
iodine (I) . . 1, 3. 5. 7 232-038
iridium (Ir) 192-2 3,4 thulium (Tm) . 168-934
iron (Ee) . . 56-847 2, 3 tin (Sn) . . .
titanium (Ti) . 118-69
47-90
krypton (Kr) . tungsten (see
wolfram)
lanthanum (La) uranium (IJ)
la-wreneiumlLw)*
lead (Pb) . . vanadium (V) .
lithium (Li). . wolfram (W) .
lutetium (Lu) . xenon (Xe) 74
dIso ium(Na)
24-312 2 183-85
magnesium (Mg) yiterbiimi (Yb) 64
54-9880
266 2, 3. 4. 6, 7 yttrium 181-30
manganese (Mn) (Y) .
mendeleevium 40 88-905
zinc (Zn) . . 39 173-04
(Mv)* . . 91-22
mercury (Hg) . 200-69 1,2 zirconium (Zr) . 30 65-37
70
« an atomic ntunba- Mshar llum a»l ol nMninm

238 Wement 82) are ttamej
GAS LAWS
Boyle’s Law (1662) pF = constant.
Oharlea’ Law (1787) ^ = constant.
Van der Waal’s eauation (p+ (f - 6) = Er where a and b are constants.

Adiabatic expansion of a gas pF^ = constant
where y On' .
««»
........... ... , ...... . . .. . .
;ai;fiSas*«ss;a3sS»^^
BACKGROUND
TO ECONOMIC
EVENTS
The aim of this section is to help
the ordinary reader to follow eco¬

nomic events as they happen, and
to understand the controversies
that accomnanv them.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Central Problems of Economic Policy

Unemployment
Inflation
The Balance of Payments
Economic Growth
Underdeveloped Countries
The Inter-relationship of Economic
5-25
Problems
5-9
[. Survey of the British Economy
1. International Trade and Payments

Imports and Exports
The Terms of Trade
The Volume of Trade
The Balance of Visible Trade
Invisible Trade, and the Current Balance of Payments
The Current Balance of Payments by Regions
The Long-term Capital Account
Monetary Movements
The Sterling Balances
Foreign Exchange Reserves
The International Monetary Fund
Correcting a Deficit
Variation of the Exchange Rate
Exchange Controls and Convertibility
Import Controls and Tariffs
Deflation 9-14
EEC and EFTA
2. Employment, Production, and Investment

Population
The Working Population
Employment and Unemployment
Regional Unemployment
National Income
Industrial Production
International Comparisons
Capital and Automation
Investment
Monopoly and Competition
Legislation against Restrictive Practices
Nationalised Industries
3. Incomes, Wages, and Prices 14-19

Personal Income, Spending and Saving
Types of Personal Income
Incomes by Size
Income and Spending Power
Distribution of Capital
Wages and Salaries
Differentials
Overtime and Short-time
Earnings and Rates
Wage Negotiation
Strikes
Prices and Real Incomes
The Causes of Price Inflation
The stopping of Price Inflation
Gs
II. Survey of the British Economy (confd.)
4. Money, Banking, and Finance 19-23

Money
Determination of Income and Employment
Gilt-edged Securities and Treasury Bills
Government Borrowing and Liquidity
The Commercial Banks
Bank Advances and Other Credit
The Stock Exchange
The Return on Financial Assets
Monetary Controls
5. Economic Aspects of the Public Services 23-25

The Cost of Public Services
Public Housing
Education
Social Security
Graduated Pensions
Public Revenue
The Budget
6. Sources of Statistics, and Some Suggestions for Further Reading 25
III. The Underdeveloped Economies 25-28

Income Levels
Peasant Agriculture
The Population Problem
International Trade
Industrialisation
Educated Manpower
Economic Aid
The International Bank
Unctad
British Aid
Some Suggestions for Further Reading
1. International Developments 28-35

The Balance of Payments
Devaluation of the Pound, 1967
Improvement after Devaluation
International Liquidity
Reform of the International Monetary System
The Eurodollar Market
The Applications for Common Market Membership
2. Internal Developments 35-42

Industrial Output and Employment
Regional Planning
Planning for Faster Growth
Wages and Prices
The Growing Inflation
Incomes Policy after Devaluation
Monetary and Fiscal Problems
Tax Reforms
Value Added Tax
BACKGROUND TO
ECONOMIC EVENTS
?? understanding of economic event!. There are five S

Money, Banking, and Elnanoe: I^roduction,
and Economic
Employment, and Industry: Incomes Waêa ■mdPôoa'
jispects of the Amo ServiVea p^rf
underdevel oped countries, and the^craomic polkdes of Brh»^^
and other developed countries towards the imderdeveloped world. Some sug"-estion? for ofrfiL?
Sfoc
possible, and ?^? P»rts II and III. Part
contams a survey i™tten m sSirSl nubhcaH^
of developments in the British econon™ stoS 1960.
CENTRAL PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC POLICY

Unemployment. areas of the country where structural unemplor
-
. ment is serious. In Northern Ireland, for
Between the wars, unemployment was Britain’s example
despite the efforts_ which have been made
most urgent economic problem. The level of un- to
employment varied with the ups and downs of the 'tween 6«“®^T and industries
10 per cent , unemploy ment
in the last ranged be¬
decade.
trade cycle. Quite the worst slump was that of
the early 1930s: in 1932, nearly 3 million workers Inflation.
were mthout a job. But unemployment re-
mamed high even in the best years, and in no year
1919 and 1939 were there fewer than a A characteristic of the British economy
in post¬
imemployed. Economists make war years has been a persistent rise in prices
and
a distinction between structural xmemployment mcpmes. Eor example, between 1969 and
and cyclical imemployment. Structural unem¬ 1969, retail prices went up by about 41 per
cent,
ployment appears when the structure of industry or— expressed as an annual rate— by 3-5
gets out of line with the pattern of demand for per annum, export prices rose by 30 per per cent
cent (or
industrial products. In Britain, unemployment p’7 irer cent per annum), and weekly wage rates
was particularly severe and persistent in areas
winch were dependent on the coal, textile, and ^ about 62
However, per rates
these cent of
(4-3increase
per cent per annum).
were somewhat
shipbuildmg mdustries, and some sections of the dower than the corresponding rates in the imme¬
enêering mdustry. These industries had been diately post-war decade. This inflation of
prices
Britain’s industrial growth in and money mcomes is considered undesirable for
the 19th cent., and had contributed greatly two inam reasoM, Firstly, it is associate
a^reas like South to d with
Wales, Tyneside, aydeslde, and ISTorthem Ireland 4*®^ redistribution of purchasing power.
Prices rise for everyone, but some members
there was little alternative work for those no the commumty are better placed than others of
to
longer needed m the " staple ” industries : new secure mcreases in their money incomes
which
mdustoes were being built up in the inter-war ôre than offset, the rise in the price
period, but they tended to be located in the
relatively wosperous Midlands and South-East that* particula are they
services
^9^, raJidgroups buy.
falling The in
behind, feeling
that
E^land. Cyclical êmployment thefr money mcoiaes have not risen as fast as those
there is a general decline in the level appears when
of demand for
gooite and services, which leads to a decline in the SC.?® groims. ®®°Oddly much unrest
and ofcrucially
is a ,source for and the
employment of workers producing those goods and
services. In the slump years unemployment moie dlmcult to achieve a satisfactory balance
was mnv uiflation of prices makes of
it
so high because of a combination of structural and payments, Q .^prices of our exports rise, it becomes
cyclical unemployment; in the beat years, harder to sell them in foreign markets; and as
un-
enmloyment was largely structural.
Unemployment means waste. Men willing to
5SS?™F®?SP® “ comparison with goods
work, who could produce valuable goods and
sennces, are idle; the economy produces fewer of Two
them*îmiu home
expiration
there sis ahave
tendency to buy more
been advanced
goods and services than it is capable of producing. account for the inflation which has occurred. to
The
Unemployment _ also means hardship and low ttrst stresses the role of an excess of demand
*ôse out of work, and for spending power in the or
their families. economy — of too much
money ctesing tw few goods, and so leading to
The avoidance of mass unemployment has
been rise in prices. The intoilonary problem is seena
^cept^ as a priinary objective of economic
policy by all pohtical parties, and there is a problem, the latter*^9involves cyclical unemployment
a deficiency of
measure of agreement on the policies which wide
must I spentog, and the former an excess. Those who
TOnrider an rsess of demand (demond-puH) to be
.scale ofc unemployment on the
the 1930s never occurs again. Cyclical ™ Ul® inflationary situation
unemployment has to be tackled by measures
mcrease total demand and total spending to favour designed to reduce purchasing
by con¬ power; for example, the reduction of spendable
sumers, by mvestors. and by the Governme Income by levying higher taxes, or the reduction
Structural unemployment has to be tackled nt. of WOT fltos financed through borrowing by making
uew indiffitries to move into areas where by
^dit more expensiye or more difficult to get.
pther_employment Is deoliutag, or by indnciug The sewnd stresses the role of an excessive in-
move from those areas to areas witoe
t'hme is a demand for its services. costs have increased faster
downs in unemploy- ?w?®«Pji
ttan productivity ^ fJrgued that prices have
?®??'®®*(cosi-ipMsk).
Those who take
wus view _favoux measures to restrain or control
i?- ft® »09t-wax years, but these have bera
very sbght increases m wages,
compared to those of the pre-war profits, rents, and other forms
of Income. Neither explanation excludes
the
cent pt nf the working population was than 2 per
less unemploye other. Many would agree that both demand-
a sharp contrast with the 11 per d
cent for 1937 pim and cost-PMh factors have contributed— with
and the 22 per cent for 1932. But there different strengths at different times — to the in-
are atm
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY GS ECONOMIC EVENTS
flationary spiral in prices and incomes, and that should be, increased. In particular, they point
measures both to control demand and to restrain out that our rate of grovrth compares unfavourably
or control incomes may he necessary. with that achieved by some other coimtries.
But it is easier to specify in general terms the The potentialities for higher productivity are
mea-sures needed to combat inflation than it is to enormous. The tr.S.A. has the highest standard
apply policies which are successful in practice. of living in the world: in many industries, output
In particular, policy measures to restrain or con¬ per person employed is twice or more than yet
trol wage increases are difficult to reconcile with attained in this country. In order to achieve a
uidely-accepted procedures of collective bargain¬ higher level of productivity in this country, more
ing. and better machinery and capital equipment will
have to be mstalled; also, work will have to be
planned, organised, and controlled in such a way
The Balance ol Payments. as to make more effective nse of labour and
machinery.
Britain is heavily dependent on imports. This
country must import food: it cannot produce
enough food within its borders to feed its popula¬ Underdeveloped. Countries.
tion. Many of the raw materials necessary for
its industry have to be purchased from abroad. Britain and the other developed countries of the
Furthermore, some manufactured goods produced world have important responsibilities towards
in other countries will be purchased because they the underdeveloped countries. The poorest two-
are cheaper or more attractive than similar goods thirds of the world’s population account for only a
produced at home. All these goods, and our sixth of total world income and output, while
imports of services, have to be paid for in foreign two-thirds of world income accrue to the richest
currency. Foreign currency is earned by export¬ sixth of world population, a category which in¬
ing goods and services to other coimtries. It is cludes Britain. The poorest two-thirds suffer
not. how'ever, considered sufficient to earn enough from poverty, hunger, malnutrition, debilitating
foreign currency from our exports to pay for our diseases, and widespread Uliteracy. To make
imports. The objective is to earn considerably matters worse, most of the poor countries are ex¬
more than that, so that we have a surplus of periencing a rapid growth of population- Output
foreign currency available to pay off external has to rise as fast as population just to prevent
debts, to build up our external assets by investing standards of living from falling, and an increase in
standards of living requires an even faster growth
abroad, to enable us to lend and give aid to under¬ of output.
developed countries, and to increase our foreign
exchange resources. Few underdeveloped countries can hope to solve
Since the war, our balance of payments position the increasing problems they face without active
has been precarious. Exports have increased and generous help from developed coimtries. This
considerably, hut so have imports ; and the margin help must take many forms. Financial aid in the
of safety has been so narrow that unfavourable form of grants or loans in order to place resources
turns of events have led to crises in the balance at the disposal of underdeveloped countries which
of payments. In several years, our earnings from they would otherwise not be able to obtain:
the export of goods and services have not even technical aid to assist in the solution of the many
been aiifflcient to cover our payments for imports, technical problems which have to be solved:
and in no year has the surplus been as large as trading policies which do not hinder underde¬
is considered necessary. With the balance of veloped countries from getting the imports they
payments delicately poised even in favourable need or from selling their exports — these are all
years, and with corrective action necessary in activities in which Britain must play her part. In
crisis years, economic policies have been much particular, of course, Britain must contribute to
influenced by our foreign trade problems. It is the development of the underdeveloped countries
of the Commonwealth.
easy to say that most of the problems would dis¬
appear, or would become less urgent, if we could
achieve a major expansion of our exports. But The Inter-relationship oi Economic Prohiems.
most export marhets are highly competitive, and
we cannot expect to sell more unless the price, Each of the problems briefly described above is
quality, and terms of delivery of our goods and extremely complex. The difliculties of achieving
services are at least as attractive as these of our successful solutions are ftirther aggravated by the
rivals in export markets. fact that the prohiems are inter-related in such
a way that measures which are helpful for one
problem can make others more difficult to solve.
Economic Growth. For example, a reduction of purchasing power
might be considered helpful in the control of
Taking a longer view, the most important ob¬ tnfetion. and might ease balance of payments
jective of internal economic policy must be to problems by reducing — or slowing down the in¬
raise the standard of living. The standard of crease of— imports. But it could also lead to an
living can increase only if more goods and services increase in unemployment, and to a slowing down
are produced per head of population. In a fully- in the rate of growth of the economy. Or again,
employed economy, the main source of increased a reduction in aid to underdeveloped countries
output is a Mêr productivity — output per per¬ could make it easier to balance our external
son— of the working population. accounts, but such action could hardly be recon¬
Standards of liviiig in this country have been ciled with our responsibilities towards underde¬
rising : the output of goods and services per head veloped countries. In the next section, particular
of population increased by about 26 per cent aspects of the British economy are considered in
between 1969 and 1969. Nevertheless, many some detail: the final section discusses the main
economists are of the opinion that the rate of features of the development of the economy siace
growth of output and productivity can be, and 1960.
II SURVEY OF THE BRITISH ECONOMY

1. INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND further processing) 86 per cent. This last category
PATTMENTS. of imports has increased sharply in recent years.
In 1954 they represented only 20 per cent in an
Imports and Exports. import bill of only £3,369 million. All this can
In 1964 the United Kingdom bought from be seen to the table.
abroad goods to the value of £5,614 nilHion, or There are three main determinants of the level
jnst over £100 per head. Food is a large item in of British imports. One is the oomiietitiveneBS of
this bUl, accounting for 32 per cent of the total British with foreign producers. Britain imports
Fuel, largely oil, costs about 11 per cent, basic those commodities which — at the current exchange
materials for industry 81 per cent, and manu¬ rate between the poimd and foreign currencies —
factured goods (a category that hioludes a laorge can be bought more cheaply from foreign than
number of semi-manufactured goods bought for from home producers. Secondly, the level of
ECONOMIC EVENTS
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY G6
imports depends on the extent to ■vvhicli free
13 prevented by tariffs on imported goods trade ®I_ feil nr Stagnated
qtir-Tn+P/'i to world marhets over the
other devices. Thirdly, as total Incomes In or by decide
the
economy esgpand, there is a general increase in
the demand for goods and services, includ
ing ,
miports. Tlierefore imports can be expected to Volume of Trade
vary directly with the total of incomes in the Supeiiicially it would appear that anv imnrm-o
national income. Supeiiicially it woi
an lua naiionai income. ment to the tem^.
terms nf irnrin
. One would expect that the Uberalisation of trade Britoh eSiortl™lativ
e to ^
since the ear y 1960s together with a decline to ttds fa
the competitiveness of British producers, would countrynot "ways S
leadtog to 4 - mnrp t f ™
expaîon of Imports relative expoi-rpriees, vfoidd
hami ratte thaS heto%hl
SvEEfSSrlnS
SbTBritfsh'snPu/totiP nl^9?,pi^ materials, an inflation to Britain will PK)g?Ss?vilv
thetf|tofittois’aii^^ proiuJtSiH
^hne.aVtaSs^ntriaorjaag; Sor“?sgS5SSM“h"f,.‘s:cir'
UNITEB KINGDOM EVIPOKTS AND EXPORTS
Percentage of total.
Imports of goods (c.i.f.)
Pood, drtolt, and tobacco

Basic materials .
Fuels and lubricants .
Semi-manufactures
Finished manufactures .
Exports of goods (f.o.b.)
Pood, drink, and tobacco

Basic materials .
Fuels and lubricants ,
Metals
Engineering products .
Textiles . .
Other manufactured goods
Re-exports of imports
The column figures do not add up to the totals because

the former exclude postal packages.
ujuc Httiue laeifors m reverse,

foreto
foreicn
topOTte competitiveness,
comnet.if.iirAnpQa
of\lote! ttoTmm «r*/»ooo to
access +/S
to&“to rewMe!
foreign markets, ^ Gaeir terms or
meTtotoei"Si tra.ae.
o^teldT™®^ improve-
and the level of foreign incomes determine VISIBLE TRADE: VOLUME AND
the PRICES
®^?orts. In 1964 these amoimted to
£4,254 milhon, of which no less than 83 per cent
engineering pro¬ centage
ducts. Thus Britam gams from trade by export¬
ing manufactures, m which she has a comâralive increase
admimqe, m return for food and raw mateiiais,
which she is not suited to produce. Valw 1954-64.
Imports. 126
116
119
The Terms of Trade. Exports . . Per¬
40
Between 1964 and 1964 the value of British Volume 61
imports rose by 64 per cent and the value Imports .
Price
of Exports .
exporte by 61 per cent. These changes can 106
112 64
be 107 16
separated into two components, volume and
price
ImpOTts rose m price by oiily 4 per cent, whereas Imports .
Exports . 4
export prices rose by 19 per cent. The ratio
of Terms of trade 10
61
toe average price of e:5>orts to that of imports 99
known as the lerws of trade', and a rise to is
the
price of exports relative to imports indicates an
iinprovemeto m the terms of trade. Thus Over toe decade there was a persistent fall
whra to
we note in toe table that the terms of trade Britain s share of world exports, from 20'0 per
proved by 15 per cent between 1964 and im¬
1964. we cent of exports of manufactures to 1954 to 13-6
mean that m 1964 16 per cent less exports competitors to export
needed to buy the same by
markets — and particularly Gennany and Japan
as to 1964. This improvement were more successful to expanding their exports. —
m toe terms of trade reflects the fact Dad the prices of British exports risen less rapidly
that the
Pnmary products— food and raw over this period, Britain’s
materials such as wheat, cocoa, rubber, would have been higher to share
1964. of world exports
or copper
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY ECONOMIC EVENTS
G7
The Balance o£ Visible Trade. together. A deficit with non-sterling area countries
The balance of (visible) trade is the difference persisted throughout the 1950s and into the 1660s.
between exports and imports of goods. It is said
to be in surplus if exports exceed imports and in The Long-term Capital Account.
deficit if imports exceed exports. In estimating We have seen that Britain earned a surplus on its
the balance of trade it is important that imports cmrrent balance of payments in most recent years.
and exports be valued on the same basis. The Yet it is not sufficient for this coimtry to avoid
normal method in the trade returns is to measure deficits on its current account. The objective is to
imports cA.f. (cost, insurance, and freight) and earn a substantial surplus in order to finance
exports f.o.b. (free on board). In other words investment in and lending to other coimtries—
import prices are shown to include the costs of particularly the rmderdeveloped countries of the
transporting them to Britain, and exports are Commonwealth: to repay debts to foreign coun¬
valued at the prices when loaded In British ports. tries which have been incurred: and to bmld up
Omr table shows both Imports and exports f.o.b. reserves of gold, dollars, and other currencies
In no year except 1958 was there a surplus in which can help to tide us over diihcult periods.
the British balance of trade. Moreover, the In fact the objective of the Government was to
deficit was particularly big in certain years, 1951. earn current account surpluses of more than £200
1955, 1960, and 1964. Tlie deficit of 1951 was million in normal years: and a surplus of this
largely due to the Korean war which led to a magnitude was only achieved in the exceptionally
stockpiling of primary products and a startling favourable year 1958.
increase in their prices. The other three years Between 1954 and 1964 there was a persistent
coincided with booms in the British economy. and growing amount of British private investment
These were periods of very Ml employment and abroad. Since private foreign investment in
high demand which could be met only by increased Britain also rose, the balance of long-term cmntal
imports. Moreover, there was a building up of
raw material stocks which had been depleted transadions did not show a clear trend. Never¬
theless it was generally in deficit to the extent oi
during the preceding upswings of the economy. £100-^200 million. As with current transactions
there were considerable regional differences.
IJsually there was a heavy deficit in long-term
Invisible Trade, and the Current Balance o£ Pay¬ capital
ments. transactions with the sterling area and
only minor imbalance with the rest of the world.
The chronic deficit in the balance of visible Thus in 1965 Britain had a deficit with the sterling
trade has in normal years been offset by a surplus area of £307 million and a surplus with the rest
in the balance of invisible trade. This surplus of the world of £92 million, giving an overall deficit
derives from four main groups of transactions. on long-term capital aocoxmt of £216 million.
The first covers receipts from non-residents less The net flow of long-term capital to the sterling
payments to non-residents, for services such as area neutralised the current accoimt surplus with
shipping and insurance. The second covers re¬ the sterling area, equal to £313 million: and this
ceipts from foreign governments in respect of was also the tendency in other years.
CUBEBNT BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

(£ million) -404 — 108
-356
-73 -131 1964.
1961. 1952-54.
-180 1955.
1956-59. -273
1960. 1961-63. -412
Imports (f.o.b.) 2,968 3,407 4,137
8.432 4.166 5,005
Exports
Balance
Balance
(f.o.b.)
of visible trade.
of invisible trade
■sis
-419
830
2,778
386 3.076
283
3.366
255
3,733 4,058 -
4,471
124 131 170 122
Current balance of pay¬ 206
ments
military bases in the country less payments by Monetary Movements.

this cormtry in respect of military bases abroad. In 1965 Britain had a current accoimt deficit of
The third covers receipts of gifts and grants made £104 million and a deficit on long 62 term capital
to this coimtry, less gifts and grants made by this account of £216 million: implying a deficit in the
country. The fonrth includes aU receipts of balance of current and long-ter m capital transactions
interest, dividendB, and profits earned on over¬ of £319 million. This balance had to be financed
seas investment less interest, dividends and profits either through an increase in liabilities (for
paid out on foreign investment in this country. example, an tnerease in the sterling liabilities
The table shows that in most years the_ surplus held by foreigners, or in short-term loans from the
on invisibles exceeded the deficit on visihles, so International Monetary Fund) or by a reduction
that Britain earned a surplus on the current balance in assets (for example a reduction in the gold and
of payments. However, there was a long-run dollar reserves). In fact, the gold and foreign
tendency for the surplus on invisibles to decline: currency reserves actually rose in 1966 by £246
net earnings ftom shipping services fell and million, but the sterling balances increased by £56
Government military expenditure abroad and
grants to other countries increased. million and our debts to the International Mone¬
tary Fund by no less than £499 million. Total
recorded net monetary movements to meet the
The Current Balance oi Payments by Begions. deficit amounted to only £232 million, so that
theire must have been an unrecorded increase in
Ail the
trade with figures presented
the external so far
world as refer credit equal to £87 mUlion, known as the balancing
to Britain’s
a whole. These
hide a marked pattern of trade. In 1964 just item. Let ilsinconsider
transactions turn. each of these “ financing ”
over a third of visible imports and exports came
from and went to the countries of the overseas
sterling area^ — comprising the Colonial territories, The Sterling Balances.
independent Commonwealth countries othra; than j
Canada, BritMi protected states In the Persto Sterling is an International currency, and
Gulf and a few countries such as Burma and South governments and individuals may hold balances
Africa. One reason for Britain’s declining share in sterling (e.g.. Treasury bills. Government stocks
of world trade is that trade within the sterling and bank accounts) for many reasons. Sterling
area has been growing less rapidly than world area countries reckon to keep a high proportion
trade as a whole. Almost 86 per cent of onr of their international trade reserves In the form of
visible trade was done with Western Europe, and sterling balances. It is conyenient to hold ster¬
rather less than 17 per cent with North America. ling to finance trading transactions because ster¬
The current balance of payments surplus found ling is widely acceptable in settlement of trading
in normal years is generally made up of a large debts. Sterling balances wiU also be held to the
surplus with sterling area currencies, partially extent that they are considered a profitable and
offset by a deficit with all other coimtries taken safe way of holding liquid assets. It may be
ECONOMIC EVENTS
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY
lioW Staling if the rate of interest mission of the Pund. For manv vears after +1,0
V? balam^s m London is Mglier than that war, the imhalanees in world trade _ and
paid m other financial centres. And it may be larly the MiitPôrtesp nf ^niiar=
oonadered safe to hold sterling if the chancra of many comtrtes had to
sterling deyaluation (which would automatically agreement which permitted them fn
reduce the value of the balances in terms of any sWcttonrdSg rnraîtiS-- nS®® I?'
b’frSe thS^stffl a lorn way to gSore tte
Britain to finance an adverse balance balances enables progressive
on current tow^'TS relaxation
was^maS®dm“M^
of SI
Plus long-term capital account without reducing SXby
the gold and foreign exchange reserves. C!otI other coimtri^ th& Srf w^
aXmosf fhl
vereely, a reduction m sterling balances can impose portant in world trade and pavmp^®^
!^ u®'
abalance
dram onon current
reservespluseven if therecapital
long-term is no account.
adverse Glared
The conve tuo wnr./i Payments
fnnption nf^ble ir. ™ 1 were
j. de¬
At the end of 1066 sterling balmces held by exchang™el?mc^ avkaWe^^mlmhli®x<tel®’®^
non-residents (exclud^ the International Mone- into mS of Slênts
tary Fund) amounted to £3.470 million; far in member eomtrvm«hpJfl^lSTf™iôiTP®?’
|i‘asi‘isrSe?s,rL.'’sfe?7hSf 'figS“,E“saSslSw‘
dlaSt”to"Sbl.Sjfi°p!SSto*iESl?1
E'Kr^^gStfta&.isfSobibi? saBW'&mTsferi.tw
.iw&M! a iS'S ssfiSfSISl"Kp

are highly volatile, in that they may be withdrawn 1964 smd 1966 whin + Wp ™ = I iSil'
Sr^“® or lesf°sa.^t/hointerltaJ\h^^^ aK™ste§tot “tlS^Govê^

Bterl WtowSest°
w greatest) ie.!ftar
when tShwm
the balance be devalued
of payments is in aSd
could£^®9 i^ltomtocrises
rideout 1^ of In mn^p^r
tWs“^y toeôimt®^
^n® I?
deficit, sterll^ balances tend to move perversely, without a severe loss of tphIIvm ®®®® sterlmg
so accentuating the reserves. Such
the sterlingin crisis
™e OMe in movement ° reserves.
at the end of CorrspHnv n Tipfinif
1964. It IS ironical that Britain’s position as an oorreotmg a Deficit.
mte^tioml currency country makes it more and K an imbalance in the current plus long-term
not less difficult to rely on a running down of papital account persists, the deficit cannot be met
reserves- to meet
- - a
«■temporary deficit in ii.1 the
OJJ.O balance
UOiACWaUCmdeflmtely from
.teL\.fXU. monetary
iiAViiOUOrA y movements
lUU V tiUieiltS. At
iLb some
SOIDG
of paym
Of payme entsnts. . stagedeficit,
the
stage the. Goveênt
the anvpmmpnf
mat action mustcantakeit . x.
action to ~r
take? remwe
There are
Foreign Exchange Eeserves.
mv« 1.3 j convertible currency reserves are SrCiy^tages and disadvantagos, and economic
opuuon is by no means unanimous on the chê
med to finance pajunents abroad which cannot be of Pohey. Let us consider each of these altema-
defence any other way:
financed min mtemational trade. a last lineheld
are reserves
they The of fives in turn. aitema-
il. sterling area as a whole. Variation of the Exchange Bate
and^ not area
sterlmg just are
to willing
this country. Members
to pay into of the an,„ .
thrae central ° rate is the jiaie.
ruling official rate of
reserves some or all of their net earnings of gold ff other currencies,
and convertible currencies, in exchange for ster- value of British goods in relation
Jwsbffiances. (They do this on the understanding ;,Jf tbe pound is devalued in
ttot they c^. should they wish to do so. caU upon and other currencies. British exports
the central reserves by exchanging sterung ^®®®®^® ®t*®®'P®'f to
balances for gold and convertible currencies. foreipiere and British imports (paid for by pur-
. The central reserves of gold and foreign ourren- ? currency) become more expensive
cies amounted, to £1.070 miUion at the end of 1966 : of gpun^. In this way demhiatim
a level which, though Idgher than, in many previous the Bntish balance of payments
post-war years, was felt to he quite Inadequate, position by enooulagii^ exDorts and discouraging
piere ar^boimd to be imbalances in international ^ - -4.
trade and payments, and the fhnotion of these there are cwtam disadvantages attached
reserves Is to tide oyer temporary Imbalanoes by ;|L devaluation. Offie prospect of devaluation
increasmg reserves in favourable periods and m a speculative outfiow of foreign ftmds:
running down reserves in unfavourable periods. b® taAen as a sign that
If reserves are not sufficient to withstand tern- l®®*^® be further devaluation in the fliture.
pora^ preûres. measures to protect the reserves ?®oondiy. the sterling area countries— many of
^ ®® taken— c-O., raising Bank Bate underdevelop^— will suffer a capital loss,
and t^htening up monetary policies generally— because they hold their reserves largely In the
and these measures may create unemployment sterlmg rather than gold (biU see G33).
and recession, and restrict the growth of the fb“dly. the rise in the price of imports of raw
economy. materials and consumption goods results in higher
coBjs^ and .prices and then in wage demands to
The Internatimal Monetary Fund (IMF) was ttiênefloial effects of devaluation,

set up after
towards the trade
free war with
at the obj'ective
stable of working
exchange ^®®x devalued in 1949, when an
rates
Under the aggeed
menib^ originalto agreement
make their setting up the
currencies Fund"
convert- again in 1967, to a rate of £1 = S2-4.
.
iDle into other currencies and gold at fixed rates Exchange Controls and Convertibility.
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY GS ECONOMIC EVENTS
limitmg the :^wers of holders of a currency to the ensuing fall in imports. Deflation is a painful
exchange their holdings for other currencies or method of correcting a deficit. Not only does it
gold at the official rate of exchange. For many have a direct effect on the level of incomes and
years after the war, for example, there was a empl03rment, but it is also liable to slow down the
world-%yide shortage of dollars: if sterling had rate of growth of the economy. This can happen
been convertible, there would have been a rush to because deflation can weaken the incentive to
convert sterling into dollars, with the conseauence expand productive capacity by investing in new
that the dollar reserves of the sterling area would plant, machinery, and other capital goods.
soon have been exhausted. In fact, a premature The problem which faced British policy-makers
attempt to establish sterling convertibility in 1647 attempting to raise the rate of economic growth
led to such a drain on reserves that strict exchange was this: as total demand for goods and services
controls had to be re-imposed. expands, it is difficult to prevent growth in the
Exchange controls on residents can be enforced demand for imports and diversion of exports to
by reauiring that earnings of foreign currencies the home market, particularly when home indus¬
(e.g., the proceeds from the sale of exports) be tries reach the limit of their productive capacity.
handed over to the exchange control authority — Yet if consequent balance of payments difliciilties
the Bank of England acts as the Government’s are met by restrictions on total demand. It Is
agent— in exchange for sterling; and by permit¬ difficult to maintain the investment necessary for
ting the exchange of sterling for foreign currencies growth in the productive capacity of the economy.
{e.g., to enable the purchase of imports) only for The main need in the late 1960s was the same as
transactions approved by the exchange control that at the start of the 1950s: to achieve an ex¬
authority. There was a move towards converti¬ pansion of exports relative to imports so as to
bility of sterling dming the 1050s, and the sterling secure economic growth without running into
held by non-residents was made fully convertible balance of payments (Ufflculties.
in 1958. Eesidents. however, continued to be The international monetary system is partly to
subject to exchange controls. blame for the British decisions to resort to periodic
By restricting convertibility the Government deflation of the economy. The use of sterling as
can make it more difficult for funds to move into a reserve currency has subjected the balance of
or out of sterling. In this way the Government payments to violent swings in short-term capital
can impede capital movements, e.g., British flows. Moreover, a world-wide shortage of inter¬
private investment abroad, or flows of short-term national liquidity, i.e., gold and foreign exchange
capital: or it can restrict current spending abroad, reserves, means that countries have an incentive
e.g.. on foreign holidays. to maintain a surplus in their balance of payments
and so increase their reserves. In this situation
Import Controls and Tariffs. surplus coimtries do not help to correct an im¬
balance in foreign transactions: the burden of
Import controls impose limitations on the correcting the imbalance is placed on the deficit
quantity or value of goods which are permitted country. If the Government of the deficit country
to enter a country: tariffs are duties levied on feels itself unable to devalue its currency or to
imported goods so that the price of those goods to impose trade restrictions, it has to deflate the
consumers in a country is higher than the price economy. The existing international monetary
received by the foreigners supplying the goods. system
In the early post-war years, this country main¬ IMF hascontains
at most a only
“ deflationary
ameliorated.bias." which the
tained strict import controls over a wide range of
goods. These were gradually dismantled. untU The European Common Market and Die ESuropeaa
in 1959 the last remaining import controls on goods Free Trade Area.
were abandoned, except on habit-forming drugs
and some agricultural products and textiles from By the end of the 1960s, Europe was divided
the Ear East — to give a measure of protection to Into two major trading groups; the Common
British producers. Market, or Euroyean Bconomic Community (EEC)
Ail countries Impose tariffs. Some tariffs are comprising: Bdgium, Eranee, Holland. Italy,
primarily Intended to raise revenue for the Govern¬ Luxembourg, and West Germany, and the
ment, and others are primarily intended to protect European Free Trade Association (BETA) com¬
home industries by raising the price of competing prising: Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal,
goods from abroad. The rights of countries to Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
raise tariffs, or to operate tariffs in a discrimina¬ An account of the negotiations for British
tory way (i.e., to offer lower tariffs on goods from entry to the EEC in the 1960s is given in Part IV.
some sources than on similar goods from other
sources), are closely circumscribed by the rules of
the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT). The object of the GATT Is to work a. EMPLOYMENT, PKODUCHION, AND
towards free trade, specially through a reduction INVESTMENT.
in tariffs. In the post-war period GATT held
several major conferences, at which hargainmg to Population.
reduce tariffs was attended by modest succe®. In June 1965 the population of the United
The most significant moves towards free trade in Kingdom was estimated to be 54-4 mi11ion-47-8
this period were on a regional basis. million in England and Wales, 5'2 million in
The disadvantage of tntrodnoing import con¬ Scoriand, and 1-5 miUion in Northern Ireland.
trols or tariffs to correct a deficit in the balance of The total was stUl rising slowly, at a rate of about
payments is that the benefits of free trade are 0-7 per cent per annum. Prediction of future
lost. Moreover, there is always the possibility of trends is difficult. Before tbe war it was common
retaliation by Britain’s trading partners. Never¬ to predict that Britain’s population would fall
theless, import controls or tariffs may well he later iu the century; but these predictions were
preferable to another measure which has been made at a time when the birth-rate was very low.
used to correct a deficit, deflation. Since then the birth-rate has risen sharply,
and the net reproduction rate (the ratio of the
Deflation. birth-rate of girls less their Infant mortality to
the popiilatlon of women of ctiild-bearmg age)
Throngbout the post-war period the U.K, bal¬ has been above one in most years stnce the war.
ance of payments was far from secure. As a result, In the near future population wiU certainly con¬
domestic economic policies were much influenced tinue to rise slowly as Improving medical services
by balance of payments considerations. Devalua¬ raise the average length of life and as the gap
tion was turned to only as a last resort. The between generations shortens.
movement in the 1950s and IfiOOs was towards
greater freedom of trade. By ruling out devalua¬ The Population o£ Working Age.
tion and trade restrictions, the authorities had to
fall back on deflation of the economy to correct Of the total population only some are of working
imriodic deficits. In other words, the Govern¬ age. Working age is defined as the period between
ment took measures to discourage demand and so the minimum school leaving age of 15 and retiring
out back incomes and employment. By reducing age — 65 for men and 60 for women. Of course,
demand in general, the authorities secured a fall not all those of working age do work and not all
in demand for imports. However, it was neces¬ those above working age have retired; neverthe¬
sary to cut back national income by many times less the ratio between rnpulation not of working
ECONOMIC EVENTS
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY Gli
yseful statistic, as it does reason mempioment
Si i^®^toble. Some seasonal rise in unem
fn ^ giude Ployment m the winter must be expected e o m'
to be supported out oftothethe numbers who have
current national in¬
come. but who do not contribute to it. to Januapi is half a per cent or
This ratio so higher than in
IS nsmg and will continue to rise. In June. Moreover, some unemployment
1965, 23-3 Is hnnim
® PoP'ula'Won was below working to be myolved to job-changing and
as the demSs
age and 16-0 per cent above. By 1980 of mdustries change. “ Full ernninvmBnt
CCTtain that 16 per cent of the populati it is fairly that there should be about as ma™ jobs
on will be as there are workers looking for j^g
above worktog age; and much more speculati vacant
vely. excess of vacancies is evidence
It IS guess^ that 26 per cent will be below. ^ of inflatloSv
pressure m the labour market, for
la of working age growth
will rise infrom it Xt
expected the the employers needing workers
products will haveto tomeet thee
compet
®^le,ins why the proportion
f®® is going to grow steadUy. witti each
®°“® other
extentby unempl
biddingoyment
up wages. ^
growth in figures are mis-
worker wiU be needed to meet the l^dtog, as not aU unemployed workers
needs for unemploment benefit under are eligible
of the mcreasmg proportion of dependan the NatSl
ts.
^manee Scheme. Most married women
go out to work normally opt not who
The Working Population. National Insurance contributions,
to pay the full
so tlmt whm
working age actuaUy work, they become unemployed, they
just drop oK
majority do; but only a part the wOTl^ population”.
are p,mfully employed, i.e., work for wages figures definitely understate the Nnemptoraent
recessions as they do not count serto^nS^ of
all
gamfuUy employed who are counted in the
HoT^sewives, mothers, and
services gratis to good causes ^0.000
some work for o.<rr nin were
mm, ^ men and unemployed
Persons 77,000 women.
to mid-1964
Of the
over half, 147,000, had been unemployed
OTer eight weeks. Thus long-term for
ment was nearly 1 per cent of the unemploy¬
Great
rwV Britam was'When
63 the total of
million, population
whom 32-7of labom force
^lon were of wmking age. the total working serious enough for those aifeoted but
not toe iSd
population (moluding the unemployed
who are
was only 25-6 million. Of
of working age onJy 8*8
So for every meSur es!°^™* reflationa?y
Regional Unemployment.
person gamfi^y occupied there was just over one
*° be supported out of the goo^ and dreadful feature of the inter-war
services they provided. One feature of toe emergence of the depressed areas —
the post-
years was a steady increase in the proportio
n OJ" more. Such
it I?® ooPPtry where a third of the
worMng-age Pereas
population was
in 1965.uneinployment has not recurred
78
since 1945. only m Northern Ireland
was un¬
employment very high. Between 1954
l6^*^<r 1®56 the figure was only and 1964
DISTEIBUTIONST OF WORKING POPUL JUNE 1965
(Thousands) ATION.
Basic Industries. Manufacturing Industries. Services.

Agriculture and fishing 486 Fmd, drink, and to- Dktribution trades
Muling and quarrying 624 bacco , , §20 Financial, professional,
Construction . . 1.666 Chemicals and allied
mdustries . and scientific ser¬
Gas, electricity, and . 545 vices . . .
water . . . 411 Metal manufacture . 632 Gaterag, hotels, etc. .
Transport and com¬ Vehicles . . 36“’ Public administration:
munication . . 1,628 Engineering and other
National
_ metal goods . . 2.848 Local .
Textiles . . . 767 Miscellaneous .
Paper printing and
publishing . . 333
Other manufacturing . 1,779
■Un¬
Percentage
T. of working • ^.805
population , . 30-8
Most of the wortang population work UMmplommt there ranged between 6 and 10
for wages per
or yalari^ as employe cent. Nevertheless, regional inequalities exist.
Britam in June 1966 es. Of the total for Gr^t
of 26-6 mUllon. 1-7 ntodi^
or self-employed. 0-4 Inimo unemployment and vacancies
SS
m the Porces, and 23*4 milhon were (Great Britato, thousands)
either em-
riPemplOTed ^rsons
The table shows the industries looking for work.
to, which people
work. Some 38 per cent of the total
work to ment. Vacancies. Unemploy-
ment as
manufacturmg industry. 2-8 million (End of percentage
of toese to employ¬
eagmeerin^ and allied industries, 21 average.) period.) of total
per oeto; work (Annual
to toe basic todustries, and toe remaini
cent are m toe so-caUed service todustrieng 41 per
s.
Employment and Unemployment.

of 329.000 persons— 1-4 per
of the working population — ^were unemployed
to January 1959, toe worst month of^the
*?■r 2'8,Per cent, and to

Febr^r^ post-wa
omS exceptional years the average
month— to 3-9
was lower than 1’5 per cent. This contrast
s with
the abest
^ lb37,■'wto year
figure of 22 the
of per
nwl bottom of the slump in 1932. Prob-

awlminimum;
able • f*®' somewhere near the practic¬ ^1^*® btoy
against imemployment. to population insured
for some unemployment is more
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY Gil ECONOMIC EVENTS
PEECENTAGE OP WOEKEES dom was £28.280 million, implying a national
UNEMPLOYED. BY EEGIONS income per head of £518. In 1955 the correspond¬
ing figures had been £15,614 miUlon and £303 per
February February head. However, only part of this increase in
1963. 1966. value was due to an increase in the quantity of
goods and services produced: some of the increase
simply reflected a rise m prices. It is Important
London and South-east-
em .... to calculate changes in the volume of output —
2-3 1-0 known as real output — as well as changes in its
Eastern and Southern . 3-6 1-2
3-8 value. Eeal output is calculated by the statistical
South-western 1-8 device of constructing an index number. This is
Midlands 3-4 0-8 done by calculating tbe volume of goods and
Yorkshire and Lincoln¬ services provided in each year and then valuing
shire 1-8
North-western these goods and services at the prices foimd in
3-3
4-1 1-2 one particular year. Thus between 1955 and 1965
Northern the money value of national income rose by 82
Scotland 7-1 2-8
Wales .... 6-2 3-1 per cent: whereas real output increased by only
6-0 3-6 33 per cent, and the difference represented a rise
North Ireland
Great Britain IS in prices.
11-2
3-9 6-9 In real terms national income per head rose by
24 per cent between 1965 and 1965. or by 2-2 per
cent per anmun. National income per head is the
mrat useful indicator of the standard of living.
DECEBASE En" EMPLOYMENT IN However, this measure is necessarily a crude one.
SELECTED INDESTELES. 1946-65 For ii^tance, it cannot take account of new pro¬
ducts, e.g., television or the plastic bucket: nor
Thousands. Per cent. of changes in the distribution of income between
23 rich and the poor: nor of the “ quality of life.”
Textiles . 9..9.A 23 affected by such things as tiafllc jams and ianoke-
242 27 less zones; nor of the length of the working week.
Mming and quarrying
Shipbuilding 77
Agriculture, forestry, Industrial Production.
and fiLshhig . 221 21
It is fairly easy to measure output in tbe main
manufacturing industries, and in many of the
basic industries. It is much more difficult to do
BO for the service industries; the output of a
In February 1063 — during a period of recession doctor or a teacher is not easily measured. Bo
and also cold weatlier — the percentage of all each month the Central Statistical Office calcu¬
workers unemployed in Great Britain was 3-9. lates the index of industrial production covering
But the table shows a lower proportion of the
labour force was unemployed in the Midlands and the main “ productive ” Industries. However,
this tends to give a false impression of the rate of
the South, and that there was a much hlêr growth of output, since the industrial sector is the
percentage of unemployment in the North, in one best placed to raise its output per head and
Scotland, and in Northern Breland. Moreover, for which demand expands most rapidly. Eoughly
the labour shortage of early 1965 was not shared a 5 per cent hrorease in industrial output is likely
equally: imemployment remained significant in to be accompanied by a 3 per cent increase in
these areas. In this situation checks have to be GDF, on which the average standard of living
placed on the economy before full employment is
reached, because in the booming areas vacancies depends.
far exceed unemployment. Manufacturing industry accounts for more than
One of the main reasons for the regional pattern three-quarters of industrial production. Within
manufacturing industry two industries have
of unemployment is that certain Indnstries and
services. In which big changes have been taking expanded most rapidly — chemicals, which in¬
cludes drugs, plastics, cosmetics, detergents, and
place, tend to be grouped in specific regions. Most oil refining; and vehicles, which includes cars,
of our early Industrial centres had to be established tractors, conmaercial vehicles, and aircraft. The
close to coal, iron ore. and adequate water sup¬ slowest growing manufacturing industries are
plies. But employment in many long-established textiles and shiphuilding, which are ICKlng their
Industries has recently been declining. The scale
of this contraction can be seen firom the table. On markets to cheaper competitors. Those indus¬
try in which demand has stagnated are also the
the other hand new and growing industries, and industries in which output per employee, i.e..
their related offices, have been concentrated in productivity, has stagnated.
Greater London, the South East, and the Mid¬
lands. The growth of services, too. has centred
on the areas where industry is booming and popu¬ Xatemaiioual Comparisons.
lation Is Increasiag. In the absence of Govern¬ Between 1965 and 1964 Britain’s GDP grew
ment intervention, the process would tend to less rapidly than that of any oifiier country listed
become cumulative, and regional inequalities in the table, except the ir,S.A. The British eco¬
would grow rather than diminish. nomy was also charaoterised by a relatively ôw
growth of output per head, i.e., productivity.
National Become. Many been
have explanations
suggested,of Britain’s
and there poor
is byperformance
no means
Gross domestic income (GDY) is the sum total agreement on this matter among economists. It
of incomes received for the services of labour, land, haa been argued that the U.K. — ^fike the H.S. A. —
or capital in a country. Gross domestic product has a hi^y advanced economy, in which there
(GDP) is the money value of aU the goods and is a relativdy high demand for services; and that
services produced in the country. So as to avoid it is difllcult to raise productivity in the large
double-counting, only the wdue added at each service sector. Another argument is that Britain
has been hampered by its slowly growing labour
stage of production
are excluded. The Is revenue
included; from
firms’selling
purchases
the force, which has restricted growth not only in
GDP is either paid out to the hired factors of output but sJso la output per man. Tbe reason
production— labour, land, and capital— or re¬ given is that an expanding labour force needs to
tained in the form of profits. Therefore, provided be equipped with Motional plant and machinery;
it is calculated net of taxes on goods produced, so that its capital equipment tends to be newer on
GDP must equal GDY. To estimate gross average than that usm by a static labour force,
national income ftom GDY it is necessary to add and thus more up-to-date and efficient.
the net income — such as profits and interest — ■ Some commentators have put the blame on the
received ftom abroad. If an allowance is made ineflltdency of our busfiness management: some
for wear and tear of the nation’s capital equip¬ on our educational system, biased towards the
ment, i.e., for capffd? eonsumzMon, we arrive at I humanities; some on the social milieu which
net national income, better known as the imfional looks down on money-making as a career; some
income. Ion over-manning and other restrictive practices
In 1966 the national income of the Dnited King¬ 1 of trade unions. A good deal of attention has
SURVEY OF BmriSH ECONOMY Gl2 ECONOMIC EVENTS
_ _ Ajy INTEBNATIONAIi GKOWTH LEAGUE TATiT.-F.
Percentage change per annum Investment as percentage
ofG.N.P.
1965-64. Excluding
Output Including
Employment. dwellings. dweUings.
per heiid.
Japan .
W, Grermany
Italy .
Sweden
France
Denmark
Belgium
U.S.A.
U.K. .
to mvestment,^hichi.e.. F STOSS national product (GNP) in

mT words, about one part in five of total nrorlnp?
dlffer commodities — such as plant and
imachmery^for use In future production. qp +h? TiEed to replace old assets or to add to
*'®‘t>08 are shown in These
tli6 Bxeeption of tlio U.S.A,, allthecoimtriBS
table. With
Ph accounts for of capital
60 ofper eqffipment ^The
havejp stuck capital
cent of assets
gross (net invest-
investme nt •
U conpjderably higher than in the
of productivity. Sinceerowth
investme
rates
nt
is this tittle
mvestment: how-cr
to growth, 1 £SiSl!
it r\F than in countries with faster growth rateq
Va productivity; there i^rP^Qn^
+n Jk® remits are obtained. Thfa leads
5? ^ higher proportion of output
te umstmen ®”taln’s growth rate could wered proportiol wSLS
t. particularly in plant andd penditm-e. notably privat
e and public consumu
■t by iiicmMW ISon’ôT® *° brought aboSt
Capital and Automation. a sacrifice in current consumption A chniee mmaf
they use much machinery and eauin- and the epumg gam in future consumDtiM^“r>f
int^qivp°^fw
per umt of ,S’°’^™°u™‘t™tries are capital-
ment output produced. In chemicals - andTli® F l0S™CTOt C0«S
U3i^rtm?t .5ons™iPtion expenditure is equally
extmme^v’p^jr®- ^“•Electricity, the S fe
since tne vyar — ^nylon, atomic power
l*e innoyations
electrouicq
ItacIThi
md^
fiui cm'Âf® ® ^ unless they arethis
to achieve investment;
worked
is bynearly
® exploitation of the
potentialities of these new mdustiles win
reouire J Types
Thereof are
Investment.
four main InndB of invp^fTnpnf • T»iQ'r»+
tne future holds out prospects of still
more in.
^^^fÊuts forâpital al *“E auM manual
oeim. sKuieci worlc should come to an ^nrl t>io ioT^ fn s“ ac
^vm bfato to con^! ' :of cl^t
tot
Stedfo r Sfcr
woi Intbe9^®® B®o fourcent
table ®Fet
that
categorie
respectiv ely
Tt
more the propose
wiPf for some
which sectors
f^Jestment is used
itmay are
also
capita
be analvf Pd^
l-inte nsive than others.
onliSinn^®^*?^®"^ the manufacturing ■
detalte
they canof the wmk"toLe
iiûst doM''“pi
themselves ec“of
to correct S ^
mistakes ^^ltto‘^fl'k?®l services (such as education md
or to adjMt for faulty materials. mistakes ^
TiiP
dhe niain use has beenautomation has been small.
In the office wharp pIpp 1
®
SqSm ®“E *rnnf
mmlf of^hP routme
•“calculating, ““E
recording and |
efficiently t
êcMng operations previously done by clerks
t
1 4Kgt«roa£t"sL‘*S J GEOSS INVESTMENT BY FUEPOSB
hepompît Uffie typical manual job wUl

.This revolution wiU tale ^ny dtoadesôlffect
Of total increase’
I 19
Percmtage
65Percentage
1965. 1966-55.
^nufacturing .
dustries .
9i
»
* no
^
Other
toanspo production
rt. .in"- ft ^8
ia
Distribution . . nS
Public utilities and •
■■■■■■■■■ H
^services. . .
c.wtal.VS.Se'lSSS.gS'iSSI.S! *■
Other social services .
gn
6
ioi
Investment. Housing
0 . . ; fX 121
aited to¥6|52^^®“Vws Sout 20%!^ _

SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY Gl 3 ECONOMIC EVENTS
The Finance of Investment. refuse to sell goods to wholesalers or retaflers who
broke the rules. Often the wholesalers too were
Any business is allowed to charge as a cost the in the scheme, and they would collectively refuse
depreciation of its assets. Normal depreciation to buy from manufacturers who broke the rules.
allowances are based on the original cost of the Collective boycotts were also found in industries
asset and on its expected useful life. In a time
of price inflation depreciation allowances will not without collective price-fixing, one common pur¬
pose being to make sure that retailers did not sell
provide aifiiclent finance to permit the replace¬
ment of assets at higher prices, and there are many a manufacturer’s products below his recommended
supporters of depreciation allowances being based price. This form of collective resale price main¬
on replacement costs. Many firms do set aside tenance was also outlawed by the Act. Under
the Act any restrictive agreements of several
extra funds specifically to cover these extra replace¬ specified kinds had to he registered with the
ment costs.
Governments have, however, adopted certain Eegistrar of Eestrictive Practices. He then had
to decide whether there was a prima fade case
fiscal devices to encourage replacement and in¬ for the discontinuation of the agreement, and, if
vestment. Soon after the war initial allowances
were introduced. Under this system firms were he thought there was. the ease was referred to a
pennitted to charge against profits in the first new Eestrictive Practices Court, containing both
year of its life 20. or at times 40, per cent of the judicial and lay members.
co.st of any new equipment, and the system The Act of 1956 pennitted individual manu¬
amounted to a loan of the tax saved in the first facturers to enforce resale price maiiitemnce
year, repaid over the life of the asset. In 1954 (r.p.m.) for their own products. Few suppliers
initial allowances for machinery were replaced by would want the publicity of enforcing r.p.m.
a system of investment aUowances, under which through the courts, but individual suppliers
a firm coxdd charge against profits 20 per cent of could stiH put some commercial pressm-e on
the cost of any new machine, with the difiTerence price-cutters, e.g., by offering less favourable
that aU ordinary depreciation allowances were terms or by refusing them supplies. The Eesale
still chargeable. So the investment allowance Prices Act of 1964 prohibited all methods of
enforcing minimum resale prices. However,
was a gi-ant, not a loan, of the saved tax. In 1966 goods which had been registered in due time
it was announced that initial and investment
allowances on new plant and machinery in the with the Eegistrar of restrictive trading agree¬
ments or have been approved by the Eestrictive
key sectors — ^manufacturing, mining, and ship¬ Practices Court, were exempted, temporarily in
ping — would be replaced by cash grants. Other the former case and permanently in the latter.
plant and machinery and industrial building would
receive higher initial allowances. In 1970 the For r.p.m. to be approved by the Court, it must
new Conservative Government amioimced that he shown that some ensuing benefit to consumers
(e.g., of increased quality or more retail outlets)
investment grants w'ould be replaced by a system outweighed any detriment. It is also lawfful to
of 60 per cent initial allowances.
Depreciation allowances and government allow¬ ■withhold supplies to retailers selling goods at a
ances and grants for investment are sufficient to loss to attract customers. The list of applications
cover the majority of investment (excluding for exemption is a long one, but the effect of the
dwellings) by the private sector, and to cover a Act should he lower prices in the shops. It will
also mean a more rapid decline of smaU retailers.
minor part of public (non-housing) Investment. The Eestrictive Practices Acts leave untouched
The residue of investment, and housebuilding, has the industries where one firm is dominant: these
to be provided from savings. Companies rely
mainly on retained profits, which are often larger, remain the responsibility of the Monopolies Com¬
mission, who report on industries referred to them
tailing companies as a whole, than their net in¬ by the Board of Trade, and make recommenda¬
vestment: and so too do the profit-making tions after investigation. Tlie Monopolies and
nationalised Industries. Much public investment
must be financed by the Treasury. Mergers Act of 1965 strengthened control over
monopolies and mergers. With regard to mono¬
polies, the Govenoment wished to provide itself
Monopoly and Competition. with legal powers of enforcement: previously
monopolies had been expected to comply volun¬
This trend to increasing size and increasing tarily with the findings of the Monopolies Com¬
capitalisation has been going on now for many mission. The Act also permits the Government to
decades, and in the process it has changed the face refer a merger or a proposed merger to the Mono¬
of British industry. In the early 19th cent, the polies Commission in cases where the merger
typical firm was the owner-managed textile miU. would lead to monopoly (defined as control of at
Then in the 1860s and 1870s came the discovery least one third of the market) or would Increase
of cheap methods of making steel, with the con¬ the power of an existing monopoly, or where the
sequential immense growth in the engineering value of the assets taken over exceeds £5 mflUon.
industries. Most of the chemical industry is stiU But it would be wrong to presume that mergers
newer — some very new — and in these capital- are always had: mergers — ^by facilitating re¬
intensive Industrie the big flcnn predominates. search and other economies of large-scale opera¬
In some It has become almost a monopoly: no tion — may increase industrial efficiency. For
small firm can easily challenge industrial giants this reason the Labour Government established
like Imperial Chemical Industries, the Dunlop an Industrial Eeorganisation Corporation to
Bubher Company, or Unilever. In others the promote the groupiog of firms in cases where such
pattern is of a few firms, all large, as in motor ears, grouping would be benefloial to their industry;
detergents, and steel. Competition goes on. but hut in 1970 the Conservative Government decided
it has changed its form. In the old days com¬ to wind it up.
petition was largely by price. Now it is largely Eestrictive labour practices— which result in
by advertising and by variations in the quality
and other features of the product — detergents and the “ over-manning " of plant or the “ under¬
employment ” of men— are common in British
motor cars being good examples. And in many industey. These stem from such causes as the
industries groups of firms producing similar pro¬ fear of redundancy and unemployment, anxiety
ducts entered into agreements which had the to preserve a craft skill threatened by technical
eflTeot of restricting competition, for example progress, the desire to work; at overtime rates,
through schemes for price-fixing. and sometimes just inertia. In the fUUy-employed
economy of the 1960s, redundancy should not be
Lîslaticni against Bestrictive Fiactices. a problem, and under-employed labour is urgently
nêd elsewhere. The elimination of these le-
The Eestrictive Practices Act of 1956 outlawed strfetlve practices requites more enlightened
many of the main forms of restrictive agreements management, more union co-operation, and more
to prevent competition. Collective price fixing Giovemment measures to promote the mobility of
was declared to be illegal unless the industry could laboiu between occupations.
show that the practice brought substantial benefit
to the public. Collective price-fixing was the Nationalised Industries.
the system under which a central association for
the industry lays down minimum prices at which Nationalised industry accounts for about 20
members may sell. Usually such a system was per cent of British industry. Local authorities
backed by arrangements' for collective boycotts, also run some serylces- largely in bus transport
under which members of the association would and ■water provision. Wlttt the exception of coal-
SURVEY OF BRITiSH ECONOMY G 14 ECONOMIC EVENTS
minmg. all these industries are natural monopolies sets, refrigerators, etc.); 7 per cent on travel-
in which the provision of competing services would leaving just over a fifth for other goods and ser¬
be obviously wasteful. They are thus obvious vices. Almost as much was spent on drink and
candidates for nationalisation. With the excep¬ tobacco as on housing, fuel, and light. This is
tion of steel— nationalised 1951-63 and re- partly because drink and tobacco is subject to
nationalised in 1967 — nationalisation has not been heavy mdireet taxation, which is the name given
extended into manufacturing industry, not even to tares which are levied on particular goods and
where the existence of a private monopoly might services. Thus nearly three-quarters of expendi¬
suggest that there was a strong ease. But ture on tobacco goes to the Government. Total
nationalised Industries are not free from competi¬ mdireet taxation on consumers’ expenditure
tion. The railways face competition from road amounted to £4,196 million in 1966. though this
transport, some publicly and some privately was offset by subsidies— payments by the Govern¬
owned: the fuel industries compete with each ment towards the cost of particular goods and
other, and with the privately owned oil industry. services, mainly some foods and housing-
Nationalised industries are supposed to earn amounting to £608 million.
enough to cover their costs. In the first ten years
the two airways corporations were granted sub¬ DISPOSAD OF PEBSONAU INCOME,
sidies; but these have now ceased. Costs for a
nationalised industry include interest payments 1965
on capital — ^both on the compensation paid to the
previous owners and on the rather larger amounts
of capital raised since nationalisation. The
electricity boards, and to a lesser extent the gas Total Personal Income
boards, earn something above their costs to finance less:
expansion, but not even then on the scale which Direct Taxes
is normal practice in private industries. The
National Coal Board has acctnnulated a deficit by National Insurance con¬
not increasmg coal prices sufficiently to meet the tributions .
increasing costs of production. British Bail has Disposable Income .
been in chronic deficit which it was the object of gives:
Available for:
the Beeching Eeport to reduce. Consumption
The nationali^ industries are voracious users Saving
of capital, as they are nearly aU highly capitalised
industries. Until 1056 they raised new capital,
when they wanted it, by floating an issue on the
Stock Exchange, the issue being guaranteed by
the Government. Since then the nationalised
industries have drawn directly on the Exchequer Types of Personal Income.
for their capital. This system has been attacked
on both sides. The advocates of private enter¬ (Compare the som-ces of personal income in 1938
prise have pointed to the strain this puts on the and in 1063. We see in the table that income
Exchequer, and to the unfairness whereby the from employment increased considerably, largely
nationalised industries get their capital cheaper owing to a rise in the salary bilL The reason is
or more easily than private indr^try. From the not that salaries have increased faster than wages,
other side, it has been pointed out that the but rather that the number of salaried workers
nationalised industries have suffered from their has increased much faster than the number of
dependence on the Exchequer. In times of wage-earners. There has also been an increase in
balance of payments crises the nationalised in¬ the proportion of incomes derived from public
dustries have been forced by the Government to grants — old age pensions,
out back their planned programmes, sometime at benefits, student grants, etc.war pensions, sickness
serious cost in disorganisation.
SOUBCES OF PEESONAL INCOME.
1938 AND 1963
8. INCOMES, WAGES. AND PRICES. (As percentage of total)
71
Personal Income, Spending, and Saving.
1963.
National income is a measure of the total income 1938. 1' 2
accruing to residents in return for services ren¬ 38
dered. It therefore consists of the sum of wages, Income from employment 18
595
salaries, profits, and rents. Not all this income
accrues to persons. Thus, companies do not ofioMch: .
wages
distribute all their profits to shareholders: in 1966 salaries ,... 395-6
1-5
26
undistributed profits amounted to £4,040 million. Forces’ pay .
This is part of national income but not of personal 2-6
employers’ contributions* .
income. On the other hand, soma personal in¬ Income frem self-employment 9
comes are not payments for service rendered, 1-6
such incomes are called “transfer incomes” to professional
farmers .persons
. 2
emphasise that their payment does not add to the 1 6
national income, but only transfers income from others
of which'. . . .
91-6
6-5
one recipient to another. Included in this cate¬ Income from property IS'5 1 1-6
gory are retirement pensions, children’s allow¬ Grants from public authorities . 100
ances, National Assistance payments, etc., 8-5
amounting in 1966 to £2,724 million: and the Total . . . 100
interest on the National Debt paid out to persons.
Total personal income in 1965 was £29,736 rnlUion. 11-5
The table shows what happened to this income. • To National Insurance and other28'Bsuperannua¬
Direct taxation — încome tax and surtax-— took tion schemes.
about 11 per cent of total personal income, and
National Insurance contributions, which being
compulsory are in effect a form of tax, took a The types of income which have fallen as a
farther 6 per cent. The remainder of personal proportion of the total are incomes of self-
income — called disposable income — was available employed persons and incomes from property.
for spending or saving. In 1966 total personal i During the war and for several years afterwards
savings amoimted to 6 per cent of personal income I property Incomes changed little — the effects of
and 8 per cent of personal disposable Income. j rent control, excess profits tax,: and low interest
The other 92 per cent of disposable Income was rates were such that these incomes did not rise,
spent on consumption goods and services. Con¬ while other uioomes increased sharply. In more
sumption expenditure ru turn was broken down recent years there was a rise, as rent control on
in the foUowing way; a quarter on food; an some property was lifted and as Interest rates
eighth on drink and tobacco; 16 per cent on increased : but nevertheless the share of property
housiog, fuel, and light: 9 per cent on clothing: incomes in 1968 was only about half of what it
S per cent on durable goods (motor oars, television had been in 1938. Over this quarter of a century
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY Gl5 ECONOMIC EVENTS
there was a fundamental redistribution of income allowance now adds substantially to spending
away from property-owners towards employees. IKrwer, As tax rates have risen, it has bMome
increasingly profitable for such classes to claim
Incomes by Size. every expense to which they are conceivably
entitled. Particularly important are cars re-
In 196i over 70 per cent of income-receivers had auired for business and also used for pleasure.
incomes under £1,000 and over 90 per cent under Second, only In 1966 did capital gains become
£1,600. The remaining 9 per cent with incomes taxable. If one buys an asset which then rises
over £1.500 received 27 per cent of the total in¬ in value, one has clearly gained extra spending
come, and the top 1 per cent received 8 per cent power. Not only have people in Britain been
of the total. Thus Britain is far from being an exempt from tax on capital gains, a considerable
egalitariiin society; income is still very imevenly advantage in periods of boom in ordinary share
distributed, but not so unevenly as before the war. prices, but also they have been able by a number
BEITISH INCOMES BY SIZE. 1964
As percentage of total.
before tax. Number of Incomes Incomes Bates of tax

incomes. before tax. after tax.
14 as percentage.
£5(>-£250 . 3 33 0
£250-£500 . 22 10 30
£500-£1,000 . 20
35 31 6
£1.000-^1.500 29 279
£1.600-£2,000 5 11 46
£2,000-£3.000 2 6
£3,000-^55.000 1 4
0-5 10
£6,000- 0 4
Total . 27.5m. £22,885 m. £20,268 m. 11
when the top 1 per cent received 16 per cent of of devices to convert mcome into capital gains,
total income. and thus avoid paying income tax. Before 1966
Taxes on income are of course highly progres¬ various Chancellors of the Exeheauer merely
sive, rising sharply as income increases. Those tned to close loopholes by maldng illegal various
with low incomes pay no Income tax, and in so far transactions aimed at tax avoidance.
as they are pensioners, no compifisory contribu¬
tions either. We see from the table that Sie
proportion of income paid in dir^ taxes rises Distribution of Capital
from 2 per cent in the income bracket £260-£600
to 9 per cent in the bracket £1.000-£1.500 to 46 Spending power depends not only on income
per cent for incomes exceeding £5,000 per annum. and capital gains but also on the sheer amount of
This tax burden somewhat changes the distri¬ capital owned; and in respect of capital Britain
bution of incomes. After tax the top 9 per cent fe stUl far &om egalitarian. The only figures are
received only 23 per cent, and the top 1 per cent those that arise in connection with the payment of
death duties. In 1964/5 those who at death left
only 6-6 per cent of total incomes. But the re- estates of more than £5,000 — ^just over a fifth of
distadbntive effect of taxation must not he over-
stressed; the levelUng-up of incomes before tax the total numbers dying — owned 77 per cent of
has been very much more Important in making the total, and the richest 1 per cent owned 24 per
Britain rather more egalitarian than has been any cent of the total. And this In spite of a growing
taxation policy. tendency for the rich to pass on their money be¬
fore death to avoid death duties. Compared with
1988. the main change appears to be that the
fairly rich are more numerous and the extremely
Income and Spending Bower. rich axe somewhat less numerous. The vast
In many ways figures for incomes alone sub¬ majority still own very little, and Britain is far
stantially over-estimate the degree of equality from being a property-owning democracy.
found in Britain. Hist, incomes axe incomes as
defined for income-tax pm-poses. Any allowed
Wages and Salaries.
■5
DISTRIBimON OF WEABTE: VAiUB In 1966 two thirds of personal income was paid
OF ESTATES FOE DEATH DUTIES, in the form either of wages, salaries, or Forces’
1964/5 pay. The distinction between the first two is
WAGE AND SALAEY LEVELS IN

As percentage of total. MANOFACTOEING ENDUSTEY
Size of estate.
£.000. Number of Value of (Earnings per week, October 1960)
estates. estates.
88 Administratiye, Clerical,
17 3 and Technical Staff. i earners.
Wage
only.)
-1 '■ ' ., ■ 5
■ 1-2
2-8 11 Monthly 1 Weekly I (Adults
3-6
6-10
11
13 14
10
1 paid. 1 paid. !
6 19 Men £25 10s.
10-25 ! £35 19s. i £24 9s.
26-60 15 Women . £12 2s.
50-100 , 18
0-4
100-
Total 296.798
,j £1,531 m. very much a matter of convention; many salary-
earners now earn less than wage earners, and the
16. ■ main division Is between those salary-earners who
are paid monthly and the rest, filiis we see in
j £12 Os.
'
expenses are excluded; and for the 2.self-employed the table. Even though weekly-paid staff do
14s.
and the higher ranks of management the expense not now earn more
1 £15 than wage-eameis, they may
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOIVIY Gl6 ECONOMIC EVENTS
still in effect be better off : for they generally work Overtime and Short-time.
shorter hours; are more likely to be covered by The earnings of any individual worker depend
private superannuation schemes; and usually on many factors, and are usually far above the
work in better conditions.
minimum wage-rates p.ayable for a week. They
No regular statistics are collected about salary include overtime earnings; and overtime working
levels; but every half-year the Department of is common for men. In most weeks about 2
Employment publishes detailed figures of the million workers in manufacturing will be working
actual earnings in one week of wage-earners in a overtime to the extent of 8 to 9 hours. So the
wide range of industries. There is a considerable average-week in 1969 was 46 hours, which is
variation in earnings between industries. Manu¬ about 6 hours above the average standard work¬
facturing industries pay well; and within manu¬ ing week without overtime. In the transport
facturing industries, vehicles and paper, printing industry the average workmg-week for men was
and publishing pay the highest weekly wages. as much as 61 hours. Indeed the average work¬
Public administration (including local government ing-week in 1960 was higher than before the war.
road-men and the like) is a low-wage sector, par¬ even though the standard working-week had been
ticularly for men. Eor women the best paying reduced. In most industries it was cut by 4 hours
industry is the buses where there is eaual pay for soon after the war from 48 to 44 hours, a 42-hour
male and female conductors. It should be borne week was introduced between 1960 and 1962, and
in mind, however, that the average earnings for an there was a movement towards a 40-hour standard
industry may disguise a wide dispersion of earnings working-week between 1964 and 1966.
among firms of the industry and also within firms. Short-time, the working of less than the
standard week, has not been common since the
AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS OE war. It has been important in particular indus¬
MANUAL WORKERS IN CERTAIN tries at particular times; but even in Eebruary
1963, at the bottom of the recession, it was far
INDUSTRIES smaller than overtime. Then 165.000 workers
(October 1969) were on an average short-time of 12-5 hours — a
total of 2-0 million hours lost, as against 12-3
Men. AVomen. million horns of overtime in the same week.
00
Vehicles 13s. £14 18s. Earnings and Rates,
Paper, printing, and pub¬ 2s. Overtime is not, however, the main reason why
lishing 2s.
£29 13s. £12 11s. earnings exceed minimum wage-rates; for most
Chemicals . 3s. £12 workers earn very much more than the Tninimum
Rood, drink, and tobacco £25 18s.
19s. in the standard working-week. One reason is
Textiles £24 17s. payment by results, the system of payment under
All mamifacturinff indus¬ £22 £11 23. which the worker’s wage depends partly on output.
£26 11s. £12 The commonest form is stiU the piecework system,
Transport and communi¬ under which pieceworkers are paid a fixed low
cations (except rail¬ rate per hour for each hour worked plus a fixed
ways)
tries* £26 18s. £16 17s. piecework price for each operation performed;
Construction 9s. £11 but Increasingly employers tend to prefer as a
Public administration . £24
£18 £11 more effective incentive some scheme under which
16s. 8s.
2s.
£12 17s. the bonus payment is related to the output of a
All industries* £24 larger group or to that of a whole factory. With
* Including industries not listed. payment by results systems — these cover about
40 per cent of the workers in mannfaeturmg indus¬
Differentials. try — earnings rise as productivity rises, and, as
usually such workers also participate in advances
Women earn on average much less than men, in wage-rates negotiated between employers and
and juveniles usually much less than adults. unions, the gap between earnings and wage-rates
Before the war the gap was relatively greater. tends to widen for them. So workers not paid
Men, for instance, earned 5-6 times as much in by results press for similar advances for them¬
October 1965 as they did in October 1938; but selves, and in times of booming trade get them
for women the ratio was 6-2 times. Nearly all under a wide variety of names and forms — merit
payments, lieu rates, compensation bonuses, etc.
this narrowing occurred during the war, when it
was the common practice for wage advances to Between 1969 and 1969 wage-rates rose by 62
take the form of a flat-rate increase to all em¬ per cent and earnings by 80 per cent. The
ployees regardless of sex. Since 1050 the practice advance in rates was little more than the rise in
has altered. The usual thing has been to grant retail prices — only 11 per cent — so that anyone
roughly similar percentage Increases to aU grades, who actually earned the minimum rate throughout
and there has in fact been a slight widening of the was not much better off. But earnings rose by
89 per cent more than prices, so that the main
gap.
The same narrowing occurred in other differen¬ source of the extra real income of the working-
tials. Skilled workers, for instance, were during class is to be found in the widening gap between
the war granted the same flat-rate advances as earnings and rates.
unskilled and there was then and, to some extent,
also in the years immediately sifter the war, a Wage Negotiation.
sharp narrowing of the reward for skUl in many In Britain there were 10-0 million trade union
industries. As for the sex differential, the narrow¬ members in 630 unions in 1968. Most of these
ing has now come to a halt; but it has not been imions are very small, over 350 having less than
reversed, and wages within the working-class are 2,500 members, but 19 have a membership of over
much less widely spread than they used to be. 100,000. The main job of unions is collective
Some would say the rewards for skill were in¬ bargaining with employers, and in most industries
sufficient: but, on the other hand, the upgrading most employers also belong to associations which
of the lowest-paid has. together with the reduction bargain collectively on their behalf. Some big
in long-term unemployment, been the main means firms, however, prefer to remain outside the asso¬
by which the grinding poverty of the worst-off ciations. and strike their own bargain with the
members of society — ^with aU. its undesirable unions. Before the war many firms tried to
consefiuenc^, such as malnutrition of children — enoouxage the formation of Company Unions, i.e,,
has been eliininated. Today the really numerous I of unions confined to employees of a single firm;
poor are the old, the sick, and the handicapped — hut this is now uncommon. In some lowly paid
and not, as before the war. families with a working I tradesy-catering, baking, dressmaking, and others
head who was earning too little to make ends meet. — ^minimum wages are fixed by Wages Boards or
Differentials have been a major source of in¬ Councils set up by the Department of Employ¬
dustrial strife in some industries, lii engineering ment: and representatives of the workers and
there has been continued conflict between unions I employers, and Independent members, meet to¬
with membership largely among the skilled and gether to reach agreement on the settlement (io be
those with membeiMilp largely among the semi¬ recommended to the Minister. But over most of
skilled over what form demands for wage increases industry the aim of collective bargaining is to
should take. On the railways the strife has been reach voluntary agreement, and the Department
even more open. 1 of Employment intervenes only when no agree-
SUHVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY Gl7 ECONOMIC EVENTS
Strikes.
ment is reacted. Even in the nationalised in¬
dustries, the Government does not usually inter¬
vene unless negotiations between the Boards and The strike is toe unions’ weapon of last resort.
the unions break down. Most unions maintain strike funds to order to
The usual pattern of negotiation is like this. support their members when they eaU them out
First, the union puts in a claim for an all-round on strike; but these funds are small, and strike
increase, usually much larger than it expects to pay is usually very much below normal wages.
get. _ Then after a time the employers reply, often So unions cannot afford to trill strikes irrespon¬
offering a much smaller increase, and sometimes sibly, and major official strikes are uncommon.
none at all. They then argue round a table until In most years there will be one or two, but not
either they reach agreement or they definitely fall more, and toe total number of working-days lost
to reach agreement. If the latter happens the w usually negligible — ^less than one day per head.
next step varies considerably from industry to Even in toe industry affected toe lost working-
days are usually made up in the following weeks
industry. Many industries have their own “ con¬ by overtime.
ciliation ” machinery, in which outsiders try to Nevertheless, the big strikes are important; for
help the two sides to reach agreement. Some, the success or failure of one big strike can affect
though not many, also have their own “ arbitra¬ the rûlts of all toe other collective bargaining
tion ” machinery, in which outsiders can recom¬ under way at the time. TTiey can also affect the
mend a solution of the dispute, which is sometime awards of arbitration tribunals since, to toe main,
binding and sometimes not. It depends on what arbitration awards tend to follow the pattern of
the two sides have agreed on in advance. Many
industries have no machinery of their own and ge^ttlements already made in other industries.
depend on the general facilities the Minister re¬ There is no purpase in a tribunal trying to be fair
sponsible can offer. He may appoint an impartial if it cannot get its awards accepted. So toe
conciliator: or he may, with the agreement of settlement reacted as a result of a strike often
both parties, refer the matter to the Industrial determines the amount by which wage-rates wiU
rise on average over all industries.
Court, which arbitrates between the parties: or he
may set up a Court of Enauiry which enauires Most strikes are neither large nor official, nor
into the dispute and makes recommendations, about wages. An official strike is one called, by a
which are not binding on the parties; or he may union, usually by decision of the national execu¬
tive, and is usually toe result of a breakdown in
decide to do nothing at aD, if he judges interven¬ collective bargaining about wages. But unoffi¬
tion to be useless. Nor need either unions or
employers call him in: the former may opt to put cial strikes called by local leaders with the author-
pr^sure on the employers immediately either by teation of imions are usually about other matters.
strike action, or by banning overtime or piece¬ Pew of the big unofficial strikes which have plagued
work, or by other action. the London Docks since toe war were about
Thus the British Government traditionally has wages, but usually about some relative triviality
little power to control wages directly or to impose that only bore witness to the thoroughly poor
agreements. The recent attempts to introduce state of labour relations in that industry. Much
compulsion in wage -determination are described toe same may be said about the continual strikes
m Bart IV. m shipbuflding, many of them caused by demarca¬
tion disputes concerning which jobs should be
done by which type of sMUed worker. These sort
Important Negotiations. of strikes are re^y a form of industrial protest,
A few negotiations are particularly important and toe employers have to bear their share of toe
blame.
in determining how wages rise in a year; for the
pattern of later settlements tends roughly to Ja 1965 there were in all 2,850 strikes in the
follow those of earlier settlements. Probably United Kingdom: 869,000 workers were directly
the moat Important of all are those between the or mdirectly involved, and 2,932.000 working days
Confederation of Engineering and Shiphuflding were lost. This means that the average strike
Unions — an organisation representing 3 mfilion involved 370 workers and lasted over 3 days.
In most industries there are very few strikes.
workers — and the Engineering Employers’ Federa¬ The main strike-prone Industries, apart from the
tion, as this single negotiation directly affects the
wages of 3i million workers, and indfrectly many mmes. are vehicles, shipbuilding, and docks; but
more. On several occasions rince toe war negotia¬ even in these toe extent of strikes must not be
tions between these two have broken down, and exaggerated In shipbuilding with toe worst
only finally been settled after a Court of Enguiry record of disputes, losses are only just over one day
had recommended a compromise wage-advance. a year and, if that were all, could safely be ignored.
The Confederation is a si>ecial negotiating body But, of course, strikes are also a symptom of
comprising ail toe unions who have members industrial trouble: and it is no awsident that in
working in toe engineering and sblpboUding in¬ at all smce toeproductivity
sUpbuHding war. has scarcely improved
dustries. These include many small, skilled
workers unions, such as toe Patternmakers’
Union, but they also iuclude. besides the l-mlUion- Brices and Beal Incomes.
strong Amalgamated Engineeaiing Union, toe two
large general unions, toe Transport and Gmieral 3Qie aim of a trade union is to get for its members
a higher standard of living, and its success depends
Workers’ Union, with about 1} million members, on toe extent to which wage advances exce^ toe
and toe General and Municipal Workera’ Union, nse in toe cost-of-Uving. Brices r(«e very rapidly
with not fiur short of a mllh'on. These last two
represent toe semi-skilled and unskilled worfc^,
and conflict between them and toe skilled unions WAGES AND BEIGES
concerning differentials is common. (1965 = 100)
Another often important negotiation is that 96
between toe British Transport Commission and Weekly Weekly Eeal Eeal
toe three railway unions— toe large National Index
Union of Eailwaymen, representing moat grades, ings. of retail ings.
toe Amalgamated Society of Locomotive Engineers rates. 68 rates.
1950 129
and Firemen, representing the drivers and toe 1966 wage- earn¬ prices. wage-
flrmnen, and toe Transport Salaried Staffs’ A^- 124
100
78 77 91
100 100 109
100 114
earn¬
oiation, representing toe ticket collectors, railway 1960 100
derks. etc. The importance of this negotiation 180 186
114 IIS
lies In toe ftet that railwaymen are comparativdy 1965 161 176 116
badly paid; but, as toe Transport Commission 1969 184 169 141
runs a deficit, any wage advance has effectively 224
to be paid for by the Government. Time and
time again— for example toe rise to early 1960
arising out of toe GuUlebaud Eeport on railway (by over 30 per cent) between 1949 and 1953,
pay — ^wage advances have been given to railway- and earnings only just kept ahead in this
men with toe purpose of trying to narrow toe gap period. But siace then real earnings (i.e., com¬
between them and other workers ; but toe advance mand over goods and services of money earnings)
given to railwaymen then acts as a guide to other have risen steadily. Thus, betw^ 1966 and
settlements, so that toe railwaymen remain rela¬ 1969, the real earnings of a wage-earner rose by
tively as badly paid as before. 41 per cent.
Real incomes of pensioners and those on in
ii 1951. Since then, however, the dominant
National Assistance have gone up too, after the trend of import prices has been downwards and
ti
serious erosion of their value in the late 1940s. changes
cl in prices of Imports cannot be directly
The retirement pension is still inadequate for a bWarned for the continuing rise in prices since 1951
decent life: but that is because when the National The
T source has to be looked for in the tendency
msurance scheme was set up in 1948 it was be- of
oi wages, salaries, profits, and other incomes to
lieved that the nation could not aiford anything nse
ri faster than real output, and this they have
better, and not becau.se inflation has eroded the done in almost every year since the war.
di
value of the pension {see G 24). Inflation can
no longer be deploredjon the main ground that it
rnato to much hardship. The main danger is that it
Wages and Prices,
British exports become imcompetitive. and that ” Wage increases
the balance of payments position deteriorates are probably the most im¬
and puts a brake on the growth of the economy. portant. When a trade imion negotiates a wa"-e
p(
advance for all or most of the employees in an
Price Changes. mdust^, firms wiU immediately consider whether
they should mcrease their prices to cover their
In the calculation of real wages it is usual to mcreased wage-costs. As it is common practice
make use of the index of retail prices, commonly for firms to fix the selling prices of their products
called the cost-of-living index. This index is by first calculating the direct cost of labour and
calculated monthly hy the Ministry of Labour, of materials, and then adding on a percentage to
and in a few industries with sliding-scale agree¬ cover overhead costs and profits, they wlU tend
ments, wages are adjusted to take account of the to want to raise their prices not only to cover the
index. In other industries the index has naturally cost of the wage advance but also to cover their
had an influence on the course of negotiations. percentage addition. Moreover, in deciding
Indeed, up to 1968 it was probably the dominant whether or not their customers will stand for such
influence. In no year before then had the anmiai mcreases, firms will be influenced by the know¬
rise m prices been less than 2 per cent. ledge that their competitors have to pay the
INDEX OE RETAIL PRICES
(January 1956 = 100)
Monthly average index.
1950. 1960. 1969.
1955.
98 107 1965.
98 146
Pood 127
65 124 168
Drink . . 100 146
160
Tobacco . . . 132 169 148
206
167
98 181
Housing . . . 83 98 117
Fuel and light . 65 112 107
Durable household goods 94 125
98
118 121
Clothing and footwear 98 104 114
Transport and vehicles 120
115 147
80 92 136
Services . 97 140 im
Other goods 83 132 186
77 96 170
All items . . . 74 97 in
78
I.e., proportionate importance of item in total expenditure in 1966.
Price changes have not been the same for all mcreased wages too. and will probably therefore
types of goods. For instance, between 1966 and he raismg their prices. So industry-wide wage
1966. when the total index rose by 32 per cent, advances--and 4 changes in costs of materials— are
housing went up by 69 per cent and ftiel and light |9 likely to he passed on to the con¬
particularly
by 60 per cent: but the prices of food, clothing, sumer: and, as wage-earners are also consumers
Mink, and especially durable household goods rose to generate further demands for wage advances to
less than the average. Since rent, fuel, and food cover the mcreased prices. Profits per unit also
form a much higher proportion of total expendi¬ go up under this tendency to set prices on a cost-
ture for the poor, and particularly for pensioners, plus basis : but it is the wage advance which tends
than for most households, it is possible that prices to set the spiral off, by providing the opportunity
rose more for the poor than for the rich over these for price increases.
years. OnM tto spiral gets going, it is very hard to
stop It. In general, the requirement is that wage
The Causes oi Price Inflation. ^rnmgs should not rise faster than productivity
(output per man). But, as in some industries
Prices charged in the shops are determined by a productmty is very slow to rise, and as it would
great many factors, over many of which the be unfair and impracticable to exclude their
Government has little or no control. First amnng workers &om participating in any general rise in
these IS the price of imports. Prices of imiiorted the standard of Uving, this requirement means
food and raw materials are determined in the tJmt m mdustrles with a rapid growth of produc¬
world markets, in which Britain is only one of tivity wage advances should be kept weU below
maro pmrchasers.^ In the raw material markets the rete of rise of productivity. For two reasons
the U.S.A. IS usually the dominant purchaser, and tM is rather difficult. First, rising productivit y
prices depffld greatly on the level of economic pften^raises the wages of some workers in these
aoM^ty there. In the food markets British mdiMtnes automaticaJlyv because they are paid by
Ptttchases are much more important, since the results or through some incentive scheme. The
U.S.A. grows most of its own food, and is a large rise of wages from this source takes the form of a
exporter of some foods. iMces in raw material tendency on the part of earnings in these indus¬
markets are continually changing, and can flue- tries to rise faster than wage-rates: but that does
tuate wildly. For instance, tlie average price of not m^ iffiab all employee benefit, or that there
copper rose 40 per cent between 1964 and 1966. ^ny Iffielihood ^t the unions in these industries
to 10 per cent below its wm not press for the same rate of increase in wage-
W54 lerel. Fluctuations at the time of the rates as is achieved in the Slbwly-growing indns-
Korean War were even more fantastic. The price
ot wool rose over four times, and then came down •
mdustnes have employers ip febe rapidly-growing
far less reason to r^t demands
just as abruptly to only a quarter above its earlier for wai^ increases than those in slowly-growing
Jevel; tbe price of rubber behaved similarly. The mdustries.. Indeed^ they are quite likely to bid
large rise in import prices, coming on top of the up wages in order to get the labour they need,
rise that had been brought about by devaluation, rather than to try to hold down wages.
caused the cost-of-livmg Index to shoot up sharply There are therrfore major problems in prevent-
ing a faster rise in wages than in productivity, are difficulties and disadvantages attaching to
with its conseauence of rising prices. And once every possible measure for controUing price in¬
a wage-price spiral has started, the problems flation. In Fart IV we shall discuss the solutions
become more acute because unions and employers which have been attempted in the ISCOs.
become accustomed to substantial annual ad¬
vances in money wages. A main source of con¬
tinuing price inflation has been the tendency of 4. MONEY, BANKING, AND FINANCE.
money wages to continue to advance at a rate that The Radolifle Report.
was appropriate when the cost-of-living was going
up sharply, but ceased to be appropriate in later In September 1957 the Cliancellor set up the
years. Badeliffe Committee to report on the working of
Britain’s monetary institutions. The report of
The Stopping of Price Inflation. the committee, published in 1959, contains a de¬
tailed description of the monetary institutions of
There are several possible methods of attack on this country, and a systematic appraisal of mone¬
the inflationary spiral of wages and prices. Per¬ tary policies in the 19503. It is complicated,
haps the most fundamental, and certainly the because the monetary system is complicated: but
most helpful to other objectives of economic it is written in terms which can be understood by
policy, is to achieve a faster rate of productivity the layman. Any reader who finds the following
growth. The faster the growth of average pro¬ account inadequate should consult it.
ductivity, the faster can average incomes rise Money.
without an increase in average prices. But if
wages and other incomes rise more rapidly than
productivity, it will he dlfiioult to maintain price In Britain money consists of bank-notes, coin¬
stability. age. and banks’ debt. Bank-notes— mainly in
Comprehensive and detailed Government con¬ denominations of £10, £5. and £1 — are Issued by
trol of wages must probably be ruled out for the Bank of England, which has been publicly
political and institutional reasons, and so must owned since 1946, and which acts in effect as an
comprehensive and detailed control of prices. agent of the Government. We shall see below
money.
Either would involve a much more “ controlled ” (G21(l)) how commercial banks can also create
economy than we have at present, and experience
suggests that such detailed control would involve The total size of the bank-note issue is not a
a major loss of flexibility in the economy. At the good guide to the amount of purchasing power in
other extreme, general exhortations to unions to the economy. The Bank of England stated in its
exercise restraint on wages, and to manufacturers evidence to the Eadciiffe Committee that it was
to exercise restraint on prices, have probably had now its policy to issue bank-notes in accordance
little effect. with the convenience of the public, and not to use
Various intermediate lines of approach have this means of controlling the amount of purchasing
been or could be tried. In 1948-50, the Govern¬ power. As a result, the various checks on the
ment secured the co-operation of the T.IJ.O. in the size of the note issue — în particular the Parlia¬
mentary control over the fiduciary issue, i.e., the
wages
but the“ freeze ”, For
Increases a time which
in prices this wasfollowed
successful,
the permitted maximum level of the note issue — ^have
devaluation In 1949 made substantial increases in become functionleas and may be ignored. An
wages unavoidable, and the freeze was abandoned. increase in the value of the note issue is now only
By setting an example in the nationalised indus¬ a symptom and not a cause of inliatlon.
tries over which it has a more direct influence,
the Government can encourage employers to take Determination of Income and Employment.
a tougher attitude towards wage claims. This What matters is the amount of purchasing
was one strand of policy in the later 19603. Its
power available to the public. Most private ex¬
disadvantage is the obvious unfairness of a policy penditure
which is most Ukely to he effective in nationalised Is financed out of income— after paying
industries, many of whose workers are relatively taxes; taxes — ând most government expenditure out of
but most investment, public and private,
badly-paid. Another approach is to lower tariffs and a growing amount of purchases of durable
or remove quotas on imports, thus exposing some
manufacturers at home to tougher competition goods by consumers, is not financed out of income,
but out of borrowing of one kind or another.
from abroad. Manufacturers would be less able And the primary purpose of monetary policy must
to raise prices without losing markets, and unions be to keep the total of this kind of expenditure
would be less willing to press wage claims if there out of credit in line with the amount of savings
was a real danger that some of their members private individuals and profit-making companies
would lose their jobs as a consequence. But the are prepared to make out of their incomes. For
gains from a policy which depends for its success if such iuvestment expendltme exceeds the
on higher imports have to he weighed against Its amoimt which the community wishes to save out
effects on the balance of payments. Or again, of its current level of Income, it means that the
many prices in the economy are directly influenced total demand for goods and sendees exceeds total
by Government indirect taxation which raises the current output. If output cannot be increased
price of some goods, and Government subsidies because men and machines are already fully-
which lower the prices of other goods. By employed, prices and wages and also imports are
manipulating its tax and subsidy policies, the forced up in rônse to the demand. If. on the
Government can exercise a powerftd influence on other hand, investment expenditure falls short of
the price level: though of course any reduction
in Indirect taxation or increase in sul«idies would saving out of full-employment Income, production
probably have to be financed by increases in and employment are reduced below the full-em¬
direct taxation, which may in tmn have undesir¬ ployment level.
There is no automatic mechahism in our eco¬
able effects on incentives to harder work and i nomic system which ensures full-employment of
greater effort. resources, and it is the task of Government to
More indirectly, the Government can attempt balance savings and Investment at the right level
to control the wage-price spiral by controlling of employment. This important fact was first
purchasing power through its monetary and fiscal established by the great economist J. M. ilater
policies. If purchasing power is curbed, manu¬ Lord) Keynes. Prior to the Great Depression,
facturers find it more dlflaeult to raise prio^, and economists believed that any divergence ftom full-
the bargaining power of unions may be redact. emplonnent was a temporary phenomenon, which
In the 1950s, the Government relied heavily on would right itself. However, in the 1930s Keynes
fiscal and more especialiy monetary policies, the I produced a new explanation of how income and
nature of which will be examined In later secMons. employment are determined; and so brought
The main danger is that curbing pitrchasihg power ; about what has come to be known as the
is likely to curb the rise in output and productivity, Keynesian Feroltrfioji in economics.
so that attempts to control the wage-price spiral
in this way could result in the stagnation of the Government Control of Income and Employment.
economy. Furthermore, there is a danger that
some wage increases will continue in periods of The Goyemment can control the level of income
stagnation so that inflation cannot be entirely and employment in various ways. First, in
avoided. many fields the Government has only very
It Is clear that there is no easy solution— -there restricted powers to influence behaviour. It
ECONOMIC EVENTS
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY GSSO
compaiJes to save; it Uquld assets. UntE they become due for
teulaee
mducements to do so m.the ment they can only he sold on the ôck
“itfrest rates or of tax concessions for what they wEl fetch, bS^bp
and varlaHons
their effectiyeness market value are qiEte considerable Deali-m?K in
limited. Nor m general has it very much direct in second-hand seîties can have inir^+Qnf
power over expenditure out of credit. It can and effects on the economy
Variation in
conditions under which hire- price of s^^tiS^Ses A Sse varlaH^^^
made — and this does,
rate, make a great deal of the effective rate of interest
This in turn can influence thewhich they ea-ro^
general levef^f
êrence to the anmunt of goods bought on hire- interest rates, hence the amoimt
of tevpstmpFi
.certam e^nt influence which it is profitable to car™ ™t andên^tbP
incentives poEcies
in tteir investment
granti^ and withdrawing by general
to invest- level of economic M^ty
The sixth ^ ™ ^ ™
form of horrowins la hv Tnannci
SnFh thesebut it is doubtful
changes have. And quite how Treasury Bills, of which ££l00^mluon
it can. standing in 1965. A Treasury Bm is an extremplv
w “ntrol ovCT buEding, short-term loan to the Goram^-^^SlWor
by allowmg buEdmg only on hcence. This power, three months.
now used in order to control the for sale some £300Each week the TreaeiT^ nfrirf
mininT^ of these and^n^p?
bat only m order to
discourage encourage of speciaEsed instEôns Wd for^them ^^p
it elsewhere, difference between tteir bids and the valu^f
ê only authorities over whose mvestment the these bonds on repayment
Government does have real control are the is a substitute for taterest is caEed dSraunt puS
nationalmed industries; and, as the Eadcliffe crueial role to the
iSSri^ system
Oomnuttee
advantages pomted out, there are obvious dis- affecting the rate of°Sscount on Treamirv
m any system whereby investment that Bank Bate iMumSôn?tprv SiH,SJf BiVu
m pubhc utihtxes is determined, not by the need in the eômyf ^ more
more o“that
oi mat aa Etele
little KteF
later,
savlogs and mvestment.
for such mvestment, but by the need to balanc „ e , ouu
The two main means remaining are fiscal and government Borrowing and Liquidity.
Government thinks Monetary poEcy consists largely in varving
thp
there is going to be a shortage of private savings way in which the Government
borrowsto^^npp
It raises more in taxation or reduces its current its expendlta^ Ms to becSe
.surplus borrowing afltects the amount oTfigaWil teethe the* nf
^ 1 of control IS much economy. All financial instltutioTis hnvp
more complex; in prmciple, the aims are twofold. poEcy regarding Eqniditv In crpnprfli +>ipTrRnmA
One IS to keep the amount of credit-creation down to mainf flin Efficient reserves f-i-ir
lor up) to the reêd extent: the second to to assets Mch ^ be Sâtete eittier rff
Government gete the share of cash to m^t^rSSe coFLriSi
snS
sayings it ^sds to coyer ite investment pro- in their commitments. But thev do
comple^ty arises from the inter- aU their assets in Equid form. The nnt vmia
chance that
relations between these two tasks. aU their creditors SlteMoWy deSd theh
_ back can be ruled out, and therefore most
The Government as Borrower. ™ tLe principle that they should
restTheof the
Government
economy. Is In
a heavy horrower
pubEe from the ments.
SS^g^^^f theKKSa
1965 total borrow- Whereas currency andn(^°
Tre^n^
igfISSS&S
of this unmense National Debt was buflt up dming If therefore the Government borrows -morp ir>r
compMISter^^rê ^riffiS wmS
5i?'y® tliau
lôfits ES tlie latter fliXG G3iriiecl. i^tlier ^ Pa.y on mors
"wliGii scribed. The pnbEc
ffoverument c^ he pe^Sd to^hSd
securities f>nlv if" fhp mfo
to thi of*^ ^^nto^ nS taedeemahle goyeênt securities I^Âfrtto

at short notice to the repayment of their loans.
The Commercial Banks.
GEt-cdged Securities and Treasury Bills. In the centre of the financial world stand the
The ^th and, sixth methods of borrowing are commercial hanks. In Engtond these are known
through the mmket. The main method to through as the Lon^n clearmg hanks. In this country,
the Stock Exchange by the issue of fixed-interest nnlme the Enlted States, the banlring system is
seOTrities, caUed aiU-edged securities. In 1965 the there being five main banks
net amount owing to the pubEc on aE such secuii- with branches in every town. The commercial
«P-a third of total baito are taportant because their
debts are used
public debt. Most gUt-edged securities are by the pubMc as money. Anyone who has a bank
mises to repay at a specified date in the future pro¬
the current account can sign cheques or withdraw
amount onginaEy borrowed: and in the mean¬ cash on demand up to the Emit of his account.
time to pay a fixed amount of interest each half- Be^nse they can be used as a means of payment
yeaj. Some gilt-edged securities are irredeem- just as readEy as bank-notes, bank deposits are
able, consist therefore simply of a promise to
pay the mterest m perpetuity* ( Commercial banks earn a profit by borrowing
_ Most gEt-edged securities are held by institu¬ j fim^
money. and then lending part of these ftmds at
tions: the ha^ discount houses, and other major mgher rates of interest. Because it to nnEkely
financial uMtitntlons of the country, and foreign t^t all deposits will be withdrawn at once,
governinente (whose holdings represent their baiw hold oiEy a small proportion of their the de¬
stertog Mancre. (see G7(8)); only a fifth of the posits in the form of cash. The Bank of iiiTiffiftTiS
total being held by private individuals. Gilt- requires them to hold 8 per cent; and we see in
edged secarities. unlike national savings, are not the table that m 1965 the average ca^ ratio was
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY G21 ECONOMIC EVENTS
LOKDON CLEANING BAIvES, 19G5
(£ million)
Percentage
Liabilities. Assets.
of deposits.
513 739
Capital and reserves Cash . . , .
Deposits .... Other liquid assets .
8,989 2.042 8-2
0-6
Other . 642 “Investments
Special deposits ” , 66
. 1,087
Advances
Other .... 4.653
1,467 22-5
Total .... 10,044 Total 10,044 12-1
61-8
S-2 per cent. In addition they hold by conven¬ regarded as credit-worthy. A higher rate of
tion iiguid assets (Treasury bills and money at, interest is charged than on ordinary overdrafts,
call and short notice) equal to at least 28 per cent and
down.more specific rules about repayment are laid
of their deposits: the ratio being 30-7 per cent in
1965. These liquid assets are easily transferable Most advances, however, are made to business,
into cash. Their remaining assets are more particularly to small business, and to farmers. In
remunerative; the majority being advances made business the common practice is to finance working
to the public and earning a rate of interest higher capital — stocks and work-in-progress — out of bank
than Bank Bate. In 1965 cash held by the advances, and to depend on more permanent
commercial banks amounted to £739 million, forms of borrowing for the purchase of fixed
whereas the public had deposits with the banks capital. But there are no fixed rules: business
totalling £8,989 million. Thus the banking sys¬ gets its finance wherever it can, and in fact there
tem can create money: it does so by accepting is moh a variety of ways in which it can get
bank deposits far in excess of the cash held to capital that a squeeze on bank advances alone is
meet demands for these deposits. not as effective as might be expected. Big
businesses, in practice, scarcely suffer at all: for
The Control oJ Commercial Banks. they are in the best position to tap other sources
of credit. Quite a good example is provided by
The first step in any credit squeeze is to put the Mre-purchase finance companies. During the
pressure on the commercial banks by reducing credit squeeze of 1950-68 the banks were asked by
their liquidity: so causing them to restrict their the Chancellor of the Exchequer to hold down
advances to would-be investors. This can be advances, and in particular not to increase ad¬
done in two main ways. The first is by open- vances to hire-purchase finance companies. They
market operations, in which the Bank deliberately did so; but the companies had no difficulty in
sells more government stock than it otherwise getting the money they needed by borrowing
would. The ptuchasers pay by cheque, and thus direct from the public at high rates of interest.
create a debt from the commercial banks to the The real sufferers tend to be small businesses and
Bank of England. Such debts have to be settled professional people, who do find it hard to obtain
in cash, and credit elsewhere; but even they may be able to do
liquidity. Theso second
pressure
is is put Bate.
Bank on theIf banks'
Bank so; for instance, by taking out a mortgage on
Bate Is raised it has the immediate effect of raising their property or hy buying their equipment on
the rate of discount on Treasury BiUs. A high hire-purchase where previously they had paid
rate of discount on these makes them appear cash, or by cashing some national savings.
attractive investments to those who do not The Badcliffe Committee discussed at length
normally buy them, and the commercial banks how effective a squeeze on the hanks was likely to
find it dlfflonlt to get as many of them as they be, and in general their eoncliffiion was that it was
would like. So again there is pressure on the not likely to be very effective, because most bor¬
banks’ liquidity. rowers would usually find other sources of credit.
Paced by such pressure, the banks have to take The other sources would usually be more expen¬
steps to restore their liquidity either by seUing sive; but they thought this mattered very little,
securities or by calling in advances. Neither as Interest payments form only a smaU part of
method brings in much cash directly: for since most bnstness costs, except in very highly capital¬
the banks wlU be paid by cheque rather than in ised Industries, most of which are now publicly
cash, they have to go on mtil the depletion of owned. Interest dora matter in housing; the
deposits caused by the paying of these cheques monthly interest payments due on a mortgage to
cuts down the total of deposits to the level where a building society can go up substantially when
liquid assets once again represent 30 per cent of the rate of interest goes up, although usually
the total. To this there is one major exception: for existing, as opposed to new. mortgages no
if the Bank of England buys the securities the more money Is asked for; instead the term of the
banks sell— and the need to ensure an orderly mortgage in years is extended. But in hire-
market may force it to do so — ^then selUng securi¬ purchase. where service charges far exceed the
ties brings more cash into the banks, and thus interest element in any loan, interest is of trivial
enables them to repleifish their liquidity. importance.
Since 1968, the monetary authorities have had
the power to call upon the banks to make special The Stock Exchange.
deposits in cash with the Bank of England. Un¬
like other deposits of the banks with the Bank of The banks through their advances are the main
England, special deposits cannot be treated as providers of short-term credit: but most long¬
forming part of the liquid assets of commercial term credit is provided through the Stock Ex¬
banks. This is in effect another way of putting change. In 1965 the total market value of all
pressure on the liquidity position of banks: the securities traded on the Stock Exchange was
necessity of making such deposits could force £76,000 million, of which £57,000 million repre¬
them to seU securities or reduce advances. sented stodsB or shares in public companies.
“ Special deposits ” amoimted to 0-6 per cent of There are three main typ^. Behenhire Stock is
the banks’ total deposits in 1965. simply a fixed-interest loan. Preference Stock is
a fixed-interest loan, with provisions for waiving
Bank Advances and Other Credit. the interest if the company fails to earn profits.
Preference shareholders cannot get a company
Bank advances are the simplest of aU forms of declared bankrupt if it does not pay them a divi¬
credit; the customer is just given the right to dend: but Deljenture holders can. The third
sign cheques beyond his credit account, and inter¬ type — and much the most important — is Ordinary
est is charged on the overdraft. In the late 1950s, Shares. Nominally the owner of an Ordinary
a new form of advance— ike personal loan— was Share is a part-owner of the company concerned,
introduced by some banks. These are granted to with most of the rights of ownership. He has no
customers who would not earlier have been right to any particular dividend or interest pay-
ECONOMIC EVENTS
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY
Slnfl+’c
F ttiere are any. In to ^
Mdition to stocks and mampulated in an attempt to control demand
or This policy was adhered to by both Governments
shares m public companies, British Government in the 1960s. We see in the table that tbpF^?'i„
£16.000 million were Treasury Bills has kept in line with Bank Bate ^
Quoted on the Stock Exchange. nianipula
In addition
ting tointerest
influencing the the
rates, cost Governmen
of credit bv
t
The Eetum on Financial Assets. fIjyS'ilability of certato sorts of
holding hsw obvious
ê flxed-mterest security brmgs in a advantages,
guaranteed
made it inore diificiflt^ for^the^bank^ to^ratend
their lending by operating on the^SuVs’
Orâry Shareholder has no such position™ it aCSd moFe or^
guarantee, though m practice during the post-war worded “reouests” thnt hanifa®0>im u,i I
period the mk of a deê in divl tod w^ smalL SS of. Some a mductto^ theh advlml^*
to a tune of inflation the risto attached to holding ^ A form of moneta^Sr
teed-interest securities are in some ways greater o^Mcb ^
cularly important after 1950 was tbe nrintTniAJc
Is Ortoary Shares: hire-pmS X lowS thf
for, whUe Ordinary Shares appreciate m market proportion of the price vrfS^has to^ nSd -il o
value when there is Inflation, fixed-interest securi- doira-payment and by mdu^^^ or
taes tend to fall m market value, because the the time OTerwlfl^^repaymentscan’^henSd^^ l^
Qoverênt is forced to morease interest rates as Government wm able fS^lv to tho
an ^ti-inflatiomry measure. Furthermore, in volumnf tolpurchêâêtfons
the long run the growth of the economy tends, fore the uôf
even without Inflation, to raise the vWe of Sese contools of mu?sp oSf
Ordmary Shares by increasing the value of com- narrow class of rather
paês. And, lastly, for toasters ™ pay tax ^"Sertele^m^^to.-for wWcri^ft
persS i^ô5 to the“toSxchani^'ê^toh to^cSîwefertLûtput^f Th^sf
r^|to ^^!'^S™p“Sv”^^^
ary Share was a much better bet In the “fluSS'Sy
1950s; and uwiaeiy.
beranse Ordinary Shares were so popular, the .
yield on such shares — the ratio of dividends to Efleotiveness of Monetary Controls.
government securities (see table
^veêntûriri ^ ). Eunning concerning
scepticism through the EadcUfife Eeport is a
the likely general eflhetive-
PEECENTAGE YIELD ON FINANIEAL ASSETS
Irredeemable
Ordinary
rate. Share
Bank Bate, Treasury bill government
rate. bond rate.
(range during year)
Most Ordinary Shares are held by private UMS of monetary policy, both as an anti-defla-
mdividuals; but increasingly in recent years tiomry and an anti-inflationary weapon of con¬
holdings by insurance companies and pension trol. In the former case, it is clearly difflcnlt
funds have become more Important, because of to raeonrage spending by making credit more
the growth of private superannuation schemes. easily available, if business prospects are
Insuranoe companies and pension funds cannot that no mvestment looks profitable, to theso latter
poor
afford to take risks, so the main bulk of their case, the Committee concluded on the use of
funds is still invested in fixed-interest securities; monetary
(para, 469);policy to counter inflation in the 1960s
but they have shown a growing tendency to In-
CTease the proportion of their funds invested in
Ordinary Shares. This switch, by lowering the “ The obstructions to particular channels of
demand for gilt-edged securities relative to finance have had no effect on the pressure of
Ordinary Shares, contributed to the downward total denmnd, but have made for much in-
prûra on the prices of gUt-edged securities. efflclency in financial organisation.”
Legislation was introduced in 1960 to permit They went on to add (para 472) :
truste to invest up to 60 per cent of their funds in
the Ordinary Shares of large companies. In the “We are driven to the conclusion that the
same way. this has depressed the yield on Ordinary more conventional instruments (e.g.. Bank
Shares and raised the yield on gUt-edged. rate) have failed to keep the system to smooth
mtori^y, the greater security of gilt-edged balance, but that every now and again the
holdings has normally been reflected In lower mounting pressure of demand has in one way
yields. If inflation is controlled, or if the prospect or another (generally Dio the exchange situa¬
of Industrial expansion becomes less bright, the tion) driven the Government to take action,
demand for gilt-edged may increase and that for Wd that the Quiok results then reauired have
Ordinary Shares decrease; and the “ norma] ” been mainly concentrated on the hire-pur¬
pattern of yields may then retum^ chase front and on tovestiment to the public
sector which could be cut by administrative
Survey of Monetary Controls. decision. The light engineering todustilea
have been frustrated to their planning, and
The post-war Labour Government pursued a the public corporations have had almost
cheap money policy. There was no môr use of equally disheartentog experience. ... It is
monetary policy as an economic regulator; Bank far removed from the smooth and widespread
Eate for instance was kept at 2 per cent through¬
out, and the rate on Treasury Bills was only 3- adjustment sometimes Claimed as the 'rirtue
per cent. Instead the Government relied on of monetary action: this is no gentle hand
controls and on fiscal measures to keep Inflation on the steering wheel that keeps a well-driven
m check. For this neglect of money controls car to Its right place on the road.”
there ms, m fact, a very good case: the pent-up However, the Eadcltffe Committee did recog¬
demand for goods was so strong, and the funds nise that monetary measmes have influenced
aîlable to companies and individuals so large, _ confidence ” to sterling. A rise in interest rates
that monetary restrictions would not have made increased the attractiveness of holding sterling
very much difference. The Conservative Govot- balwceSi and stem monetary measures were taken
ment reintroduced monetary policy in 1961. as indicative of the Government’s intention to
Bank Bate was raised — ^reaching a peak in 1967 — solve its problems without; recourse to devalua-
SURVEY OF BRITISH ECONOMY G23 ECONOMIC EVENTS
tion. In these ways, monetary policy has helped ing expenditure consists of two aulte different
to stem speculative outflows of sterling: balances items. The first, housing suMdies, is a recurrent
which threatened to impose heavy strains on our cost, and represents the difference between the
reserves. Many commentators feel that these cost of housing, including the cost of borrowing,
eflTects provide an important iustiflcation for the and rents received on council housing. In 1965
nse of certain forms of monetary controls. costs exceeded the rents of £324 million by £149
The late 19603 saw a revival of belief in the million, so that the average coimcil-house tenant
efilcaey of monetary policy {see G40). was paying just under 14s. in the £ of the cost, of
accommodation. Up to 1957 the Government
contracted to pay a flat subsidy per year on every
council bouse built. From 1957, Government,
5. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP THE PUBLIC subsidies were no longer paid on ordinary new
SERVICES council houses, but in 1961 were reintroduced, in
The Cost oi Public Services. a form intended to encourage councils to charge
higher rents on their existing houses. The
In 1905 total public expenditure was no less Labour Govermnent substantially increased the
than £14,056 million, about £260 per head. Of subsidy in 1987: it being calculated as the
this total, the central government spent over 60 difference between interest payable on new
per cent, the local authorities under 30 per cent, houdng at current Interest rates and at 4 per cent.
and the was
nationalised industries’ investment pro¬ The other part consists of the capital cost of
gramme responsible for 10 per cent. Total building new houses, £628 million in 1966. This is
public expenditure almost doubled between 1955 financed out ofborrowing by local authorities. In
and 1965; and rose as a proportion of the national the early 1950s local authorities were able to
income from 46 to 50 per cent. borrow from the Government, but they have been
THE COST OF PUBLIC SEEVIGBS
(£ million.)
■ Percentage
Percentage
1955. 19G5. increase. of1965.
total.
1955-05.
ExpendUure: 6-6
Defence . . , . . 35 16L
Housing . 1,667
582 934
2,121
Environmental services 240 666 132 40
Eoads, transport, and communica¬ 76
tion . . 352 186
68
Education . 549 1,005 185 7-2
Child care, school meals, milk, and 1,667
welfare foods .... 173
National Health Service 103 1.269 119 90
National Insurance, pensions, and 579
assistance .... 993 336 1-2
11-1
Agriculture . , . 188 217
79
2,413 143 1-8
2-4
External relations . 135 428
Police and prisons 907 247 146
Debt interest .... 101 1,457 61 30
17-2
Other expenditure . .
842 1,649 110
Total expenditure 7.088 14,055 98
84 1000
Bevenue;
Income taxes . . . , 2.287 76 10-4
Indirect taxes . . . 2,177 4,016 73
of which: drink 3.766
588
tobacco . 3S9
es6 52 7-1
28-6
Local rates . . . 475 994
1.230 169 26-8
National Insurance and health 51 8-8
contributions .... 694 184 4-4
120
Other revenue . . . 1,685 44
98
2,124
1,472
Total revenue . 12,821 88
Net borrowing . . . 7.005
1,284
83 8-8
Total expenditure 7,088 14.056 15-1
inoreaaingly forced to borrow from the 91-2

The Government collects in revenue consider¬ 100-0market.
ably more than it spends itself, but transfers funds The two policies of freezing suteidies and making
to the local anthorities, to the National Losurance borrowing more dlfflcnlt have slowed down the
Fund, and to the nationalised industries. The expansion of counoit housing. In 1963, the peak
expenditure of the pubEc sector as a whole gener¬ year, councils built 246,000 houses, in 1960 only
ally exceeds its revenue, and the difference is met 128,000 and in 1966, 166,000. Private building
by net borrowing. has exceeded council building since 1959. and in
A breakdown of public expenditure is shown in 1966 council building represented only 40 per cent
the table. Not aE categories of expenditure of the total.
expanded at the same rate: expenditure on roads,
tremsporfc and communication, education, external Education.
relations, and National Insurance, pensions and
assistance increased faster than the total; and Educational expenditure rose by no less than
expenditiue on defence, debt inters, child care, 186 per cent between 1966 and 1966; and
the agricultural subsidy, and housing fell behind accounted for just over 11 per cent of public
the total. Neverthetess, defence expenditure expenditure in 1965. A small part of the increase
accounted for 16 per cent of the total W.e., 7-5 is explained by the expansion of enrolment; total
per cent of national income) in 1985. school enrolment in Britain increased by only 7
per cent over the decade. In addition, expendi¬
ture rose because the more expensive types of
P ublic Housing.
education — secondary schools and universities —
Expenditure on public housing amoimted to expanded more rapidly. University enrohnent
6-6 per .cent of public expenditure in 1965; this increased by 60 per cent over the decade; but the
percentage having fallen over the decade. Hous- enrolment of 157.000 students in 1966 still did
r'"’''®"
economic EVENTS
Sof'S^nWiS «'?rp‘SS
onil TO 1^' P’’°P°rtion was

Therefore it is to be
eontracted-out.eiployer
In the case of the o^rMted^
(on whom the Sf™
oS- T ^ ^ that expenditure wiU continue to in- whether to contract out rests) must insHtiUp ?
01 ease rapidly m the future. private superannuation scheme that gi™ at least
not enough; f® /fjoprable terms .as the new State schS
there is general recognition thot (lualitatlve re- including the provision that rights under tno
form IS also needed. It is important to reduce transferable up to the Ihnits of
classes— there were on average 29 . .Transferability is the^ran-
FiiS, * 1 tether m primary schools and 18 in that the mdividual does not lose his nensim
secondary schools in 1965. but these averages Jiehts when he changes his job; butonerasads
to i^fee the school-leaving schemes that have
to get rid of the has been their use to tie employees to ttor
Schools inherited from the Victorian ordinary workers the contribution now
eia, and to raise teaching standards by improving hepends on earnings. Those earning less than fc\
the contoions.for recruitment of teactos. a flat-rate contribution which is fowt?
lie increasingly recognised that education can than that paid by contracted-out workers Those
lile? economic investment .for the future just as ®S^5™^ “ore than £9 pay in addition a percenS
as capital fomation in. say. machinery or ®^,.thcJimount by which earnings exceed £9 un to
1 ®^F® ^.8' private returri ” on “ m4st- ? I™'t of £18 and in return receive the right to an
ment in education ’. which takes the form of mcroased pension on retirement.
earnings over the lifetime of the person ^.The scheme is devised partly to encoiira-e
nnu?!^®*^’ 8iid there is a “ social return ” on superaimuation. which is still largely con-
•i?®J°*®'J education, being *c salaried employees and employees of the
tlie^ greater contribution to the national product But one purpose is clear: in return for a
which teamed and educated people can make. pro^se of higher pensions when they retire most
Social Security. ®8y more now.lid
cj 1 sources. thus contribute now to the cost of the ■Denîons nf
retired. The estimated deficit is eliminated
is paid out iiideed the principle is established that the
Nîonal Insurance and Industrial Injury t’Sfm rates of contributions should not be fixed on
These funds are bmlt up largely out of aetorial prmciples but on the principle toat on
i!îi weekly National8dult Insurance con- jpe^lance benefits paid in a year should roughly
population balance receipts. No provision was niad^fo?
^Ployees, both employer and automatically increasing pensions as the wst of
employees receive rights to pensions, for
eo®tobution. in return which bjme goes up or indeed as the average standard*
sickness-, of-hving rises; all changes in rates of beSt still
employed
uneiplojTnpt-.also payandcontributions
other benefits. The self-
of smaller size toqmre a new Act of Parliament. »eiient still
*''^® employer’s and employee’s
contribution, and are not entitled to unemploy- Public Revenue,
■nr., „ t .i. ^ .
ment and one or two other benefits. And most ..„3®,!®®,ii'®P ’'J® table that, of the sources of
non-employed persons, other than married women ^®®8^ rates and National Insurance con-
and the retired, have to pay stUl lower contribu- ’???*' buoyant over the decade.
are entitled to even fewer benefits. ?(^r ,.??,,PSL®®®* public revenue in
Weeldy contributions mclude a contribution to “eo™® tax, which was levied both
J"^® tjational Health Service. on the undistributed profits of
costly benefit is the retirement pen- ^^ês on goods and services
The peMion is paid as of right on retire- i®H?,f 5®*^/^®' fmther 27 per cent. It is inter¬
ment. Individuals may increase their rate of *^8t direct and indirect taxation
^fter the minimum wween national income
leciring age of 66 for men or 60 for women: but 1956 and 1965.
tne numl)er wfio do so for more tlian a year is cwnmodities in particular were heavily
probaWy not niainiy, because tobacco. Together they
most piivate superannuation schemes lay down êr cent of public revenue.
8^®- Supplementary benefits, on îi® pngled out partly for
the other hand, are given on proof of need. The ?°e’8l reasons and partly because — in economists'
high incidence of supplementary benefits— no l^s 'l®i^8nd for them is inelastio; i.e., the
than 2-7_ inimon pei-sons received supplementary eobs>™Ption of drink and to-
teieflts m 1969 of whom 1-7 million were old-age F!£®p° In response to a rise in their
pensioners--shows that national iiwurance benefits taxation mcreased the price of
are often inadequate. It was partly to improve 1*^ I.F ^™es; drink by 0-7 times:
8l>le to afford higher con- 8® cars and washing
®eême for graduated pensions 8^*1 food hardly at all.
was mteodiiced. i or goods^^Juû^y
and services in general, tax raised the
a» qua>rcer.
„
The Emance
Rmance price by roughly a quarter.
ol Social Security.
^ The National Insurance Scheme is an odd mix- The Budget.
tions?whenthesc^m*e'Sari^^to®T9aa°wp™^^
tions, when the s^ê^Sari^1inl948°êra*flteS chSmer Chancel) or of
™ -^sra the (lhancefior of the
the Ex¬
Ex-
on âctuarial principled contete fiscaWea?°“ûl''^pFfi Budget for the coming
on behalf of an Individual pliw TSfled State otat £^® Important and most diffi-
conteibution should on average smê to navd on ®b^®* ^ I® decide
the benefits to which he W^nSd Bnf t^p f®’’- The deficit is the
scheme did not allow for inflh,tion and a supcm nns^t eroenditure over public revenue;
Sion of increases granted in the rato of penSom nriTOto^septar^® tomced by borrowing from the
has put an end to this actuarial privity ^ When- smnpttaipf tw .if large deficit is inflatfonary:
ever a biU is introduced to inor^se nMjainnR thp may be reqiured to get the eco-
contribSioM Md be"d ta otoer^dt S htatog “d'i^ânl^f

s-afSfffi wtsar..siS«S “ ■»
retired. It was always êctedthat^dnm^ bftcFd tT,ta * out of credit that people
her of retired persons grew the fund îfid ^ve H ®88ily Predictable,
into deficit; but with each rtee to nen^nuF^fhP depends on the change to the foreign
estimated Size of the future de™?t haB*^n The flmreR f^® 5’^8nceUor be sure his
schme
lective offorreducing
graduated
this pensions
deficit also had the ob- ment
and'pvpn^MWpn®®*‘““8lmg
IS difficult enough, next
but he
® expraditure, yearthe
needs
by tos estimate
revenue,
Govern¬
UNDERDEVELOPED ECONOMIES G26 ECONOMIC EVENTS
also the likely trends of priyate income and ex¬ Paper, published twice a year. Fuller informa¬
penditure, without really reliable information as tion on labour problems is given in the Employ¬
to what they were in the past year. So it cannot ment and Froducliviiy Gazette, on trade in the
be expected that fiscal policy alone can prevent Board of Trade Journal, and on financial matters
inflation and deflation. m the BanB of England Quarterly BuUetin. These
Nevertheless, flsail policy — ^running large defi¬ three periodicals include discussions on the
cits when economic activity is low, and small ones statistics presented. An important new Govern¬
when it seems to be excessively high — is the most ment annual publication in 1970 was Social
important action through which the economy can Trends, containing articles and detailed statistics
be kept on an even keel. Monetary policy may on social and economic conditions in Bri tain.
help; but the decision of the ChanceUor on the For an analysis of developments in the economy
size of his Budget surplus is the key one. see the official Economic Report, published just
before the Budget by the Treasury, and the
Ecmomic Rerietc, a private publication issued by
6. SOXTRCBS OF STATISTICS, AND SOME tiie National Institute for Economic and Social
StJGOESTIONS FOR FURTHER BEADING Research. To explain economic events and policy
the Treasury publishes a monthly Progress Report,
The non-specialist will find that most of the available free of charge to the public.
statistics he needs are given in the Annual Absirad For a scholarly critique of Government economic
of Statistics, published every year by Her Majesty’s policy see J. G. R. Dow, Management of the British
Stationery Office. This comprehensive document Economy IMb-W {Cambridge University Press).
include figures on population, social comlitions, ^ excellent. North American, survey of the
education, labour, production, trade and balance British economy is found in the Brookings Insti¬
of payments, national income and expenditure, tution Report. Britain's Economic Prospects,
wages and prices, and many other topics. For ecUted by Richard E. Caves (George AUen and
more up-to-date information, reference should unvin). An entertaining account of economic
be made to the Monthly Digest of Statistics which ideas and their application is found in Michael
has a similar coverage and gives month-by¬ Stewart, Kenjnes and After (Penguin Books).
month figures. A selection of the more important OtheT Pelicans include Joan Robinson, Economic
series, presented in a manner which can more nUosophy, and J. Pen. Modern Economics. A
easily be understood by the layman, is given in thorough explanation of international monetary
another Stationery Office publication. Economic affairs is given in Fred Hlrsch.. Money Inter-
Trends, also issued monthly. nationM^ (Aten Lane). B. J, Mishan In Growth:
Even greater detail is given In various other The Price We Pay (Staples Press) produces an
Government publications, e.g. in the Blue Book on interesting criticism of economists’ and politi¬
National Income and Expenditure, published cians
affluence.obsession” with economic growth and
annually: and the Balance of Fayments Mhite
III. THE UNDERDEVELOPED ECONOMIES

Income Levels. Agricultural production may be kept down by a
shortage ofland, or by alack of fanning knowledge
Two-thirds of the world’s population live in dire Md skills, or by a lack of funds for investment in
poverty— a poverty which can scarcely be lEM improvements or machinery, or by an unjust
miagined by those accustomed to the standards system of land tenure which deprives the farmer
of living attained in the rffiatively few developed of incentive to raise his production. In many
countries of the world. The orders of world
underdeveloped countries there is considerable
mequality may be seen from the table comparing
annual Income per capita by region, converted potential for increasing agricultural output: but
into pounds sterling at official exchange rates. before such increases can be achieved new qMiia
have to_ be mastered and different techniques of
NATIONAL INCOME PER CAPITA prodmôn introduced; investment funds have to
BY REGION, 1963. be prodded, and — în some countries — there must
be land reform. If power lies in the hands of
landlords and money-lenders who favour the
(£ p. a.) stains QUO, political change must come first.
Nort h -America . . 443 The Population Problem.
Oceania . . . . 882
350
107 In many underdeveloped coimtries there ia
Europe . . , .
Latin America . . population pressure on the land and much under-
43 eaiployinent in the sense that people have in¬
Middle East . . . 93
36 sufficient work to keep them occupied for more
Africa . ...
Asia (excl. Japan) . . . than part of the day or year. With the appU-
mion of modern methods of disease control — e.g.,
the eradication of malaria through DDT spra^nng
;êath rates have tended to faU. while birth rates
These figures are only very approximate because have remained high. Birth ratM are kept up by
exchange rates are misleading indicators of pur¬ mch factors as tradition, social prestige, religion,
chasing power and because the averages conceal pe need for security in old age. and a lack of
considerable income inequalities within some faemtles for family planning. In consequence,
regions and countries. Nevertheless, it is clear many underdeveloped countries are experiencing
that poverty is widespread in the world. The an unprecedented population explosion: auTiiTal
alleviation of this poverty is widely recognised as rat^ of increase of between 2 and 3 per cent,
the most important economic— and indeed which double population in as little as 36 and 24
pohtlcal— task of the second half of tlie twentieth years respectively, have been recorded.
century.
The teble indicates that over half of the world’s
population lives in Asia, and that the devdoped
Peasant Agriculture. regi^ account for imder a third of the total
from Australasia (into which immigration is
"Underdeveloped” (or "developing” or high) the developed regions show slower rates of
leM developed ' or “poor”) countries have population growth than Africa. Latin America,
predominantly agricultural economies, and and Asia. The figures of population density may
peasant sttbsisience agriculture is widespread. In easily be misinterpreted, since they take no
subsistence agriculture the primary object is to amount of the nature of the area, e.g., deserts and
produce the food for your own family^ Primitive lakes are included. But it is clear that Asia is
tools and techniques of cultivation are used, and more densely populated than Africa or Latin
the margin between what can be product and America. Population density is a hindrance only
what is required to support life Is narrow: the m agricultural economies: hecause it is in-
feflnre of crops because of drought, or the destruc¬ dustriallaed and has accumulated much capital.
tion of crops by floods or pests, can lead to famine Europe can support at a high standard of Uving a
unless food is quickly supplied from outside the population more concentrated even than that of
area affected.
.Asia, ■ '■■■ ' ■ ■
UNDERDEVELOPED ® economic
ECONOMIES even
G26 countries with a surplusts
of
POPULATION SIZE. GROWTH AND I iMd,
8( provi-des a
DENSITY BY REGION la If there IS heavy dependence on
om orliwi
- •' <• iiJuuBijriausaiiion nrovidpq a
Growth
Popula-
T>„ 1 “ UpTiRitv
iQRQ Bi^DS
-r, of diversifying the economy.
industrialisatio n is not an easv cmircq
1960H38
(% n a 1 sn feer and Snd®*?n
tani auction and food consumption agricultural
is narrow pr^ thp
- - America
North — - -— - - - U _ * from the aîcultural sector exchangeable
Europe America
North 809 1-8 13 products of other sectors — e.p., industry
USSR
Europe 465 0-9 fil and services— is small: ie., the dem^d fo? tS
DSSE
Oceania 238 1-3 11 produced by otterlectors fa
Oceania
Africa 19 2T 2 4 ^'ônd constraint on industrialisation is
Africa
South America 386 1-4 ™Ppsed by competition from ahmd: new in?
South
Asia America 180 2-7 10 underdeveloped country have to
TForld Total
Asia
TForld Total 1946 2-0 vi compete with established industries in develonpfi
3483 1-9 Id
_ _ and markets big enOuSi fS
”” ^ - - ap?^ reap all the potential economies of large-
nrâiim t“
Of rapid population growth the labour
increased, developed
may countries ^t^lihei^^relatlvelV
have an advanteê 'Siran
in the prMlupHnS
Wn Ij?ss productive
o^tivauion, and erosion land has of simple labour-intensive nroduets^^^tnpoq+Sa
and loss success of Hong TTnpg in esportinir tS-Hit^
mwfSio? “arease
• become major problems. A plastic products to the dweSed ^mripq
in output is reauired to pre- Underdeveloped countries
vent a fall m per capita income as population advantage can of pmww
of the technical ndynTippo
Hrfn,?' greater increase is reauired if developed countries. But this is not^thn?(-^f
Between drawbacks. Even in comtr™ with
I960 and 1967 food production m th© developiiiff tho most nrofitablp f,p/»‘hninnna la W
/^4^
but per capita food production rose by only 1 per that the amount of toveSirt^Ss mXrnd te
e^nt. Even m those countries with plenty of equip a worker is ofim enôusmifl
lo pir e’en®
IwPch^Sf ^ increase m populationBydiverts scarce of employment provided in meetins thîoSi
Hy
tive investments p PJ’oduc-
such as factories and irrigation demand for a man^tu^d ^rod^t is oA-pp
small. Hence the a^mnmt Fm rtpypippipy
SmninHn^ ^ needs of the expanding intermediate technology which is both p?ofiLblp
Educated Manpower.
International Trade.
mitodeveloped countries are faced
^most all underdeveloped countries export with
the dual problem of unskilled labour surpluses
primary products (foodstuffs, industrial raw sMed and educated manpower. The and
materials, and minerals) and import manufactured
mqblem is particularly acute in some of the
goods, especially the capital goods (plant ly mdependent countries of Africa. recent?
mactenem imd veldcles) required for develop- To m
menc. Tins intemational diT^tsion of labour
m W6^ Zambia hadrI’' of its independ
only 100 Zambian ence
university
recently* operated to tlie disadvantage
underdeveloped countries. The world demand of the
lor their înwy products has increased only very o milbon.
educated Inand
such skilled
countries the
people
secondary school graduates in
pf people spend just a small
^ because Income ?nonufaHS?nf Bigh ineomes— with the
part of their additional on food (e.g., tea,
OTtoe, cocoa), because synthetic substitutes have *A*^®*^® unequal distribution of
bem devMoped for many raw materials (e.a., 1 Bi countries
existence where
of an surpluses
international
rubber, cotton, mte). because developed countries
protect imeir own agriculture {e.g., sugar) people like doctors and
and
becaiKe demand in the developed countries
has
moved towMds commodities with low
raw
from heavy industries to
coi^??M '“P.fBeir earnings: these
tBe general trend has
i... teqehers are educated can
people,
be education
very ex-
*Be_prIe^ of primary products to fall.
Thte was ^ important cause of the improvement
m Bntam s terms of trade {see m). The ^ the relevant age-group were at
reverse primary school and only
of the com was a detenoration in the terms ^ 2 only
per 46
cent
per were of
cent at
of trade r^ll^"”™ B966
th^ôwiflrS?
of m^y underdeveloped countries, i.e., they
could Sopfd
imports for a given quantity of tea ?®^ *Be
®®“^salary
*Bebin paiddomestic
gross to their
e:ôrt8. Primary commodities exported
by
deveteplng countries decreased in price oh average S^fBe (.5,®' dOTMds
/I such circumstances it is difficult to
especially if ê sortforofuniversal primary education
primary education provided ;
*Be period 1957-62, and in-
°Bly 4 per cent between 1962 and 1968. *,0 become better farmers,
development is not just a matter of
Over the period 1967-68 their terms of ff rsaufres also an increase
trade
By 12 êr cent. This contributed to the in ednrated manpower. Not only more
which restricts In- know-
new tebits and attitudes^4i.,
OOTmWes ^^^“‘Biture m many underdeveloped

of wiouss primary the right sort and with
products tend to fhHft
content— is ’^sB-takmg. hard work, toand
fluctuate violently from one year to generally acknowledged be
another development, although the benefits
Many underdeveloped economies depend
on the exports of one or two commodit hea^y
ies. For
most important product in
Bi Zambia, sugar
Economic
factOTUy Aid. cannot be quantified at aU satls-
Crhana, and rice In Burma,
world price of its main export between living standards in the under-
*Be export revenues of a aliens of the world and in the areas
*Bis in turn can produce fluctuations
m income throughout its domestic economy. ^ready devffioped has tended to widen in recent
^®
m the developed real income per capita rose
countries by 2-7 per cent per
Industrialisation.
2’3 per centF®per
*Be annum.
underdeveIt
loped
was
ia
is population pressure on countries where there
the land, altemativ.' rftw?B a Mowing world recognition of this
em loyment has to he created United Nations Development Decade.”
in industry or But
UnjtpJP^w^Hn '''^®^® designated “The
ONDERDEVEI-OPE0 ECONOMIES G: :7 ECONOMIC EVENTS
between 1960 and 1968 these rates of growth The International Bank.
widened to 4-0 and 2-3 per cent per annum The International Bank for Eeconstmction and
respectively. World inequalities increased des¬
pite a larger flow of economic assistance from the Development '(IBED) known ss the International
Bank or as the World Bank, is an agency of the
richer to the poorer nations. The total net flow United Nations established in 1945. It has the
of economic assistance from Western industrial primary function of making funds available to
countries to the developing world was over £5,600 assist underdeveIoi)ed countries. Member nations
million in 1969. Eonghlj- £2,600 mfllion of this agree to subscribe quotaa — fixed in much the same
was net private investment, and £3,000 million
oflicial Government aid. But whereas total aid way as the quotas for the IMP — to the Bank. In
fact, only a small proportion of the quotas has
increased rapidly in the 1950s, the increase was been called up by the Bank: the major part of the
not continued in the 1900s: total aid in 1966 was
no higher than the estimate for 1961. Almost Fund’s resources are borrowed — on the security
half of the oificial Government aid in 1969 was of the remainder of the quotas — in financial
centres: particularly In New York, but also in
contributed by the United States; the other liondon and elsewhere.
principal donors were Prance, West Germany,
Japan and Britain, in that order. Usually, loans are made to finance specific pro¬
jects of investment in underdeveloped countries:
Aid to underdeveloped countries takes many and the Bank will normally make a loan only if it
forms, it serves many purposes, and it is given for is satisfied that the investment will yield a revenue
many reasons. Underdeveloped countries need sufficient to enable the payment of interest on the
aid to provide finance for development projects: loan, and the repayment of the sum lent. In
to provide foreign exchange with which imports 1970 the Bank made loans to the value of about
for development purposes can be bought: and to £700 mOUon. Thus a sizeable amount of lending
provide the trained manpower and technical is cfrannelled through the Bank, but it is clear that
knowledge which they lack. The motives of the some projects of great value to underdeveloped
donor are not always humanitarian. “ Aid ” can coimtries cannot be financed in this way, because
take a military form; it can be used to prop up an they would not yield returns quickly or large
incompetent or unjust government, or to buy
support in the cold war. Nor is aid always enough to meet the Bank’s stringent requirements
for interest and repayment. Accordingly a new
beneficial to the recipient country. It may be
institution, the Internaiional Berelopmenl Asso¬
wasted on ill-conceived or prestige projects, or ciation, was set up in 1960 with the power to make
cause the Government simply to relax its own loans at low rates of interest and with more
efforts. Sometimes schools or hospitals are built
with aid but there is a lack of local revenues with generous repayment conditions. The IDA con¬
tributes (but only on a limited scale) towards the
which to staff and run these institutions. Concern development of education and agriculture.
over donors’ motives and instances of waste has
led some people to react against aid-giving. How¬ Unotad.
ever, the correct remedy is not to cut off aid but
rather to prevent its misuse. In 1964 the United Nations Conference on Trade
One form of aid Ls private investment by firms and Development (UNOTAD) was held. For the
and individuals from developed countries. These first time the poorer nations of the world — 77 were
investments — setting up branch factories, for represented — came together to act as a pressure
group on trading matters. The Conference made
example— are concentrated in those projects which the following recommendations. Developing
appear profitable to the investor. However, it is
a characteristic of underdevelopment that there countries should be given freer access to world
are few openings for profitable investment. Most markets for their manufactures and semi-manu¬
of the U.K. private investment overseas, for factures by the elimination of quotas and tariffs.
example, has been concentrated in relatively International commodity agreements should he
highly developed countries of the sterling area. made for each major primary commodity in world
Private investment cannot be relied upon to trade, to stabilise commodity prices. Compen¬
provide an adequate flow of aid. sation schemes — ^whereby countries are compen¬
sated for the declining prices of their primary
Donor governments may finance specific pro¬
jects. or they may contribute to the general pool products — ^were recommended for consideration.
The conference also resolved that the developed
of funds availahle for expenditure by the govern¬
ments of vmderdeveloped countries. But financial countries should aim to provide at least 1 per cent
aid is not always enough. Most underdeveloped of their national income as aid for the under¬
developed countries.
countries need help and advice In planning their
Nothing concrete resulted from the 1964
development, to ensure that development possi¬ Session: no significant trade measures in favour
bilities are exploited and that scarce resources are
used to best advantage. Hence the many of the developing countries were taken, and the
schemes for providing experts by individual international transfer of financial resources dimini¬
countries and by the technical agencies of the shed in relation to the Income of the developed
countries. A second Session of the Conference
United Nations, such as the Pood and Agriculture
was held in 1968. Again, no action resulted from
Organisation (PAO). the World Health Organi¬
sation (WHO), the International Labour the Session; but the developed countries did
accept more firmly the principle of discrimination
Organization (ILO), the United Nations Educa¬ m favour of developing coimtries in trade and
tional. Scientific, and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO), the Technical Assistance Board shipping, and the 1 per cent target for aid,
(UNTAB) and so on Hence also the schemes for
educating and training people from the developing British Aid.
countries in imiversities and colleges in the The table shows how British Government aid
developed countries. to underdeveloped countries has increased in
BEITISH GOtrEENMENT AID. 1967/8 TO 1969/70.
Bilateral Aid
per as per-
eapita centage
£ ofGNP
ECONOMIC EVENTS
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960 G28
re<Miit years. It -was fairly constant before 1 957/8 Tepbmcal Co-operation (DTC) was set up in
1961
but mOTe than tripled to £213 million in the decade Brit^ Government expenditure on technical
assistance amounted to £44 milling in 1969 At
follo-mng 1957/8. Aid per capita of the British the end of 1969 British technical assistance
PbPination nearly tripled, and amounted to
peispimei overseas totalled altogether 12 090
(excluding volunteers recruited by voluntary
•j
aid_ headas Ina 1967/8.
is expressed percentage of the when
Ho-we-yer, gross
societies): over 1,600 administrators,
national product (6KP), we see that the per¬ 5 000
teachers, 1,000 agricultural advisers, 3,000 indus-
centage Increased from 0-33 of 1 per cent in 1957/8 trim and technological advisers, and 1,200 doctors
to 0-66 of 1 per cent in 1960/1, remained at that and medical workers.
level uidll 1966/7 and then f^. To be just 1 per In 1964 the labour Government established
GKP, aid would have to be raised by about
£100 mihlon. Aid may be divided Into multi¬ an Overseas Development Ministry (ODM),
lateral aid and bilateral aid. Multilateral aid is through which all British aid was channelled and
pven through the medium of the international hut inthe1970
iîtutions, such as the IBED and the IDA;
pp-ordlnatted;absorbed
Governmen into Conserva^
ODM the e
the Foreign
Office. The amount of aid which ought to be
bilateral aid is given directly to the developing
comtrles. Multilateral aid was still only £24 pro-yided has become a political Issue in some
1969/70. The increase in aid since countries such as the Hnited States: thankfully
1957/8 has taken place in bilateral aid. Whereas this has not occurred in Britain.
loans were fairly negligible in 1957/8, they in-
cjeased rapidly, and exceeded grants from
1964/6. Some Suggestions for Farther Reading.
For an introduction to the subject the reader is
It must be remembered in deciding the terms on
which Government aid is proidded. that the referred to Jagdish Bhagwati, The Economies of
foreign mdebtedness of the developing countries Underdeve loped Gountries (World University
labrexy). An interesting accoimt of life in rnrai
« _ increasing sharply. About four-fifths of Didia
British loans is made available for 20 years or fe found in Kusum Nair, Blossoms in the
Dust (Duckworth). On Asia the reader may wii
more._ Normally the rate of interest on these to mp into the three volumes of Gunnar Myrdal
loans IS the rate at which the British Grovemment
can borrow on the capital market. However, ^titled As%an Drama: An Enquiry into &
the Government decided in 1965 to make develop- êrty of NtttAons (Alan lane. The Penguin
Press). A helpful introduction to African prob¬
:^nt loans free of Interest in appropriate cases.
About a third of expenditure on aid is formally lem is found in Andrew M. Kamarok, The Econo¬
wed to the purchase of British goods and services. mics of African Development (Praeger). The
Other aid is not tied formally, and may be used Overaeas Development Institute has published a
number of pamphlets on aid topics, including The
êctly to finance local expenditure: but when it
IS used to finance imports directly, it has to be :Uss Devdoped Gountries in World Trade, British
spent on British goods if these are available on Development Policies, and Volunteers in Develop¬
competitive terms. Multflatei^ ^d is untied. ment. The Ministry of Overseas Development
of British Aid StatisUcs
The tying of aid tends to raise the costs to develop¬
ing countries: but it also enables countries with (BM80). The Report of the Commission on
precarious foreign balances— such as Britain — to International Development, Partners in Develop-
be more generous. mera, (the Pearson Report, 1969) reviews the
-Aid takes the form not only of financial but also problems of the Im developed countries and
of technical assistance. To co-ordinate and pro¬ makes recommendations for their solution by
mote technical assistance the jOepartment of i means of aid policies.
IV. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE BRITISH ECONOMY

SINGE ig6o.
1. INTEIENATIONAL DEVEXOPMEMTS POTted goods.. These developments might be
The Balance of Payments. interpreted as mdlcating the adverse effects on the
bataoe of payments of internal expansion. No
The balance of payments problem dominated doubt Imports wfll Increase as the economy
events in the British economy in the 1960s. It is expands; but it can be argued that sudden and
therefore important to analyse the balance of pay¬ very rapid bursts of expansion, as in 1969-60, will
ments in some detail, to understand the ciroum- have a much greater effect on imports than would
stances which led to the devaluation of the pound
in 1967 and the transformation of the balance of a steadier and more sustained gro-wth.
In the following two years. Imports were steady
payments after 1968.
at about the 1960 level: the internal economy -was
Developments may be followed in the table, relatively stagnant, partly because restrictive
showing the balance of payments in the new form measures had been adopted to curb demand at
of presentation Introduced in 1970. In the old home and protect the bailee of payments.
presentation (see 67) a distinction was made be¬ Imports were sharply up by over £250 milUon in
tween the basic balance (current plus long term 1963 with the rapid expansion of national expendi¬
capital account) and short term monetary move¬ ture, but there was a slightly larger Increase in the
ments. But it became increasingly difacult to value of exports.
make this distinction because of the growing Mie surplus on invisible trade, which had ex¬
variety and intricacy of capital movements. ceeded £300 million in the early and middle fifties,
Instead, a line was drawn between the totdl cur¬ ranged between
rency flow (current account plus all capital flows) sixties (see 67). £100 and £200 million in the eatfr
and ofnoial financing. If the total currency flow
13 negative, this means that the authorities have
to finance the deficit either bv borrowing from the (il) The Capital Account.
IMF or other monetary authorities or by drawing on
the official reserves of gold and foreign exchange. Capital flows may be di-rided into official long-
term capital BowSi net private investment, and
Developments up to 1964 vmous monetary movements, trade credit,
(i) The Current Account. changes in the sterling balances (see 68) and Euro-
doilar transactions (see 633). There was a fairly
The deterioration in the current balance of pay¬ steady offlolal long-term capital outflow in the
ments of well over £400 million between 1969 and 1960s and a less steady net private investment
1060 was maiiily attributable to an increase of abroad.
nearly £500 million in imports: exports also in¬ Most volatile were the monetary movements.
creased but not by enough to pay for the increased For instance, there would have been a large deficit
imports. _ The main cause was the upsurge in in the currency flow in 1960 had it not been for a
demand in 1969-60. During the upsurge, pro¬ mihstantial inflow of short-term funds (i.e., addi¬
ductive capacity at home became strained, and tions to our short-term liabilities). The sterling
some goods were ImpcMrted to supplement home balances rose by an unprecendented amount
supphes. Stocks of imported goods were run of over £400 mUUon. This was largely due to
dp^ in 1969 and replenished in 1960. And wecffiatlon against the dollar, based on fears that
higher incomes meant hiêr demands for imit might be devalued. So . great was the inflow
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960 ECONOMIC EVENTS
G23
BALAIJCB OP PAYaiENTS 19fi0-70
(£ million)
-671
-363
-695 -+74S —134
-339 -1.410
-339 -669 -+1.420
Total eurrency ■fl92
[B1 BBl
■f293 -+15
-375 -+506 —44
fiom -116 -+489
-+357 : —so
Net borrowing -f870 -+895 -+790 -1.161
-+110 -+294
-34 -125
-+216
from IME*
Other net bor¬ _ _ _ _
4-5
-+816
rowing*
Transfer from —31 —246 -743
portfolio to 1 -177 -+115
-+122
reserves * -1,420
Change in re¬ -+■68 -+671
-192 -+G96 -+591
serves * -293
-1-339 -+353 -+1.410
Total official
financing *
• A plus sign denotes a rise in liabilities or a fall in aêts. and a minus sign a fall in liabilities or a
rise in assets.
that there was a curious combination of a very two-thirds of the total rise in import value. This
large deficit on current account and a substantial leads us to the conclusion that home producers
rise in our reserves of gold and convertible were losing ground in the British market to foreign
currencies. competitors. In the same way. the disappointing
The dangers inherent in the flnanctng of deficits performance of exports was due, not to lack of
throu^ additions to short-term liabilities were overseas demand— world trade in manufactures
vividly demonstrated the following year. Much rose by about 15 per cent in 1964 — but to the
of the funds which moved in during 1960 was diminishing competitiveness of British products.
moved out again before July 1961 in a wave of
speculation against sterling. The outflow was
financed partly by running down reserves of gold (l)Bemedial Measures.
and convertible currencies by £280 million be¬ The timing of Government action on. the balance
tween end-1960 and July 1961. and partiy through of payments position was influenced by the
the Basle agreement under which Europiean central
General Election of mid-October. The out-going
banlss undertook to build up short-term holdings Government had been concerned with the Im-
in centres (London in this case) fixm which ftmds
were being withdrawn. The rapid drain on the pendh^ Election, and argued that the deficit was
reserves had to be stopped; and the European abnormal and could be expected to improve with¬
out remedial action. On taking office, Iffie new
central banks were not prepared to see their Government decided that immediate remedial
sterling holdings rise much hiêr. So in duly
action was necessary. Three courses were
1961 a aeries of crisis measures — induding the possible. It could devalue the pound and so
raising of Bank Bate to 7 per cent — ^were taken,
primarily to protect sterling. In addition, Improve the comiwtitive position of British ex¬
arrangements were made to withdraw over £600 ports and import-substitutes (see G8), But a
million from the IMP with provision for further devaluation was seen to have disadvantês.
The price of necessary imports would be Increased
credits if necessary. In 1962, apeculative move¬ and this would lower the British standard of
ments of funds were much less violent. Aided
living; the ensuing wage demands would make it
by a substantial improvement in the currmt
balance ofpayments. Britain was able to complete more difficult to implement an Incomes Boilcy-^
which is an altmnative method of improving the
repaymente of its IMP drawing. These repay¬ British competitive position in world markets (see
ments did, however Involve a drain on the re¬ G88). Enrthermore, the devaluation of the
serves; and this explains the substantial fall in pound might have jBoesaitated the devaluation of
the reserves over the year.
other currenoies including the dollar: this would
have defeated the purpose of the devaluation.
The 1964 Crisis. I These real arguments against devaluation are not
, to be confused with the spurious, argument that
Imports in 1064 were some £640 million higher : devahmtiem is somehow morally wrong. A
than in 1963, whereas exports were up by less than second possible course of action was to reduce
£200 million. The remarkable increase In the imports to a sarisfeotory level by the deflation of
value of imports cannot be explained simply as a the economy. However, national income would
rise in Import prices: imports Increased by 16 have to fall by a multiple of the required cut in
per cent in value and by 11 per cent in volume. imports. Deflation was rejected because it would
Nor can it be seen merely as a response to the cause unemployment and because it was con¬
expansion of the economy; if imports had done sidered to provide only a short-term solution to
no more than rise In line with output, they would Britain’s economic problems: somehow the foreign
have increased in volume only by about 4 per cent. Imbalance had to be corrected without impeding
Part of the explanation lies in the fact that the growth of output and productivity. A third
importers were stockbuilding after the depletion course of action was to Impose import controls or
of raw material stocks during the boom of 1963. tariffs and export subsidies. ImiWrt controls
More important, however, is the fact that imports were rejected: for one reason, it would take time
of manufactured goods rose by 28 per cent, or to set up the necessary admlidstrative rhachinery.
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960
pPOrt tarffl aSd^fn Simil? goods. The “amifactured
to flcfbeeJ^T^ i4'“™es ffih had f perÎnThlghtf ^^hu

temporary surcharge of 15 per centoâJlImoortR million in 1965 tS
of manufactures and semi-manufactures' the ahitr account was also cut consider
more necessary imports such ^ foS^s i?d “derail deficit in tS
vûl “ extorts ttot of&ite ”l964

it”cin’^hî’^“ ^ E®’^^^m?mbers' boreow from^ the°TT®^t SdTo
argued that Britain ceaJed suocessfuUy^con-

strmntR on^frarit® removing re- rapidly inthe second ha^fnf i improved
o?m TU- pS ®«ttmg tariffs within EPTA died away. of 1965, the speculation
baiTiera wiU
Bntish contnûteloêffldency
industries by TOiSecttaf
to stffler compItffloT Bv Progi'ess
®PPfi<ience did pound
in the not continue
waHmSe? into
at hossible to argue that we°iio5d
that“^®® impose greater restraints on imports so Ihtânother
and this M li/al^nTo
the n occurred:
capital June!
toat econonuc growth can occur witS being frtniw nf pS? ^^®mment in panic to introduce
tempered by balance of payiSnte SciStfes th^ » ,P*^®^®se-deal kn™M
the GATT measures i™'o
allows parties in ha?“
Dalance of payments diffifnlffp«! oiinTOorô a
directlyf aîSuction^ nf^tifp?^'® personal travel
payments
to resort to tariff restriction (see G9) "Rpcrpt outside the sterling area to £50 ner
ch.«„.™,.„o„„,tt.to.p pr£a„,“;s.“tSc‘a‘?',sr
F Connell dectemdttempm^^ru: ^
freeze introduced 9“^^ Government over!
at the sLie tiiSe
of fho i^vernment lending. Part Imports rose in value by over 6 ner opuf
nf fn2 PriTOte capital outflow in the first half ®ôrts fell in value by nearlv « nor
tte second abnormal and part hi 1966 and 1967. ThuT Sie trade famwMeh had
ihp i*®®!! related to ®io®®«i m 1966 widened to a reoimi wi
IflM “:?h capital Inflow in the êe in Imprata waa the removalof
STCraSaafl?fi %.SSS'‘ “"anced the srowlne topott anpohaiee in the pteSS^SSJ
tlotoS¥n3ai*5“S_.rfc»ll>!«ccln«sPeola- S?5KaScia?^g^f«r“»|
S!!®!*?!?
irtth Brttiiih iSjnctt. ffiStiSg!
S” “ wSiLT-Fff SiS»-tS“Sg
asfMCpS K‘“l' pS-silSHSI
iiilliSsraas iSiSsSi
to" pSSh? “ Gnomes
Prfn^®®^® ofbyZurich
êctoators hold- ttealnuixency flow over the year was £670 So^
•’—and by ®f ’«’toeh perhaps £200-400 mlS was dte fn
iiPSi^sipsi
5H™i<‘f «»Wanato^'SSS^' iffiS' °”»''““»n 01 tta Pound, leej.
3SS$SSS» relative to home-produced goods, and

so demand
Events Beading to Devaluation, . b^t WetTof
eê^ to ^ln*^md'’®® stockbuilding of 1964 had will aotuailv^r^p^®to*^®^®^°^®V

cnm. devaluation
to «! end. „d partis
,n. S.S^'^fl.SLTir
fSS
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960 GS 1 ECONOMIC EVENTS
amount: Britain exports its products in a highly months money equal to half (later 40 and then 30
competitive market, so that the reduced price of per cent) of the value of certain imports. The
British goods in terms of foreign currencies should improvement in the balance of payments enabled
lead to a considerable increase in the amount of the Government at the start of 1970 to abolish the
exports. restrictions on expenditure by British residents
This improvement in the trade balance depends on travel outside the Sterling Area, and at the end
on Britain being able to retain at least part of the of 1970 to abolish the import deposit scheme.
price advantage gained by devaluation. How¬ Between 1969 and 1970 exports grew in volume
ever, since devaluation raises the price of imported by 5-5 per cent and in value by 12 iwr cent; hut
goods, it raises the cost of living both directly and this was slower than the growth of world exports
indirectly, e.a., imported raw materials rise in as a whole. British imports also grew rapidly:
price, so increasing production costs, which are the increase in volume (7 per cent) being far
passed on as higher prices. The trade unions greater than the increase in the real income of the
react to this cut in the standard of living by de¬ economy (1-5 per cent). For only the seventh
manding wage increases. In this way a spiralling
inflation can occur which entirely neutralises the time since 1800, Britain’s visible trade was actu¬
ally in surplus in 1970!
gain from devaluation. Devaluation makes an The surplus on current account was no less than
incomes policy both more difficult and more £440 million in 1969 and £631 million in 1970.
important {see G371. But this improvement in current accomit after
On November 18, 1967, the pound was devalued 1968 came more from invisibles than from trade.
by 14-3 per cent, from $2.8 to $2.4 to the £. De¬ In 1969 the suiphjs on the invisible account was
valuation was anticipated by si)eciflators, and on £580 million and in 1970 £628 million ; the most
the day before, there was a run on the pound said improved components being private services (c.g.,
to be greater than any previously experienced. financial, insurance, and travel services) and net
The devaluation was unfortunately delayed by income from abroad. The total currency flow
the need to achieve international co-operation so was transformed from an enormous deficit in 1968
as to prevent a flurry of competitive devaluations. (when the authorities borrowed £1,300 million) to
As it was, only a few minor currencies — încluding a large surplus of £740 million in 1969 and one of
those of Denmark, Hong Kong, Ireland, Jamaica, £1.420 million in 1970.
New Zealand, and Spain — were devalued with Was the Improvement in the balance of iiay-
sterling. It was also agreed among central ments after 1968 an indication that the policy
bankers that Britain should be given credits of of devaluation had eventually succeeded? The
up to $3,000 million, including $1,400 million efficacy of devaluation can only be judged after a
standby credit from the IMF {see G8). This credit few years, and then with difficulty since we need
protected the reserves against speculation; but it to know what woifld have happened in the absence
would have to be paid hack out of balance of of devaluation. Economists have not produced a
payments surpluses over the next few years. imanimouB answer. It was still possible that in
Devaluation increases the demand for domestic¬ 1971 a reflation of the economy and the expected
ally produced goods and services: imports are re¬ stock-building (raising imports), the slower growth
placed by local substitutes and foreign demand for of world trade (curtailing exports), and an acceler¬
British goods increases. This switch hi demand ated wage-price spiral of inflation (reducing com-
reauires also a switch in scarce resources — ^labour l)etitiveness) would renew the balance of payments
and capital — înto the exporting and import substi¬ difficulties that had dogged the economy in the
tuting industries. If the new demand is to be met. 1960s.
To release resources for these industries it is neces¬
sary to reduce the demand for resources elsewhere Britain’s Debt Eepayments.
in the economy. Accordingly, the devaluation
was accompanied by a series of deflationary At the end of 1968 the British (Sovemment had
measures (see G41). short- and medium-term debts outstanding to
central banks and the IMF of no less than £3,360
million. This represented about 10 per cent of the
Improvement after Devaluation. national income in 1968 and compared with gold
In his Letter of Intent to the IMF immediately and foreign exchange reserves of only £1,010
after devaluation the Chancellor stated the million. In 1969. however, the surplus on the
Government’s aim £500
to improve current account, the inflow of short-term funds
ments by at least million the balanceHowever,
a year. of pay¬
and a large positive “ baJancing
progress after devaluation was disappointing and unrecorded transactions {see theitem ” reflecting
table on G89)
fell far short of official expectations. The current enabled the Government to reduce its indebted¬
account showed a deficit for 1968 of £319 million: ness by £700 mUlion. The continued improve¬
no Improvement on the deficit for 1967 of £312 ment in the balance of payments in 1970 and the
million. Moreover, this improvement came on first allocation of Special Drawing Bights {see G33)
the Invisible and long-term capital accounts: the enabled the Chancellor to announce in his April
trade gap actually widened considerably. The budget that the outstanding debts were down to
value of exports rose by 20 per cent between 1967 £1,650 million whUe the reserves stood at £1,130
and 1968, 8 per cent in price and 12 per cent In million. By December 1970 outstanding debts
volume. But less than half of the increase in had fallen to £1,370 million and the reserves were
volume was due to devaluation, since world trade £1.180 million.
was growing rapidly. Despite the devaluation the
volume of Imports rose by no less than 7 per cent, Overseas Investment.
outstripping the growth of output, and largely At the end of 1967 the total stock of private
because of devaluation Import prices rose by 11 long-term investment by the TTnlted Kingdom
per cent: so that imports increased in value by overseas was estimated at £11,600 million and in¬
by 18 per cent. vestment by overseas companies in the United
The balance of payments was transformed in Kingdom at £4,966 million. In that year the
1969, improving strongly throughout the year. United Kingdom received income of £1 .019 million
One reason for the improvement was a statistical from its overseas investments and paid out £600
correction; the discovery that exports had been million on foreign investments in the United
systematically under-recorded for some years and Kingdom. i.«., the net income from Interest, divi¬
that this had reached a level of over £100 million dends and profits was £419 million. Investment
by 1969. But this does not mean that our much abroad takes the form of portfolio investment (on
discussed balance of payments difficulties could he foreign stocks or bonds) or direct Investment (by
dismissed as a statistical illusion. The volume of British companies in their overseas affiliates).
exports grew by ho less than 8 per cent between Wen over half of this direct investment now takes
1968 and 1969, mainly owing to the rapid increase the form of profits not remitted by aflaUates.
in world trade. However, the British share of
world exports feU by an unusually small amount, vestment The table Indicates
abroad that UnltM
rose sharply in theKingdom' in¬
second half
imports rose in. volume by only 2 per cent, being of the 1960s despite the policy of requiring
held back in part by the slackening of output " voluntary restraint ” on investment in the de¬
growth and a decline in stock-building. Another veloped sterling area countries. However, foreign
contributary factor may have been the import investment in the U.K. also rose rapidly: there
deposit scheme, introduced by the Government in was actually a net inflow of investment in 1969.
November 1968, by which importers were reauired At the some time interest, profits and dividends
to deposit with H.M, Customs for a period of six from British-owned private capital overseas also
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960 G32 ECONOMIC EVENTS
PRIVATE FOREIGN- INVESTMENT AND 1908

RETURNS
1966 1967
587
Private foreign investment: 1961-05
252 * 366
Foreign investment in U.K. 90
456
274
D.K. investment abroad 325 140
727
Net investment abroad . 73 29
303
Private sector interest, 'profits and 370
dividends: 289 919
Credits ..... 910 500
649 1,060
660
Debits ..... 791 361
Net income from abroad . 602 549
* Annual averages.
; duetion has been hampered by the fixed price in

increased, partly as a result of devaluation raising the face of rising costs of gold production, and also
their sterling value; net private income from
abroad being no less than £800 miUion in 1970. hecaiffie an increasing proportion of newly-mined
Should the British Government encourage or gold has found its way into private speculative
discourage private investment abroad? In 1967 hoards and not into ofllclal stocks. The other
main source of new international liauldity
and 1968 Professor Reddaway published his Re¬
ports on this subject, prepared for the Confedera¬ inmease in dollar balances. By the late was an
19603
tion of British Industry. He concluded that for dollar balances actually exceeded the United
every £100 of British direct private Investment States gold reserves.
The second problem to have emerged is the
overseas, British esports vrould Immediately weakness in the balance of payments of the reserve
increase by about £11, i.e., there would be an
initial drain on the balance of payments of £89. cmren^ countries. Both Britain and the United
The average rate of profit on capital after overseas States iiave had. persistent deficits in recent years
tax would thereafter be about £8 per annum, or As a result there have been periodic fears that the
only £6 if capital appreciation was allowed for. dollar or the pound would be devalued in terms of
In arriving at a policy for foreign Investment the gold and other currencies : and this has resulted in
speculation against the doUar and the pound (see
short-term balance of payments loss must be inadequacy of international Uquidity
weighed against the long-term gain. The import¬ and the weakness of the reserve currencies pro-
ance of the short-term considerations depends on
the state of the balance of payments, o.g., if more duces a dangerous
world economy (see 09).“deflationary bias” in the
investment overseas at a time of deficit causes the
Government to take deflationary measures, the
national cost is great. (ii) The Gold Crisis 1938.
The United States has run a large and persistent
paymente deficit In the 1960s and 1960s. This
The International Monetary System.
was_ initially financed through the willingness of
(i) International Liatudity. toreigners to run up dollar balances. However.
doUarhas gi-own, and between 1960
^ Imhalance in payments between countries is and 1967 U.S. gold reserves were run down, from
flnaj^d hyjransfers of gold or foreign exchange |19.600 milUmi to $12,100 million. After tS
(see G8). Th^ reserves of gold and foreign ex- devaluation of sterling in November 1967. the
ânge are known as internat'io'nal lioiiidity. pterestôf speculators transferred from the pound
Their basic characteristic is general acceptability : to the dollar. Since many speculators expected
they can perform their function only if they retain the devaluation of the dollar in terms of gold to be
tte confidence of those engaged in international lOUowed by a corresponding devaluation of other
transactions. Unless it is nltlmately convertible currencies, there was a growing demand for
into goods and services, gold has merely an in¬
dustrial and ornamental value. But since most gold. After 1961 the central banks of the major trad¬
centrm hanks are prepared to buy and sell gold at ing natioM operated a gold pool in the London
a fixed price In terms of their local currency, confi¬ market, whereby they agreed to exchange gold for
dence in gold is maintained. euirenpies at existing official exchange rates. But
Two internatioml reserve currencies have em- with the growing speculation against the dollar,
er^d to supplement gold: the pound and the the s^m coiM not be continued without en-
dollar^ OEeôund baa performed this function danraring the U.S, gold reserves. The central
smce World War I, but the dollar has become the bankers gathered for a crisis meeting In Washing-
mam reserve currency since World War 11. Sur- ^Maroh, and decided to terminate the gold
plTO countries are prepared to hold short-term IM»1. Kiey introduced two markets for gold, with
debt in poimds or dollars — so earning a rate of pnvate transactions taking place in the free market
interestônfldent that their future trading defi¬ at a price determined by Supply and demand, and
cits can he financed by payment of these currencies transactions among central banlrs taking place
official market at the ofificial gold price. Thein
or by their conversion Into gold. These holdiiigs
are the mUar and sterling balances (see G7-8). United StatM -vras now prepared
to convert dollars
lake gold, they can perform their function as mto gold only for central hanks, i.e., to finance a
international reserves only If there is confidence deficit only on Ite current plus long-term capital
that they can be converted into other currencies pcount. In this way speculation against the
and hence Into goods and services at current ex¬ Ûar could be controlled; but the problem of the
change rates. There is one other form of inter- U.S. dêflolt on current and long-term capital
ptlmai liqpdity— drawing rights on the IMF account was still to be solved.
(see QB). At the end of 1970 gold accounted for Iffie further monetary crisis of November 1968,
47 per cent of total international liquidity, foreign produced by speculation against the franc and
exchange reserves for 41 per cent, the IMF for 8 towards the mark, the possibility that the in¬
per cent, and the newly created Special Drawing coming Nixon Administration would raise the
Eights (see 033) for 4 per cent. dollar price of gold, and the Ihnited sales on the
Id-rcMnt years two developments have under- free market by gold producers aU helped to keep
^nea the present international monetary system, demand for gold and its price
ilret. the growth of international trade has out¬ In the free market, In the first year after the gold
stripped the growth of reserves with which to crisis the free market price averaged about $40
flnmce imbalances In this trade. Between 1952 compared with the official price of $35 a fine ounce.
and 1969 world trade, measured in dollars, rose There was further currency speculation in 1969
by 220 per cent, whereas international liauldity. In expectation of a realignment of European ex¬
meûred In dollars, rose by only 36 per cent. change rates. In August France, with a weak
Gold reserves have been a declining proportion of balance of payments, devalued the ftano by 11-1
international liquidity, partly because gold proper cent, and in October West Germany, with a
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960 ECONOMIC EVENTS
parsistent surplus, revalued the deutechemarlc imposed by shortage of reserves, and that thRiV
upwarfls by 0-20 per cent. Thereafter tension in inflation would be infectious. Many variations
toe foreign exchange markets was relaxed, and on this basic scheme have been devised in an
dishoarding and a fall in speculative demand for attempt to surmount these— largely political-
gold coincided with large sales by producers, so objections,
that the free market price for gold fell to $35 a
fine ounce. The ini' reached an agreement with
South Africa to buy South African gold in certain _ o-
circumstances, e.g., when the gold price is S35 or opeciai Drawing Rights,
below. This meant that newly-mined gold could In the past the IMB’ has merely provided deficit
now enter oflieial reseives and that the free countries with loans, to be repaid over a certain
market price would be unlikely to fall below the period {me G8). However, the amount of these
official price. credit facilities has been increaseti over time. In
1659 toe quotas paid by members to the IMP were
raised by 50 per cent, in 1964 by 26 per cent, and
(lu) The timted States Deficit. m 1970 by about 35 per cent. Moreover, in order
In 1970 the deficit in the United States balance
of T)3iyTii6nts ros8 to o. recor<i IsvgI sliort^tomi fimcis
fiBanced by creditor countri^ increasing their
dollar balances. They had little choice: a large S •
scale conversion of dollar balances would force the countries
United States to renounce Its obligation to supply (suWcct to some
gold to centralclear
increasingly banksthatat if$35theperUnited
ounce.States
It became
failed w iv®
to reduce its deficit by restricting capital outflows
or military expenditures abroad, the creditor suffering an outflow of short-term
countries would either have to go on financing TiTiocir _ _ ™ 4.1 j 1
American deficits by accumulating dollars or allow
their currencies to appreciate in terms of the Ev!?/l
dollar. In 1971 the dollar appeared to be the li,o ®o™teies, and m 1970
weakest of the major currencies. , SDRs
tributed annually to aU members to. me dte-
proportion to
them quotas with the ini'. They have a fixed
(iv) Reform of the International Monebiry System. gold,^ generally
— . . ,, r-j. 4. , ®‘®®®Ptfid as a means of payment. Thus a deficit
"^,1^+^ ^ increasing portage of international country can use its SDHs to buy the cmrency of
fiM trade, mat m^ns are available to tocrease rate of interest on them. This is a movement to-
mtemationaniqiudity? There are two main alter- wards an tatemational paper currency, since the
natives; a nse in the price of gold in terms of all SDRs, unlike IMR loans, do not have to be repaid:
currencies or the creation of an mtemational paper they are a permanent addition to international
• 4.A. 14. • ,4. 4 4 1 reserves. The first aUocatlon— totalling $3,414
A rise m the gold pnee would tocr^ inter- million,
national liquidity; by incre^mg the money was madeof in which Britain received $410 million—
1970, and further allocations
value of existing and future gold reserves, and agreed for 1971 and 1972. The scheme Tyere was
second, by encourag^ production* How- launched on a scale which is small in relation to
grer. there ê certain ^dvantag^. It helps the size of the problem; but it is a step in the
those countries most which need help least — those right direction
with large gold reserves; it represents a victory for
the gold speculators and so acts as a stimulus to
further hoarding and speculation to the future; it ,„4, o4,„.,4„„ „„ „ _ __ _
helps in particular the gold-producing countries Sterlmg as a Reserve Currency.
Russia and South Africa ; and finally, it represents The sterling balances {see G7 and 38) came under
a sheer wa,ste of economic resources: gold has little pressure from a new quarter to 1968. There were
value except as a means of international payment, many sterling area holders of sterling balances, in-
The most likely method of securing a general rise in eluding most governments, who did not. speculate
the price of gold would be a devaluation of the against the pound to 1967 and suffered a capital
dollar, since mc«t other currencies would be de- loss when the pound was devalued. Anticipating
valued simultaneously. Therefore, devaluation further capital loss at the time of the gold crisis to
could not cure the U.S, deficit. For these reasons 1968, they ran down their sterling balances, so
the United States Government decided against endangering the British gold reserves. Ih
devaluation of the dollar at the time of the gold September the central banks of the major todas-
cri^. „ trial countries agreed at Basle to grant the United
The domestic currency of the United Kingdom Kingdom new credit facilities of up to £800
is not backed by gold; on a one pound note the million for ten years with which to finance such
Governor of the Bank of England promises to pay sales of sterling. Also the British Government
the bearer on demand the sum of one pound — guaranteed the value, to terms of US dollars, of
another pound note ! Yet, within Britain, there is most of the official sterling reserves held by these
complete confidence in the currency, because it countries, to return for their holding at least a
is generally acceptable and so convertible Into certain proportion of their reserves in sterling,
goods and services. Just as gold no longer backs These arrangements should help to protect sterling
the domestic currency, there is no need for gold in against the dangers of being a reserve currency,
settlement of international payments. All we
need is a generally acceptable international
cSSae.''®" ^ countries have The Eurodollar Market.
Such a currency could be created by an inter- The Eurodollar market is a market for bank
national authority constituted for this purpose: depositswhicharedenominatedtoforeigiicurren-
and it could be made available to deficit countries, ciea. It derives Its name from the fhet that most
which could then pay their creditors in the new of the banks which accept these foreto currency
currency. In this way the current shortage of deposits are to Europe {tooluding Britain) and
mtemational liquidity could he made good, and most of the deposits are denominated to U.S.
indeed gold— Keynes’ “bagharbus rello ”— could dollars. The Eurodollar market has grown at
he supplanted. There are various difficulties in remarkable speed. A phenomenon Of the 1960s.
such a scheme. It would involve some loss of the market involved deposite of $9 hlDlon to 1964
national autonomy and the vesting of considerable and $37 billion to 1969. The reason for that
power to the intemati(toal authority issuing the growth was the profitability of Eurodollar trans-
paper cmrency. DecMoBswouldhavetobemade actions. Banks found that, particularly If only
as to which countries Bhouia receive the new cur- large units of money were handled, they could
renoy, and in what quantitleB. And there is a profitably borrow funds in country A and lend to
fear that it would enable reckl^ governments to country B. while paying Interest rates lu'gTiRT
pursue inflationary policies without the discipline those paid to country A and charging rates lower
ECONOMIC EVENTS
DEVE1.0PMENTS SSNCE 1960
Sedlfy th“|on
States balance «nS^St
of payments, to Se'umS
since this meant that Fo “tomOTele
wealth, there yefopel couStrieô
were pronosaJs th-S*f the
th? cSf '
baSS tpounte^f "’^nrwoodTuip"" It ^

>hp
bvEurop*’eSa^ttoS“^ (. • i- ^ JPade Withthat
Proposed respect to foodstuffs—cMefly
certain artaîSents*shSddwheatbe
nnîi fitv- Si
of mvolving sreat meat, and dairy products — produced by deveioped
funds— ereatp problems members of the Commonwealth The nrinctolp
Ip 9^ economic actiyrty. The underlying these arrangements it was piw^Spu
Trading Arrangements. (iii) The Negotiations.

m First Apphoation for Membership of the Common
Market. • course of prolonged negotiations, con¬
siderable progress towards a final agreement was
In iuid-1961 it was announced that Britain gradually made: progress in reducing tariffs
would apply for full membership of the European important m Commonwealth trade, in agreeing
hcommia UommvnUy, otherwise known as the ^t
Comuion iilarket, set up by the Treaty of Borne west Conmonwea lth countries to Africa and the
Indies should be offered associated status
which was ratified in 1958. The European Econo- on the same terms as the ex-French territories
mic Community (EEC) consists of six full members and m agreeing that the problems of Turtia.
Belgium, France, HoUand, Italy, Luxembourg, Batetan, and Ceylon could best be solved by
and Western Germany (see G9). Britain had trade treaties negotiated between the Common
participated to the negotiations which led up to llarket and these countries. The problem of
its formation, and had argued in favour of a looser temperate foodstuffs proved the most intractable.
free trade area ” without a common external Britain wanted specific arrangements to ensure
tanir, and excluding trade in agricultural that Ctommonwealth-produced temperate foods
products. woifid be able to find markets to Europe, at least
INo compromise acceptable to the Six was foimd
and Britain joined with six other European m the short term. France made it clear that she
countries — Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, envisaged a reduction of food imports into
Sweden, and Switzerland — în forming the Euro- Common Market countries, to permit an expansion
l>mn Free Trade Area (BETA), of her agricultural output: this point of view was
Later, however, when the Common Market clearly mcompatible with the British proposal for
proved to be highly successfiU in terms of the comparable outlets
gro-wth of production and trade, the British uucere. Nor was there” agreement
for Commonwealth pro-
on the transi¬
Government decided to apply for membership. tional arrangements for British agricultoe.
There were three main problems to be solved to Neverthelesa, it was the opinion of many
he negotiations. The first two— the trading observers that by January 1963 the stage had
linifs with Commonwealth countries, and the been set for a final round of bargaining, and that
po.sition of British agriculture — were those which given goodwill on both sides Britain’s entry could
had mfluenced the British attitude to the earlier have been assured. It therefore came as a
negotiations. Now Britain also had obligations surprise when France decided that the negotiations
to her trading partners to BETA. The Common should be broken off. Despite opposition from
Market coimtries welcomed the British applica¬ five, a French veto was imposed on the
tion, bui made it clear that renewed negotiations British application. Perhaps the fundamental
must
Treaty.take place within the framework of the reason for the breakdown can be inferred from a
statement attributed to General de Gaulle: “ The
jiurope I prefer is the Europe of the Six.”
(ii) The British Proposals.
The British delegation made the following pro¬ (iv) Britain’s Second Application,
posals for the solution of Britain’s special problems. In 1967 the British Government again began
3) or British agriculture there was to be a long discussing with the EEC countries the possibility
transition period ” — ^that is to say, a period for of British membership. This move had the sup-
adjustment before British agriculture became fully
integrated Into the Common Market agrieulturiU port of most British industrialists: a Confederation
of British Industry Survey in March showed that
armngements— possibly 12 to 15 years from tbe
date of joimng the Common Market. By contrast, ! 90 per cent of replying companies believe EEC
membership would be to their advantoge. Confi¬
it was not proposed to negotiate for favourable
conditions for British industry: on joining the dential discussions went on: hut to December,
Common Market, Britain was prepared to make a 1 ranee vetoed the opening of negotiations on
reduction to her tariffs equivalent to the re¬ Britain s entry. With the resignation of General
ductions
Six, which had already been made by the de Gaulle to 1969 the Common Market issue be¬
came live again, and negotiations on the British
application opened in 1970.
Two lines of approach were suggested for
Although the negotiations were private, some
protecting the trading positions of the under¬
developed countries of the Commonwealth. One facts b^ê known, for instance on the important
mvolved granting those countries the status of iMue of the British contribution to the Common
associated territories ” which would give their Market budget (mainly for supporting EEC
products access to European markets on pre¬ fanners). The British delegation proposed that
ferential terms. There was a precedent for this ttiis be m the region of 13-15 per cent of the total
sort of arrangement. In that France had already budget cent. but the Community proposed 20-25 per
negotiated associated status for some of her
former colotoes to Afirtca. But it was recognised
that the Six might not be prepared to offer
associated status to some of the larger under¬ (v) The 1970 White Paper.
developed countries of the Commonwealth — e.g., In February 1970 the British Government pub¬
India, and that some coimtries might wish to lished a White Paper assessing the economic con¬
reject an offer of associated status for political sequences of entry for the Dnited Kingdom. The
reasons. As an alternative, therefore, it was report rôgnlsed disadvantages as well as advan¬
suggested that the Common Market external tages. Britain would have to adopt the common
tariff on some of the more important agricultural apigilturM policy and make a net contribution to
exports from these coimtries — e.g., Indian tear- tiie financing of that policy. Food prices would
should be reduced or eliminated: and that rise in Britain through the imposition of levies on
axmngements should be made to ensure that the Imports Trom non-CommunIty sources and the
external tariff on manufactured goods exported payment of Community prices for imports from
from these coimtries — e.g.. textiles from Hong other members. The maximum increase likely to
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1 960 G3S ECONOMIC EVENTS
industrial production, employment. xlND PRODUCTIVITY. 1059-70
(Quarterly averages of seasonally adjusted index numbers, 195S = 100)
Industrial Employment to Productivity

industry to
Year industry
Quarter production
(1) (2) 100 X (1) -r (2)
1969 I 102
100 110
1960 I 102 102
110
112 104 109
1961 I 114
1902 114
I 113 101
104 112
1983 I 125
123
1964 127 126
I
1965 I 103
106
105 128
1960 134
132 103
I 100
1967 I 132 139
1968 140
I 99
100
1969 I 145 DO 148
1970 147 144
IIV 149 156
1970
occur m retail food prices was estimated to be in PrcMnce a regional problem within a country.
the range 18-26 per cent spread over a period But the Community may not. to the same extent
tariifs on trade as_a country, possess the political power and deter¬
with the Community would ofreduce
5'^® dismantling
industrial mination required to remedy the problem.
prices.
ê tariff outs and the response of wages and
pnces to the increased cost of living would directly
affect both industrial imports and exports; it S. INTERNAL DBVBLOPBIENTS
being suggested that the balance of payments Industrial Output and Employment
might he worsened by £125-276 million per annum
on this account. But there would also be longer- In the fourth quarter of 1970, industrial pro-
run, dynamic and less predictable effects, througb ductlon WM 49 per cent higher than it had been
the stimulus to British industry of being in a m 19o8. This expansion oecarred largely in two
market of 300 million inhabitants and growing sp^s: durmg the twelve months between March
more rapidly than oor own. The 1711116 Paper 19o0 and March 1980 industrial output increased
concluded that the balance of economic advantage by 11 per cent, and between March 1963 and
was uncertain and that the precise conditions March 1964 it rose by 14 per cent. The three
negotiated for entry would be important. yearn before March 1959, the three years between
Tho^ ^nomists who oppose British entry the booms and the three years after March 1964
argue that the successful growth of the EEC were periods of industrial stagnation. Industrial
countries since its formation probably would have promotion picked up again in 1967 and 1968. hut
occurred without it; that Britain will have to pay growth (11 per cent in two years) was not as rapid
heavily to subsidise backward European agricul¬ 3^ IP the boom periods, and Industrial employment
ture; and they see a danger that Britain — Shaving Mtually fell. The table also indicates that num¬
to compete from a peripheral location and re- bers employed in industry were 4 per cent lower
stncted in its economic policies by EEC rules— will towards the end of 1970 (allowing for seasonal
become a depressed region of the Common variation) than in 1958, so that productivity —
Market. output per person employed— rose by about 56
per cent over that period. Here again, a yery
(vi) The Werner Plan. l^h
boom proportion
periods. of the increase was secur^ in the
In 1970 the Commission of the European Eco¬
nomic Community published the Werner Plan, a
report on the establishment of economic and Restricticn and De-restrioHon.
monetary union of the EEC. The plan aimed at The 19608 have witnessed several changes in the
transferring within a decade the principal eco¬ emphasis of Government monetary and fiscal
nomic decisions from the national to the Com¬ policies. In the first half of 1960 the emphasis
munity level, and at establishing within the w^ on restrictive policies, both because of the
Community complete fteedom of movement of deiôration to the balance of paymente position,
goods, services, persons and capital, with fixed and and because it was apparent that the very rapid
constant rates of exchange between national cur¬ eOTagsion of output had created shortages and
rencies or, preferably, a common currency. A inflation m the economy at home. No doubt
centre of decision for economic policy would be there would have been a slowing down to the rate
established and made responsible to a European of powm of output even if restriotlve measure
parliament. There was to be a common system bad not been ta^to: an increase as rapid as that to
of value-added taxation (see G42), and other taxes 1969 was possible cafiy because a substantial
would be brought into line. The member coun¬ excess capacity had deyeloped over the preceding
tries have agreed to the initial stages of the Plan, years. But the measures taken to restrict demand
e.g., to more co-operation in international currency reinforced
arrangements.
this tendency, and growth in industrial
output was baited.
These proposals have far-reaching economic and A relaxation of restrainte did help to stimulate
political implications, sbice they involve a con- some increase in output to the early months of
si^rable reduction of national sovereignty. For 1961. But from duly 1961— again primarily for
mstance, the loss of power to correct balance of balance of payments reasons— there was a phase
payments deficits by means of trade controls or of even sterner restricttons. The progressive
variation In the exchange rate implies either that relaxation of restrictions during the summer of
the deficit conntry's currency should he generally 1962, coupled with measures designed to stimulate
acceptable to its creditors (so that the country industrial output, had not had any major efCe^ by
within the Community— like a region within a the end bf the year.
country — simply cannot have a balahce of pay¬ In some ways, the situation early in 1963 was
ments problem), or the country must resort to analogous to that of early 1959. Olheie was a
deflation. And oven if there Is a common cur¬ substantial under-utilisatiou of capacity to many
rency, it is very likely that resources will concen¬ branches of industry, since some new investment
trate in some regions of the Clomnmnlty to the had continued in 1980-62. Labour resources far
neglect of other regions, possibly those far from expanrion were available, in that unemployment
the main centres of production and consumption. — at over 8 per cent — ^was hiêr ân in any
Complete moblUty of resonrces is likely to produce period since the war. Consequently the expan¬
a regional problem within the Community just as sionist policies of 1963 helped to produce a year of
ECONOMIC EVENTS
developments SINCE 1960 GSB
achieved some expansion in both public
Increase °?m “Kiustml output, aaid
productivity. This private traming facilities. In 1967 re'donal and
progress could not be mamtained in 1964, ferentials in the selective employment^ tax
when
productivity flattened introduced (see G41). Under thlf^Krmrm were
factpers m Development Areas were paid !
remedy of deflation
of payments was not
deteriorated. week for each full-time adult male employe30s neV
aiwpwr repeated: it was now realised that lower amomts in respect of other woScts and e
pohcles were harmful to the growth of giving the Development Areas a wage cost - so
balance of payments tage in manufacturingassist adVan
of 5-10
ance per cent ry in the
to indust
problem wt^d have to be solved by other
mejîres. Full employment was maintained be- Development Areas was only £3l million. The
^ industrial production esbmate for the_ financ theialform
yearmainl
1968/
y 9of was
the
rose by only 1-6 per cent per annum.
^®®n suggested for this slow
productivity: a decline in the average
(output per man-hour increased ânts?”"^ Employment Premium and Investment
more rapiffly) and the tendency of employers , *he incOTtive to invest in the Develon-
to
tiio io''ôl of production ment Areas was affected by the Government’s re¬
Ow with a considerable delaj% placement of cash grants by a system
allowances against tax. mereas cashof Mtl
11,=
the payinents
Grovemment mfflculties eventually led were 40 per rent of mnts
to deflate the economy investme
Development Areasnt andin 20plant
there was a fall in Industrial production :in and per cSand
*'^® measures tookthe to other areas,
there was now to be free deprecia¬
eaect. Jimployers now began to lay off workers, tion m Development Areas and 60 per cent initial
Mid imemployment rose from 1-2 per cent of the aflowances in other areas. The relative ateiS^
™ ®nrly 1966 to average 2-2 per cent tiveness of tte Development Areas would
resumption of growth in be
rose ill the economy

1 industrial production stagnant in 1969 and Planning for Paster Growth.
if 1 productivity continuing to rise, the rate increasing dissatisfaction
of memployment increased to 2-5 per cent in 1970
(2-7 per cent, seasonally ad- with the rate of growth achieved in this econom
over the past decade or so. The eren y
actually most Common Market countries have increas SHf
noiJfiiL fell after the first
Industrial
quarter ofemployment
1969. and output at a much faster rate, ed
output per mm rose as firms tried to “ shake out ” been dissatisfaction with
Reeded laboiir. The reasoning behind the
government pohcy of prolonging the recession was S® *>1® econom
charaoteristiq pattern has been yonehas grown: the
of sharp bursts
this was strongly m surplus.
thii°v^« balanceBather,
of payments, sin^
it was hoped
Ihat^high imemployment would curb the rapid
of staStimi^^^™^^®*^ rather lengthy periods
(i) The National Economic Development Council.
Eeglonal Planning.
®:, ™cre systematic study of the
problenp mvolved m securing a faster and more
the vaiying degrees of^®®“ Si''^®u in the 1960s to
prosperity and levels of even rate of CTOwth in the British economy,
unemployment in the United Kingdom (see G13). the
™“®?* established the Nîoiun
Govei'ênt measiues are necessary to reduce Erniemto D^lopment Council (NEDO
or
to prevent them to that of the corresponding ulnnTiiTifr
laere
ftom gi-o^^g
are essentiall y twoeven
probably ways of tankimg
problem of regional imbalances: taMngJ^s the represent fiarCouncil orgaffik tion wS
Sim ^ itself consisted of
to organKatatives from the T.U.C. and employers’
the pewle or bnnging people to the jobs.^ In so mns, Government ministers and in¬
far as tte latter alternative is chosen, the Govern¬ dependent members, and It was served bv a cronn
ment should encourage the mobility of labour, imdertook msearchTto
e.a. Of seonniig a faster rate of growth,
tfeou&ii retpiin^g scliemds or a housing subsidy* overcoming obstacles to growth,
However, the Mâtion of population may damage
and. into the
1*^® ^ *'^® <I®nuded areas, and caiJe most conducive Gconomic policies whicli could hp
to faster growth.
ren^stion, housing shortages, and overcrowding
in the booming regions. The Government ™ the Council made a
I
create emplojunent opportunities in the relatively can
depressed regions m various ways. It can try rate of growth of output over the period 1961-66
mduce expanding mdustries to set up new plants to equal
rate^nf to 4 per centeconomy. It adopted wasa target
per annum,
1*!' o®®rrng tax incentives: fester toan the rate of which sub-
growth actually
authorise addition^ expenditure on public it can previous years. It attempted to
works predict
how investment, exports, imports, con-
_ programmes
it can place
for the goods it needs — e.g. defence con¬ A Srow if theoutpnt
target pfrate
eachof indiMtry
growth waswouW to
tents— where work IS required.
^ On taking office in October 1964. the Labour focus Government attention on
poUcies was two-
Govaranent nmde xônal
bihty of its Department plannlog the responsi- the fold iong-tenn,
- By ®i“ showing
exercise
«Monltiesthatmight designed
intensify
of Economic
®*®^* Affairs the
regions, with the | long-term economic growth:
Motion of producing a plan for each region. expectations. It encouraged
Goveiênt also established two
planning Imdy; regional economic kind planning
of tateresting feature of the work of
*® advise on and co-or^n ^ the NEDO is its study of individual industries.
the planning of each region. Seventeen major Industries were surveyed
, Becent Government policy to cure regional im- deM to assm tha, chains in output, emplov-in
taken the following forms,
ment, proto^vity. investment, and exports which
to defer Public construction
programmes have excluded the “Development 5®f®, feasible
Develop in each Industry. Economic
ment Committe
Incentives to locate industry in es CEDCs) — ^whlch have
tte depreêd regions have been given, e.g., the cstahhshed5® as part ofas the NEDCNeddies’
“littee ’— ywere
machiner to
e^h grants provided in 1966 for new plants and report on the problems of individual industries.
machmery ffi manufacturing were at twice
the It is impossibl e for an individual firm or industry
®oriret decisions on future expansion
national rê m the Development Areas. By
TOthout Imowiug how the rest of the economy will
T °®®e^ûil
Blnningdi^ham. conurbatio
In thewasmainstrictly ns, behave: by relating
limited planning at the national level
To encoi^^ the mobility of labour, the Qovern-
nqent introduced redundancy compensation and the NEDC did valuable work.
fiho *?^® l2^®^ of individual industries
ment to 1972. It was neither a plan nor a forecast
In October 1964 the Labour Government estab¬ but " part of the consultative planning process .
lished a new Department of Economic Affairs Implementation was to take the form of consulta¬
(DBA). While Bhort-term measures to rebate tion with the EDO or other representatives of each
the economy or the balance of payments remained industry. The document was flexible in that new
the responsibility of the Treasury, the DEA took developments could be accommodated without
over from the Treasury the responsibility for long¬ requiring the whole assessment to be rewritten.
term economic policy. The DEA was charged Therehigher
are three
with the task of preparing and implementing a and — on sets
the ofassumptions
projections —of^lower, “ basic
a growth rate’
ii)realistic plan for economic expansion, a prices and in real output of 3, 3i and 4 per cent per annum
incomes
The Depapolicy and an industrial and regional respectively. These projections compare with an
policy. Thertmel^DC,
nt oi Ec
now
onomreconstituted, became a actual 1960
tween gro^handrate of 3-3 per cent per annum be¬
1966.
consultative and advisory ic Afiaira s.link between
body;
the Government and the economic community. In fact, the outcome again proved to be well
below expectations. Between the first quarter of
However, the EDO’s continue to function and 1969 and the first quarter of 1971 real output rose
have produced a great many reports. The
division between short- and long-term planning by less than 2 per cent per annum. But this time
proved unsatisfactory, and in 1969 the DEA the balance of payments could not be blamed for
was abolished and its functions reverted to the the shortfall. Inâd it appeared that the stag¬
Treasury. nation was due to a loss of confidence by private
investors, and to the monetary and fiscal policies
of successive Governments concerned about the
acceleration of inflation.
The National Plan for the British economy over
the period 1964-70 was published by the Govern¬ The Industrial Reorganisation Corporation.
ment in 1965. The Plan was based on the
assumption that output would rise by 3-8 per cent The Industrial Reorganisation Corporation (IRC)
per annum over the period. Since the labour was set up in December 1966 under Government
force was expected to grow at 0-4 per cent per auspices. Its functions were to promote industrial
annum, this meant an annual growth in pro¬ reorganisation in the interests of industrial effici¬
ductivity of 3-5 per cent— considerably higher ency, e.g., by enabling industries to achieve eco¬
than the 2‘7 per cent average over the period nomies of scale or by reorganising inefficiently
1960-64. The Plan specified the changes in managed firms. It as-sisted firms in agreed re¬
invffitment, consumption, and public expenditure groupings and could intervene to encourage a par¬
reauired to achieve this target. ticular takeover which, in its estimation, was in
In many ways, the crucial assumptions were the public interest.
those concerned with the balance of payments. The IRC Act provided the Corporation with
The Plan supposed that imports would increase by financial resources of up to £150 million. How¬
an
. 4-0 per cent i)er annum, and that to achieve a ever, its objective in making loans was to “prod”
"satisfactory” surplus of £260 million on the and not to “prop ” inefficient firms. It supported
overall balance of payments in 1970, exports mergers in electronics, trawling, nuclear power,
would have to rise by 6-6 per cent per annum. If mechanical engineering, and other industries. In
such a rapid expansion of exports were not 1970 the Incoming Conservative Government de¬
achieved — and in the period 1960-64 the annual cided to wind up the IRC.
increase averaged only 3T per cent — the whole
Plan could be jeopardised, in that the balance of
payments difficulties might, as in the past, appear Inflation.
to justify policies to restrict the growth in
domestic output. (i) Wages and Prices.
Indeed, this is precisely what happened. The Retail prices continued to edge upwards in the
tardy improvement in the balance of payments
led the Government eventually in July 1966 to 1960s {see G17-19). In 1968 they were 35 per cent
deflate the economy. The ensuing stagnation higher than in 1958. Very little of this increase
can be attributed to an increase in import prices.
meant that the Plan’s targets for 1970 could no To explain the inflation we nuBt look at the
longer be achieved. However, it should not be behaviour of labour costs. Between 1968 and
concluded that planning is necessarily an academic 1968 the nationally negotiated weekly wage
exercise: plamdng has a valuable sight-setting rates rose by 49 per cent, and weekly earnings—
function; it can bolster firms’ expectations and including overtime payments and payments
hence their investment: and it can help to co¬ negotiated on the factory floor — by 75 per
ordinate their decisions. Bather, we should cent. Since the increase in productivity during
recognise that planning is worthless unless com¬ this period was slow, income from employment
bined with Government policies which enable the per unit of output (indicating labour costs
planned targets to be reached. per unit of output) rose by 38 per cent. These
increased costs were passed on to the the public
in the form of increased prices, so that real
earnings rose by only 29 per cent. CChe table
In the uncertain economic climate after the shows annual average prices, earnings, real earn¬
July measures there was little point in long-range ings, and also real disposable incomes (i.e., the
planning. However, early in 1969 the Govern¬ purchasing power of total personal incomes
ment published as a Green Pai)er a new planning after income tax), all as indexes with 1963 =
document The Task Ahead: an Eeonomio Assess¬ 100.
AirERAGE RETAIL PRICES, WEEEXY EARNINGS, REAL WEEKLY

EARNINGS AND REAL DISPOSABLE INCOMES 1963 = 100
[Retail Weekly Real weekly [Real disposable

earnings earnings
prices incomes
1958
1968 . ■■ >
- 87-6 /
1964 .
1966 , 89-6
1966 ■ 122-5\-
107-1 ^ 100-0 81-6
1967 . 78-4 " 103-7 100-0
108-2 115-1
1968 , 112-5 106-4 104-2
115-3 106-4
126-2 108-9
109-6
120-7 136-8 108-6
127-2 118-3 110-0
147-5
135-3 115-9 112-1
165-2 122-1
(n) The Graving laflation. prices : and if they keep prices doy-n in order to
_ A distobmg feature of the table is the growth conyjete. thu unplies their having to accept lower
m the rate of inflation in Britain after 1967. Be- on exports than on sales in the
tween 1968 and 1969 retail prices rose by 5-6 per inarket, and so discourages exporting,
cent, between 1909 and 1970 by C'5 per cent, and inflation can have other harmful conse-
betweeri January 1970 and January 1971 by 8-5 Pênces. It often produces a redistribution of
per cent. The increase in average weekly earn- with the strong gaining from the weak
mgs rose also. the poorly-organised workers and the pen-
of ■yvhy has there
inflation? been and
In 1968 this 1969,
acceleration in thepartly
it resulted rate.appearIn toinflationary
resiflt not conditions
so much from incomeworkgains
or
from tlie increase in import prices consequent upon as from ingenuity and the exercise of
tbe devaluation of the pound in November 1967 economic Md pohtical power. Inflation can
(see G30), partly from the Increase in indirect uncertainty and industrial unrest. In 1<)70
taxes introduced after devaluation in order to free number of strikes was up by 60 per cent on the
resources for exports (see G41). and partly from average for 1960-1906. and the nmnber of
the spurt policy
incomes in money wages (see
weakened whenG39).
the Governments
But in 1970 ^'Oiicing days lost was up of
effect by the
260inflation,
per cent. Thi<?
the blame could be placed squarely on the " wage
eploBion Norm^ly money wages rise more Incomes Policy,
mpidly the greater the pressure of demand in the -n ^
.. . But
. ■''^th unemployment-- high in , -untains corupetitive position in world trade
1070, pressure of demand for ’’ labour coiild not ‘=.-
be has cteteriorat
5|%iorated ed relative to that of her main rivals
the explanation. Bather, the wage explosion United fetates, IrVest Germany, and Brance
appeared to reflect a general Increase in niilitancv balaiice of payments dlfflculties. The
by trade uniomsts angered by the near-stagnation world exports of manu-
ot real earnings and real disposable incomes after w to 11-9 per cent
1967 and possibly influenced by events in other 1967. There are essentially
countries (S6’« below) Once begunit was maintained ^®rhods of remedying this situation. We
by the growth of expectations that prices would w?f „ either a relative fall in the external
continue to rise rapidly. value of the pound, or a relative rise in its intem.al
• 1^,1970 there was a sharp increase in real earn- i- words, either there must be a
ii^'s (by 5 per cent), implying a decline in the share ^^.™ation of the pound in terms of other enr¬
ol profits. This share (gross trading profits as a ^ I’oHcy *0 Umit the
proportion of domestic income) is normally low *“ ™® British price-level. Up to 1967
during
to 10 pera recession, but the with
cent, compared share14 inper1970
centdropped
in the ™® <ô'^®nunent concentrated
.attempts on the tolatter
were made altcr-
introduce
recession of 1962. The implicatiou was tbat tlie form of incomes polici/. In 1967 the Govem-
wage increases of 1970 would have a detoed effect devaluation: but incomes policy
on prices m 1971, and this might set off further still necessary the devaluation was to be
wap demands.
vicious There was
spiral of inflation a grave
would danger that a successful,
be maintained, or
even accelerated, min 107 1071. 1. (i) The
(i) The Pay
Pav Pause.
Pause.
(ui) international Inflation. caM? T" ™ ^

joie acceleration ot
Kie of mllation
inflation in Britain coincided
coincided pajjnents. Jtxh citations for restraint
Exhortations
with similp
Bimilp trpds
trends in other countries, including **
^ famihar
familiar feature of ministerial state-
States, Japan, W. Germany, Brance, yearn, but on this occasion the
and
- Italy, as the table OliVJWO.
shows. use such -power
Government ~ soonas made it to
it lias*u clear that
influence it the
l/iUfcO lb Intended
illlWllUtja to
amountlO
_ in coksume - —fei
- mpded ck
by the Wages “JS!
Councils — ^whlCh fix
1959- 1968- 1969 1969- be
-- 1959- — -
1969* 1969 - - 6-7
1970** The Government 8 power is
United States . 5-4 - ''trongest over workers which it directly or in-
1968-
United
Japan States . 1969* 2-3
2-3 5-4 1969-6-6
6-7 dyil servants, teachers,
Brance
Japan . . 5*3
5-3 6-4
6-2 5-9
6-6 wv Tplr pay awards were
Germany. . 6-2 4-0
Brance . 3-9
3-9
2*5 2-7
6-4 3970*5-9 „ ^® Gojenunmt also had a limited
Germany.
Italy . ., 2-5 2-7
2-6 4-0
4.7 influence on awards made in nationalised in-
Italy Kingdom
United . . 8-6
8*6 2-6 4-7
6-8 “*^"®<®.-
United Kingdom 8*6 8-6 6-5
6-5 6-8 t+ P^J Pnuee ” came to an end in April 1962.
_ L___ _ temporary poUcy. and its
»* T~~T^
Annual average. ^ — - ’ ®®®ets axe difScult to assess. It certatnly post-
»*
** Third P®u®<i som® wage awards which would otherwise
lhu:d quarter
quarter to third quarter .
quarter. have bep d made
®P*iî^bute in that period, and it may have
to a stiSening of resistance to wage
Wp this the result of a series of coincidenops- because the pause affected some
did the inflations have a common cause:° ot were severely than others, this
they ** pntagious subsequ
”? Both
ent Brance
“ wage and Italy
explo h^
sl^^ incomes pohey was seen to be discrimina-
<? J®® was “ cost-push ”• not
to character (sec G4) ; Japan and The National Iheomes Commission.
sutM; andlu theuSted^StiâopriMSiMe^ t^vormpent Ifsued a

IS likely that inflation was to some extent trnns l^to_ keep the rate oi increase to
mitted from one country to anotSr— oarticuKrfv long-term rate of growth of
from the United States and particularly to small nrofTiip«nn°hF5w®“‘ V," • ^ccent years national
trading countries— through Ite effects on the Sms v^r * li ^ ‘^® »®'^ ®®“<> ^
of imports
effects and exports, and possibly tiioiish hn
on workers’ “ *® «'Ccortogly necessary that the
expectations.
(iv) Effects of Inflation. theâûm^ts ^^^SKl

_ British Governments have been coneempd nimnf Justiflcatlon of wageto’^K.^tobSm ad-
and salary claims—
inflation mainly because of its effects on British duotirit^*nr^7^flSf i® P™*
competitiveness, and hence on the balance 5 p^ *? Pa^cnlM todustries, and
c»,p«. P. foreto pppl^t. SRU

prospective rate of increase in national production standstill.” Increases to, prices and incomes were
— should be given more weight. as far as possible avoided altogether until the
end of 1966. The only exceptions in the case of
Late in 1962
Incomes the Government
Commission (HIC).set However,
up i'h&Natiomd
the incomes were pay increases resulting directly
powers of this body were limited. It could not from increases in output (e.a., piece-work or over¬
participate in, nor comment uiwn, wage claims time earnings) and from genuine promotion or
while negotiations were in progress unless the regular increments on a predetermined scale.
parties involved consented; and as the T.IJ.C. Increases already negotiated but not yet imple¬
did not intend to co-operate with the Commission, mented were deferred for 6 months. The first
such consent was unlikely. It could be asked to
report on inflationary settlements which had been half of
jlny 1967tocreasea
price was a period of " severe
were caiefully restraint.”
examined, and
reached (unless the settlement was reached by the norm for income increases was zero. Any
arbitration); but it had no power to cancel or increase in eamtogs had to he justified by one of
modify an agreement. NIC produced only 4 the four conditions for exception, referred to
reports, and was wound up after the change in above. To enforce its “ freeze ” the Government
Government. took the unprecedented step of asking Parliament
for reserve powers, which were to he used only if
(iii) The National Board for Prices and Incomes. the need should arise. These powers — încluding
penalties for offenders — were contained in the new
In October 1064 the Labour Government’s new Part rV’’ of the Prices and Incomes Act. Por the
Deirartment of Economic Affairs was made re¬ most part, there was a voluntary observation of
sponsible for achieving an incomes policy. The the standstill: hut firom October 1966 the Govern¬
lessons of the past had been learned; the Govern¬ ment found it necessary to exercise its power of
ment recognised that a successful incomes irolicy compulsion in a few cases, e.g., laundry and dry
would require the support of both sides of in¬ cleaning charges, and a wage agreement in the
dustry. Its first objective was to achieve a electrical engineering industry. The power of
"Joint Statement of Intent on Productivity, compulsion lapsed in August 1967.
Prices and Iiwomes this was signed in Decem¬ The period of compulsion was followed by a year
ber 1964. In this document the T.IJ.G. and the in which there was to be a could
“nil he
norm ” except
where increases In incomes justified by
employers’
with organisationsin tmdertook
the Govermnent producing toanco-operate
effectiveone of the four criteria listed above. The Govern¬
machinery for the implementing of an incomes ment could no longer legally enforce its poUcy.
policy. but it did retain the power to delay price and pay
It was Government policy that growth in eam- increases, through reference to the Board, by up
iogs i)er employee should equal the planned growth to 7 months. Whereas the Government suc¬
in national output per employee of 3-3| per cent ceeded in almost stabilising wages and prices
per annum. Thus, in those industries (e.p., during the year in which it took compulsory
engineering) in which productivity growth exceeds powers, in the second half of 1967 weeWy wage
this "norm”, earnings should rates rose by 6 per cent. The advantage gained
than productivity, and in those rise less rapidly
industries (e.p..
from ttie previous restraint was reduced but not
railways) in which productivity growth falls short entirely lost.
of the norm, earnings could rise more rapidly
than productivity. Moreover, prices would be (v) Incomes Policy after Devaluation,
expected to fall in industries such as engineering,
and permitted to rise in Industries such as rail¬ Incomes policy was made both more difficult
ways. Growth in earnings iier employee should and more Important by the devaluation of the
exceed the norm only in exceptional cases; t.e., pound : more difficult in that devaluation involved
as a reward for increasing productivity by a cut to the standard of living, and more important
eliminating restrictive worMi^ practices; if in that the trading benefit from devaluation
necessary to transfer labour from one industry to should not be neutrffiised by inflation.
another: if earnings are too low to maintain a In April 1968 the Government published a
reasonable standard of living: or if a group of White Paper outlining its policy for the period
workers have fallen seriously out of line with until the end of 1969. Wage increases must still
earnings for similar work. be justified by the four criteria, and there is a
To make specific recommendations on the basis "celling” to increases In income of per cent
of this policy, the Government sot up a National per annum except for “ productivity agreements ”
Board for Prices and Incomes. It consists of an and low-paid workers in certain cases. Price
independent Chairman, a number of independent increases are permitted only as a result of un¬
experts, a businessman and a trade unionist. The avoidable increases in cost per unit of output, and
Prices Eeview Division of the Board can investi¬ price reductions are required when costs fall.
gate the price of any goods in the economy, and Dividend increases are also subject to the ceiling
the Incomes Eeview Division has power to in¬ of 84 per cent per annum, and home rent increases
vestigate all claims and settlements relating to restricted. The Government Intended to rely on
wages, salaries, and other incomes. In less than the voluntary co-operation of unions and employ¬
6 years of operation the Board had produced ers over pay; but it dMided to lengthen its
over 160 reports on prices and earnings. delaying powers for pay and price increases up to
There was no statutory authority to enforce the 12 months, and take powers to enforce price
recommendations of the Board: reliance was reductions recommended by the Board.
placed on voluntary methods and the power of Between November 1967 and November 1088
persuasion and public optoion. However, in late the retail price index rose by 6-2 per cent, mainly
1966 the Government introduced a compulsory due to the effect of devaluation on import prices.
“ Early Warning In the face of this rise in the cost of living the
in advance of any ”intended
system, increase
whereby init incomes
is notified
or ! Incomes policy met with firm resistance. In
in certain prices. As a result, the Government practice the nominal ceiling of 34 per cent per
and the Board have time to consider increases be¬ annum rapidly became the normal increase. Hi
fore they are put into effect. the first year after devaluation basic wage rates
rose by 6-0 per cent and average earnings by
(iv> The Prices and Incomes Standstill. 7‘5 per cent. Workers were able to protect them¬
selves against the inflation and to increase slightly
A vohmtary incomes policy is very difficult to their real incomes.
implement, since it depends on co-operation During 1069 the process of wage and price In-
among Government, workers, and employers: I flation accelerated. Between November 1968 and
moreover, co-operation among representatives at NovemlMT 1969 average earnings rCffie by 8-0 per
the top
the may level.
factory he undermined
Thus the byannual
“ wage-drift
average” of cent and retail prices by 5*4 per cent. In Decem¬
at ber the Government published a White Paper on
weekly wage-rates rose by no less than 6 per¬ , its incomes policy for the period after 1989. It
centage points between 1966 and 1966. In fact all laid dorm a norm for wage increases of 2'6 to 4-6
of this increase took place in the period before , per cent per annum: increases should exceed the
July 1966. Cfiearly the voluntary incomes policy i upper limit only in exceptional circumstances,
was meeting with little success. I e.g., in productivity agreements, in cases where ain
. Therefore, as part of the July measures taken to inappropriate pay structure la rationalised e.g. by
deal with the hiJance of payments problem, the means of job evaluation, in the case of low-paid
Govermnent introduced a " prices and Incomes 1 workers, and in the achievement of equal pay for
ECONOMIC EVENTS
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960 G40
women. Comparisons with other workers should the growth m surcharg
demand,e the Chancellotaxation
r imposedmda
not be used, except in the case of public servants in indirect
(e.ff., teachers and nurses) whose productivity caii- called the banks to mcrease their special deposits
■
^ the Bank of England. Furthermore, the
behindI ’W'liose
that of the private pay tends
sector. to faU
The limit on gianceUor amounoed that he aimed to restrict
the increase in company dividends of 3-S per cent the increase m government spending. Not
per annum was ended and the Government powers was the outflow of funds stopped, but it onlv
to delay the implementation of proposed wage and actually reversed. These measures were all was too
price increases were reduced. However, the in¬ successful m restricting demand at home: there
comes policy laid down in the White Paper was
tempered by the imminence of a General Election
and the recent cost of living Increases: and it did 1962.
S of 196“ production in the second
ôtoPrevent a “ wage explosion ” occurring in 1962 Budget was, however, no less re¬
strictive m intention than the 1961 Budget
(vi) Conservative Policy. estimated overall deficit, at £70 miUlon, The wm
virtually unchanged. There was a move towards
On taking oflBce in June 1970 the Conservative umfomity of purchase tax rates. The main
Government eschewed its predecessor’s novelty of the 1962 Budget was a tax on eertein
to incomes policy and disbanded the approach
National
Board for Prices and Incomes. To curb the in¬ speculative gams. From the summer of 1962 on-
flation it maintained the economy in recession and war^, monetary and fiscal policies were designed
to stunulate economic activity. Bank Rate was
squeezed company liquidity, hoping in this way to
reduced to 4j^r cent, all special deposits held by
weaken wage pressures and strengthen the resist- the Bai^ of England were released, qualitative
Mces of employers. In addition it attempted restramts on bank lending were abolished, some
to resist demands for wage increases in the public
sector, at the cost of prolonging strikes, e.g., in post-war credits were released, investment
aUovvances for industry were Increased, and the
electricity supply and postal services: and it purchase tax on oars reduced.
intervened to curb price rises in the nationalised
iMustries, e.g., postal charges and steel prices,
these ineasures were by no means a sure remedy 1963.
5 spiral. The Government placed January 1963 saw further
its faith on its Bill for the reform of industrial taxes, and a very considerabreduction in purchase
relation to solve the problem of wage inflation le increase
estimated overall Budgetin deficit
social
in the long run.
ter 1968-64 was more than £600 miUlon greater
than that of the previous year. Tax reliefs
Monetary and Fiscal Policies since 1960. annoTOced: the most important benefitswere to
individuals were derived from increases in tbe
There is probabiy no country in the world which aUowances which can
has made fuller use than Britain of budgetary before mcome tax is levied: in be chaiged against income
policy as a means of stabilising the economy. addition. Schedule
A taxes were
Bmce 1941, almost all adjustments to the total Other changes mabolished for owner-occupiers.
taxation were designed to
level of taxation have been made with the object stunulate mvestmen
of reducing an excess in total demand or of depreciation allowances t spending by companies-
were increased for tax
rpairing a deficit. Whereas in the Hnited States pmyoses, and companies investing in areas of
there is still a public clamour for “ balanced high unemployment were permitted
budgets, British Governments have accepted preciation on their assets at a rate to charge de¬
Eeynesian principles-— first laid down by Lord choosii^. The Budget of their own
Eeynes— for managing the economy by adjusting a fiscal boost to the economy, was designed to provide
the level of taxation and private saving relative succeeded: and in this it
w public expenditure and private Investment. national output rose by more tbaTi 5
per cent over the year,
Ibis does not mean to say that British policies
we mwaye been successful. Apart from the
dimeulty of deciding when demand is excessive or 1964.
deficient, there are the difficulties that data are
available only with a serious time-lag, and may be signs , By 1964 the economy was beginning to show
of strain, and the trade figures revealed a
"i^’^burate: that economic events cannot be mpid deterioration in the balance of visible trade
predicted with any certainty: and that the The Chancellor’s
qumititatwe effects of Government measures are to slow down^be objective in his April budget was
rate of growth without producing
■p:
not easy to estimate. demtion. He planned an overall deficit of £790
1960. million^ but provided for additional taxation by
mcreasmg the duties on tobacco and alcoholic
to the first half of 1960 there were a series of drinks by about 10 per cent.
restnctive measures designed to curb the increase Both consumption expenditure and industrial
m home demmd and to improve the balance of production jumped sharply towards the end of
payments position. Bank Bate was raised to 6 1964, and there were reports of a growing labour
shortage. The balance of payments was heavily
per cent. To exert pressure on the banks’
hqmdity positions, and so help to curb bank in deficit throughout the year. Nothing was
advsmces. the banks were called upon to place done about It. however, until after the General
Election in October. In November the OhaneeUor
ipecial ^de^Bits {see 621) with the Bank of
England. Bestrictiona on hire purchase trans¬ of the Exchequer presented a “ little budget."
actions were also imposed. Furthermore, the An additional 6d. in the £ was placed on the
Budget restrictive: the Chancellor estimated standard rate of Income tax, and there were
moreases m petrol duties. In Naifional Insurance
£320 million.deficit (see 624) for 1960-61 of only contributions and payments. But old-age
pen¬
sions were tocrea^d.^ During the sterling criais of
1961. November {see 680) Bank Rate was raised to 7 per
cent to stem the outflow of funds, but this was not
Budget was sternly anti-inflationary:
profits tax and some indirect taxes were increased: aceompaailed by a “credit squeeze ” to restrict pro¬
reduction in surtax. In ductive mvestments. as in tbe crisis of 1961. Hn-
of his predecessors, the Chancellor had not
addition, the âncellor was granted powers to opted for deflation as the cure for the balance of
introduce, if he considered it necessary, an payments deficit. Instead, reliance was placed on
.^regulator a surcharge on, or rebate
of, mdlrect taxes by up to 10 per cent. This an import smeharge and an export rebate. How-
power provides greater scope for using fiscal wer, the IMtish policy came under fire from some
mûres to influence the economy in the periods of BflteP^n Governments
the British economy., who called for a deflation
between Budgets. In July 1961 tbe Chancellor
introduced a collection of restrictive measures, 1966.
ihese measures were primarily Intended to ease
the critical foreign exchange situation but they The Budget contained two major fiscal Innova¬
were^not without effect on the. domestic economy . tions. a corporation tax and a capital gains tax.
■Bank
Rate was raised to 7 per cent. To restrict lull employment was maintained in 1966. The
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960 G4-1 ECONOMIC EVENTS
April Budget was not deflationary; the Govern¬ “ siiecial levy ” for one year on imeamed Income
ment’s overall deficit for 1965-60 was estimated at above £3.000 per armum. In deflating the eco¬
£720 million. In July, because the balance of nomy the Chancellor was attempting to reduce
payments had shown no sign of rapid improve¬ private consumer demand so as to free resources
ment, the Chancellor found it necessary to for the export market and for replacing imports.
introduce further measures: tighter controls on Without such a transfer of resources the advantage
foreign exchange and on the terms of hire- gained from devaluation would be lost. BUs
purchase, and a postponement of public expendi¬ strategy was to produce an overall balance of
ture programmes. But this action was not payments surplus of the order of £500 miliion
suflacient to produce deflation, and at the end of before resuming growth, and in this way to break
the year unemployment was stlU very low. the vicious circle of “ stop-go
There was a stronger recovery of consumer
1966. demand and output and a weaker Improvement in
The 1966 Budget was somewhat deflationary; the balance of payments in 1968 than the Chancel¬
lor had expected, and further restrictive measures
but its impact was delayed tmtil September when were taken during the year. In May bank lending
the new selective emvloyment tax (SET) came into restrictions were tightened selectively, and in
force. All employers were reouired to pay this November hire purchase terms were tightened
tax at the weekly rate of 26s. for men, 12s. 6d. for
women and boys and 8s. for girls. However, and the “ regulator ” used to raise indirect taxes
by 10 per cent.
manufacturing industries received a refund of
180 per cent, the public sector 100 per cent, while
other Industries — e.g., services and construction —
receive no refund. 1969.
In February Bank Bate was raised to the record
Tip to mld-1966 the Labour Government’s height of 8 per cent, partly to help reduce bank
policy can be summarised as follows: to restrict lending and partly to retain short-term funds in
the growth of demand somewhat but not as London: owing to the shortage of international
drastically as in the past, to take direct action on liquidity (see G31) central banks compete for
the immediate balance of payments, and to short-term capital by raising their discount rates.
strengthen the long-run balance by means of The April Budget was somewhat restrictive:
productivity policy and Incomes policy. How¬ an additional £350 million per annum being raised
ever. in July, during yet another run on sterling, in taxation. This was aoMeved mainly by in¬
the (Government embarked on a policy of deflation. creasing corporation tax to 45 per cent, and SET
In its “ July measures ” the Government raised to 48 sMUings a week for adult males. In an
indirect taxation 10 per cent by means of its
attempt to encourage saving the Chancellor intro¬
“regulator,” placed a 10 per cent surcharge on duced a contractual sayings scheme offering
surtax, tightened building controls, cut public
attractive tax-free interest payments after a flve-
investment for 1967/8, increased hire-purchase or seven-year period. Perhaps as a result of
restrictiois, and raised Bank Bate to 7 per cent.
As a result of these measures, the economy went pressures from Britain’s creditor, the IMF, the
ChanceUor emphasised the importance he would
into recession in the second half of 1966. give to monetary policy (see G22). The Budget
continued the strategy of improving the balance
1967. of payments at the expense of consumption.
In June the ChanceUor published a Letter of
Despite unemplosunent of 2-4 per cent and pre¬ Intent to the IMF stating his intention to limit the
dictions of a further rise during the year, the
annual increase in real public expenditure to 1 per
ChanceUor produced a “no-ehange ” April Budget, cent, and the increase in domestic credit expansion
with an estimated surplus of £640 million. The
balance of payments prevented Mm from taking to £400 million. Domestic credit expansion is
reflationary measures. In mid-year the Govern¬ defined as the increase in the money supply ad¬
justed for changes resulting from external trans¬
ment
ture hygave some Mre
relaxing stimulus to consumers’
purchase expendi¬
terms andinoreasing actions. In fact domestic credit expansion turned
family allowances. But the balanoe of payments out to be negative in the financial year 1969/70:
deteriorated, and, since further deflation was credit was extremely tight except for the manu¬
politically unacceptable, the Government devalued facturing sector. The growth of the economy in
the pound. Devaluation was Itself strongly re¬ 1969 was Might, output being about 2 per cent up
on 1968. Investment and consumption stagnated,
flationary — increasing demand for exports and for and the main impetus for expansion came from
import-substitute goods — and had to be accom¬ exports.
panied by measures to release resources for these
industries. Bank Hate was raised to the un¬
precedented height of 8 per cent, bank advances 1970.
were limited to all hut priority borrowers, e.g.,
exporters, Mre purchase on cars was tightened, Early in the year there was some slack in the
corporation tax was raised to 42i per cent, and economy, which could be taken up by a policy of
the SET premium was to be withdrawn except for reflation. "With the balance of payments im¬
Development Areas. proved and an eleotlon not far ahead, the Chan¬
There were also to be cuts in defence, other cellor therefore reduced taxation hy £220 million.
Even then, because expenditure was to he re¬
public
vestment.spending and(aits
Further nationalised industries’
in govemment in¬
spending strained and income tax receipts rise with the
were announced In December, and again in inflation, he expe<flied a Oovermnent budget sur¬
January, when future defence spending vras con- plus of £620 million. It could not be claimed that
this was an electioneering budget: output was
sideral^ reduced because of the decision to with¬
draw forces ftom East of Suez, and the planned planned to rise by 3-6 per cent in the next year.
rise in the school-leaving age from 16 to 16 was But the period of severe restraint on private con¬
put off until 1972. Despite these several blows of sumption was over, the expected Increase being
the axe, public expenditure was stiU likely to rise 8-9 per cent. Tax relief came largdy in the form
in 1968/9 by nearly 4 per cent in teal terms: hut of Increased personal allowances, hut these were
the rise in 1969/70 was estimated to be no more so arranged that people with lower incomes
than 1 per cent. benefited most. Those over 66 benefited from
increased tax exemption, and the minimum in¬
.1968. come for liability to surtax was raised because of
the high cost of collecting surtax. Private invest¬
The April budget was highly deflationary. The ment was to he helped hy the removal of quanti¬
Ghancellor increased taxation to yield an ad¬ tative controls on bank advances, and by in¬
ditional £920 million per annmn. Most of this creasing initial tax allowances on industrial bufld-
came from incUrect taxation, with purchase tax ing from 15 per cent to 30 per cent normally and
and taxes ou spirits, wines, and tobacco all raised. 40 per cent in the DevMopment Areas. The
Motorists were paridculorly Mt by the increased strength of the balance of payments enabled the
veMcle and petrol taxes— perhaps not unfairly in Government to reduce Bank Bate from 8 per cent
view of the heavy social costs caused by road to 7i per cent In March and again, to 7 per cent, in
congestion. SET was to bo raised 60 per cent, the Budget.
and betting duties were put op. Partly to gain In October the new Government announced
support for the incomes policy, the ChanceUor outs in both public expenditure and taxation,
rais^ ftmily aUowances and placed a heavy taklDg effect from April 1971. There was to he
ECONOMIC EVENTS
DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1960
a 6£i!. cut in the standard rate of income tax and (iil) Selective Employment Tax.
a cut in corporation tax. Also investment grants The seiectfre emplmnent tax (SET) was intm.
were to be replaced by a system of 60 per cent ^^® Budget (see G41), became partly
imtial ôwances. Prescription charges and an mstriunent of regional policy in 1967,
dental charges were increased, the subsidy on wel- raised m both the 1968 and 1969 Budgeand \vaB
lare iMk was ended, the price of school meals was 1970 the Labour Chancellor amomced ts that
Tn
raised, and the system of import levies on farm
produce was extended. These changes involved would sbecome
number emptorelated to eamin ™ rS
a redistribution of Income away from the ed as from thm
1972. Howev&r tS to
ConserTOtive CbanMUor announced that
However, a family income supplement (PIS) poor was SET
introduced to provide a cash benefit for poor
famihes with children.
• p^PloTPrs are required to pay this tax at
output grew by only 1 J per cent Merent
to Apri weeMy rates for!®'^
ngra abolished
in 1970, the Chancellor did not take any measures men, women and boys
which would have ^ immediate reflationary effect and girls, but manufacturing firms and the public
sector receive a refund. It is a selective tax
Monetary restrictions, e.g., requirements of in¬ services and construction. The tax therefore on
creased special deposits (see GSl). were applied dis-
during the year. crmuna;te3 apmst those industries which me
labour-intensive, export little, and whose
bears httle indirect taxation. The SET Is output
there¬
1971. fore a rough and ready means of forcing employer
to release hoarded labour, of suhsidfatog expmtss
With business profits and liquidity down and
busmess confidence weak, private investment was
low and the economy continued to stagnate,
êre wm a need for a reflationary policy in 1971. V, teatton^^® I’l’ofessor ““®
JP'êst tocideno
igate
Eeddaway, the e of of
effects indirect
having SET
been asked
The April budget was somewhat reflationary with produced the
first of his Reports. This Mvemi
! of £550 million in the financial year the distributive trades which accoun t for no less
ot the reductions previously announced. The statistical^1 anffiys P^^P? is toworke
show
rs. thatThe theRepor t used
^ his objective an increase in productivity growth in
3 Por cent per annum. The main m the distributive trades after 1965
expected to the absence of
budget changes for 1971 were a further cut in cor¬ SET, and that profit
margin s and prices
poration tax to 40 per cent, a halving of SET,
an ®?P®Pt.®3- The discrepancy could were not
entirely to SET, however, becaus e
^
iuifa reduction
cWMren, child in the tax allowances for
in surtax P'hnormal factors, e.g., the progressive
particularly for very
mgh mcome earners, and a general increase abolit ion of resale price maintenance (see G13)
in
operated during that period. On the whole
The Chancello
Th e r also ’ôneflts
announcedandhiscontribut the
to Report was favourable to SET.
ions.
intention
“^‘l^pr-reachmg tax reforms in future years (see (iv) Value Added Tax.
Tax Reforms. In bis 1971 Budget the Chancellor of the Ex¬
chequer announced that SET and purchase f?x
(i) Capital Gains Tax. would replaced by a valut adde/f^x
was seen to have^lm cer-
The first move in this direction was the tam advmtages: it could be applied evenly
duction of a tax on short term gains in 1962. intro¬
But
to
^^Pst goods and services
a more coinprehensive innovation was the capital which was toposed on only unlike purchase tax
a limited range of
on the gahi
without infringing intemat ionS^to^
between its levied
reahsed on an asset1 cotod be exempted from the tax and so
exceed purchase
the gain and sale
betweS encouraged, and it would be to line with
applies to all assets,
exceptions: the most important m the Common Market countries. Thepractice
cellor proposed to exempt food, newspape Chan¬
beu^ owner-occupied houses, and goods and rs
£1.000. Gatos inere niight be a single rate or various rates
period are taxed nf
Ttoe traders!
a certain percentage of
on more thm Gains
rates. a year by
are individua
taxed atlsa rates ot
Mlae
tas for added at produ
each
different stage of cts,
33 par pent. Gams realised within a OP product ion (see Gil).
the assumption of a
period ot one year were treated as ordinary income umform 10 per cent rate.
and taxed accordingly. However, in ®t £100A and
producer
pays aim-onriH
tax of
Budget the Chancellor made these gains to 1971
also sub- £10. He makes an mtermediate product
33 per cent flat rate. He also exempte it to a raifacturer for £200. The prSert and sells
todiyiduals capital gains where the assets d
sold ®*^ Is £100, so he pays another £10. The
dun^ the year were adminis
valued trative
at less than £600.
difficult ies to to a retailer for £500. His value added — accnitog
Implementtog such a tax. Nevertheless, it
important attempt to remedy the inequali is an toTreto£300,
meretore fw®fnJând be^n® product and sells it
the taxation of earned and unearned incomes.ty to pays tax of £30. The
Projtfiptworkers
to domestic
or as consumere
profited
therefore psmf® «
(ii) Corporation Tax. naouity £20. The sum total of tax paid
i.e.. 10 per cent of the final produ^ price is £70
»
„ Government also introduced IS coUeeted at each stage of product
f°fpPf®P® lhe existing company ion. ’
income tax and profits tax. This tax, at a rate (V) Inoome Tax and Surtax.
F®® imposed on distributed as well of as
rmdistributed profits, so as to encourage the reten- Ill the 1971 Budget the Conservative Govern-
tion of profits for the financing of business expan- ® existing income tax
sion. The tax rate was subsequently raised with a single CTaduated personal tax
42i per cent and then to 45 per cent. to bave the following four prin-
*1.™® mooming Conservatiye Goyernment o pal features. ;The existing patterntof perSl
Mlowan^ would be retained, there would be
+A^?n®’^
to 40 per*^®
cent.^ pJT fP 1^24^ per cent and in 1971 a
It was also announced that the ^slc rate^coverlng a broad band of income and
tP remove the diserhntoa- rate less earned
against distributed *here. would be Mêr rates above
P“ distributed
mcome A tax? together

the burden of corporation tax and
would be equal to the cor- the ^ between
Eaa™ F?***®
byway higher tooomes,
of aand
earned surcharg e and
on
unearned
^ratlon tax alone on retained profits. This investmeifr ^come above a certain level of such
would have the effects of reducing profit reten^ The purpose of the propS wal to
dlsTOurage investment, and of assessment and collection, to avoid
share issue, which would encourage to-
vcSwinGiiti. bfliXa und to encourage saving.
***? *™® ““•rehial rates of
r
LEGENDS
The ancient stories of Greece,

woven into the fabric of our Euro¬
pean culture by playwrights, artists
and psychologists, are retold in the
light of recent research. An index
to the narratives ensures easy refer¬
ence.
H2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part I. Introduction.
(a) The significance of the myths and legends.
(h) The historical background in which they
developed.
(c) Bibliography.
(d) Guide to Pronunciation and Spelling,
Part II. Narrative Outlines.

The main cycles of myth and legend told in continuous narrative.
Olympian Creation Myths.
Paragraphs 1-22
The Olympian Deities.
Perseus. .. 23-128
Bellerophon. » 129-144
145-150
Jason and the Argonauts.
Heracles. » 151-163
164-202
Theseus.
203-218
Cretan Myths. 219-239
Theban Myths. 240-271
Legends of Troy.
The Wanderings of Odysseus. .. 353-369
272-352
370-398
Legends of the House of Pelops.
The Underworld.
» 399-409
Part HI. Index and Glossary.

An alphabetical index of names already reader to
mentioned referring the of names
the appropnate paragraph in the narrative,
together with a glossary
not appearing in the narrative. ^
Part I. INTRODUCTION
(a) Tlie Significance o! the Myths and legends. from Shakespeare to James Joyce have enriched
their work by constant reference. The Erencli
We all know how the stories and books that we dramatists from Racine to Giraudoux are notalJe
knew in our youth have coloured our thought. for relying on them for the basic plot of their
So it ts with the myths and legends of the earliest dramas. Today when good and inexpensive
civilisation of Europe, that of the Greeks. Their
stories have entered the stream of consciousness translations enable ns to go direct to Homer’s
of Europe.an men and women through the ages, Iliad, or to see Euripides’ Medea on the stage,
it is especially useful to have some general know¬
afiectmg their literature and art, and even their ledge of the mythical background to the particular
ways of thinking. epic or play.
The Origin o! Myths. True nayth has been Psychology. Not only to those who love
defined by Robert art and literatme is the knowledge of Greek
to narrative shorthandGraves as mime
of ritual “ the performed
reduction
mythology rewarding. Psychologists have found
on public festivals, and In many cases recorded here suggestive symbols for the profound mental
pictorially.” These rituals were, says Graves, processes they are endeavouring to elucidate.
" archaicor magic-makings that promoted
queeudom the Through Freud the term
fertility stabihty of a sacred or now a commonidace, and “Jung
(Edipus complexin ’’theis
has found
kingdom — (lueendoms having, it seems, preceded myths symbolic archetypes of human resifonse.
kingdoms throughout the Greek-speaking area."
The immense diversity of the.se myths is partly Philosophy and Religion. Philosophers also
due to geographical causes, for, in the widely have found it profitable to return to the myths.
differing districts of Greece, different conceptions Bertrand Russell emphasises the Influence of
of the divinity and varying rituals of propitiation Greek religion on Greek philosophy, and. through
were evolved. There are also historical causes, such philosophers as Pythagoras and Plato, on
for the Mediterranean peoples worshipping an Christianity itself.
earth goddess were conquered by successive waves
of Hellenes bringing with them some form of Anthropology. Of recent years anthropologists
tribal sky god. scmtinlsing the myths have been able to discern
something of the way of life of primitive societies.
Legends. Interwoven with the religions myths The two-volume Penguin The Greek Myths, by
were a host of legends, traditional stories, which Robert Graves, incorporates some of their inter¬
though not authentic had, like the tales of Troy, pretations.
a substratum of fact. There were, also, all kinds
of fables and anecdotes, folk-tales such as that Archaeology. Perhaps the most exciting of all
of Perseus, and allegories and romances, which recent investigations are those of the arohaeologists
fused with the myths and legends to make a working on sites once considered only legendary.
fascinating complex of stories. The German Schlieinann, trusting to the fidelity
of his Homer, actually nnearthed the foundations
Their Preservation In Literary Form. These
have been preserved for us largely by the Greek of Priam’s 'Troy and Agamemnon’s Myeeiiaa,
finding fabulous treasure and proving to the
poets, especially by Homer in his Iliad and astonished world that these antique tales were
Odyssey, and by Hesiod in his Theogmy, works
which probably date from about the eighth Indeed
trust in rooted
Homer in we fact. Through
have added Sehliemann’s
an early chapter
century b.o. The Greek dramatists of the fifth to EQstory, that of the Mycensean culture of
century B.o. — Âeschylus. Sophocles, and Euripides pre-classical Greek which flourished from about
— who relied on myth and legend for most of their 1550 to 1200 B.o.
plots, also handed on the ancient tales, though Anothfr centre of ancient story, the island of
often in slightly altered form. Then about five
centuries later Roman writers, such as Virgil. Crete,hiswasexcavation
and the field ofofSirtheArthur Evans’ enquiries,
magnificent Palace of
Ovid and Horace, modelling themselves on the Gnomes not only puêd back the frontiers of
Greeks, refashioned and embroidered their history yet further to about 3000 b.c., but also
themes. It is not surprising that we have so showed how many Cretan, legends had some
many variants of the same tale. factual basis.
This rich and complex treasure of Greek myth More recent excavations at legendary My¬
and leg:end has become increasingly familiar cenaean sites on the mainland have led to the
in Western Europe, at first in Latin versions, discovery of the Palace of Nestor at Pylos, and
then after the Renaissance in the original Greek, the House of Cadmus at Thebes.
and today in excellent modern translations. Tablets found at Mycenân towns and in
Cnossos inscribed in an entirely unknown script,
Their Significance Today. Because of their “ Linear B,” have challenged scholars with a
extraordinary vitality and pervasiveness, some feseinating puzzle. After years of study Michael
familiarity with Greek myth and legend is almost Veotris and others have at last been able to de¬
indispensable to a full appreciation of our Euro¬ cipher the script. Although so far only inven¬
pean culture. tories are available, it Is significant that the
language used is archaic Greek. We now know
In Art and Literature, Great painters like therefore that the Greeks of the Myoenasan
Botticelli. Veronese and Rubens made the ancient age could wi-ite, and
stories the subject of their pictures, and writers ference to writing is oncethatmoreHomer’s single
a faithful re¬
record
INTRODUCTION H4 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
.9t people, with their matriarchal culture and the
reference to Bellerophon s folded tablet. ) reflected inwaves
successive the Greek
of patriarchal
worship ofHellenes was
Olympians
The ancient earth-goddess of fertility lived on to
®“ 1. n. Kl^rof SefiffieâS. “ipSSl.tfy fS

Hera to wife. Indeed, many deities, such as
Our knowledge of the earliest periods of Greek ê single
history is very recent. The great historian both Mediterranean and Hellenic
Grote, writing in 1846. said that we must con- ^ ^ „
sider the First Olympiad of 778 B.o. as the starting element m Greek Olympian religion
point. Anything earlier was matter for coniec- a from a &ttite culture flourishing in
ture. It is largely due to the discoveries of about 1300 b.o. which had developed
archseologists that scholars are now able to push ®' Human cifltoe of about 1500 b.o. Hesiod
back the frontiers
evidence they can ofnow
history. From archseological
reconstruct the probable ''^fling m aboutmyths 750 of
B .o.,
the mcorporated
cannibalism ofsome
the
course
B.o. of events from as early a date as 3000 ^ Theogony or Birth of the Oods.
The “ Epic Cycle.” By the eighth century b.o.
3000 B.C. Early Bronze Age. It was about F^®^^ was in existence a rich store of myth and
3000 B.O., when the Neolithic Age was succeeded J®"®^*^ known as the Epic Cycle,” which was
in the Eastern Mediterranean by the Early ^wn on by Homer and also by later poets and
Bronze Age, that a bronze-taaing people, akin to dramatists,
ttose of early Crete and the Cyclades, entered „ .' . .
Greece and fused with the Neolithic folk already Homer’s Picture. Homer, whose epics were
there. These invaders were not Aryans, but of Probably completed at the end of the eighth
Mediterranean stock, and they worshipped the “ t^® seventh century b.o. presents the
Great Goddess, a fertility goddess who appeared composite myth and legend of Greece in highly
m many guises. She was unmarried, and in civilised foi-m, as the beliefs of a successful
many instances her lover appeared to her in war-like aristocracy. The twelve deities dwelling
the form of a bird. on Olympus
Zeus, acknowledged
and Dionysus the god ofthe supremacy of
wine and ecstasy
SOOO B.C. Coming of HeUenes. A thousand entered from Thrace in the eighth century
years later, in the Middle Bronze Age a very still an outsider, a god of the lower
dWerent kind of people began to enter Greece, orders.
These were the Hellenes or Greeks, an Aryan m, „ ,
,
people from the North, for whom transport and T“® Coming of Dionysus. But by the fifth
ccmquest were easy by reason of their horses and century b.o. Dionysus had been accepted as an
wheeled vehicles. Unlilce their predecessors, Olympian, taking the place of Hestia. The
they were patriarchal, and their chief divinity Srowing popularity of his womhip which induced
was a tribal sky-god, but as they fused with ecstatic union with the god in a frenzy partly
the pre-Hellenic stock already in the country, stunulated by wine, partly mystical, shows the
so their patriarchal worship mingled with the impulsive
“®®d of the recently
religions civilised which
expression Greeks was
for not
an
matriarchal
matriarchal and
and the
the skv-nod maTried fho
sky-god married the earth- relieriona evurpRsinTi titWpTi nmo
goddess. always sattefled by the prudent cults of the
serene Olympians.
Minyans and lonians. Successive waves of
OrpheiK. From the worship of
these HeUenes invaded the country in three Tnain , Orpheus. From the worship of Dionysus Dionysus
groups beginning in about 2000 B.o. with Minyans developed that of Orpheus, which at
and lonians. mystic imion
wholly mystic,withand thethrough
god through enthusiasm
purification. The
Minoan Culture. Penetrating far south to the Orgmes. pelleving in the transmigration of souls
islands, and to Sicily, Southern Italy, and Asia ®'5S ®.n after Me. had much influence on the Greek
Minor, they became expert navigators. They P™®sopher Prthagoras. and this influence was
were
cated much influenced by a brilliant and sophisti- fpDfmitted tteough Plato into Christianity
Minoan culture already flourishing in ^
Onossos in Crete, and this began to have eon- ^® influence of Greek religion on phllo-
siderable effect on the mainland of Greece from has only recently been recognised, and
about 1680 B.o. onwards. Berte^d
of Eussell commends especially the study
John Burnet’s JEarly Greete Philosophy, es-
1400 B.C,
however, Achmans,
Cnossos In about
fell, destroyed either 1400 B.o.
by earth- second chapter, " Science and Ee-
auakes or by invaders, for the Achseans,
seMnd ware of Hellenes, had now begun the to
rater Greece, and from about 1400 to 1100 b.o. (c) Bibliography.
Myranffl on the mainland was probably the centre mi, »
.
of ciYihsation m the .®gean world. Thereversions
Mray Is no one bookandor inBible
exist, of Greek
a short myths.
account It is
Mycenaean Culture. It Is this Mycenman . variations. The
culture of the Date Bronze Age whiS^ ^ra advised to coi^t the masterpieces of
through legend, is depicted in :^ner and ^fVeek hterature now available In translation.
Odyssey. Mveente is Agamemnon’s own citadel m. n- j tt . , „
and other cities where archcBologioal remains Homer, txansl. E. V. Bieu. Penguin
are now being found are named in the ZZiod’s rr-r^r mr ,
" Catalogue of Ships,” The Achseans as Homer Odyssey. Homer, transl, E. V. Eieu. Pen-
shows them were a conquering feudal aristooraev A ■ nr „ , , , .
and a concerted attempt probably made by tonsl. E. F. Wat-
them in the beginning of the twelfth century D3. „ ,
B.a. to seize the Black Sea trade may be reflected ogier plays. Sophocles, transl. E. F.
in the epic of the siege of Troy. ^ Wathng.
JLl^hs and^ Penguin L28. Euripides, transl. P,
other plays.
raon1^4 dMeated.^fra'î^tM e*ndM ^“âcort^ PemsiflnTii

s.. a.o,Ae To™,.
Late BronzemeAgejaycencean civilisation,
now gave way to the and the
Iron Age.
114 .Luang.
Late Bronze Age now gave way to the Iron Age. PlayT™
s. Enripldes. transl. A. S. Way.
, Olympian DiVlPitles. The close fusion Greek Bra/ma for Everymom "£ D Lucas
T M
between the early non-Aryan Mediterranean Dentô^ i.L. Lucas, J, M.
OLYMPIAN CREATION MYTHS GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
ilfen. and Oods (llyths of Ovid). Hex Warner. A Smaller Classical jOictionary. Ed. Blakeney.
Pengnin 885. _ J. M. Dent & Sons.
Greeks and Trojans (Siege of Itoy). Bex W amer.
Penguin 942. ^ id) Guide to Pronunciation and Spelling.
The Greek Myths, 2 vols. Eobert Graves. Pen¬
guin. This Cyclopffidia uses the long-established
The Golden Ass. Apulaius, transl. Eoberfe Graves, convention of spelling Greek names which is
Penguin Lll. _ , also used by such modem scholars as Kobert
The Greeks. H. D. P. Kitto. Pelican. Graves and E. V. Eieu.
The Tmlve Olympians. Charles Seltman. Pan. It is helpful to remember that :—
Women in Antiquity. Charles Seltman. Pan. “ oh ” and “ c ” are pronounced “ k.”
The Butt of Minos, lieonard. Cottrell. Pan. “ oe ” and " ss ” are pronounced ‘ 5, ’ as In
Dr.John
Smith’s Classical Blctionarv. 'WUliam Smith.
Murray.
eus ” rhymes with “ Juice.*'
Part II. NARRA IVE OUTLINES
THE OLYMPIAN 1-22.

CREATION MYTHS, disgorge first the stone and then his other ohildren,
Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Boseidon.
These now joined with Zeus in a contest against
1. Uranus and Ge. The infinite and empty their father and the other Titans, who were led
space which existed before creation was known by Atlas.
as Chaos. The Earth, or Ge. sprang from 8. War between Zeus and Titans. The war,
Chaos, and herself gave birth to Uranus, the known as the Titanomachia. was waged in
Heavens, and Pontus, the Sea. Ge then became,
Thessaly, and lasted ten years, unta Ge promised
by Uranus, the mother of the hundred-handed Zeus victory if he would free the Cyclopes and the
giants, the Hecatoncheires or Centimani (Cottus, Hundred-handed giants from Tartarus.
Brlareus, also called .aigseon, and Gyes or Gyges) :
of the one-eyed Cyclopes (Brontes. Steropes and 9. The Cyclopes gave to Zeus a thunderbolt,
Arges) ; and of the twelve Titans. Greek to Hades a helmet of darkness, and to Poseidon
writers give inconsistent lists of these Titans,
but those most freauently mentioned are Cronus, a trident. Thus aided, the three brothers over¬
came Cronus, and the Hundred-handed giante
Oceanus. Hyperion, and lapetus, and the Titan- stoned the other Titans, who were defeated
esses Ehea, Themis, Tethys, and Mnemosyne. and consigned either to an island in the West or
to Tartarus, guarded by the Hundred-hand^.
2. Barbarous stories follow of Uranus’ dealing Atlas was punished by being made to carry the
with his descendants, and these have been in¬ sky on his shoulders, hut the Titanesses were
fluenced by myths from the Hittite culture spared. The supersession of the old dynasty of
which flourished in 1800 b.o. in Anatolia, or Titans by the new order of gods is the theme of
Asia Minor, and which probably emhodi^ still Keats' fine poem, Byperion.
earlier Babylonian material. These BUttlte
legends reached Greece through the Phcenlctons, 10. The Olympians. Zens and his brothers
and Hesiod (eighth century b.o.). a poet whose now divided the government by lot. To Hades
family had recently come ftom Asia Minor in¬ fell the Underworld, to Poseidon the sea, and to
corporated them in his Theogony. Zens the sky, while the earth was common to aD.
Zens, the greatest of the gods, lived on the lofty
3. Kevolt of Cronus. Uranus had thrown his summit of Mt. Olympus between Macedonia
rebellious sons the Cyclopes into Tartarus, in the 1 and Thessaly, along with Poseidon and their
Underworld, and Ge persuaded the Titans, with I sisters. Hestia, goddess of the hearth-fire. De¬
the exception of Oceanns. to rise against their meter, goddess of agriculture, and Hera, who
father. She gave Cronus, the youngest, a flint became the wife of ZIens. Seven other divinities.
sickle, and with this he unmanned Uranus. Aphrodite. Pallas Athene. Apollo. Artemis.
Drops from the wound felling upon Mother Hepheestus. Ares, and Hermes were also num¬
Earth, she bore the three Erinnyes or Eumenides, bered among the twelve great Olympians, and at
the furies Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megaera. and a later date a new-comer, Dionysos, took the
from drops that fell into the sea Aphrodite was place of Hestia.
bom.
11. The Giants’ Revolt. But the troubles of
4. Uranus deposed, the Titans freed the Zens were not over. A post-Btomeric story tells
Cyclopes, but Cronus, now supreme, consigned of the giants’ revolt. Twenty-four giants with
them again to Tartarus along with the Himdred- serpents’ tails, sons of Ge, tried to wenge
handed giants. the imprisonment of their brothers the Titans
by attacking Olympus. Led by Aloyoneus. they
5. Cronus then married his sister Ehea, and Inelud^ Porpiôn, Ephialtes. Mimas, Pallas,
mlndfifl of the curse of Uranus and Ge. that ha Enceladus, and Polybutes, Only after terrible
also would be deposed by bis own son, he swal¬ stmgglea in Olympus and on earth, were the
lowed each of his children at birth. giants defeated by the gods, who were helped by a
magio herb of invnlnerahillty found by Heracles,
6. Birth oi Zeus. But when Zeus the youngest who always dealt the giants the final blow.
was hom, Ehea gave Cronus a stone to swallow
and saved Zeus, who. according to Minoan 12. The story offered some explanation of
tradition, was brought up in the Dictean cave huge hones foimd at Irapezus and volcanic fires
in Crete. In 1900 the reputed “hirth-oave at neighbouring Bathos and Cumae, the reputed
was explored by archseologists— probably the sites of the battles. The burial of Enceladus
first men to enter for two thousand years, and under Mt. Etna in Sicily, and of Polyhntea under
there they found votive offerings to the god which Nlsjcms, likewise accounted for their volcanic
may have been left there in the second miUenniuni nature. The inclusion of Heracles before his
B.o. It was here that the Ouretes, Ehea a priests, ! apotheosis indioato the late ori^ of the legend.
clashed their weapons to drown the cries of infant
Zeus, while a goat, Amalthea, acted as Ms nur®, 18. Ephialtes and Otus. Another version of the
and was rewarded by being placed among me giants’ revolt ascribes it to the gigantic Aloeid®,
stars as Capricorn, while one of her horns be¬ Ephlalte, and Otns, sons of Iphimedeia by
came the Cornucopia or hom of plenty. Poseidon, hnt named after Aloens, whom their
mother later married. At the age of nine
7. Zeus when of age was counselled by Metis, Ephialtes and Otus first captured and imprisoned
the daughter Of Oceanus. and with Ehea’s help Ares, god of war, and then, vowing to outrage
gave to Cronus a potion which obliged him to Hera and Artemis, they piled Mount Pellon on
OLYMPIAN DEITIES GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
toced ‘them to “ the ManTof Ntôs'ta the master

hope of meetm|her. but disguised asTdo“ shl Semacy arftoW ^hi pârl^c'-lo^
error. Hermesthem
leapt beêen then they killed
and released Ares, in
other the
each and oa rro,,., iv “i, • P^^ra. 0-20.
^ ,
spirits of the Alceidie were tied with yipers back bright god of the sky, whom
to back to a pillar in Tartarus. about 1200 E.O., togetherintroduced into Greece
with his consort DioneS
.14. Typhon. After the destruction of the Ze%^Xtoe‘ at^Dolloni'^
giants, Ge in revenge brought forth the giiranHf' 1 -Goaona m Epirus, where the
monster Typhon, fathered on her by her own leaves was mterpreted as the voice
sonTartaru? Hishugelimbs^Sdedtos^^^^^^^ iL ofynfp4
heads and his eyes breathed fire. WTien he oîn e« was^He.*^ who was m
approached Olympus the gods in terror fled to Smtriarchal ôcdet-^ ThI
Egypt disguised as animals. Zeus as a ram Se ftisinn nf tUn a v”'*’
smbolises
Apollo Artei^
cow. a crow, Dionysus a goat, Hera a white ' ^ ™ion of the Achceans with their predecessors,
a cat. Aphrodite a fish. Ares a on vtq « f • -ir *.• ,
boar and Hermes an ibis. Athene alone was daughter of Ooeanus
undaunted and persuaded Zeus to attack Typhon. Aê but when she was pregnant with
After a fearful straggle, in which Zeus was r swallowed her and brought forth
temporarily mcapacitated and only rescued by p® second wife was
Hermes and Pan. he destroyed Typhon with hfe ^ C(®> a divinity
thunderbolts and buried him under Mt. AEtna, ®'Pd êir children were the
which still breathes Are. that the Fates
the Mteris,
were or Fates, s though
daughter some and
of Erebus sav
15. The flight of the gods to Egypt serves to tA ®^®p Zeus was subject to them,
Zeus was also the
ex^mn the Egyptian worship of them in animal Hebt^^Ld" He® hlstTsy^
S ‘tL^’a
16. Prometheus and Epimetheus. The creation ^®™®Pbone by his ^ter Demeter, of the
of mankind is often iScribed to PFomet“
whose name sigmfies “ forethought,” as that of tee mSs
î*ses hv
by Mnemosyne. and of
his brother. Epimetheus. means “ afterthought.” or -n
These two, unlike their brother Atlas, had Ey mortal women four Olympian deities
teimorted Zeus during tee war with tee Titans. Zeus; Hermes the son of Maia
But Ikometheus. the clever benefactor of man- :^POdo and Artemis tee children of Leto, and
kmd, by stealing fire from Olympus and giving Eionysus tee son of Semele. Zeus loved many
it to humans, brought upon himseF divine “-Of™ and revengeful
women, towards
and Hera
teemwas intensely jealous
vengeance. and revengeful towards teem and
and their
their children.
children
17. The Infuriated Zeus ordered Hephsestus
to naake a lovely woman. Pandora, tee Eve of’ T. ^1' ■^f'bough 2;euB’ earliest oracle was at
Greek myth, who was endowed by tee gods with ■
I Y-S?®.??'’
di-rtmties on the summit to dwell with hla fellow
of Olympus in Thessaly
baleful powers and taken by Hermes to Epime- . and was also worshipped at Olympia in Ells. The
teeus. WTien he had married her, she opened a1, Greete dated their era from tee first festival of
box from which escaped all ills which plague ! tee Olympiad m 776 B.o.
mankind. i- & =
18. Zeus pimished Prometheus by chaining him L called the thunderer. tbe
The thunderbolt
oak, the eagle,
to a crag m the Caucasus, where all day long an 1
1^;. and
and was
mountain summits were sacred to him, and
his
eagle tore at his liver, which grew whole again . ^crlflces were usually bulls, cows, and goats,
the night.. Only after many generations i His attributes were tee sceptre thunderbolt.
Heracles, with tee consent of Zeus, shoot ■ eagle, and a flgwe of Victory held In hla hand,
the eagle and free the heroic rebel. ine jjoaonean Zeus sometimes wore a wreatli of
oak leaves, tee Olympian Zeus one of olive.
19. The agony of Prometheus is tee theme of
^schylus _ tragedy Prometheus Bound ; the
hberator is depicted in his lost drama. Fro- HERA, 29-35.
Methetis Unbound. Shelley’s dramatic poem of *^^® Eomans with Juno,
tee same name takes Prometheus as a symbol of
tbose who challenge tyranny for tee sake of was tee Great Goddess of the pre-Hellenic matri-
mixiiiviii cl • arcmal society, whom Zeus, supreme god of the
Achseans, appropriately took to wife.
2^ Deucalion and Pyrrha. Deucalion, tee son was said to he a daughter of Cronus
.the Noah of Greek myth, and Rhea and reluctantly married her brother
nteen Zeus decided to wipe out mankind by
°P e^-rth. Deucalion, Zeus, who m tee form of a cuckoo sought her out
warned by his father, made an ark which saved at Gnpssos m Crete, or perhaps in Argos, and
both Inêlf and his wife Pyrrha, daughter of wedding night was spent on Samos. Ge their gave
Epimetheus. After nine days tee flood sub¬ Hera, the tree with tee golden apples later guarded
sided and tee ark came to rest on Mt. Parnassus. by tee Hesperides.
and Pyrrha teen earnestly ■uthe Though Hera was treated with reverence
pi-ayed at tee shrine of Themis that tee earth by gods, she was greatly inferior hi power to
might be re-peopled. Themis appeared and Zeus and miwt obey him, her subordination reflee-
coinmamted them to throw tee bones of their ung tee attitude of tee Aohaans towards women.
mother behind teem. They interpreted Only m her power to bestow tee gift of prophecy
this
mother earth and those was Hera egual to her husband.
flung hy Deucalion became men, those thrown
by Pyrrha women. " 32. She _ was often rebellious and jealous of
Zeus intrigues and persecuted his children by
mortal women. At one time, with Poseidon and
ApoUo. she led a conspiracy of aU tee Olympians
oe.for£flltb”H®S’^"es: to He was freed
by Ihetw and Briareus. and punished Hera by
ha^ng
anvil on her
eachwith wrists chained to the sky and an
ankle.
THE OLYMPIAN DEITIES, 23-128.
ZEUS, 23-38. 33. Hera bore Zeus Ares and Hebe and annually
renewed her vh-ginity by bathing in a spring
23. Zeus, identified with Jupiter by the Romans near
^gos. As properly speaking, the only mMried
was the greatest of tee Olympian divinities, omnl- goddess among the Olympians; she was worshippe
d
OLYMPIAN DEITIES HT GREEK MYTHS AND LEGEND^
OA Hera
d4. TTwag A . Corinth. Argos, and Thebes.
of majestic stature, and her
attributes were a diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock.
bamos and Argos were seats of her worship.
HEPHffiSTXJS, 46-56
36. Because of the judgment of Paris she was -dJ?®" Hephaestus, identified with Vulcan by the
relentlessly hostile to the Trojans. metaS^^' smith-god, a superb artist in
47. He probably originated as a pre-HelTenic
HESTIA, 36-37. fire-god near the Mt. Olympus of Lycia in Asia
38. Hestia, called Vesta by the Romans, and • “’“OF- where gôus vapour, seeping
toe eldest sister of Zeus, was a divinity brought to 1 soil, igmted. The Lycians emigrated through the
to Lemnos.
Greece by the invading Achasans, Though ! where they ^came known as Pelasgians. and
Poseidon and Apollo both sought her love, she I again found fire issuing from the earth, and this
swore by Zeus always to remain a virgin. fire became the symbol of their god Hephiestus.
37, She was goddess of the fire on the hearth, 48. The cult qf Hephsestus spread to Athena,
io those days because so where ha artatic genius was so venerated
dimcult to rekindle, and was naturally thought of m the frieze of the Parthenon where two pairsthat
of
as goddess of home life. Each town or city had gods are given imsitions of honour, Zeus
its sacred hearth, which, like that of the home, was with Hera, and Hephsestus with Athene. appears
an asylum for suppliants. The first part of all
saoriiices offered to the gods was due to Hestia.
the most peaceable'and kindly of all the Olympians, A
twelve InOlmpians.
Homer’s time Hephiestus
his exalted was one of the
position
but at a later date Dionysus reliecting
took her place among the mportanoe of the smith in a Bronze Age
the twelve Olympian gods. society when weapons and tools had magical
properties. He is, like other smith-gods, repre¬
sented as lame, possibly because the tribe deliber¬
ATHENE, 38-45. ately lamed their smith to prevent hts running
away, possibly because work at the forge developed
38. Athene, whom the Romans identified with muscular arms but feeble legs.
Minerva, was the embodiment of wisdom and
power.
to Homer. Hephiestus was the
39. The Achfflans brought with them a young son of Zeus and Hera, though later tradition says
that he was sou of the goddess alone, just as his
vramor goddess, who bore the titles, Kore. fire sprang mysteriously from the earth.
Parthenos, Pallas, meaning girl, virgin, maiden,
and she was in about 1700 b.c, identified with an Innie and weak, Hephaestus was so
olfter pre-Hellenic “ Palace Goddess.” worshipped much disliked by Hera that she threw him from
m Crete. The “ Palace Goddess ” was one aspect OIj-mpM, when he fell into the sea and was cared
of the Great Goddess, revered not for motherhood
but for feminine intuition, and from pre-Hellenic for by the sea-goddesses Thetis and Eurynome in
times comes the name Athene. a grotto under the sea.
40. The complex Pallas Athene was thus not 63. After nine years Hera took him back to
Olympus, where he had a iire smithy, but on one
only the patroness of women’s arts such as weav¬
ing. protectress of agriculture, inventor of plough, occMion he enraged Zeus by taWng Hera’s part,
rake, and ox-yoke, but also a warrior, a wise so that he was again flung from Olj-nipus. this
tactician, appearing in armour and wearing on tune by Zeus. He was a day falling, and alighted
her »gis or shield the head of Medusa, during the in the eyenmg on the Island of Lemnos, as described
Trojan War the great protagonist of the Gi-eeks. in Paradise Lost. Book I, lines 740-746. Later
Eegends of the birth of Pallas Athene reveal how wnters diverge from Homer in making this second
the patriarchal Hellenes took over, and made their fall tile cause of Hepheestiis* lameness.
own a matriarchal divinity.
5^ He again returned to Olympus and acted as
mediator
41. She was said to be a daughter of Zeus and between Zeus and Hera, thougli the gods
Metis, hut before her birth an oracle had foretold laughed at him as he hobbled about.
that she would be a girl, and that if Metis had
another child it would be a son who would depose M. His workshop in Olympus was in his own
his father. Zeus therefore swallowed Metis, and palace, and all the palaces of the gods were made
later, suffered an agonising headache as be walked
by Lake Triton. Hermes realising the cause, "J made the
He alsodeacrftied the eighteentharmour
in magnificent book
persuaded Hephastus, or, according to goipp. of tte Mi^. the necklace of Hatmonia- and the
Prometheus, to cleave open Zeus* skull, from which bulls of -Eetes. Later accounts place his work-
Athene sprang completely armed. mop on the volcanic island of Sicily, where the
Cyclopes served him.
43. The centre of her cult was Attica and
Athens, and legend said that when Athene and
Posejdon contended for the possession of the city, L.
but m IP; mod, she
the Odyssey Hephsestus’ wife waswho
was Aphrodite, Charis,
was
the gods judged it should belong to Athene, who unfaithful to him with Ares. How Hephaistus
in planting the olive-tree had conferred the better
gift. cai^ht the two together in an invisible net he
hM made, and exposed them to the ridicule of
the gods, 18 told in a imem known as the “ Lay of
43. Preferring to settle Quarrels peaceably, Demodocus,”
Athene established here the court of the Areo¬ the Odyssey, Incorporated in the eighth book of
pagus. where if votes were equal, she herself gave
a casting vote to free the accused, as in the trial
of Orestes. , 66. HephsMtus’ favourite simts on earth were
Lemnos, and volcanic islands like Lipaxa, Hiera.
Imbros, and Sicily. In Greek art he is represented
_ 44. In 666 B.q. Pesistratua founded the great as a vigorous man with a heard, carrying a hammer
Panathenalc festival, celebrated every fourtb year, or similar Instrument, and wearing an oval cap
gpd its magnificent procession was represent^ on or chiton.
the fneze of the Parthenon now in the British
Museum, while the birth of Athene was repre¬
sented In the gable at the east end of the Parthe¬
non, and the contest with Poseidon at the west. APHRODITE, 57-63.
Pesistratus also introduced a new coinage, with _ 67, Aphrodite, goddess of desire, identified by
the head of Athene bn one side, and the owl, her me Itomans with Venus, was deriyed from the
bird, upon the other. Great Gioddess of pre-Hellenic times, her counter-
GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
OL*Y!¥JPIAN DSiTlES
orgiastic Ishtar of Babylon and 69. ApoUo’s Borian shrine was at Delphi near
Astarte of Syna. the Oastalian ^nng on Mt. Parnassus, whire he
Paplws
Pflnho^^®m ^C^rus. whence as Phoamcians
worshipped took her
a fertility goddess at caUed Lycius.shrtae^was°af
His Iordan and Phabns, êlS.*^here^l^^^^^
or SWni^ and wW
worship to Whera. an island oft Southern Pelo- he was more closely associated within twln-Sster^
B.o. her fertility
ponnesus. ftobably cult as late
was as the eighth
established oncentury
Aero- Artemi s. --cu wnn ms twm-sister,
corinclius above Corintb* There was a similar •?n Tjpi?pri/ica ©oifi
i a j.
sanctuap on Mt. Eryx in Western SicUy. In the chMren of ZenR^nn;f
T
girl! but to otoe/arelk sSslS worship°WM pSce
toptel tufê
more that of protectress of the city. £
_ _ in pêe
T.np 1HIP Afat"nDiAa
OrtSandKoUo'bia'^^^^^ ^ ^
69. According to Hesiod, Aphrodite sprang from
the seed of Uranus and rose naked from the sea. as Delos.
^ mr.- .
m Botticelh’s picture “The Birth of Venus.” m the Delian Homeric
Eising near the island of Cythera, she passed to of 700 b.o., while the Delphic Hymn teUa
Paphos m Cyprus. how ApoUo. Pjdhon,soon after his birth,
on Mt. sought
Parnassus , andoutthere
the
60. Honmr makes Aphrodite the daughter of Earth at

feus and Dione, and represents her as wife to his priestess the Pythoness became
HephiBstus. Shewas, however, unfaithful to him ptie îouthpiece of his oracles, which were imparted
and in love with Ares. The amusing situation 1 commanded by
when they were caught together is described to Vale of fempe for purlflcation,
para. 65. Hannonia was one of their children. Jr^ciion s iiouoitr*over the Pythian games held in
„ .Ptoside
81. Aphrodite also bore sons to Poseidon, and ;
ftiapus to Dionysus, and later stories tell that 73. Hera, still implacable, sent the giant Tityus
she bore Hermaphroditus to Hermes, and Eros I ®Ji® e^’Pee with Artemis to
to either Hermes. Ares, or Zeus. Delphi, though some say that it was Artemis who
was attacked, but the giant was killed by the
„62. Her lore for the mortal Adonis is the theme , arrows of Apollo and Artemis.
ST
the“^kespeare’s
Homeric hymnsVenus tells
and, of
Adonis, and one for
her passion of ■ 73. Apollo was not always
subservient
.tochises, cousin of Priam, to whom she bore He once, with Hera, Poseidon, and otherto Olym¬ Zeus.
pians, hound Zeus with chains and was punished
.^neas, the hero of Virgil's Bvie. Unfortunately by bemg sent with Poseidon
^ctees, boasting of Aphrodite’s lore, was struck Laomedan, as bondman to King
by Zeus with a thunderbolt. where by playing
the flocks he helped Poseidon theto lyre and tending
build the walls
63. Aphrodite possessed a magic girdle which of Troy. On another occasion, furions that Zeus
made the wearer irresistibly lovely and desirable. had slam to son Asdepius, Apollo retaliated by
Doves and_ sparrows were sacred to her. Her MlUtig the Cyclope^^ Zeus now sent
Bmig Admetus of Pherse in Thessaly,himandto again serve
most beautiful statue was that of Praxitiles in the he kept flocks. He also helped Admetus to win
fourth ^ntury b.o., a copy of which is preserved to bride AJcestis and even ensured
m the Vatican. The Venus de Milo may he seen that the king
m the Louvre. should he restored to life if one of his family would
die in his stead.
ARES, 64-67. , 74. Apollo loved many mortal women, inoluding

^ 64. Ares, god of war, who was identified by the Gyrene, mother of Aristaus. Goronis, mother of
Romans with Mars, was a divinity of Thracian
^clepras, the healer, and Aria, mother of Miletus.
ortem. whose worship spread through Macedonia The nmph Dryope was also seduced by Apollo,
to Thebes, Athens, and cities of the Peloponnesus, hut when he pursued the nymph Daphne she cried
rtpeoially Sparta. Ares was, however, not popu¬ for help and was turned into a laurel, henceforth
lar with the Greeks, who dislilced purposeless war ApoUo s tree ; and the nymph Marpessa preferred
and despffied the Thracians for enjoying it, and
their attitude is reflected to the myths of Ares. of^ Mam, and •conferred on her Cassandra,
Apollo loved daughter
the gift of prophecy,
tot, when she disappoiuted him, decreed fiiat she
^ ?5. He was the son of Zeus and Hera, and as he should never he heUeved. Hyaeinthns, a Spartan
delighted m battle for its own sake he was hated prmce, m origin an earth deity, was beloved by
except Erls. Hades, and Apollo, and when he was killed by the
^hrodite, who was in love with Ares and he with nvM, Zephyrus, the hyacinth flower god’s jealous
sprang from
to mood.
whicht-??® two were once trapped together to a net
Hephsestus had engineered, as is described
in para. 66.
_ 75, Apollo had varied characteristics. He was
desteoyer, as his arrows Indicated, and sudden
pet always successful m battle. deaths were ascribed to him. It was he who sent
Xiie AiCBiafi© conQuered Mm and left Mm. imprisoned plagues among the Greeks besieging Troy. But
m a brazen vessel for thirteen months, untfl he was atoo proteetor. wardiog off evil, as his
released^by Hermes. Athene twice vanauished fatherhood of Asdepius mdlcated. He protected
hto. and Heracles also defeated him and forced flocisa and cattle, as his service to Laomedan and
hua to return to Olympus. Admeto showed, and later writers particularly
stressed this aspect.
. 5'^* According
defended himself to a late
before the tradition. Ares once
gods in a trial where 76. OTd of prophecy, Apollo could com-
he WM accused of murdering Hallrrhothius, son of mumeate the gift to gods and mortals, and of all
Poseidon. _ Smee he pleaded that he had saved toe centra of his worship Delphi was toe most
his daughter. Aloippe. from being violated. Ares
was acquitted, and the place of the trial became ®ie stoue had probably been estab-
known as the Areopagus. Ushed by pre-Hellenio people, worslflpping Mother
^®*i seized by Invading Hellenes
who killed Python toe oracular serpent, took over
APOLLO. 68-60. of their own Apollo, and
held funeral games in honour of Python to placate
68. ApoUo's worship probably derived from two toe original iitoabitants. The shrine was sup-
sources, &om the Dorians, who In about 1100 B.o. posed to rantain toe Omphalos, or navel stone of
entered Greece and reached as far south as Crete, earth, and a chasm which occasionally gave out
and from lontoM, living In the islands and main-
iAna Of Anatolia* or -Aaia Minor, who became intoxicating
eM, vapours. Over this ApoUo’s priest-
Pythia, sat on a tripod, and uttered his orade
aoduainted with a fflttite divinity worshipped in alter chewing intoxicating laurel leaf- She was
Lyoia, and hence called Lycius. regarded as toe mystical bride of toe god.
OLYMPIAN QEITIES H9 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
77. As god of song and music ApoDo appears In
8 the Iliad delighting immortals. He was said to ress as in the so-c led Diana of Versailles now in
9have received the lyre from Hermes, and its seven the . Louvre. As alhu ntress her chlamyB , reached
strings were . connected with the seven Greek only to the knees, and she carried a bow. quiver,
vowels. In music none surpassed Apollo, not and arrows, or a spear, and was accompan with
even Pan, nor Maisya.s, the satyr who had found stags or dogs. As Selene, she wore a ie d robe
long
Athene’s discarded flute which played hj* itself. and ThveeU, and a crescent moon on her forehead.
Defeated in a contest, Marayas was flayed alive goddess
was ofte
by the victorious god. Apollo, as leader of the n portra
Muses, was called Musagetes. He valued order yed as a
HERMES, 90-98. hunt¬
and moderation in all things, his favourite maxims
90. Hermes, whom the Romans called Merou-
being “ Nothing in Excess,” and " Enow thyself.” rius, was originally one of the gods of the pre-
73. Apollo also delighted in the foundation of HeUenic people, the divinity dweUing in the cairn,
towns, and his oracle was always consulted before or “ henna,” set up by shepherds as a landmark in
a town was founded. wUd comitry, and so developing as a protector
against predatory animals and a guide to travellers.
This Hermes was identified with a similar divinity
79. In later writers he was identified with the
sun god, the result of Egyptian influence, for in worshipped in Minoan Crete, a " Master of Ani¬
Homer, Helios, god of the sun, is completely mals,”
thereforea son
a godor oflover of the Great Goddess, and
fertUlty.
distinct from Apollo.
91. Legends said that Hermes was the son of
80. The worship of Apollo, typical of all that is Zeus and Maia, an embodiment of the Great God¬
most radiant in the Greek mind, has no counter¬ dess,
part m the religion of Home. Not till the end of name and a daughter of Atlas, whence Hermes’
Atlantiades,
the third century b.o. did the Eomans adopt his
religion from the Greeks.
92. The " Hymn to Hermes ” of 600 b.c. teUs
that he was born in a cavern on Mt. Cyllene in
Arcadia (from which he was sometimes called
ARTEMIS, 81-89. Cyllenius), and that he grew with amazing
rapidity. When only a few hours old he went to
Dia had two chie aspe One was as Pieria and stole some of the oxen of Apollo, which
na f cts. he drove to Pylos, and then, returning to Gyllene,
“ M , of Anim a g o t c
worisstres in primals matroddess fsocihe haasned, I he invented the lyre by stringing a tortoise-ahell
pro hipp s owi somieti,v”e to iatrh B ety a
Dicbably ed wnogr thin as hu echalritomarin ,Cr nd I with cow-gut. ApoUo, on discovering the thief,
[ accused him to Zeus, who ordered Hermes to
g n t et
The tyontnhae, origshippe in Asia tMriensose was isof teh.e I restore the oxen. But when ApoUo heard tlie Im
r, s
age- moth inatingd and is mosrt, clea se he was delighted, took it in exchange for the oxen.
o
in Arltde e
Br who was wor r ly as eann
mi g ph-egsoid
I and became the friend of Hermes, leading him
orgi shi
asti s oddess ad,ess, ppe
d
c .
83. Legends of the bhth of Artemis are told in 93. Zeus gave to Hermes supreme power over
the story of Apollo, and as his sister she shared back to Zeus.
[Ianimals and appointed him his herald. Hermes
many of his characteristics. She carried bow and also acted as herald to Hades, conducting shades
arrows, made for her by Hephsestus, and had to the tmderworld. (See VirgU’s JBneid, Bk. IV,
power to send plague and sudden death, as when U. 242 soa.) As herald he was regarded as god of
she and ApoUo killed the children of NIohe. She eloquence, whence St. Paul. “ the of
chief speaker,”
was also protectress of chfldren and young animals was mistaken for him in Lystra Asia Minor.
and goddess of the chase. (See Acts of the Apostles, Ch. XIV.) Heralds
promote peace and therefore trade. Thus Hermes
83. Like Apollo, Artemis was unmarried, and came to be looked on as god of peaceable commerce.
later writers stressed that she was a maiden god¬
dess and severely punished any lapses. She 94. He was also god Of prudence and cunning,
changed Actaeon to a stag to be torn to pieces by and even of theft, and was said to have helped the
his own hounds, only because he had seen her Pates in composing the alphabet. Many inven¬
bathing, and some traditions say that she killed tions ascribed to Hermes, such as weights and
Orion because of his unchastity. The nymph measures, the musical scale, astronomy, olive-
Callisto, who had been seduced by Zeus, was in the culture, and the arts of boxing and gymnastics,
form of a bear hunted down by the homids of were pre-HeUeiiie, and the stories of his childhood
Artemis. may indicate how the HeUenes took over these
. arts in the name of their god AimUo. As a god of
84. When ApoUo was Identified with the Sun, fertiUty
dice. and luck, Hermes presided over games of
mis, Artemis was identified with Selene, the Moon.
who
se 86. The Arcadian Artemis, early worshipped in
RArcadia
oma as a huntress among the nymphs, was resc of Di th pu of Ix th
n
unconnected
coun with ApoUo. se ue of Heony to e Om nis th Ju ioii oef
terp PaUbig an trhacslusle ofphaPrhme teo Ae dgm , bu
art h ri m
s d f e es, aed w leiapnt htU ens t
88. Another aspectwas of the goddess was as the i s , ost am i
x as , mer hl l
fierce Artemis of Tauris, to whom all strangers wofa Argu lo theoushun
pnlg
oi gi ha se b ees Ht ay t
d t an psnt y , era ing o
were sacrifleed. Iphigeneia was once her priestess, t s
ch , . r t
ed
and she and Orestes took her image to Bram-on in -e
Attica, whence the goddess was called BrauronlEU 96. Hermes had several ye sons, including Echion,
herald to the Argonauts, d Autolycus the thief, his
This Brauronian Artemis was worshipped in
Athens, and also in Sparta, where boys were i son by Chione. and Daphnis.
scourgeid at her altar untU they sprinkled it with
their Wood, 97. His worship flourished in Arcadia, where he
was to he found with Pan and the muses. It
87. Artemis as an orgiastic goddess had her spread to Athens, and he became one of the best
chief centre in Ephesus, with its immensely loved of the Olympians.
wealthy temple, and it was this Artemis that St.
Paul encountered. (See Acts of the Apostles. 98. Hermes’ attributes were the Petasins, a
Oh. XIX.) travelling-hat, in later time adorned with wmgs,
the Alipes, or winged-sandaJs, and the Caduceus.
88. Though usuaUy regarded as a rural divinity, or heralds’ staff, whose white ribbons were later-
Artemis was supreme in three great cities, in mistaken for serpents because he was herald to
Ephesus, in MatseUles.He to which Ionian Greeks Hades. Sacred to Hermes wore the tortoise, the
from Asia Minor took plher cult between 600 and palm-tree, the number four, and some kinds of
540 B.O., and in Syracuse,ay where she was known fish, and his sacriftoes were incense, honey, cakes,
ed
as Artemis Arethusa. ap 1 pigs, lambs, and kids.
ar
ti
ns
uc
hi
n
01,YMPIAN DEITIES H
ilO GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
POSEIDON, 89-109.
hateM
Vto Amphitrite. who Scylla.
is saidwas particularly
to have tmned
89. Poseidon, identified by the Eomans with her mto a monster with six
XKeptune, derived from a god worshipped by the hvelve feet. Poseidon also barking heads and
loved the nramh
earliest ^yan invaders of Greece, the Mlnyans (. Tyro, mother of his children Pelias
entered the coimtry in about and Neteus
2000 B.o. It was with the aid of horses and I by Medusa were Chrysaor Theseus. and Pegasus. His offsprfig
wheeled vehicles that they quickly overcame any
resistMice, and their god Poseidon was often1
thought of as the horse whose hooves thunder on Sacrifices to Poseidon were usuaUv black.
the earth. He is constantly spoken of in Homer as3 and-white bute. His symbol
1 trident, possibly m origin a thunderbolt of power , bywas^tbe
ea,rth-slmker,” while many legends show him inr of which he could shake means
equme guise. It is possible that he was originally; waves, the earth or suK tte
thought of as a sky-god, a thunderer, and the mate and which became in Hellenistic and Eo-
of an earth-goddess who later developed as3 ^n
Demeter. times a symbol of sea-power, as it is today
Posei^don s other attributes were the horse and the
dolphm, and he w^_ usually represented as accom-
100. But when in about 1450 n.o., another wave j panied hy Amphitrite. Triton, Nereids, and
of mvading Aryans, the Achseans, entered Greece,
mey also brought their sky-god, a thunderer called I ’ “
Zeus, possibly in origin identical with Poseidon, , dolphi ns.
and the latter, recognised as an older brother of’ DEMETEK, 110-116,
Zeus, came to be revered as a sea-divinity, for the * 110. Demeter, counterpa
rt of the Eoman Ceres
Mmyans were, by now, expert in navigation. was probably
^ who entered m origin a divtnity of the Mlnyans’
101. According to legend, Poseidon was the ; revered her asGreece In about 200 b.o., and who
eldest son of Cronus and Ehea, and when, after the an earth-goddess, a mate to their
deposition of Cronus, he and his brothers Zeus ; s^-fiod, mese dmmties who later take theas form
developed
could Poseidon. Both
of a horse
and Hades cast lots for sovereignty, the sea became
Poseidon s share. He dwelt in an under-water ' with that of the Great earth-godde
Goddess of ss
then merged
the pre-HeUenic
palace near ASgs in Euboea, which is described in matriarohal society, and Demeter was worshipped
the begi^ng of the 13th book of the Iliad, and as the corn-goddess,
here he kept his horses with brazen hooves and
golden manes, and when they drew his chariot over
the sea it became tranquil. • AZeus, bydaughter to Cronus
sister to whom she became and the Ehea,
mother and
of
Persephone, or Core, the maiden, herself another
Mpect of the goddess. According to the Homeric
wlw dis wit Ath for the pos of Hynm of the seventh century
Ath n p
auntdi he tau h e
m ne how to bri essihor s b.o.. Hades asked
He enwsas, the pnrgo ght of hen Zeus permission to marry Persephone, and as he
and dlehor on saesn.d received no downright refusal
or soe t was emboldened to
^Car rac i tewcetror hel sien-rahcis hon n h e carry off the maiden as she was gathering
ormio
thti
essth e
mus
d es, our Demeter wandered the earth searching flowers for her
. daughter
103. aIn n the form of a horse he raped his sister done. Sheun«l HeUos told her what Hades had
then shunned Olympus and wandered
Demeter, when she was disguised as a mare. stiU on earth, which she
Their offspring were the horse Arion and the Zeus flnaUy tpld Demeterforbad to bring forth fruit.
imnph Desposna, and some say Persephone also, return, provided she hadthat her daughter might
eaten nothing in the
though according to another version Demeter was Undei-worl
searching for Persephone, her daughter by Zeus, back. Hades d, and he sent Hermes to escort her
at the time of the rape. agreed to let Persephone go. but
gave her a pomegi-anate to eat, and it was at last
104. Poseidon, though equal to Zens In dignity, a^-eed that Ae should spend a third of the year
was less powerful and resented the pride of his with and
him In Hades, as Queen of the Underworld
younger brother. He once joined with Hera. more the rest of the year with Demeter, who once
allowed the earth to bear its fruit.
, Apollo, and other Olympians, to put Zeus in
chains, and he and Apollo were punished hy being
sent as bondsmen to Laomedan. Here Poseidon US. Inconsistent accounts are given of the
built the walls of Troy, hence called Neptuniia place _of tte rape. Demeter’s priests said it was
Pergama. When Laomedan refused the wages Eleiisis. about twelve nules from Athens, the Latin
due, Poseidon sent a sea-monster, which would Persephone OTets Enna m Sicily, where, according to Ovid,
have devoured the king’s daughter Heaione if she wasAscalap was gathering poppies. Some say it
He uyl been rescued by Herades. In the Trbjaai hus who saw Persephone take food in
was War, Poseidon naturally sided with the Greeks, the Underworld and that because he revealed this
sai though he became hostile to Odysseus after he had he was turned by Demeter into an owl.
d t blmded Polyphemus, son of the god.
o h 113. It is said that during her wanderings.
ave
c Demeter punished those, like Abas, son of Celeus.
at reate to ta co po be pol who were untod to her, but showered blessings on
t
my em d Hethe di e k n tr wi s
Atsi i
fo ngthe poiti tlmse like Celeus himself and his son Triptolemus
si thsptosf At hsoprut bu oslhth wa hebnlyaw r th sseccsail who received her hospitably in Eleusis and whom
beon . he hen pl seed t of e th soli e awrad ju e t¬thy she i taught the art of agriculture.
r ,ans e sed dg e
o mu g t ve ed d
puett se thieft po "Whe ing thoefs Tr divi Ze howju this¬ 114. The Elensinian Eestival in honour of
shtedw sli . sseits eqn e oIez nhit c us f edvg C
n i l or eerdor
ey •
Demeter and Persephone was probably fuUy
Pooul arere si ua on
o l th en, siises, aim wh , in th established in Athens by Pesistratus at the end of
s d ce l e th e e
qu eid iIvs n ly. y ga wemu he rein thh,i 'the sixth century b.o., probably about the time
hH o ad on wh etdthh Ar me s
wrae , awld tos j when the cult of Dionysus was instituted. There
elnouren il e
mi e s s ar
io r n e an opa de I was an annual procession from Eleusis to Athens.
s., ia
106. gu d spoke Greek could be initiated into
Poseidon
l first intended s to marry Thetis, >the final rite
but when it was prophesied that her son would be celebrating > of the mysteries. The Thesmophoria.
the foundation of laws, was also held
peater than his father he paid court to Amphi- '
trite, daughter of Nereus. Only after Delphinos im the goddesses’ honour, in Athens and in. other
parts of Greece.
had most eloquently pleaded his suit did Amphi- i
trite accept Poseidon, who in gratitude placed
Delphmos image among the stars, as the Dolphin. U6. The myth originated in the most primitive
rites of seed tiiue diBd liarvest at a time when only
A^hitrites* reluctance, paralleled by Hera's women i practised the arts of agrioidture, Perse¬
jinking fipm Zeus, and Persephone’s from phone, i representing tile vegetation which dies
Hades, probably represents the resistance of a,n i
CfliTly niacriairciial sGci&ty to Or patxiarctml systGUL < the whiter, had her connte:ârfc in the
primitive corn-puppet which was huried in ■winter
107. Poseidon’s son by Amphitrite was Triton. <to ^ dug up again sprouting in sprhig. and later
but he had many more children by other divinities i story as an expression of the
andmortals. death
/ of the body and the immortality of the soul.
PERSEUS GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
U6. In art Bemeter wag represented with a 124. Dionysus also visited the islands of the
garland of com or a ribbon, and holding a sceptre, Adriatic. At Icaria he hired a ship bound for
corn ears, or a poppy, and sometimes a torch and Naxos, but the sailors were Tyrrhenian pirates
basket. Pigs were sacred to her. There is in the and steered towards Asia, intending to sell
British Museum a fine statue of Demeter of about Dionysus into slavery. The god, however,
3S0 E.O., which was found at Cnidos in Asia Minor. turned himself mto a lion and the oars into ser¬
pents. Ivy grew round the ship and flutes were
heard. The terrified pirates, leaping overboard,
DIONYSUS, 117-128. were transformed to dolphins. Arrived at Naxos.
Dionysus found Ariadne diverted by Theseus and
117. Dionysus, god of wine, also called Bacchus at once married her. A Renaissance conception
by both
time one Greeks and Homans,Olympian
of the aristocratic was not deities,
in Homer’s
but of this incident can be seen in Titian’s picture
“ Bacchus and Ariadne ” in the National Gallery,
a god worshipped by humble folk whom wander¬
ing bands of ecstatic worshippers brought into or in Tintoretto’s picture in the Doge’s Palace in
Venice.
Greece from Thrace in the eighth century B.c.
The cult, which spread through Macedonia and 125. At Argos people r8fu.ged at first to accept
Thessaly, to Bceotia, Delphi, zithens, and beyond,
was characterised by a mystic frenzy when the Dionysus, but when the women had been mad¬
dened by him, they admitted he was a god.
worshippers, intoxicated with wine, believed
themselves to be at one with Dionysus or Bacchus, 126. His worship established throughout the
sometimes called Bromius “ the Boisterous.” The world, Dionysus was received into Olympus as one
men who followed him were Imown as Baechoi, the of the twelve great divinities, taking the place of
women Bacchie, or Bacchantes or Msenads, or in Hestia. He brought Semele there from the
Athens and Delphi, Thylads. Underworld, and she was henceforth known as
Thyone.
118. The immense popularity of the Dionysian
cult, especially with women, indicates that among 127. Dionysus was worshipped as god of the
the recently civilised Greeks there was a longing vital and intoxicating iiowers of nature, and also,
for a more instinctive and imptdsive life, valuing because of his close connection with tiliage and
enthusiasm rather than prudence, and during the early civilisation, as a law-giver. He was also
sixth century certain wise statesmen introduced the god of tragic art. In art he was represented as
new cult among the other state religions. Dyoni- young, handsome, and athletio, hut later as
siac festivals were established in Corinth, Sicyon, slightly effeminate. He was accompanied with a
Delphi, and Athens. In Delphi the sepulchre of wild crowd of Satyrs, and Mcenads. the latter
Bacchus was placed near the very tripod of frenzied with wine and mystic exaltation, and
Pythia, and his temple, a theatre, was at the carrying cymbals, swords, serpents, or the Thyrsus,
highest point of the sacred precinct. In Athens a wand wreathed with ivy and crowned vrith a
Piîstratns founded the Dionysia and the Pana- fir-cone. The worship of Dionysus appealed
thenaic Games at about the same time, and a strongly to women, and many would spend the
theatre was set up where the worshippers of whole night on the mountain in ecstatic dancing
Bacchus enacted the first primitive drama. In and tearing wild animals to pieces. Sacred to the
the fifth century, when the Parthenon was finished, god were the ivy, laurel, and asphodel, and the
the new god had been accepted among the twelve dolphin, serpent, tiger, lynx, panther, and ass.
Olympians taking the place of Hestia. This His sacrifice was usually a goat or ass.
change incidentally secured a majority of gods
over goddesses on Mt. Olympus, and is perhaps 128. The myths of Dionysus are evidence that
evidence of a society becoming increasingly there was at first much opposition to the ritual
patriarchal. use of wine, and the frenzy it engendered. The
earlier drink of the Greeks had been a kind of beer
119. Xegends said that Dionysus was the son of flavoured with ivy and mead, and mead was the
Semele by Zeus, who visited his beloved disguised drink of Homer’s Olympians. Wine was not
as a mortal. When Semele was six months with invented hy the Greeks, but probaMy first imported
child, jealous Hera, disguised as an old woman, by them from Crete, whither vine culture had
persuaded her to ask her mysterious lover to ap¬ probably spread from Mt. Nysa la Xibya. The
pear in his true form. Unwillingly Zeus con¬ use of wine spread from Thrace to Athens and
sented, “ hapless Semele ” was consumed by fire, i other clvUised cities. The story of Dionysus’
and her unborn
delivered cbiid sewn
three months Zeus” thigh to be wanderings in India represents the spread of vine
laterup asin Dionysos.
I culture there.
120. The child was first entrusted to Athamas
and Ino of Bceotia, and reared in the women’s
(inarters disguised as a girl, until Hera undeceived
punished Athamas with madness so that he killed PERSEUS, 129-144.
his own son. Hermes then took Dionysus to Mt. 128. The ancient folk-tale of Perseus, grandson
Nysa, where the nymphs cared for him, feeding of Aciisius. has been told by Kingsley in The
him with honey, and where he first Invented wine. Eeroes.
Zeus later placed the Images of the nymphs
among the stars as Hyades. 130. Acrisiiis and Proetus, the twin sons of
Ahas, King of Argos, eventually agreed, aftermuch
121. When Dionysus had grown to manhood discussion, to divide their inheritance. Proetus
Hera drove him mad and he wandered through the became niler of Tiryns, whose massive walls he
world with his old tutor Silenus and a wild rout of built hy the aid of the Cyclopes, whUe Acrisius
Satyrs and Meenads. He went through EgsTPt, ruled uneasily in Argos, for an oracle had declared
Syria, and Asia to India, overcoming military that he would be killed by a son bom to his
opposition, teaching the culture of the vine, daughter DanaS.
founding cities and laws. He returned to Europe
through Phrygia and then invaded Thrace. 131. To prevent this disaster, Acrisius had
Danae immured in a brazen dungeon or tower,
122. Here Lycurgus, King of the Edones, op¬ with doors of brass, but aU in vain, for Zeus
posed his worship, but, maddened by Ehea, he visited her in a shower of gold, and she became the
kilied and mutilated his own son, and the Edones mother of Perseus.
caused him to he tom to death by horses.
132. Not daring to MU Dana§, Acrisius set
128. Dionysus now proceeded to Bceotia, and mother and son adrift on the sea in a chest, which
in Thebes was resisted by King Pentheus. But floated to the isle of Seriphos, one of the Cyclades.
Pentheus was also driven mad and tom to pieces Here it was found hy the sailor Dictys, and he took
by the Msenads or Bacohse, among whom were his DanaS and her son to the king Polydectes, who
own mother Agave and her two sfeters, for in their received them hospitably.
firenzy they believed him to be a wild beast. This
is the legend used by Euripides in his play, Tlie 133. lYhen Perseus was grown to manhood,
Bacdhce. however. Polydectes sought to marry Danae and
GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
JASON ANO THE ARGONAUTS Hl2
seized a pretext to send Perseus off to fetch the also founded Mycente, which. like Tirvnc,
had mighty fortifications built by the ...
head of the Gorgon Medusa.
raa. j.ne massive remains of
134. Medusa and her sister Gorgons, Stheno and been mvestigated by SchUe
both cities
Euryale, who were the daughters of Phorcys and archffiologists, and remain as
mam S other
Ceto, and dwelt in Libya, had once been beautiful. some of the mosf
mterestmg antiquities in all Greece.
But Medusa lay with Poseidon in one of the temples
of Athene, and the enraged goddess turned her
into a winged monster with brazen claws and
serpent hair, so hideous that she turned to stone
all who looked upon her. rsisnijiiiKUPHON, 145-150.
135. Athene, eager to help Perseus, against her

enemy, gave him a polished shield whereby he
might see Medusa only in reflection. Hermes
provided him with a sickle, and told him how to
procure winged sandals, a magic wallet in which
to carry the decapitated head, and Hades’ helmet Prmtus. Emg of Thyns. Unfortunately Prmtus’
of invisiblLity.
advances
wife, ^teia, feU m love falsely
with the accused
young WiTShim
to her husband of trjnng to seduce her. PrretM
136. On Hermes’ advice Perseus visited the reluctant to kill a guest, sent him instead
Gorgons’ to
from birthsisters, the Grsese,
who had only onethree
eye oldandwomen grey
one tooth ^mteia s father, lobates. King of Lycia. carrying
a
between them, and these they passed from one to
another. Perseus found them on Mt. Atlas, and,
by snatching the eye and tooth, forced the Griea3 death requested that the beared be pS to
to tell him where he could find the sandals, wallet, locates also shrank from kining a guest
and helmet. They directed him to the Stygian and decided to send Bellerophonâinst
nymphs, who gave him what he needed. the
Ohimiera. a fire-breathing monster with a lion’s
137. Pljdng westward to the land of the Hyper¬ head, goats body, and sernRot’s tnii v.;
boreans, Perseus found the Gorgons asleep. He
successfully beheaded Medusa and was astonished
to see, springing fully grown from her body, the advised to catch the
winged horse Pegasus and the warrior Chrysaor, wtaged horse Pegasus, sprung from Medusa.
both of whom had been begotten on her by
Poseidon. Pegasus, by strikmg his hoof on the earth of Mt
sacred 'i’
to 5?'^T,$reated
the Muses, andthehe spring of Hippocrene
was found
138. Though pursued by Stheno and Euryale, phon at another of his fountains, that ofby Pirene
Bellero-
Perseus in Hades’ helmet escaped to the south. the Acropolis of Corinth. The hmo flung ove? in
Some say that he petrified the Titan Atlas by horse s head a golden bridle, which AOiene had the
astride his flying steed he easily
showing
Êthiopia.him the Gorgon’s head and then flew over shot the Chimrera with his arrows.
139. Here he saw, chained naked to a rock on 149. The frustrated lobates now sent Bellero-
the sea coast, the lovely Andromeda, and at once Phon agamst the Amazons, and, when the hero
fell in love with her. He learned the cause of her again returned victorious, planted an ambush oi
plight from her parents, Cepheus, King of .Ethiopia, guards agamst his arrival. Bellerophon slew them
and his wife Cassiopeia. The latter had rashly and lohates, convmced at last that there had
1 boasted that Andromeda was more beautiful than been some nustake, produced Proetus’ letter and
the Nereids, and when they had complained of learned the truth. He gave his guest his daughter
this to Poseidon, the sea god had sent a monster to m marriage and made him his heir.
lay waste the country. Only by the sacrifice of
Andromeda, said the oracle of .Ammon, could the
land be delivered. 150. Later tradition records that Bellerophon
presumptuously tried to soar to Olympus mounted
140. Perseus promptly offered to rescue the on Pegûs, but that 2ieus sent a gadfly which
maiden, provided she would become his wife, but, stung the horse and caused him to throw his rider
after he had slain the monster, Cepheus and to earth.^ Bellerophon ended his days in wretched¬
. Cassiopeia were reluctant to keep their promise, ness, but Pegasus gained Olympus,
for they said Andromeda had already been con¬
tracted to another. Their protegd and his fol¬
lowers, arriving at the wedding, attempted to
seize the bride, but were easily circumvented by anaufl aJNiJ THE ARGONAUTS,
Perseus, who showed them Medusa’s head and 151-163.
turned them all to stone. Poseidon set the
Images of Cepheus and Cassiopeia among the stars,
the latter in a humiliating position.
al po HoK m dai T an H ha moa
re pu mien yn, he d er s rned
141. PerSeus, with Andromeda, now hastened by aWdiy Mloar
m Th rg’sslLi an De
oe
ofs, Ja
to Seriphos. where he found that Danas and Diotys l
li rr e e f
y e d at so
had been obliged to take refuge in a temple, but am s i h n.
153. Jason’s
going to Polydectes’ palace, he exposed the lolcus, had berafather Eson,
deprived of the rightful
his Idngdom Kirig by his
of
Gorgon’s head and turned the long and all his two half-brothers, Pellas and Neleus. The
followers to stone. He then gave the head to
Athene, who set it in her segis, and Hermes mother of aU thi-ee was Tyro, who, seduced by
Poseidon, bore him the twins Bellas and Neleus.
restored
nymi>lis. Perseus’ accoutrements to the Stygian She exposed the twins, but they were reared by a
horse-herd, and wlien Tyro later married Cretheus,
rounder and King of lolcus, they were adopted by
_ 142, After making Diotys King of Seriphos, him.
Perseus, taking with him Dana6 and Andi-omeda,
returned to Argos, and Acrisius, mindful of the
oracle, fled to Laiassa, in vain, however, for IM. Tyro’s sou by Cretheus was Eson, but on
Perseus, visiting Larissa and taking part in Cretheus d^th Pelias imprisoned Eson, expelled
public games, accidentally killed his grandfather .Neleus, _and inade himsetf supreme. The life of
by a throw of the discus. Eson s infant son Jason was saved only because
Th he was smuggled out of lolcus and entrusted to
es
the care of Cheiron, the Centaur.
143. Grieved by this mishap, toPerseus
ry arranged
to exchange kingdoms with his of cousin
J Mega-
penttaes, the son of Proetus, who nowaso moved to 154. "ên a young man, Jason returned to
na
-Argos while Perseus became King of Tlryns. He lolcus, fearlessly demanding liis kingdom, and
nd
th
eA
rg
on
au
HERACUES H 13 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
Pelias, to be rid of him, asked him to go to Colchis Medea for Glance, also called Creusa. daughter of
to fetch the golden fleece. This, the fleece of the Creon, and the sorceress sent the young bride a
ram on which Phrixus had escaped, and which he prment which consumed her In flames, set fire
had given to King .ffiStes of Colchis, was now to the palace, and involved Creon also in death,
hanging on an oak-tree in the grove of Ares, borne say that Medea also killed her own children
guarded night and day by a sleepless dragon. by Jason.
165. Jason welcomed the enterprise and com¬ 163. Medea then escaped in a chariot drawn by
manded Argus, the Thespian to build him a flfty- wmged serpents and took refuge with jEgeus of
oared ship called the Argo, into whose prow Atpns. who married her. But on Theseus’
Athene herself fitted an oracular beam. Most of arrival m the city. Medea departed and after
the heroes of the day flocked to join Jason, and ipny wanderings pcame an immortal. Some say
his crew included the Dioscuri, Castor and that Jason took his own life ; others that he was
Polydeuces. Heracles, and Orpheus the musician. mercifufly killed when the poop of his own ship
Argo fell upon him.
156. They met many adventures on the way.
Mter Imgering too long with the women of Lemnos,
they slipped through the Hellespont and reached
My^. Here Hylas, the squire of Heracles, while HERACLES, 164-203.
fetching water was stolen away by the Naiads,
teavniig nothing but an empty pitcher, and 164. Heracles, the most famous of the Greek
Heracles left the Argo in a vain search for him heroes, was the son of Alcmene by Zeus.
157. On the island of Bebrycoa the Argonanta 166. Alcmene’s brothers having been killed by
were met by its king, Amycus, son of Poseidon, the Taphians, she would not consummate her
and a renowned boxer, who contrived to kill all marriage with her husband Amphitrion. son of
strangers by chaliengtng them to a boxing match, Alo®us, until he had avenged their death. M’hUe
but Polydeucea met the challenge and killed the ^Phitrion was away from Thebes fighting the
bully. In Thrace they freed the blind king and -Taphians, Zeus visited Alcmene in her husband’s
prophet Phineus from a plague of Harpies, and in hkenesa and told her how he had. been victorious.
g-atitude he advised Jason how to navigate the The true Amphitrion returned the following dar,
Bosphorus. At its entrance were the perilous pcyhe ensuing confusion is the theme of comedies
floating islands, the Ssunplegades. It is possible by Plautus, Moltere, and Dryden.
that rumours of icebergs gave rise to the fable of
these islands, which clashed together and crushed 166. Nine months later Zeus boasted that he
any ship which attempted to pass between them. was about to become the father of a son who
But Jason, following the advice of Phineus, would be called Heracles, or glory of Hera, and
relea^d a dove, and the Argo slippM between the who would be ruler of the house of Perseus. The
islands m they recoiled. Henceforth they re¬ jealous Hera exacted from him a promise that any
mained fixed. After overcoming other dangers, son bom that day to the house of Perseus should be
the Argonauts at last reached the Itiver Phasis king. She then hastened the birth of Eurystheus,
and Colchis. who was a grandson of Perseus, and delayed that
of Heracles. Alcmene bore two children, Heracles,
168. Here iSStes promised that he would give son of Zeus, and Iphicles, Amphitrion’s son,
Jason the fleece if he could yoke together two fire- who was a night younger. Alcmene, fearing Hera,
teeathiiig bulls with brazen feet, the work of exposed Heracles, but Hera in error nursed him,
Hephiestus, plough the field of Ares, and sow it thus conferring on him inomortality.
with the dragon’s teeth left over by Cadmus at
Thebes. It was Medea who enabled Jason to 167. Returned to Alcmene, Heracles prospered,
perform this terrible task. This sorceress and when still in his cradle, strangled with either
princess, the daughter of .^6tes by his first wife, mnd two terrible snakes which Hera had sent to
fell instantly in love with Jason and promised to destroy him. In his youth he was taught how to
help him if he would swear by all the gods to drive the chariot by Amphitrion, fighting by
marry her and be faithful. She gave him a fire- Castor, how to sing and play the lyre by Eumolpus,
resisting lotion and he completed the task. Then ^stling by Autolyeus, and archery by Eurytus.
when iEetes failed to keep his promise Medea Lmus, who was once teaching him to play the lyre,
charmed the dragon to sleep while Jason took censured him, and Heracles then promptly killed
down the fleece and they fled together In the his teacher with his own lyre, so Amphitrion sent
Argo. him away to keep cattle.
169. The furious .®6tes pursued them, but

Medea ruthlessly murdered the young half-brother the1^. In to eighteenth year he set out to attack
hon of Mt. Cithairon which was destroying the
Absyrtus she had brought with her, and cut him herds of both Amphitrion and to neighbour
into pieces which she dropped one by one over the Thespius. The chase lasted fifty days, and
side of the boat, ^Stes, stopping to collect the Thespius, him
who bywasgiving
Heracles’
fragments for burial, soon lost sight of the rewarded up to host
fifty all this time;
daughters to
fugitives. him. Heracles killed the lion with a wild-olive
club and made himself a garment of the pelt, with
160. There are many conflicting accounts of the head as helmet, though some say that he wore
the Argo’a return journey, but none of them is I the skin of the Nemean lion.
feasible, for the Greek knowledge of geography
was at that time very limited. Tradition said 169. On to return to Thebes, Heracles chal¬
that the ship reached the Western Mediterranean lenged the Minyan heralds from Orchomenus, who
and visited the island of Circe, who purifled Jason had come to collect tribute of cattle, and then led
and Medea of murder. a victorious campaign against the Minyans In
which to foster-father Amphitrion was killed.
161. On their return to lolcus they found that
Pelias had forced iEson to take his life, though 170. Heracles was rewarded by Creon King of
one tradition mentioned by Ovid and by Shake¬ Thebes, who gave him to eldest daughter. Megara
speare in Tlie Merchant of Venice, says that he or Megera, in marriage, and Heracles became by
was renewed to youthful vigour by Medea. All her the father of several children. Creon’s
agree that Medea took a terrible revenge on youngest daughter was married to Iphicles.
Pelias._ She persuaded his daughters, with the
exception of Alcestls, to cut their father up and 171. But Hera now visited Heracles with mad¬
boil him in a cauldron, prorniaing falsely that this ness, so that he killed to own children and two of
would rejuvenate him. Pelias’ son Aoastus, Iphicles’. AVhen he recovered to reason he went,
horrified at the murder, then expelled Jason and after purtoation. to consult the oracle at Delphi.
Medea and they repaired to Corinto. '
The Pythia, calling him, for the first time, Heracles,
advised him to go to Tiryns and there serve
^ 162. Por many years they lived happily until Eurystheus
i King of Argos for twelve years, doing
they were involved in the final tragedy, dramatised whatever
■ he was commanded. At the end of that
by Euripides in his Medea. Jason deserted time i immortality would he conferred on him.
heracl.es Hi 4 ©REEK MYTHS AND L,EGENOS
173. Most reluctantly Heracles set out. Tie ; Heracles, helped by Athene, frightened the birds
gods gave Mm gifts of armour, bub be relied on Ms with a rattle and then shot them down thomrb
bow and arrows and on the oUve dubs wMcb be soi^ say that they flew off to the island^f IjeSIn
, utoself. His nephew lolaus, oldest son of
ipmcles, accompanied him, as bis faithful charioteer
and companion. Thus supported, Heracles em-
barKed the twelve gigantic tasks imposed on 179. The Sênth Labour was to capture
him by Burystheus, toetan biM. Poseidon had sent toe bull the
for a sacrifice, but he had substituted toMtool
anothe
It was now ragi^ over toe island. Heracle rSid
s did
The Twelve Labours o! Heracles. not avail himself of single
Minos’
-handeoffers
d andM took hein iMow
1 was to bring back the Burysthe us. who set it free again. It roêd
of tb3 iTemean or Cleonaean lion, an enormous through Greece to Marathon, where TbS
meature, said to be the offspring of Typhon and
Bchidne, which was devastating the valley of ^Ptoed It and took it to Athens for sacriflc^ to
Nemea near aeons®. As the pelt could not be
pierced by any weapon, Heracles strangled the 180. Tto Eighth Labour was to bring back
bon with to hands. He rededicated the Nemean nnues of Diomedes, the
games to Zeus and took the lion’s carcase back to m Thrace, who fed toa savage King of the BistoMs
liryns, where he flayed it with its own claws, to way Heracle horses on human flesM On
borne say that he wore the pelt as his armour. s visited Admetus and freed
Eurretheus was so terrified that he now took refuge ^cestis from death. Then with a few compaMoM
m a brazen um below the earth whenever Heracles he drove the ^res d^ to the sea. and tumato
to repel the attacking Bistones. he left them in the
approached. bisfriend Abdems, who was soon eaten
174. The Second Labour was to kUl the I®rnean Md by them. Heracles, however. kiUed Diomedes
Wdra. another monster wMch was said to be the foimded threw to body to the mares. He then
offsprmg of EcMdne by Typhon, and which Hera the city of Abdera in tohonour
Burysthe who
us, friend
of to
brou^t up. It lived at the sevenfold source of set them free on Mt. Olympus, where they
the Kiver Amymone and haunted the neighbouring eaten by wild beasts. were
swamp of Lema. It had a dog-like body and
mne snaky heads, one of them immortal. As soon 181. The NMth Labour was to fetch for Admete
as Heracles struck off one head with his club, two of Eurysthew. toe golden girdle that
grew in its place, while an enormous crab seized
the hero s foot. He crushed the crab and called Happolyt e, Queen of the Amazons, had received
on lolaus to bum the necks of the eight heads as ^m Ares. After an eventful journey through
Asia, Heracles and to company
he c^hed them. The immortal head was burled reached toe land of toe Amazons, where Hipnolvte
and Heracles poisoned his arrows in the monster’s sister of Antmpe, received Mm
gall, so that henceforth any wound they caused mised him the girdle. kindly and wo-
was fatal. Hera placed the image of the crab But Hera roused toe
among the signs of the zodiac. Arsons, and they attacked Heracles. In toe
fight he kUled their leaders and HippolAe heiB^
from whom he
175. The raflid Labour was to capture alive the Heracles came took toe girdle. On to way home
Ceryneian Hind. This creature had bra.zen feet medims daughter to Troy, where he rescued Lao-
Hesione from a sea monster
and golden antlers, and was therefore often sent by Poseidon.
called a stag. Heracles pursued it tirelessly for a
year, and eventually shot an arrow which pinned The Tenth Labour was to fetch the oxen
toe forelegs together without causing bloodshed.
He then carried toe creature hack on to ghnniders. 9? Geryon without either demand or payment
Geryon, athepowerful
island ofmonster
ErytMa.with Its three bodies’
176. The Fourth labour was to capture alive the Uvedôn
puted. Some sMd
site was dis¬
boar, wMch had come down from pthera identifiedit was it
beyond toe ocean stream,
with
Mt. Krymanthus to ravage Psooto. During his travell^ Gades. Heracles
to
journey Heracles was entertained by the Centaur ](toere he set the frontiers of Libya and Europe
up two pfllars, Galpe and Ahyla, on
Photo, who had a cask of wine given by Dionysus,
vraen this was opened, other Centaurs besieged called bb?, 9/
toe Pillarstoeof Straits of Gibraltar, hence
Hercules." When Helios
toe ^ve. Hepnlsed by Heracles, some of them shone too brightly. Heracles shot at Mm with an
fled to the Centaur Cheiron. Heracles acciden¬ araow, and Helios, admiring such boldness, gave
tally wounded Chelcon. who was an old friend, Mm a_ golden cup or boat in wMch he sailed to
with one of his poisoned arrows. Cheiron, an im¬ Bry^. GeryoMs cattle were guarded by the
mortal, could not die, although he now longed to two-headed dog Ortorus, said to be the offspring
do so, and was relieved from pain only when he
later surrendered to immortality to Prometheus. of T^hon and EcMdne. and toe herriaTTiPTi
Heracles continued to pursuit of the boar, drove E^tmn. son of Axes. Heracles felled both of
these with to club, and, after overcoming Geryon
it into a snow-drift, bound it with chato. and he sailed with toe cattle to Tartessus in
carried It to Burystheus, hut when he heard that where he returned the golden boat to Hellos. Spain,
toe Argonauts were gathering for Colchis he to adventurous journey hack through Gaul. Italy, On
hastened to join them, accompanied by Hylas. niMicum, and ^race, he resisted many attempts,
^ch as that of Oacus, to steal toe cafrle and even¬
^ 177. The Fifth Labour was to cleanse in one day tually handed them over to Burystheus, who
thejtahles of Augeias. King of Elis, who had more sacrificed them to Hera.
cattle and sheep than any man on earth. The
dung had not been cleared away for years. 183, The Eleventh Lahour was to fetch
Herades swore a bargain with Angelas that he golden apples of the Hesperides. These grew toe
Womd cleanse toe stalls in one day in return for a on
Hera liad received j&om Ge at lier
tenth of toe cattle, and Phylens, son of Augeias, wedding and wMeb she had planted in a garden
waa witness to their mutual oaths. Heracles on Mt. Atlas. It was guarded by toe Hesperides
toen diverted^ the Pivers Peneins and Alphacus and the dragon Ladon, another offspring of
torongh the stalls, which were thus cleansed in a
day. But Augeias now learned that Heracles had Roteus, Tyiôn and EoMdne. Heracles first consulted
or as some say Prometheus, and, foUow-
been mder Burystheus’ orders, and therefore mg toe advice he received, he persuaded Atlas to
mtoed the reward and even denied toe bargain. fetch _ toe apples, while he himself upheld the
Vitoen Phyleus was loyal to the truth Angelas celestial globe. According to some, he also
bamshed Mm. Heracles later avenged himself on Ladon. Atlas, returning with three shot
Augeias. apples, tried
to avoid taking back toe burden of toe globe, but
Heracles, by a rase, transferred toe globe back to
178, The Sixth Lahour was to free toe marshy the giant s shoulders, took toe apples, and
lake of Stymphalia in Arcadia of the Stymphalian l^tened away. On Ms retom journey he kMed
hirds wMch were sacred to Ares. These mantoe giant Anteus, and also persuaded Zeus to free
eatmg creatures had brazen beaks, claws, and toometheus, the arrow with which Apollo shot
Wings, and used their feathers as arrows. toe vulture being placed among the stars as
f
HEHACl^ H IS GREEK MYTHS ANO LEGENDS
Sagifeta. Eurystheus made Heracles a gift of tiie King of Tegea, and became by her the father of
apples, but the hero dedicated them to Athene, Telephus.
who returned them to their rightful place.
192. After four years in Arcadia, Heracles left
184. The Twelfth Labour was to bring bach the for Jitolia, where CBneus was King of Calydonia
dog Cerberus from Tartarus, the most difficult and Pleuron. Heracles wished to marry CEneus’
task of aU. Heracles descended from Tsenarum daughter Deianeira and won her by defeating
in Laconia and was guided by Athene and Hermes. Achelous, the mighty river-god, son of Oceanns
After he had crossed the Styx and freed his friend and Tethys. He now sent lolaus as leader of his
Theseus and Ascalaphus, he obtained Hades’ sons by tbe daughters of Thespius to settle in
permission to carry away Cerberus, provided he Sardinia.
could do so without using any weapon. Heracles
seized Cerberus by the throat and dragged him np 193. Three years later, while at a feast, Heracles
to show Eurystheus. He then carried the mons¬ accidentally killed the hoy Eunomns, and went
ter back to Tartarus. into voluntary exile, taking Deianeira and their
son Hyllus.
185. According to most writers Heracles now
returned to Thebes and gave his wife Megara to 194. They reached the Eiver Evenus, across
his nephew lolaus, hut Euripides, in his play which the centaur Nessus carried travellers for a
Heracles, uses a different yersion. He represents small fee. Heracles let Nessns carry Deianeira,
the hero first killing the tyrant of Thebes, who had while he himself swam, but the centaur galloped
attempted to kiU Megara and her children, and off with her and would have violated her if Heracles
then, driven insane by Hera, himself killing his liad not shot him through the breast. The dying
wife and family. centaur then told Deianeira to take his blood as a
charm to keep Heracles’ love.
183. Heracles now desired to marry lole,
daughter of his friend Eurytus, Kang of CEchalia.
Eurytus had promised her to the man who could ther inv CEch wit an arm i o to
ave e haidmsed on alEiaur h w y n rde
surpass him and his sons m shooting with the bow. yltu ho had refus r to
Though Heracles surpassed them all, Eurytus stai surrnge hieslfdau o ls . e v e t h o H e re d
refused to give him lole because he had murdered had enwdoenr her in ghtther arc e, cnon ugh The achleers
kil Eur a a h hefr taes s l to
5
his own children, and in this Eurytus was sup¬
ported by all his sons except Iphitus. Later when Deiled ytiun T nd U w is aymhily,vi ndt. Cent ole ion
s r a h i e site en
Iphltus appeared suspicious of him, Heracles in a EZ ubaneira and pre chis a letha d sacrteum to
frenzy of rage slew him. Though purified from ensc.ea par nks ific
. ed giv e
this murder, he was still troubled in mind, and ing
consulted the Delphic Oracle. He was advised to 196. He had sent Lichas to Deianeira to fetch a
serve as a slave and to give the proceeds to the white shirt to wear at the ceremony. Deianeira.
family of Iphitus. fearful that lole might win Heracles’ love, rubbed
_ the shirt iu Nessus’ blood, not knowing that
187. Heracles was purchased by Omphale, Heracles’ arrow, steeped in the Hydra’s blood, had
Queen of Lydia, and widow of Tmolua, and he poisoned with it. excruciating
"TOen Heraclesagony put the
served her either for one or for three years. Later burned into shirt on. it
his body,
writers say that he lived effeminately at this time, and attempts to tear it off took his flesh with it.
and that he used to change garments with Heracles seized Lichas and flung him into the sea
Omphale, hut others say that he continued Hera to and then commanded his son Hyllns to take him to
perform heroic deeds. cles Trachis. Deianeira, aghast at what she had un¬
nintentionally
ow done, hanged herself. Heracles
asked resiHyllns to promise to marry lole and to
d
188. Has period of servitude to Omphale com¬ build bimed at funeral pyre on Mt. CEta.
pleted, Heracles sailed against Troy. On a Trac
previous occasion, probably when returning from his,
197. This tragic climax and
the land of the Amazons, Heracles and his friend
Telamon had come to Troy, where they had found been dramatised by Sophocles froto Heracles’ career has
in the Womm of
m
Laomedan’s daughter, Hesione, expo^ naked to TrcuMs, or Trachinm, whore Deianeiras’ distress
a sea-monster, sent by Poseidon Csee mra. 104). at loles’ arrival and her ill-fated ruse to keep her
Heracles had freed Hône and killed the mons¬ husband’s love are touchingly represented.
ter, but Laomedan had refused to give blm the
reward he had promised, the white horses given 198. Heracles finally ascended his funeral pyre
by Zeus in exchange for Ganymede. to be burned alive. To Philoctetes, who kindled
the flame, he gratefully bequeathed his quiver,
189. Heracles and Telamon therefore now bow, and arrows. Thunderbolts demolished the
sailed to Troy to take their revenge. How they pyre, and Heracles was carried by a cloud to
sacked the city is described in para. 275. Hesione Olympus. There he became Immortal, Hera was
was given to Telamon and bore him the son persuaded by Zens to adopt him as her son, and
Teucer. On his return, Heracles faced a terrible reconciled to her at last, he married her daughter
Hebe,
storm rMsed by Hera and perils on the Mand of
Cos. He was then led by Athene to Phlegra.
where he helped the gods in their battle with, the
giants. The Children of Heracles,
or Heracleidse.
190. Heracles now took his revenge on Angelas, 199, Eurystheus now determined to expel from
who had refused him payment for deansing tte Greece Alcmene and aH the children of Heracles.
stables. He invaded Elis and eventually MUed Only in Athens did they find protection, and when
Angelas, his sons, and their allies, the Moliones, Eurystheus attacked Qie city he was resisted by
though some say that he spared Augeias. He then Theseus (or by his son Demophon), lolaus, and
founded the Olympic Games, and fetdied from the
source of the Danube the wild-olive tree whose Hyllns. ^ an oracle had demanded the sacrifice
leaves should crown the victor. Heracles then of one of Heracles' children, his daughter Hacaria
killed herself. Eurystheus was then defeated, by
destroyed, the city of Pylus, which had helped Elis. either lolaus or Hyllus, and despatched by
Be killed Heleais the king and aU his sons except Alcmene.
Nestor.
800. These events are the theme of Euripides*
191. Heracles next marched against Hippocoon play. The OMldren of Heracles or HeracleidcB.
who had fought against him under Neleus. Hip-
poooon had driven out his brother Tyndareus and SOI. Hyllus later, endeavouring to enter Pelo¬
seized the kingdom of Sparta. Heracles killed ponnesus, was slain in single combat by Bchemus,
King of Tegea. Oifiy Tleopolemus settled in
him and all his sons, and restored Tyndareus. He Argos,
was helped in this enterprise by Cepheus and his '
twenty sons, but Cepheus and seventeen sons were
killed. It was about this time that Herades 802. Some generations later, the descendants of
seduced the priestess Auge, daughter of Aleus, of Heracles conquered Peloponnesus in conjunction
CRETAN MYTHS ■“ '“»» «
Hi 6 GREEK MYTHS AND tte
LEGENDS
TheMiia^^êr^'J^trieif' off
of
THESEUS,
THESEUS. 203-218.
203-218. Theaeus. As she
ctnn mi
203. Theseus, the great hero of Attica, was the young fco marry, he concealed her in thp
son of Sreat hero of Attica, -was the fiUase of Aphidn®, where she was cared for hv
son of iEthra
Im was iEthra by
by iEgeus,
iEgeus, King
Kang of Athens, though
though mother .Ethra.
also reputed to be the son of Poseidon,
Poseidon.
^thra was the daughter
j®thra was the daughter of of Pittheus,
Pittheus. King
King ofof Theseus then, full of misgiving, fulfilled his
Troezen
Troezen and
and here
here she
she secretly
secretly brought up her her PôiiMe to Pirithous to help carry off another
young son.
young son. Underwo
Slighter rld to take
of Zeus, by accompanying
away Perseph him
oneto Butthe
204.
204. \Vhen
men he he was
was ofof age,
age, .Slthra
.Slthra showed
showed bunhim ^ ^here they
me
the sandals,
sandals, and
and aa sword
sword which
which waswas anan heirloom
heirloom of
of âiîehed till Heracles came to the Underworld
Oemops,
Oecrops, that
that xEgeus
.aigeus had
had left
left for
for iiim
him under
under a great
great released Theseus only (see para. 184),
rock. Theseus
rock. Theseus was able to lift the rock, recover recover oik
the t.-, -o- . . ^ .
the tokens,
tokens, and
and proceed
proceed toto Athens.
Athens.Castor and Polydeuce
me8,nwhile Helen s brothers,
s, invaded the and
Attica, Dioscuri
being
206. He insisted on going not by sea. but by the
205. He land
dangerous insisted on going
route, not by sea. but by the
and, like Academus where Helen was hidden, they
dangerous
the countrylandof route,
many and, like Heracles,
terrors. Heracles,
He killed
he
he freed
ft^d
Peri- tekmg iEthra as her slave.
phetes, whose club he afterwards carried, Sinis, the
Phetes,
the wild whose Crommyum,
sow ofclub SâftewMds
Crommyum, Sciron,
Sciron, Cercyon. and
CMriedfsfaii^
Cercvon and
the returned
*£^P order among from Tartarus who
his people, he
Sims father Polypemon, who was surnamed Pro¬
crustes.father
Sinls’
crustes. Polypemon, who was surnamed’Pro- treacheroKp^wfip,!
P® retiredusly kiUed
to the island
by ofKing
Scyros. Menestheus.
where
Lycomede he was
s. He
M6. Meanwhile in Athens iEgeus had married
Medea, who had lied for safety from Corinth.
Medea recognised Theseus, and jealous for Medus
M=^£’Shr£ifea"iSr»fg"f„‘s*ss?ff"
her son by .Îgeus, slie attempted to poison bim
Blit .^geus recognised Oecrops’
Cecrops’
welcomed his son with great sword and
in time and 017 rmpoBno nv^ -cto „..i x ,
welcomed
fled, takiag hisMedus,
son with great rejoicing.
and Theseus rejoicing. Medea
Medea -hori^'
then scattered Heracles, ;took part m the
11^.
mher takmg
rivals, Medus,
the andsonsTheseus
fifty of th^nephews
Pallas, scattered
of CalvdoniB^n^w^p^n ^1 He jomed in the
other rivals,
Aigeus. who the fifty sons of Pallas, nephews of
had helped Adrastus at Thebes,
hoped to succeed
ASgeus, who had hoped to succeed him to the throne. throne. Argonauts.
207. Theseus next captured and sacrificed to
207. ajeseiM
Athene, next capturedwhich and sacrificedhadto on^^Thûs°Ts
Athene* the
brought the Marathonian
Marathonian hull bull which Heracles
HeraolPR hnd * i*r^ a*an^
^ hMmicai
^torieai ngiire, ascribing
from Crete and which
Marathon. mCmte aXwKadhad be“vt^t
teoughtfro
been driven to
o FegSyhero? ^
208. He now, of his own free will, went as one
of the seven youths who with seven maidens were
chosen by lot to be sent to Crete as yearly tribute, CRETAN MYTHS, 219-239.
to Ire devoui-ed there by the Minotaur. But - archeological discoveries have
Ariadne, daughter of Minos. King of Crete, fell in mdicated that many of the ancient legends con¬
love with Theseus, and gave him a sword and a clue cerned with Crete have a factual basis,
of thread by which he might find his way out of tnd a vSy
the labyrinth where the Minotaur lived. Theseus Bull of Mvnoa. 00 the subject is the “ Pan ” Book
by Leonard Cottrell.
slew tire monster, released his fellow Atbcnia.Tig,
and fled with them and Ariadne, but at Naxos he
220. In ^99
deserted her and she was consoled by Dionysus, vations at CnossosSir and
Arthur Evans began his exoa-
soon unearthed the remains
to whom the island was sacred. of the magMcent, unfortified and labyrinthine
so-called Palace of Minos ” with its indications
209. Theseus forgot on his return to hoist the of an elegant and highly artistic civilisation.
wbice sail which was to have been a sign of victory,
and AEgeus, seeing the black sail, threw himself in 221. Prom the architectural evidence available
d^^ became into the scholars now consider that there existed in Crete
then Athens..aigean. Theseus
Kingnowof called
the sea
^tweeii culture
Hellenic 2500 and 1400 n.o., a “ Minoan ” pre-
which had aflinities
210. He is said to have invaded the country of Egypt. This maritime, commercial with that of
the .âzons either with Heracles or later, and sea-power making fortification unnecessary culture, its
here he carried off Antiope. who became his wife to the mainland of Greece, where it became, known spread
though according to another tradition. Theseus as Mycenaean. ^ It is in
have fact possible that Crete may
not^^tiope but her sister Hippolyte. It is pxeroised some kind of suzerainty over the
IHppolyta who appears as his bride in The mainland. The Cretans probably worshipped a
MidsuTtimeT Night's JDr^m, revenge the pddeM who was served by priestesses. The
Ai^zons Invaded Attica, and In were eventually favourite sport was hull-fighting, in which men
defeated by Theseus in the midst of Athens itself. and women toreadors showed amazing
Cretan architects and engineers were exceptional skill
ly
_ Uater Theseus married Ariadne’s sister
Phredra. another daughter of Minos, who bore him
the sons A^mas and Demophon. But Phsedra ing _ 222- Discoveries « xuij
eni such
ous as these
. give special
fen toperately m love with her step-son Hippoly- significance to such legends as that of Minos’ sea
(Theseire s6n by either Antiope, or Hippolyte).
tribute of men a,nd maidens
exaction for
fromtheAthens of a
§1® ^?™ejman rejected her advances I £2?^®?’ Crete’s Minotaur,
she Med heraelh âfter leaving a letter falsely âln the crenstant appearance of the bull In Cretan
accustog him to Theseus. The enraged Theseire legend and Dredalus' building of the labyrinth
iwayed to Poseidon that Elppolytus might die s-ppsar to have foundation in historical fact.
Hie god sent a sea-monster
®ôt horses of Hippolytus
that they dragged him to death. The story is the hull, I. Crete said
that to
Zeus,
brought Europa, be hi
the the form of a
daughter of
*i?,®’2®
Jr/iedre of
of HiiriPides’
Racine. tragedy Bippolytus, and the AgenOT, son of Poseidon and King of Phcenicia,
and of his wife Telephassa.
22A As the lovely Europa was playing on the
irw
King friend hisof wedding
of theXapithie, and attended Pirithous. sea-shore
to 1white bull with her maidens, Zeus appeared as a
&PPOdameia, and. when a drunken Centaur ’ and she dared to climb on his back, an
attempted to carry off the bride. Theseus joined iincident depicted in the masterly painting by
THEBAN MYTHS H17 GREEK MYTHS ANO LEGENDS
Paul Veronese in the Palace of the Doges in son Hippolytus and its tragic outcome has been
Venice. Suddenly Zeus, plunging into the sea. described in para. 211.
carried oft Europa to Crete, where he fathered on
her the three sons. Minos, Ehadamanthus. and 237. The cunning Dffidal us, whose craftsmanship
Sarpedon. When the reigning king later married was symbolic of the latest development in sculp¬
Europa he adopted her three sons as his heirs. ture and architecture, had been welcomed by
Minos after his flight from Athens. The legend
SSS. The brothers auarreiled, however, over the runs that he had been so bitterly jealous of his
boy MHetus, son of Apollo. As Miletus preferred nephew Talos, or Perdix, inyentor of the saw,
Sarpedon, they both fled from Minos to Asia Minor. chisel, and compares, that he threw Mm headlong
Here Miletus founded the kingdom that bore Ms from Athene’s temple on the Acropolis. Athene
name, and Sarpedon, after aiding CDis, King of changed Talos into the bird " perdix ’ ’ or partridge,
Cilicia, against the Eycians, became king of the and the Areopagus banished Dredalus.
latter and was permitted by Zeus to live for three
generations. 833. Welcomed to Crete, he found his skill
peatly valued by Minos, until the king discovered
836. Ehadamanthus, though at first ruler of how he had aided Pasiphae. Minos then im¬
part of Crete, also found it wise to flee. He went prisoned Daedalus with his son Icarus In his own
to Bceotia, and on Amphitrion’s death married labiTinth. They were released by Pasiphae, and
Alcmene. So just a ruler did he prove, that he Daedaiua made wings fastened to the shoulders with
became one of the judges of the Underworld. wax on which they flew away. Icanis mounted
too high, the sun melted the wax and he was
887. Minos, now sole ruler of Crete, was con¬ drowned in the Icarian Sea, hut Daedalus reached
firmed in his power by Poseidon, who sent him a i^maa near Naples, and fled thence to Sicily.
magnificent white bull. This so delighted the Here Cocalus welcomed him. and when Minos
king that he withheld it from sacrifice, and when it pursued the craftsman,
later ran savage it was captured by Heracles as him Ingeniously to kill Cocalus’
the king. daughters enabled
his Seventh Labour, and eventn^y slain hr
Theseus. 239. After Minos’ death, although his son suc¬
ceeded him. Cretan civilisation collapsed. Minos
828. Minos was the law-giver to Crete and was himself became a judge in the Underworld,
helped in the defence of the island by Tales, a bull¬
headed, brazen giant and by his powerful fleet.
289. Curious legends are told of Minos’ loves. THEBAN MYTHS. 249-271.
One was Procris, another Britomartis, a Cretan
nymph whom he pursued for nine months, until 240. The legend concerning the origin of Thebes
she leaped Into the sea and was deified by Artemis, is that of Cadmus, who according to common
sharing with her the epithet Dictynna. tradition was the son of Agenor. son of Poseidon
and the ETug of Phmnicia, and of his wife Teie-
830. Once when Minos was besieging Ijlisa. the
port of Megara, which belonged to Eng Nlsus. phassa.
841. The sister of Cadmus, Europa, was one day
Scylla, Nlsus’
killed her daughter,
father fell in
by cutting ofi!love
the with him.which
hair on and carried off by Zeus, who appeared to her in the
his life depended. Although Scylla let bim iato form of a hull (as is described in para. 224) and
the city. Minos was so horrified at her parricide Agenor sent Cadmus in search of his sister.
that he left her, and she swam after his ship until
her father’s 842. Unable to find her, Cadmus consulted the
on her, and soul,
she changed to a sea-eagle,
was turned pounced
to the bird Ciris. Delphic oracle, who advised him to relinquish his
Others say that Minos drowned SoyUa. and she search but to follow a cow and buUd a town
was tmmed iato the fish Ciris. She has sometimes where she should sink down with fatigue. Ca dmus
been confused with Scylla the daughter of Phoroys. followed the cow from Phocis to Boeotia, and
vriiere she rested he built Cadmea, later the citadel
231. The wife of Minos was Pasiphae daughter of Thebes.
of Helios and Pers6 and several of their children,
as Glanous, Androgeos, Ariadne, and Phsedra were 243. Making sacrifice to Athene, he sent his men
the subject of legend. for water from a spring of Axes not knowing that
it was guarded by a dragon which killed most of
838. Glaucus when a boy was drowned in a his men. When Cadmus had Idlled the dragon
cask of honey, and his body found by the seer Athene advised him to sow its teeth, and im¬
Polyeidus. Unable to resuscitate Glaucus, mediately there sprang up, fuHy armed, the Sparti.
Polyeidus was entombed with him. but here a or “ Sown Men," who fought vrith each other till
serpent revealed a herb which restored Glaucus to only five survived— Echion. UdEeus. <3hthonins,
life, and the seer and the hoy were released. Hyperenor, and Peloms. These five were the
ancestors of Thebes, and with their help the
Cadmea was built.
833. Androgeos won every contest in the Pan-
athenalc.games and was slain at the instigation of
AEegos. Minos in revenge exacted from Athens a 244. Zeus gave to dadmus as wife Harmonia,
yearly tribute of seven youths and maidens to be daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, and the Olym¬
devoured by the Mtnotanr. pian deities attended the weddiie. Haamonia
received as a gift from Aphrodite the famous neck¬
834. This monster with hull’s head and man’s lace made by Hephsratus, which Zeus had origin¬
body. Was the offspring of PasiphaS and the white ally given Europa, and which conferred irresistible
bull, Dffidalus the craftsman had enabled her to loveliness upon its wearer. Etom Athene she
satisfy her desire, and afterwards built the received a magic robe which conferred divine
labyrinth in which her shameful offspring was dignity. The children of Cadmus and Harmonia
housed. were Autonoe. Ino, Semele the mother of Dionysus,
Agave, Polydorus, and later Hlyrins,
235. "When
joined .®geus’
the youths ®)h Theseus
destined for the yoluntarily
Minotaur, 845. It is said that Cadmus introduced to
Ariadne fell In love with him, and enabled him to Thebes from Phoenioia the use of letters,
kill the monster by giving him a sword and a due
of thread by means of which he found his way out 246. La old age Cadmus resigned the throne to
of the labyrinth. Ariadne then escaped with Peniheus, his grandson, the son of Agave and
Theseus, hut was deserted by him on Naxos, where Ecblon. But PentheuB. resisting the worship of
she was found by Dionysus, as depicted ia Tfltian's Dionysus, was destroyed by Agave and her sisters
?' Bacchus and Ariadne ” in the National Gallery. Autonoe and Ino, as is depicted in The Baechm of
Tintoretto’s picture in Euripides,
shows the marriage of the Doge’sto Palace
Ariadne in Venice
the god.
847. Cadmus and Harmonia then left Thebes
836. Her sister Pheadra was later married to and were later, in the form of serpents, received in
Theseus, and her unreguited passion for her step¬ the Islands of the Blessed.
His GREEK MYTHS AND
THEBAN MYTHS LEGENDS
S48. pother lênd concerning Thebes is that (Edipus Tyrannus of Sophocles begins (Prim,,.,
2efcliuQ tii6 twin sons of Antiopo was horrified when at last convince
d of his ui?
self, he blmded himself with
Jocasta
a pin had haêd
taken he?’
foomw
T gênt and prayed her brother Creon to tai^h
Lyons of4Sy°?® divorced by her husband
Thebes, and crueUy treated by his second
wife. Dirce. Meanwhile Amphion and Zethus (Edipus went into exUe accom
were brought up by cattle men on Mt. Cith^ron.
When they were old enough to know what had pamed by Antigone, and foUowed later by
At Ctolonos m Attica he found IsS
happened they took their revenge. They killed refuge ia a grove
^cus and Dirce. who was tied to the horns of a the Eumemdes and. protected bv ThpRPns mooof
mid bi^ and her body thrown Into a fountain revived at last by the gods. These last
which henceforth bore her name, and then took ffldmus are most touchingly prese hours of
nted by
possession of Thebes.
Sophocles in Ms (Edimis at Oolonos. ^
^9’ -^hWon and Zethus now built the lower rêered by his sons’ neglect. CEdipus had
j 1 below the Cadmea, and so skilfully cmsed them,
mherited landsaymg that sword.
they should
^d Ampmon play on the lyre given hhn by by the Theydivide^th eh
therefore
Jdermes that the stones moved into place of their aCTeed to rule m turn, but when Et^clS’ term
own accord. The brothers ruled jointly, Zethus had expired he refused to abdicate. Polyneic
aen sought the help of Adrastns. son of TaS S
married Thebe, who gave her name to the city, and and
Niobe became the wife of Amphion. îig of Argos, whose daughter ArgiaTydeus (son of
he married
^neus of CaJydon), who, on account of some
. proud daughter of Tantalus and murder he had committed, was also a fugitive,
sister of Pelops, had seven sons ana seven
daugiitere, and boasted that she was superior to
Leto. who had only two children. As punishment 262. ■ên Adrastus prepared
to her, Apollo kUled the boys with his arrows, and neices, his brother- in-law, to restore
the seer AmphiarPolv-
aus
and Nlobe “ aU tears ” was prophesied death for all the leaders save Adrastus'
Ajrten^ Zeusgirls,
turned by the into a stone on Mt. Sipylus. The
crag of Niobe. being snow-capped, appears to Amp^raus had married
followingAdrastus’
the advice
sisterofEriphyle'
Tydeus!
weep when the sun strikes the snow. It is said bn^d Bnphyle, giving her the famous necklace
the .^phion also was either killed by ApoUo or of Hamoma on the condition that she would
that he took his own life. persuade her husband to joint the expedition.
253. Most famous of Theban longs was CEdipus, ^3. Adrastus, Amphiaraus, Polyneices, and
who claimed direct descent from Cadmus through were jomed by Capaneus, Hippomedon,
and Parthenopaeus, the son of Meleager and
Pplydorus, Labdacus, and Laius, and all three marched against
of the êat Greek tragic dramatists were inspired
by the fateful story of (Bdipus and his children. Thebes. The war that followed was dramatised
and *y?th .^schylus, in Ms Seven aminst Thebes,
253. ffldipus the son of Laius, King of Thebes, by Euripides, in The Phoenician Maidens.
and of his ivife Jocasta, was as a new-born child
exposed on Mt. Cithoeron, his feet tied together and 264. After Thebes had suffered initial reverses,
pierced with a nail, for Laius had learned from the Teirîas prophesied that a royal prince must
oracle at Delphi that he would be killed by his nlmself^, and a second Menceoeus, the son
own son. Found by a shepherd of Polybus. King of of Creon. now took Ms own life.
Oormth, the child was called from Ms swollen feet
CEdipus, and was reared by Polybus as his own son. 266. The attackers were soon repelled. Capa¬
neus, scaling the walls, was struck
womide d by byMelanip
Zeus pus,
with
j. ®dipus grew to manhood, he was ^ht have been saved by Athene with an elixfr
?9,\“ hy the DelpMc oracle that he was destined to
kill given her by Zeus, hut AmpMaraus, who bore him
his own father and marry his mother, and he
resolv^ to return to Corinth. But going S ®,’ bim so disgusted
to drink Athene ofthat
the brains the
from DelpM, he met Laius riding in a chariot,
and m a auarrel killed him. she left Mm to hia fate. BQppomedon and Par-
thenopssus also having been killed, offered to settle
the dispute in single combat with Eteocles. but
255. Laius had been on Ms way to ask the
DelpMc oracle how he could rid Thebes of the both were_ morMy wounded. AmpMaraus fled
m Ms chanot and the earth opened and swallowed
hphmx, a winged lion with the head and breast of 1^. As the seer had prophesied, Adrastus was
a woman. This monster was said to be the off¬ the only one of the seven left alive.
spring of Typhon and EcMdne, or of Orthrus and
the Chimsera. Seated on a rock, she challenged was not unscathed. The Antigone
each wayfarer with her riddle and strangled Mm
when he failed to solve it. 0* Soplioclss opens ut tlie point 'Wliei'e Creon
refused to allow burial to Polyneices. The
co^geous Antigone dared to disobey
.CEdipus, amving in Thebes, heard the ordered that she should be imprisoned Mmalive and he
in a
Sphinx s riddle. WMch being, having only one
voice, has sometimes two feet, sometimes three, ^ve.
Hffimon, Here she hanged
to whom she was herself, and Creon’s son
betrothed,
and sometimes four and is weakest when it has life m despair. took Ms own
most. CEdipus answered rightly that the being
was iwn,_ who crwls in infancy and supports 267. Euripides, in The SfMDpiiants. dramatises
niiuaelf with. a« in old SigQ, Srud the Sphinx the next phase of the story. Since the Thebans
thereupon flung herself to death. had refused burial to their fallen enemies, Adrastus
and the mothers of the slain went to Eleusis and
267. As the Thebans had promised that whoever
should vanguish the Sphinx should become king Xhehans, the
sepi^d help of Theseus. He defeated the
and the Imdies of the Aigives received
and marry Jocasta, CEldlpus became King of burial iMes, but Evadne, daughter of XpMs and
Thebes and had four children by Ms own mother. wife of Capaneus tMew herself on to the flaming
Lteocles, Polyneices, Antigone, and Ismene. pyre and perished.
258. Thebes, thus defiled by murder and incest, 268. Thebes was again attacked ten years later,
was vKited by plague and the blind seer Teiresias
saia that the city would he saved when one of the when ^rastus assembled the "Epigonl.” the
.. bparti (a title given also to descendants of the ^sc®haant8 of the “ Seven.” His own son
Sown Men ) should give Ms life. When he j®maleus made one, and also Diomedes, son of
TydeuSi with his faithful companion Stheneleus,
learned tMs. Menoeceus. father of Jocasta, leapt son of Capaneus and Evadne.
from the walls to his death.
269. Since Alcmaeon, like his father AmpMaraus,
269. The plague still raging, CEdipus consulted
Xeiresias, and it is at this point that the famous W^ unwilling to join the Epigoni, Thersander
followed the example of Ms father Polyneices in
t-EGENOS OF TROY Hl9 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
once more teibing Eriphyle, tbis time with the , 277. Priam had fifty sons, nineteen of them by
magic robe of Harmonia. She then persuaded his second wife Heeabe, or Hecuba, who bore him
AJomieon to join the expedition along with his many famous children, including Hector, Paris,
brother the seer Amphllochus. Deiphobus and the prophetic twins Helenas and
Cassandra. Troilus may have been her son by
270. jEsialeus was killed before the walls of Apollo.
Thebes, and Telreslas then advised the Thebans
to evacuate the city and himself accompanied 278. Before the birth of her second son, Hecuba
them, though he died next dawn on drinking from dreamed that she had brought forth a blazing
the well of Tilphussa. That day Adrastus, hearing firebrand, and the new-born child was therefore
exposed on Mt. Ida. Brought up by a shepherd,
of iEgialeus’ death, also died of grief, and in he was called Paris, and later, by his courage
accordance
took the emptywith city.
Telresias’ prophecy the Argives
earned the name Alexander or “ defender of men.’’
Paris was beloved by the nymph (Enone, but lie
deserted her as tbe result of a tempting suggestion
271. Alcnmeon, on return, slew his mother
Eriphyle. in revenge for her vanity and deceit of Aphrodite’s.
towards his father and himself. Pursued by tbe 278. The occasion of this was the famous
Ermnyes, he fled to Phlegeus, King of Psophis,
who purified him and gave him his daughter “ Judgment of Paris,” of which a Eenaissance
Arsinofi In marriage. Alcmmon gave his wife National version can be seen in Kubens’ picture in the
Gallery.
Harmonia’s necklace and robe, hut was soon
forced by the Erhmyes to flee once more. He was 280. The story goes that alone of aH the gods,
next purified by the river-god Achelous and Eris was not invited to the marriage of Peleus
married his daughter CallirrhoS, who soon and Thetis, and in revenge she flung in the golden
demanded the necklace and robe. Aicmmon,
daring to revisit Psophis, obtained them from apple of discord with “ to the fairest ” inscrilied
upon it. Lnmediately Hera, Athene, and
Phlegeus on the pretext of taking them to Delphi,
but when Phlegeus discovered that they were Aiihrodlte disputed its possession, and Zeus com¬
manded Hermes to lead the goddesses to Mt. Ida
destined for CaliurhoS he ordered bis sons to slay for Paris to judge the dispute.
Aicmieon. Pinaily, Phlegeus himself sent the ill-
fated treasures to Delphi. 281. Although Hera promised him rule in Asia,
and Athene fame in war, Paris gave the ai>ple
to Aphrodite, who promised him as his wife the
loveliest of all women.
LEGENDS OP TEOY, 27S-352. 282. Paris now discovered his parentage .and
272. One of the most romantic discoveries of was joyfully welcomed by Priam, and under
modern times is that of the German Schliemann, Aphrodite’s protection sailed to Sparta.
who, trusting the descriptions of Homer, exca¬
vated a site on the coast of Asia Minor, near the 283. Hjs sister Cassandra foretold doom, but
entrance to the Dardanelles. Between 1871 and was as usual unregarded. In her youth she had
1873 he unearthed the foundations not of one been loved by Apollo, wbo had taught her the art
Troy but of seven, his most spectacular find being of prophecy on condition that she became bis
a hoard of exquisite gold ornaments. BQs work lover. But she had disappointed him, and Apollo
proved that Troy belonged not only to legend but had then ordained that her prophecy Aould never
also to history. be believed.
273. It is now considered that in the Bronze 284. Welcomed to Sparta by King Menelaus,
Age Troy was an important centre for trade. Fre¬ Paris feE in love with his beautiful queen, Helen,
quently attacked, it was many times rebuilt, and ' and in Menelaus’ absence he succeeded in carrying
Greeks, Cretans, and Phrygians aU claimed to have her off to Troy with much treasure, thus precipi¬
tating the Trojan War. now inevitable by reason
had a hand in establishing it. In Homer’s time, i of an oath sworn by the leading chieftains of
when the sixth Troy was standing, it had probably
absorbed three small towns, Dardania, Tros or Greece to defend Helen’s husband.
Troy, and Hium, and was probably inhabited by
three tribes. Dardanians. Trojans, and Ilians, 285. Helen, the daughter of Leda by Zeus, had
whose names are all represented in the early been brought up in the Court of Leda’s husband,
legends of Troy’s foundation. Tyndareus of Sparta. So lovely was she that even
as a young girl she had been carried off by Theseus
274. One of these tells how Scamander of Crete and Piritbous. to be rescued and brought back by
founded a colony in Phrygia, and how. jumping her brothers, the Dioscuri. All the noblest in
into the Elver Xanthus, he changed its name to Greece then became rivals for her hand, and at the
his own. The nymph Idm bore him a son Teucer her instigation of Tyndareus swore an oath to defend
chosen husband.
(whence the Trojans are called Teucri), and Teucer
gave a piece of land to Dardanus, the son of Zeus
by the Pleiad Electra, who built there the town of 286. Helen married Menelaus, and when the
Dardania. The grandson of Dardanus was Troa, Dioscuri were immortalised, he succeeded Tyn-
who became the father of Hus and also of Gany¬ I dareus as King of Sparta.
mede, whom he relinquished to Zeus for a gift of
horses. The son of Hus was Laomedaan. 287. After Helen had fled with Paris, leaving
her husband and daughter Hermione, Menelaus
summoned the chieftains to war. His powerful
276. It was to Laomedan that Zeus assigned brother Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, who had
Apollo and Poseidon as labourers. They built
for him the wails of Troy, and when Laomedan married Helen’s half-sister, Oljdjemnestra, was
leader, and from the Peloponnese came also old
refused payment, Poseidon sent the sea-monster, Nestor of Pylus, whose Palace has only recently
which would have devoured his daughter Hesione been discovered. Nestor was the only one of
had not she been rescued by Heracles. But again
Helens’ twelve sons spared by Heracles. Ee-
Laomedan refused the agreed reward— -the white nowned for wisdom and eloquence, he had been
horses given by Zeus in exchange for Ganymede — a courageous tighter. He had defeated the
and Heracles returned later to sack Troy. He Arcadians and Eleans and had taken part in
gave Hesione to his feUow-warrior Telamon, and the Calydonian hunt and the tight between
killed Laomedan and aU his sons save Podaroes, Gentaurs and Lapithse. Although he had ruled
who was ransomed by his sister Hesione, and his over three generations, he gladly joined the
name changed to Priam, which means “ re¬ expedition to Troy.
deemed.”
288. The courageous Diomedes, son of Tydeus,
276. Aftea: a few years Priam sent Antenor to and King of Argos, also came from the Peloponnese
demand that Telamon should send back Hesione, with eighty ships. He had been one of the
and the Greeks’ scornful refusal was one of the Bpigoni who had taken Thel)es, and two feEow
causes of the Trojan War. Bpigoni came with him — Sthenelus, son of Capa-
I-EGENDS OF TROY Hezo GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
êlephus. Achilles there-
neus. aig Euryalus, tie ^gonatit. Tleopolemas. enred
him with rust from the pupar
Heracles, the Axgive who had settled In
Rhodes, broi^ht nine ships, and Palaniedes, son which had injured him, and Telep
of hTaupIins, jomed the muster from Euboea. Greeks the route they should take. husshwed^the
889. But Agamemnon needed more distant 300. Assembled a second time at
allies, and together with Menelaus and Palamedes Greeks were delayed by unfavourable Anils fhp
tods fo?
âmemnon, by kilhng a hart,*^® sacrifice of Agamem-
themf™ *0 Ithaca to persuade Odysseus to join had vexed Sp’mi?
daughter Iphigeneia would appease thn
so’i of Anticleia, a :âmemnon reluctantly gave ^
daughter of the wily thief Autolycus, and of coMent, though some say that Artemte snatch^
hrartea. King of Ithaca, though some say that his Iphigeneia from the altar and bore her oS to
fother was really Sisyphus. He had won his wife Tauns (see para. 896). Certainly the toS
Penelope, daughter of King Icarlus of Sparta, in a
mot race, and when Icarius had tried to persuade changed and the fleet set sail. ^
Penelope to remam with him, Odysseus had told • tbey landed on the island of Tenedop
her she ir^ht do as she wished. Penelope had m s^ht of &oy. Achflles and here
kiiled King es,
Philoctet TeiSf
veiled her face to hide her blushes and had followed sonSof
her husband to Ithaca. Poeas suffered misfortune. Most famous
of the
891. An oracle had warned Odysseus not to join and had received from him *^® the*iend
famous of Heracles^
the_ e:?jîtion to Troy, and when the envoys poisoned arrows Mt.when ^?®.^
he He
set was
fire now
how and
to the hero’s
arrived they found him ploughing GSta. injured
and sowing salt
But the fm-^hted Palmedes placed Odysseus^
ânt son Telei^hus m front of the plough, and the bite of a make, and the smell of the
th A mt A so °“®
became *^®®®
offensiv o™ on wound
or, as some say. b?
UdysseiM was tricked into reveaUng his sanity and e that, the advice of
jommg the expedition.
^3. Agamemnon also welcomed aUies from

Salamis and Locris. Prom Salamis, bringing Odysseufrom
êlve ships, came Great Ajax, son of King A probably s andTenedos that wSe
Palamedes the
Telamon, a courageous fighter, who boasted that ^nt to Pnam to reguest the return of Helen
ne needed not the help of the gods. His half-
brother, Teucer. son of Telamon by Hesione and They _ were courteously entertained by Antenor'
J'^® dli'Ojans
Greece, fought behind Great should be sent back, hut ,thewho advised that Helen
Trojans were obdurate.
?°"ght with them,
bon of Oileus, King of the Locnans, he was small
m stature birt swift of foot, and skilled in throwing
the spear. He brought forty ships. was the first f-ttaclred
Ar,s°^',5?®-,®^®®¥m*^®“ to leap ashore,
the mainland.
though
PhnwÂtAo*^^ unde of
contingent from Southern wa^®^ Oracle that it meant death
Thessaly aô sailed m Troy, for Laodaniia ^wife, ??®“^ Laodamia.
the daughte r tells hw
gade prophet from Troy, foretoldCalchas. a rene- toolate with OTef. begged the gods oftoAcastus.
that the city le^to
could imt be tên without the help of Achilles. husband retmm for only three hours. Tfprmps led
Myrmidones at Phthla
in Thessaly, and of the Nereid, Thetis.
ttSi'S”«!’SS
dipping her son into the Styx. Thetis
naa made hmx mvulnerable. except for the heel
wm* she was holding.^ Achilles had been taiS
tutor Phoenix, and was
lenowned for strength, speed, and high courage. formidable of aU the Greeks. ‘'““r^seous
and war.
tne At first he took no part, although hp
if AchUles went to
would never mtum alive, sent him dis- .^®
thf war“
AcMes ®on of Priam’s
Â? flS.f’Â f®^®®Anohises.
cousin ^®®®But®Ptered
raided his herds on Mt. Ida, he ledwhen
his
^ ^ Court of Lycomedes, King His mother. Aphrodite, fre-
Wa
bore him the sonhereNeoptolem
Lycomedes’
us, ordaughter Deid^^
Pyrrhus. hf dlstingnteh^
"When himpp^,^
when
whAA^^^ wounde
helped d hto,
by ^d onces.carried
accc^pamed by Nestor Dlomede while him
the away
a spear and shieldand Ajax,a
among god
?i,a»£^
these, revealed maidens, and AchlUes. seizing
the identity.
enfts for his aS^' liostile to Troy, saved MS torn
Greeks together with ^ 306. Many dties allied to Troy were raided by
tutor Piio0iiix and. Patroclus, liis cousin, ^lio w«!?“®®a ^M^®5 ih Cilicia he HU^ mSJ
had come as a boy to Peleus’ Court after
an
fH?nd o*f^^Mes^ become the Inseparable

897. The Greeks were fmiiher strengthened hv 307. In the tenth year of the war the Greeks
last wncentpted their annles before Troy at
and_ shared the command with Agamemnon defended by the mighty Hector,itself
Moriones accompanied teon"o®ships allies, including Sarpedon. bya
anrSd^® Idomeneu Yô s.
son of Zeus, who was m command of the Lycians
898. The fleet was fortunate in being ,
abun¬ 308, The Greelm were hampered hy rivalries
dantly supphed with provisions, by Anius.
and priest of Apollo in Delos, son
for his three
daughters who^^d been dedicated to Dionysu l^lamedes, who had tricked him into
s wil^fw?AAî®^^®A®' took a cruel
tervants *^®
to ^«®®-
M(te under hia master’s
?® l>ribed one of bed
Palamedes’
a letter
eîm.ôfl. and produce at will
expedition set out from Aulis, hut treachery, Palamedes’ tmt was
mpmSSo? ^ ofHerac
Ian tog les and Auge,the and
and ravaged country ^mertes *nl ^®i,°^ and then accused
now +A^5A^fn’ found, and he was stoned
&ng of Mysia., lên he repelled the sage, who i^^®j.i®^ ?.^®®
Greeks o?<,a®^5a ^^was*^®
said to have
army.invented lighthousethe
Thus perished s.
^(mysus cai^d him to stumble over a vine, and
^°™ded by Achilles. Told by an oiS alphabet, and dice.
nSlfoi f’le discus, certain leitos of the
lunicted it, lie visited the Greeks, 'who
knew through an oracle that they could like’v^flp notonous quarrel between Achilles and Agamem-
not take T,AtAWA,TÂ“ the tpth year there broke out the
f
LEGENDS OK TROY HSI GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
noa with ■which the Iliad opens. Chrrseis, the 318. Memnon the black-skinned, handsome son
daughter of the Trojan priest, Chrj-ses had been of Eos and Priam’s half-brother Tithonus, and
taken prisoner and assigned to Agamemnon, and King of Ethiopia, now reinforced the Trojans.
■when Cfaryses came to ransom her, Agamemnon He killed several Greeks, including AntUochus, the
roughly repulsed him. Apollo, in re-yenge, sent a gallant son of Nestor, who. too young to sail from
plague among the Greeks, and on Calchas’ adrice, Aulis, joined his father later.
Agamemnon unwillingly sent Chryseis back. He
recompensed himself, however, by seizing Briseis, 319. The vengeful Achilles then engaged
who had been given to Achilles, and Achilles then Memnon in fierce single combat while Zeus weighed
stubbornly refused to take any further part in the their fates in the balance. Memnon was slain
fighting, though some say that his motive in this and, at the request of Eos, Zeus honoured him by
was to curry favour with Briam. for he had fallen causing birds, called Memnonides, to rise from his
deeply in love with Priam’s daughter Polyxena. funeral pyre and fight above it till they fell as a
sacrifice. They were said to -visit yearly the
310. The Trojans quickly seized this opportu¬ hero’s tomb on the Hellespont.
nity to attack, and Agamemnon was glad to grant
a truce so that Paris and Menelaus might settle 3S0. Many great monuments, called Memnonia,
the quarrel by a duel. But when Paris was losing. were supimsed by the Greeks to have been erected
Aphrodite carried him away and fighting broke out
again. in Memnon’s honour, the most famous being the
colossal statue behind the temple of Egyptian
Thebes, wMch gave forth each sunrise a sound like
311. Diomedes wounded ASneas and Aphrodite the breaking of a lyre-string.
and then strove -with Glaucus. a Lycian prince
second in command to Sarpedon, but when they 321. Achilles’ own course was now run, and in a
remembered the friendship between their fore¬ battle near the Sesjan gate Paris, aided by Apollo,
fathers they desisted and exchanged gifts. Hector shot him throu^ the vulnerable ankle.
and Ajax fought in single combat till nightfall,
when they also exchanged gifts. Hector giviag 323. Great Ajax then killed Glauous, and he and
Ajax a sword and receiving a purple baldric. Odysseus rescued the body of Achilles. But they
quarrelled violently over the possession of the
3iS. The Greeks, hard-pushed, were now forced armour. Homer, in the Odyssey, says that
to build a wall and trench, and when they were Odysseus killed Ajax, and that when he summoned
driven back even farther, Agamemnon in alarm the spirits of the dead, Ajax held sullenly aloof.
offered to return Briseis to Achilles, but he Sophocles, however, in his tragedy Ajar, represents
courteously and firmly refused. Ajax thrown into madness by defeat and slaying
the sheep of the Greeks, belie-ving them to be his
313. Diomedes and Odysseus then made a rivals, and finally falling on the very sword that
Hector had given him.
night-raid on the Trojan lines. After killing the
spy, Dolon, they slew Ehesus the Thracian and
drove oil his snow-white horses, for an oracle had 333. So many heroes dead, the Greeks lost
declared that once they had drunk of Scamander, heart, and Calchas said they must fetch the bow
and eaten the grass of the Trojan plain, the city and arrows of Heracles. Odysseus and Diomedes
would not be taken. The play Shesm, attributed therefore sailed to the island of Lemnos, where
to Euripides, dramatises these incidents from the Philoctetes had been left to languish, and
niad. 1 Sophocles, in his play Philoctetes, sho-ws how he
was persuaded to return.
314. Next
toriously day.to however,
set fire the Trojans
the very ships, •vie- 1 324. Cured of his wound by one of the sons of
and Achilles
went so far as to lend Patroclus his o-sm armour Asclepius, either Maohaon or Podalirius, Philoc¬
and let him lead the Mynnidones. After kUHng tetes challenged Paris to an archery contest.
Sarpedon. Patroclus drove the Trojans back to Mortally wounded, Paris besought his former lover
their very wails, until he was at last himself CEnone to cure him, hut she refused, and then in
wounded by Euphorbns. son of l^nthons, and remorse at his death took her own life, events
slain by Hector, who at once stripped him of his described by Tennyson in his Death of (Dnotie.
borrowed armour, though Menelaus, who had
killed Euphorbus, now joined with Ajax in 325. Helenus and Deiphobus now quarrelled
rescuing the body, for the possession of Helen, now homesick for
Sparta, and when Deiphobus forcibly married her,
315. Achilles was prostrate with grief, but Helenus. as some say, fled to Mt. Ida, where either
Thetis visited him with new armour made by he freely joined the Greeks, or was captured or
Hephaestus, and he made peace with Agamemnon, ensnared by Odysseus, for Calchas had said that
who at last sent Briseis back. Achilles then drove only Helenus knew the secret oracles which pro¬
the terrified Trojans back to the city. The noble tected Troy. Helenus said it would fall that
Hector alone withstood him, though Priam and summer. If a bone of Pelops were brought to the
Hecuba, implored him to come in. Thrice did Greeks, if Achilles’ son Neoptolemus. or Pyrrhus,
Achilles chase Hector round the ■waBs of Troy, joined them, and if Athene’s Palladium were
and then finally MUed him, stripped him of Ms stolen from the citadel.
armour, and, tying him by the ankles to his
chariot, dragged him ignominlonsly back to the 326. Agamemnon at once sent for the shoulder-
ship, though some say that Achilles dragged blade of Pelops, whUe Odysseus, Pheentx, and
Hector three times round the walls of Troy by the Diomedes went to Beyros and persuaded Lyco-
purple baldric that Great Ajax had given hhiu medes to let Neoptolemus join them. Odysseus
then gave Neoptolemus his father’s armour.
316. Each day at dawn Achilles, crazed ■with 337. It is said that Priam now sent Antenor to
grief, pulled the corpse three times round the
tomb of Patroclus until at last, in one of the most Agamemnon to sue for peace, but Antenor. out of
touching scenes of the Iliad, Priam, led by hatred for Deiphobus. conspired with the Greek
Hermes, went to Achilles* tent and begged to leader as to how they might secure the Palladium.
ransom his son’s body for burial. They arranged that Odysseus, disguised as a
filthy runaway slave, should gain entrance to
817. The lovely Penthesilea now came to the Tfoy^ Becognised by Helen alone, he gained
much nsefiil information, inoludtog the confession
Trojans’
Axes, andaid. She ofwasthetheAmazons.
Queen daughterbfButOtrere and that she longed to return home. It was either on
Aohflles
killed her, and as he mourned over her, he was this occasion that he stole the Palladium, or later
ridiculed by Thersites, the ugliest and most when: he was accompanied by Diomedes.
scurrilous of the Greeks, and AobUles felled him
with a blow. This angered Diomedes, a kinsman 328. Odysseus is said to have devised the strata¬
of Thersites, and he flung the body of Penthesilea gem of the wooden horse. This was built by the
into the Scamander, but it was rescued and cowardly Epeius, son of Panopeus, under the
honourably buried, some say by Achilles himself. supervision of Athene, and it bore an inscription
E-EGENDS OF TROY Has GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
saying that it was dedicated to the goddess. Then 330. Euripides combined this story of
twenty-toee or more of the bravest Greete, in- roveuf.e with that of the sacrifice of her Heonhn
daughter
>h
cluduig Neoptolemus. Odysseus. Sthenelus. and
Xiioas of Caiydon, climbed into the hollow belly. Polyxena m his tragedy Becuha, ^
340. Eew of the inhabitants of Troy escaped
death or slavery. The wise Antenor. Ms
3^. At nightfall, Agamemnon and the remain¬ wffe
xliss^no, S/iid t}i6ir cliilclrGii W6r6 Sili sparGd. atiri
ing Greeks burnt their camp and sailed to the
island of Tenedos, leaving behind only Sinon, a were said to have sailed to the West Coast
cpiMin of Odysseus and grandson of the cunning the Adriatic and there to have founded VeMceof
Autolycus.
and Padua. “
330. At dawn Priam and his sons found the 3tt. ZEneas’cMried on Ms back Ms blind father
wooden horse on the shore, and believing it to be AncMses tbrougb the Dardania n gate and so to
sacred to Athene, had it hauled in spite of opposi¬ safety. The Homans said that he took with him
tion up to the citadel. Cassandra declared that the Palladimn, that stolen by Odysseus betog
warriors were within it, and she was supported by oMy a replica, and. after seven years’ wandering
haocoon, son of Antenor, and priest to both reached Latmm, where he founded LavtMa. Sd
Apollo and Poseidon, who flung a spear at the
horse s flank and caused a clatter of arms. Their became their ancestral hero. “
warning was. however, neglected, partly because 342, .Ethra, the mother of Theseus, who
served Helen as a slave, was rescued bv had her
^mon, who had let himself be taken prisoner, said grandsons, Acamas and Demophon. the sons of
that the horse was the Greeks* atonement for
stealing the Palladium, partly because the fate Theseus and Phaidra.
Which now befell Laocodn was misinterpreted.
THE BETUBNS PROM TROY.
. Iiaoeoon had offended Apollo by marrying
m spite of vows of celibacy, and the god now 343. Part of the ancient " Epic Cycle ” of the
puiMhed Mm by sending two enormous serpents, Greeks was the cycle known as “ The Returns ”
wbicb crushed to death both the priest and Ms
two sons — a disaster represented in the magnificent told
sculpture probably dating from the first century
f of the adventures ofHomer
the Greeks on their .wayit
and ^schylus
B.a. and now in the Vatican. Priam wrongly home. Most suflered misfortune. '
supposed this to be a punishment for smitmg the Agamemnon is described in
horse,
revelry.and it was now welcomed with feasting and para. 386-388, and that of Odysseus in para. 353-
ooy.
845. Menelaus, who failed

str
o
rou
n
the hor a
se nd. imitat in tur the took efeht years, and oMy to by
sacrifice to Af.Tippc^
selzmg Proteus
voi Ued of eac d ma n teamed how to reach Sparta, where he married
whoce sti t n r wif she caU ingto the he
fle h heir ’seplie e, ed roe
s,
Hermlone to Neoptolemus.
d s.
333. At Mght Agamemnon, warned hv a 346. Neoptolemus had been aecompaMed bv
beacon ht by Sinon, sailed to the shore, and as Andromache and by Hetenus, who prophesi
^tenor gave the word the warriors witMn the »fe route. He had abandoned Ms kingdomed a
horse leapt down to slaughter and pillage. Thessaly and settled m Epirus, part cfwMch he in
H®1®“us. who ^rried Andromache.
334. Priam had been persuaded by Hecuba to Neoptolemim thm claimed Hermione,
take refuge with her and her daughters before an her CTandfather, Tyndareus, had betrothedalthough
altar to Zeus, but their son Politea was slaM before Orestes, and as a result he was murdered, her to
either
tbeir_ very eyes by Heoptolemus, and when the by Orestes himself or at his instigation.
old kmg feebly tried to attack the slayer. Neoptole-
mus butchered Mm also. Odysseus and Menelaus 347. Many Greeks settled in Italy. Diomedes
meanwhile kffled aiM mangled Deiphohus. ,
Menelaus pardoned Helen, and led her safely but to
^ted by Aphrodite. flndMg on his return to
.^gos that Ms wife bad been unfaithful, left for
. the sMps.
settled m Daunia m Italy, where he married
. to the sanctuary of Athene, Siie ^
Euippe, ^ mndfather
daughter CEneus, and
of King Daunus. He later
was
buned m one of the islands since called Dioniedan
imt Liittle :âx rougMy dragged her s.
she was clauned as booty by Agamemnaway, on. Her
and
sister Laodice, the wife of Hellcaon, was mercifully S? compamo
PMloctete s also settled Italy. into gentle birds.
m werein turned
swallowed up by the earth.
In 348. Idpmeneus. caught by tempest on his
the return to Crete, vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon the
eve _ 336. Hector’s widow Andromache was giten to first person he met on return. As this was hfe
nin Neoptolemus, and the Greeks, eager to extermin¬
g H ate the whole family of Priam, even killed her own son, Crete was punished by pestilence, and
eleinfant son Astyanax, by hurling Mm
n to death |domeneus exiled. He settled in Calabria in
trom
wit the city walls, fearful lest he should one day
h
avenge Dhis
eip parents. ^ 349. Dernophon, son of Theseus visited Thrace
hoh
udemand and gained the love of
s of Achilles* ghost Polyxena
was sacrMced to Mm by Neoptolemus, to ensure but when he left her the king’s daughter. Phyllis,
to visit Athens, she
fevourj^le winds. Some say this happened at herself m despair of Ms return and was turned IdlM
into
& lirGG*
TgJyrothers only when the Greek fleet had reached
850. Many sailors were sMp-wrecked on the
share of Odysseus, who fengerous _proinontofy of Caphareus, where
took her to the Thraeiau Ohersonesus. and there ûphus, Kmg oySubma, eager to avenge the
ê avenged the death of one of her sons.
Polydqrns. the youngest of Priam’s sons. had.
according to Homer, been slain by AchiUes, but toes®® CJslchas, Palamede lighted misleading
s, AmpMloci
another eon of the same like hus, went
name. Just before the fail of 'Troy safely overiand_ to Colophon. Here he contended
entrusted Mm, together with much Priam had
gold, to
Polymester. King of the Thracian Gherronûs jifUito, thG daughter of Teiresias, and.
v^ of Apollo and
boing sux-
and when Troy fell Polymester murdered Polydor- passed . he died .of grief. Amphllochiis joined with
us for Ms gold and cast Mm into the sea. Hecuba foundmg the city of Mailus. but
She contrived to m killed eacli other in a fight for its possession. they
Pplymestor and Ms two sons, and she then evaded
Ihraoians by turning herself into a bitch _ 352. Nestor alone returned home without mis¬
hap and enjoyed a happy old age.
WANDERINGS OF ODYSSEUS H23 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
Alcinous, who was the prosperous ruler of the
THE WANDEEINGS OF ODYSSEUS Phajacians. Alcinous gave Odysseus a ship, and
353-369. after an absence of ten years he at last landed on
Ithaca. Athene disguised him as a beggar and
he was hospitably welcomed by his swineherd
andS53.
his Odysseus’ jotirney
final arrival borne, are
in Itliaoa lasting
tlie ten years,
theme of Eunusus.
Homer’s
this may epic the Odyssey,
be thought of as aE. novel,
V. Eieu andsays that
Samuel
3 Butler argued that it might well have been written grief. Lffirtes his father had withd to the
6
by a woman 1 The incidents of the Odyssey form countr and his vrife Penel had rba
eewnn keepi
the background of reference to the Ulysses of
James 3 Joyce. at bayy,a crowd of unruly suoiptoers led by Anttno ng
She had promi to wed one of them when ussh.e
had finish a sred fo L b e n s
354. After leaving. Troy, Odysseus and his men unpic etd w obe o r t aertdes, uut achh sight he
h e o rk f he ay, ntil er ervants
visited the Cicones, where he obtained several jars betrayked her ruse, and she was now hard-p
of sweet wine, and then they landed on the Libyan Her sedon Telem had gone in searrecssed.of
promontory of the Lotophagi. Here lived the Ody and afatecrhuvi ssi Nestor and Menelh
Lotus-eaters, who gave his men some of the fruit, he sOnsdoeywusss,eruesturn to Ithtiang
ca and also visited tsh,e
au
inducing the enervating dreaminess described by hut of Enmae meodthe ’
Tennyson in The Lotus-eaters. us. r Ant
icleia
884 Here Odysseus made himself had
die known to
S6S. Next. landing on the west coast of Sicily, Telemachus and they planned revenge. d First of the
Odysseus, with twelve companions, entered the son set out for home, followed later by Odysseus
cave of a giant, but when the owner, the one-eyed
Cyclops, Polyphemus, son of Poseidon, came in still Jn b^gar’s dteuise. He was recognised only
with his flocks, he blocked the entrance with a by his aged hoimd Argus, which at once expired,
and by his nurse Eurycleia,
gigantic stone, and devoured two of Odysseus’
companions. Next evening, by which time only 365. Next day Penelope announced that she
six of his men survived, Odyseus made Polyphe¬ would accept the suitor who could shoot with the
mus drunk with his sweet wine and then blinded
him. At dawn the Greeks escaped by clinging great bow of Eurytus which only Odysseus had
under the bodies of the sheep as they went out to been able to vrleld. No one could bend it till
graze, and so reached their ship, but henceforth Ody®eus seized it and shot Antinous. Supported
they had to reckon with the vengeful hostility of by Telemachus, he killed the suitors, and at last
Poseidon. made himself known to Penelope. He then
visited Lsertes. but the kinsmen of the suitors
rose against him and battle ensued until Athene,
366. Odysseus was next entertained by iEoIus, disguised as Mentor effected a reconcfliation.
who gave him a bag of winds, but when his foolish
crew untied this, they were blown badt to Jtolus, 366. At this point the Odyssey ends, though
who now refused further help.
Teiresias had prophesied that Odysseus must
again set out on a journey and propitiate Poseidon
357. In Telepylos, city of Lamns. King of the and then return to an honourable old age till
cannibal Lsestrygones, Odysseus lost all his ships death came to him from the sea.
except one, but in this he reached .®ea, the island
of the enchantress Circe, daughter of Helios and 867. Tennyson, in his poem Ulysses, imagines
Perse. Men sent by Odysseus to explore were him, even in age, hungry still for travel.
turned by her to swine, and only Eurylochus
returned to tell the news. Odysseus, banning to 868. Another tradition says that Telegonus, son
their rescue, was given, by Hermes, the plant
of Odysseus by Circe, while searching for his
Moly, which vanguished Circe’s charms. She father, landed on Ithaca and began to plunder for
restored his companions and lavishly entertained
them all for a year. food. When opposed by Odysseus and Telemaeh-
us, all unknovring he killed Ms father. He then
took Telemachus and Penelope back to iEtea, and
there married Penelope, while Telemachus married
the368. Then,of on
counsel the Circe’s advice,
dead seer OdyKieusHe sought
TeiresIaB. sailed Circe,
to the Eiyer Oceanus, and in the land of the
Cimmerians summoned the spirits of the dead, 869. Although Homer represents Penelope as a
who thronged to lap the blood of a libation he feithful wife, other writers say that she became
had prepared. First appeared Elpenor, one of the mother of Pan, either by Hermes or by all the
his crew, who while drunk had fallen to death suitors. It is a tradition such as this that Joyce
from Circe’s roof. Later came Teiresias, who evidently follows in his Ulysses.
gave him prophetic advice, and then Anticleia.
the mother of Odyffleus, the men and women of
antiquity, and his former comrades.
859. He again visited Circe, who advised him LEGENDS OF THE HOUSE OF PBLOPS,
how to circumvent the Sirens and ScyUa and 870-398,
Oharybdis. Odysseus nullified the Sirens’ spell
by having himself lashed to the mast, and by 870. Some of the most dramatic of all Greek
filling the sailom’ ears with wax, and he Just stories have their setting in Mycense, <fity of the
avoided the whirlpool Charyhais, though Scylla’s legendary hero Agamemnon. In 1876 Sehliemann
six months snatched and devoured as many of began excavation bn this ancient site, and here
his seamen. he unearthed the famous shaft-graves with their
precious treasures, which probably date from
360. At the Island of Thdnacia, against the 1800 B.O., four centuries before the era of Agamem¬
warnings both of Teiresias and Circe, Odysseus’ non and the siege of Troy. Sbhllemann thus
companions slaughtered the cattle of Helios, and proved to the learned world that the city at all
when they put to sea Zeus destroyed all save events was historical, and scholars now beUeve
Odysseus himself, that It was the centreofaLateBronze Age culture.
361. Clinging to wreckage, he drifted ten days 871. According to legend. Agamemnon was a
imtil he reached the island of Ogygia. Here the dracendant of Tantalus^ son of Zeus and the
nymph Calypso lovingly kept him for eight years, nymph Pluto and father of Pelops. Broteas, and
until at Athene’s request Zens sent Hermes to Niobe. Tantalus vras said to be a wealthy king,
command his release.
but whether of Lydia, Argos or Gorinth, is un¬
certain.
362. On a raft that Calypso had taught him to
make, Odysseus sailed for eighteen days, till it 378. Highly favotired by Ms father Zens, Tan¬
was wrecked by vengeful Poseidon. Then hdped talus was even invited to Olympian banquets, but
by Leucothea and Athene, Odysseus landed on he proved unworthy of sucdi honours, divulging
the Island of Scberia. Here he was led by the Zeus’ Olympus.
secrets and stealing nectar and ambrosia
beautiful Nausicaa to the Court of her father from
GREEK MYTHS AND
HOUSE OF PEL.OPS I-E6ENDS
H24.her as his third wife, -When
from Paudareu a dog made of gold and th she gave birth tn
s , en to
have sworn by Zeus that he had never seen or Thyestes son. JEtristTina oVio tb
Mard of it. As this dog was the one wh
HephKstiis had made for Ithea, and whic she ha ich
37 set to watch the cradle of the infant Zeus h th go d 384. "When
3. were naturall incens , e ds hack later Thyest
to Myceni s, esAtreus
was comma
spivps nded
y ed. Pandar s perished
nêrabTa and Ins orphan daughter euwe re cai-ried ^gisth us to slay him, but Thyestes disced the
off by lrHa
,rp
nt alie
uss, waan
s d Ta
s
alus suffered agonising boy, and recognising him as his own son ordered
punishme sodntsa
for this alan otidherto crhnes, the moat
ghastly ofntwhich was his murder ofhahive s soren cePe
ivlo
edps
Having invited the gods to a banq he out toMyce™.'^*"""®-
Pelops mto pieces and served themuet, 386. According to Homer, Atreus Menelau^liy®Btes
s. and S
in a stew. had two tS sons
I>emeter, still grieving for Pers was the
only dmmty who did not notice what she wa ep ho ne , two now took refuge with King Tynda
eating, and she consum s bparta . Hmc reMof
ed th e sh ou lder. Menelau s married Helen, dShter
by
thatûs of nmon
Tyndareus’
was wife.
374. Tantalus’ punishme Agame helpedLeda, and io ga^
by Tvndwi
Tortured with thirst, he wasntplaced became proverbial.
in a lake whose
waters receded w'henever he attempted to drink expel Thyestes and gain his father’s uSo™
whde above his head were laden fruit 886. Agameôn’s wife was Olytemnestra
which flew upwards as soon as he reached forboughs them (the
daughter of
ihus tantalised,” he also saw suspended above forcibly marriedTyndare after us and
killing herLeda). whom'
first husband he to
his head a huge rock which threatened to fall and battle. But when
crush him. stolen away by Paris, to brother’s wife, Helem wS
and the Trojan War bix^^
out. , Agamemnon was away fighting for ten yearn
375. After pimishlng Tautalus, Zeus ordered
Hermes to put the limbs of Pelops into a cauldron
and boil them. Olotho took him from the
had Agamemnon forcibl
cauldron. Demeter gave him an Ivory shoulder,
Clytei for AEgisthus to seSy
which became a kind of bhthmark for his descen¬ married Stobutheh
Clyteêstra.
dants, and Pelops was restored to life. aacrtoc e of their daughter. ad also agreed to the
Iphigeneia at Aulia
^6. Pelops was later expelled from that
fu to was retnrmn
bitternegss from
was full
Troy, she learned
whenbringing
of Phrygia and came with his foUowershis tokingdom Pisa in him ,Priam s daughter, the prophetess Cassandra
with
hlis. Here (Enomaus. son of Ares, was khig, and
as an oracle had said that he would be killed by as to mistress ■
his son-m-Iaw, he challenged to a chariot race all .
,388. It is at this point that AEschyto’ great
who came to woo his daughter. Hippodameia . If trdogy of the Oresteia begins. Olytemnestra con-
the young ma,n won, he would marry Hippodameia spired with ^tothus to kill both MameSnon Md
if not he would be killed by the .spear of CEnomaus, Cassandra. She wetomed her husband royally
on to return, but while he was to to bath en-
his father Ares.wind-begotten horses, was a gU’t of tantod himm a net. and after Hlgisthus had
struck hmi, she beheaded him with an axe. twice She
377. Many suitors had lost their lives when then went out to kill Cassandra, who had refused
Pelops arrived m Pisa. He was already possessed to enter tlie palace because, in visionary trance
of a wmged goldenchariot. the gift of Poseidon, she was hoiTifled to smell the ancient shedding
but he also bribed CEnomaus’ charioteer Myrtilus. blood and the curse of Thyestes {see para, of
the son of Hermes, with the promise of half the 381).
tangdom. to remove the lynch-phi from the chariot 389. It was not difiicnit now for Clytenmestra
of his master and substitute one of wax to seize power, for Orestes, her young son. had been
(Enomaus was flung out and killed, and Pelops smuggled
married Hippodameia. out of Mycense by his sister Electra, and
101 many years Clytenmestra and her paramour
ruled m Mycense.
378. Pelops refused to keep faith with Myrtilus
and flung him mto the sea. Myrtilus, as he died,
cursed the whole race of Pelops. and his image was 390. iEgisthus. however, Hved in constant fear
^t among the stars as the charioteer by his father of vengeance. He would have killed Eleetra hto
HermeS; Pelops soon became master of Olympia Olytemne stra allowed, so he married her to a
and revived the Olyihpic Gaines. Hia wealth and pedant, who was fearful of consummating then-
the peninsula were so great that it was muon. Orestes meanwhile had taken refuge with
Strophius. King of Phocis, who had married
called the Peloponnesus, or ” Island of Pelops.”
âinemnons sister, and here he formed that
379. The ddest sons of Pelops, Atreus and friendshi p with
became proverbial.the kmg’s son. Pylades, which
Tliyesto, with the connivance of their mother,
kflled Ctoysippus. their half-brother, and were
obliged to flee their home. 391. The totpsely dramatic situation
point has inspired all three of the great atGreek this
380. They were Mndly received at Mycenm, and tragedians, and it is most interesting to compare
after the death of King Eurystheus, Atreus seized mtepretat ions given by .ffischylus, to
kingdom m spite of the bitter rivalry of 2 he UbaUm Bearers, the second play of his
Thyestes. whom he forthwith banished. trilogj^
lU by Sophocles, in Meeira, and by Euripides.
JLleCVYd,
381. Thyestes._ however, who had already suc¬

ceeded, in seducing Atreus’ 392. Electra, burning for revenge, sent constant
now tricked to brother into second wife iErope,
kfllhig Pleisthenes message to Orestes, and when he and Pylades
to own son by to first wife, Atreus, planning. secretly to Mycenaj. and
grisly, reprisals, Imêd Thyestes to Mycenae by
promising hto half the kMgdom. He then killed
the sons of Thyestes and served him their flesh
Iiorror-strioken fatherat bothnt .lEglsthus and
393. The agonising
Wyteimesto ® Mp kiUed
punishme that Orertes
lealised what he had eaten, he laid a curse on new endured^, portrayed in the JSumenides. the
house of Atreus and fled once more. the
lash play of -.fechylus’ trilogy, and to the Orestes
êking revenge, was advised by -^though the Delphio Oracle had
encouraged Orestes to avenge his father,
powerless to prevent his being pursued she was
by the
daughter, and going to*9King
J?sget a son by his own
Threapotus at Sicyon, Ertonyes. the avengers of matricide, who drove
where to daughter Pclopia was a priestess, mm mad and hounded him from land to land. At
he
- icoui-aa, ut. mngth, on the fm-ther ad vice, of the Pythian
ravished her and fled. I riestess, ho reached Athens and embraced the
^H^êd Sicyon. and. believing ™ temple on the Acropolis.
Pelopia to be a daughter of Tlirespotus, The goddess then summoned the Areopagus
married to
INDEX AND GLOSSARY GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
judge bis ose. Apollo defended him against the world, but
he was not aiwavn j
Erumjês on the grounds that motherhood is less she
important than fatherhood, and he was acauitted once changed ^bc n
wag pwsubi" Into the nHn?
by the easting vote of Athene, the verdict bei^ a Eeu(S
4iiom he lover?
triumph for the patriarchal principle. toto the white pojdar!^' * ^^ftewards changed
334. The furious Erinnyes were then pacified
by Athene, who persuaded them to accept a grotto who had oncecompanion
ri.i^Pv.' aided Hemeter
to Persephone was Hecate,
in her search for the
m Athens, where they would be offered sacrifices, iost maioen. Hecate was a mysterioias diTinitr,
libations, and first fruits. Their name hence¬ in heaven, on earth, anda
forward was Eumenides, or the “ well-meaning.” m the Underworld, honoured by Zeus and all
395. According to another tradition, followed the
fnf Hellenes asgods. She came
prunarily to be
a dread regarded
divinity by
of the
by Euripides, in his Iphiaeneia Among ihe underworld, as one ■who kept company with the
TaunuHs, Orestes was told by ApoUo that he d^d and who fostered sorcery and witchcraft.
would be freed from madness by fetching the She figures as such m Macbeth. Worshipped where
statue of Artemis from the Tauric Chersonese. tnree roads met. she was represented with three
liodies and three heads.
396. men Orestes and Pylades reached Tauris
they were seized by the barbarous natii'es, who 404. Also dwebing in the Underworld were the
sacrificed all strangers to Artemis, but they found Erinnyes. winged daughters of earth or of night,
to their amazement that the priestess was none with serpent hair, who punished unnatui-al crime.
other than Orestes’ own sister Iphigeneia. Orestes Ihey were later known euphemistleaUy. as the
believed that she had lost her life when sacrificed Eumenides, or web-meaning.” and this name
to Artemis at Aubs (as is described in para. 300),
but she had in fact been rescued by the goddess smauittM of Orestes, as is portrayed in the
and brought to Tauris as her priestess. r^fnifiî ^ given them after
^meinde
three s of ^schylus
Erinnyes, . Late writers named
AJecto, Megaira, and Tisiphone.
397. Iplifeeueia by her ready wit, rescued
Orestes and Pylades from sacrifice, and all three 405. (Jhosts conducted to Hades’ realm by
returned to Greece, carrying with them the image Hermes had first to cross the Styx,
of the goddess. Here they were reunited with river, and suppbed by relatives withthea “coin
hated ”
laid
Electra, and returned to ilyceii*. where Orestes ^der the tongue of the con^se, they paid the surly
by killing JEgisthus’ son and becoming king ferryuijm Charon. Without this coin they were
finally
Atreus. ended the strife between the sons of unable to cross the Styx. Arrived on the farther
Dank, they propitiated Cerlierus, represente by
later wnters as a fierce dog with three heads, d said
398. Orestes, after kiiliiig his rival Neoptolemus to be another of the monsters born to Echidne.
married his cousin Hermione. and Electra was
married to Pylades. 406. Styx was not the only river ghosts en-
aiuntered. There was also Acheron, river of woe,
Phlêthon, river of flames, Cocytus, river of
waning, and Lethe, the river of forgetfuMess.
THE XJUDERWORUO, 399-409. where ghosts drank and forgot their past.
_ 399. The Greeks expected to eater after death 407. Tim three judges of the Underworid were
mto the cheerless nether world, the domain of lEacus, Khadamanthus, and Minos. Wicked
Hês. Imown to the Romans as Orcus,
but as Hades was possessor of all the rich or Dis
metals
spirits were sent by them to the place of punish¬
ment. those who had led an indifferent life to
and gems of the earth, the ancients usually pre¬ Meerless asphodel fields, and the virtuous the to
ferred the euphemisnr “ Pluto,” ” the wealth ” Elysium.
when speaking of one so dreaded.
W. Although Elysium was said to he near the
^0. The word “ Hades
actual doniam, which was ” also
was used too of his
called Tartarus,
Undeworld, it formed no partof Hades’ dominion.
Homer placed it far away to the west of
although m the Eiad, the word “ Tartarus ” had the earth, near Oeeanus. It was a blessed abode.
been reserved for the very lowest region of the
Undemorld, where the rebel Titans had been
thrust. I il? . snow. Later writers also spoke of
Igraphers
the Eortunate Isles,”
as Imyond locatedof by Greek geo¬
the pillars Heracles, and
eventually identified with the Canary and
lor of the net w o w hen h i br
Zeudshiwo the sky hearn Prold the ssea othHeirs Madeira islands.
u.
moss ptrne po,s d sei
w . 409. In their picture of life after
dar t asgui M sebsy th C edroen thea heltme s of Greeks combined contradictory ideas.death the
witkneswshi rvhend d m y
tsio eg clo nd he t taf Broadly
f speaking, the figures of Persephone and Hecate
h , ch e rove he nshosts. pes, represent the hopes of pre-Hellenic people for an
402. He ruled with Ms aueen, Persephone, after-me, while Hades personifies the Hebenio
whom he had forcibly abducted from the upper fear of the finabty of death.
Part III. INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Note: The numbers in this part refer to the numbered paragraphs
in Part H.
Abas. (1) Son of Oeleus and Metanira, turned by Aranas, a son of Theseus and Phtedra. went with
Demeter into a Uzard because he mocked her Diomedes to ^y to demand the surrender of
also 113, Helen. See also 211, 342.
^(2) The grandson of Danaus and twelfth King A<»^^was the son of Pebas. King of lolcos. He
of Argolis. was renowned for his sacred shield, joined ae ônants, but after Medea had
the very sight of which subdued revolt. He caused tte death of Pebas, Acastus banished
was father of the twins Acrisius and Pxoetns. nerand Jason. He later received Peleus Idndly
Abderus, 180. but when he -falsely suspected his guest of
Absyrtus (or Apsyrtus), 159. niajaii^ love to his vs^fe, he treaoheroudy deser ted
Abyla,l82. Acûs and his wife were later slain by
I^leus.
Laodamia. The daughtei of Acastus was
Aoademus, 216.
INDEX AND GI«OSSAf5Y H26 GREEK MYTHS
H AND LEGENDS
Aobelous, 192, 271.
Aolieron, 406. I Agran lo^
. (9) (1) Wife ofof Cecrops.
Daughter Cecrops. To her atifi Vio
296. 299. 301, 304. 305.
)5, sisters. Enchthonius was entrusted.
32^
317 319 321 ®22.
309. 312. 814: 815 316 ’
306. 338. was entrusted.
337. Aides or Aidoneus, Hades.
Aorisius. ik. 130. 131. 132. 142. Telamon. 292 306
■
jrsiii.
daughter of PeliasfÂÛ^^ô*î5ld'“thSt Admetus and322lei.
.
s.166 0°tes.
Vetoed AltL
^
|e Of^ “ w^Sfdle
to die in his stead, but whpn «aA .ajoippe. 67.
oUvp pinn i <“pvea witn an j.aa, sjne.
The eaiiie:
point y^^Son
of view. The ’repSte^TM^^^
Mer ^s w ww Pleiades.”*
.®9l“sând wife of Ceyx.
4¥S‘4;"^.“
Adonis 62 The so^ in pity changed the pair to birds
. to
gjrtds
Adr^te. 261. 262. 263. 265. 267. 268. 270. ^êedln
^Bacldes, descendants of âcus. solstice, when .Eolus forbids the winds tobtow!
23acus, son of Zeus and ^gina, was King of the •^cyoneus, ll,
was the of .Eacus that he became one

of the
three Judges of the Underworld. See (ds£) 407 Aloeus, 13.
®8ea, 857. 368. ‘ Alold®, 13. 66.
*lethu^ of Althaea^ daughter of Thestius. wife of CBneus and
i£-3P5™’« »
vt^tT* ’ and in an attempt to MU
Niobe s eldest son she MUed her own son Itrlus a race of warrior women said to have
^ Zeus, in pity, turned her into a the Caucasus and to have settled in
nightingale
®§tes, whose
164, 168, 169. song still m^s for Itvi™ «*»« 210. 817. “
Amphiaratis, 262, 263. 266, 269,
Mgmon,
®§tes, 164. 168, 169.
another name for Briareus. i' . Amphlio
Ammon,ohus,
139. 361.
®geus. 203. 204, 206. 209, 233.
.ZBgialens, 268. 270. Amphlon, 248, 249. 260. 251.
AUO, iiiu. -““ipmon, a4S, 1249. 260, 251.
°f Asopus, mother, by Zeus, of Amphitrion, 166. 166, 167, 168, 169 226
puuwcr. uy iieus.
J35.aeus.
iiEacUS. - - — i-uA, Ot AmtlhlfrifA ma inn mn inn
.fflglsth us, 388, 384, 386. 888, 390, 392. Amphitrite, 106, 107. 108, 109.’
■^ffypfeus, see Banaides.
.ffiieneas. 62. 306. 307, 811, 341. Amyous, 167.
" iEneid,” 93. Amymone wm one of the fifty daughters of
iBolns. (1) Son of Hellen and ruler of Thessaly
was ancestor of the iEoUc Greeks. ,
Ste^^r Argolis was named

winds. See alsoZeus
iEolmn isles. S56.
ga^*hto^TOntro?%Fthe Anatolia, 2, fatlier
68. of Bias and the seer Melampns.
ZBrope, wife to Atrens, 381, 386. Anchises, 62, 306, 341.
^sohylus, 19. 263. 343. 388. 391, 393, 404. An^mon, hipband of Gorge. He succeeded
aiseulapius, see Asoleplus. ^ of Calydou and was fattier of
iEson, 162. 163, 161. Thoas.
ZBthra, 203, 204, 213. 216 342 Androgeos, 231, 233.
.ffitna. Mt., 14. ' Andromache, 306. 336. 346.
ZEtolus. son of Endymion. was Xfaa- of Elis ■^“^0™eAa. 139. 140, 141. 142,
Havi^ accidentally MUed Apis in a chariot Anius, 298.
mce. he was bantehed across the Gulf of Corinth Antseus,
183.
ninx. His two sons were Pleurou nnd riflivfi An j-ao-
Both, these names are also names of cittes hi Antenor, 276. 802, 327. 330. 333. 340.
.Etoha. . Anticleia, 290. 368. 363.
Agamedes, see Trophonins. Antigone, 267, 260, 266
A^nlppe, a fountain at the foot of Mt.HeUcon in

f*. scored to the Muses, hence The Amazon, 210, 211.
Ûed âmppides, and was thought to inspire Mother of Amphion and Zethus. 248 24S
epithet Aganippis is Aphareus, King of Messene, father of Idas »■ and
Aphidnse, where Thesus hid Helen, see Theseus
Agave, 246. . “ -u^nuc rene. aiso
Hippocrene. also Bynceus, hence caUed Aphareti d®, ^
sacred123,
Se^to to 244,
the^Mê
the MiSes s
Asenor. (1) King of Phmnicia, 223, 240.
(21 Honof the Troian Antenor
241
and Theano, Apis. (1) The son of Phoroneus.
^® one,” one of the charities or bull of Memphis, worshipped
graces* as a god by the Egyptians.
T . -.1j-r.v j*
INDEX AND GLOSSARY H27 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS

ApoUo, 10. 14, 26, 32. 36. 68-80, 82-85, 92, 94, unless a suitor should conquer her In a foot race,
104. 183, 251. 277 283. 298. 309. 321, 330, 331, those who failed in the attempt being killed by
351, 393, 395. her. Eventually Milanlon outstripped Atalanta
Apple of Discord, 280. by dropping in her way one after the other, three
golden apples given him by Aphrodite.
Araohne, a Lydian maiden who challenged Athene Atalanta stopped to gather these and lost the
to compete with her in weaving. When race. See also 263.
Athene found Arachne’s work faultless, she (2) The Boeotian Atalanta was said to be
angrily tore it up, and the terrified maiden toughter of Schoeneus and to have married
hanged herself. Athene then turned her into BQppomenes. but the same tales are told of her.
a spider and the rope into a cobweb.
bee Swmbume’s play Atalanta in Calydon and
Arcadia, 85, 92. 97. the poem Atalania’s Race, by William Morris.
Areas, son of 2feus and Gallisto, who was supposed Athamas, was the son of Alkilus and King of
to have given his name to Arcadia. Orchomenus in Boeotia. At Hera’s command
Arctos, see Callisto. he married Kepheie, and had children Phrixus
Areopagus, 43, 67, 105. and Helle. But Athamas secretly loved Ino,
daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, who bore
Ares, see especially 64-67 and also 10, 13. 14, 25, him Learchus and Melicertes. Deceived by
33, 55. 60, 61. 154, 158, 178. 243, 317, 376.
Arethusa, 88. Dio’s intrigues, Athamas would have sacrificed
Phrixus, had not a ram with a golden fleece,
Arges, 1. sent by Hermes, rescued the boy and flown
Argia, 261. through the air with him and his sister Helle.
Between Europe and Asia. HeUe fell into the
Argo, The. 155-160, 162. straits since called Hellespont, but Phrixus
Argonauts, 154-160. reached Colchis, where he sacrificed the ram to
Argos, 30, 33. 34, 45, 125, 130, 142, 143. Zeus and gave the fleece to AEetes, from whom
it was later carried off by Jason. Meanwhile
Argus. (1) The hound of Odysseus, 364. Athamas. driven mad by Hera because he had
(2) The hundred-eyed, 95. sheltered Dionysus, killed his son Learchus, and
(3) The builder of Argo, 155. Ino flung herself into the sea with Melicertes,
Aria, the mother of Miletus by Apollo. where both were transformed into marine
Ariadne, 231, 235. deities. Ino became Leucothea, and Melicertes
Arion. (1) An actual historical character was a changed to Paloemon. Athamas. forced to flee,
settled in Thessaly. See also 120.
lyric poet and player on the lyre, who lived at
the Court of Periander of Corinth at about 625 Athene, see especially 38-45 and also 14. 15, 48. 66.
B.o. The following curious fable is told of him. 77, 102, 105, 134, 135, 141. 148, 165, 178, 184!
On one occasion Arion visited Sicily and won 189. 243, 244, 265, 280, 281. 325, 328, 330, 335!
the prize in a musical contest. Laden with 345, 361, 362, 398, 394.
gifts, he took ship for Corinth, and the captain
and crew decided to mm-der him for his treasure. Athe^,^42. 48. 86. 97. 102, 105, 112, 114, 117,
They gave him permission to sing one last song. Atlantiades, 91,
Arion then invoked the god.s, and leapt into the Atlantis was a legendary island, west of the Pillars
sea. Here he was rescued by one of the music- of Hercules. Its virtuous and powerful inhabi¬
loving dolphins that had gathered to hear his
song, and taken on its back to Corinth, where tants, becoming degenerate, were defeated by
he told Pertoder of his adventures. Later, the Athenians, and the island was swallowed up
when the ship arrived, the captain and crew ^ the ocean
Timceus in a day and night. See the
of Plato.
swore that Arion had been detained in Sicily.
Periander then confronted them with Arion him¬ Atlas, the son of lapetus and Clymene, was father
self and had them executed. The Images of of the Pleiades. Hyades, and Hesperides. See
Arion and his lyre were set among the stars. also 7, 9. 16, 91. 138, 183.
(2) A fabuloxis horse, 103. Atlas, Mt., 136, 183.
Aristmns was the son of Apollo and Gyrene, bom Atreus, 379. 380. 881, 383. 384, 385, 397.
in Libya. He went to Thrace and fell in love Atropos, one of the Fates.
with Eurydice, who. fleeing from him, perished Auge, 191.
by a snake bite. As a punishment Ajistaeus
lost his bees, and how he raised a new swarm is Angelas, stables oi, 177, 190.
told in Virgil’sas fourth Aulis, 299, 300, 318, 387.
worshipped a god. Georgies. After death was Autolyous, 96. 167, 290, 329.
Aisinoe, 271. Antonoe, 244, 246.
Artemis, 10, 13, 14, 26, 69, 70, 72, 81-89, 251, 229.
300.
Ascalaphus, 112, 184. Ba^hse, 117, 123. Also called Bacchantes,
Asclepius or iEsculapius was a sou of Apollo by Msenads, or Thyiads.
Coronis. He was brought up by Cheiron, who “Bacoh®, The,” 123, 246.
taught him healing. He once recalled a dead Baoohoi, 117.
man to life and was killed by Zeus with a BaoMins, a name for Dionysus. 117-128.
thunderbolt.
was placed amongAt Apollo’s reonest,
the stars. however,
Another he
tradition Bassareus was an epithet of Dionysus. “Bas-
says that Asclepius was a native of Epidaurus. saris ” was a fox-skin which was worn by the
god and also the M®nads in Thrace. Hence
In Homer he was not a god, but the “ blameless Bassaris means Maenad or Bacchante.
physician,” father of Maohaon and PodalMus, Bathos, 12
physicians to the Greek Army. His supposed
descendants were the Asclepiadse, a caste of Baucis, see Philemon.
priests who transmitted from father to son the Bebryoos, 157.
knowledge of medicine as a sacred secret.
Epidaurns was the centre of Asclepius’ worship. Bellerophon, 145-150.
Cocks were sacrificed to him and serpents sacred. Bellerns, 146.
Asopus, a river god, son of Oceanus and Tethys, Belas, son of Poseidon and father of JSgyptus,
and father of Evadne, Eubma, and AEgina. Danans. and Cepheus.
Astarte, 67. Bias, brother of Melampus.
Astrseus, a Titan, was father, by Eos, of the Biton and Cleobis, sons of a priestess of Hera at
beneficent winds and, some say, of the stars also. Argos, in their filial devotion once dragged their
Astyahas, 836. mother's chariot to the temple. Their mother
prayed Hera to grant them the best gift for
Atalanta. (i) The ALTcadian Atalanta, daughter mortals, and they both died while asleep in the
of lasua and Olymene, was exposed by her . temple.
father and suckled by a bear. She always
Boeotia, 117. 120. 123.
carried arms. Shejoined the Oalydonian hunt
and bore a son. Parthenopseus, to Meleager. Boreas, the North wind, was the son of Astrseus
Eeconciled to her father, she refused to marry and Eos, and brother to the other beneficent
GREEK MYTHS AND
INDEX AND GLOSSARY Has LEGENDS
winds— Notus, Eums. and Zephyrus. He Cephalus accidentally kffled her with the
en’ing spear. un
cwTied oS Oreithyla, daughter of Erectheus,
who bore hina twin sons. Zetes and Calais, and Cepheus. (1) Son of Aleus, and one
the daughters Chione and Cleopatra (the wife of ônauts, was Kmg of Tegea in Arcadia but of the
Phmeus). Boreas was friendly to the Athenians to and most of ^pns were kiiled while he
and destroyed the ships of Xerxes. pito
Bosphorus, 157. Heracles agamst Hippocoon. See also 191 ^
(2) King of .aithiopia, 139, 140.
Brauron, 86. Cerberus (and Heracles), 184. 405.
Briareus, one of the Hecatonchelres. 1, 32. Ceroyon wm the son of Poseidon or Henhissti
Briseis, 309. 312. 315. io
Ke lived
traveller near
s by Eleusis. where he §Ue® all
Britomartis, 81. 229. challeng ing them
Bromius, 117. match, but was himself overcome toanda TOesUhii.
killed bV
Brontes, l. Theseus. See also 206.
Broteas, 371. Ceres, Homan counterpart of Demeter. 110-116
Ceryneian Hind, 175.
Bates, son of Pandion, Bang of Athens was a priest Ceto, 134.
of Pallas Athene.
Ceys, see
Chaos, 1. Alcyone.
Caous, 182. Charis, 65.
Cadmea, 242, 243, 260.
Chmities or (Iraoes, were called Gratim by
Cadmus, 168, 240, 241. 242, 243, 244, 246, 246, Homans. At tost tbe Greeks personified the
Grace only— Charis. who In the Hiod one
CaduceUs, 98. appears
as the ê of Hephaestus. Later the Greeto
spoke of three Graces. Euphrosyne. Aglato and
Census, offspring of Elatus. was originally the
nymph Cssnls, beloved by Poseidon, who had Thaha^ daughters of Zeus. They were esne-
consented to change her to a man. Cjeneus
accompamed the Argonauts and helped to hunt Charon, 406.
the Calydonian Boar. Although invulnerable, on Mt*^ Muses, living with them
he was killed by the Centaurs in the battle with Charybdis, see Scylla and 369.
the Lapithee. for they buried him under a mass was the wisest and best of all
of trees. His soul flew out as a bird, and in the
Underworld he regained female form. riie (Centaurs. He was the son of Cronus
Philyra, and was hence caUed and
Calais, see Zetes.
hved on Mt. Pelion. Taught Philyri des. and
by Apollo and
Calohas. 293. 300. 309. 323, 326, 361.
^te^,
prophecy, he yms , skilled in music, medicine
Calipe, one of the pillars of Heracles. 182. hunting and gymnastics, and taught
Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry, is represented
with a tablet and stylus and sometimes with a Castor and Pollux, Peleus. and Acliiiipo
roll of paper or a boob. rwL
Heracles antiquity, such as Jason!
acoidentafly caused
Callirrhoe, 271. his death (see 176).'
Callisto, daughter of Lycaon, was one of Artemis’ ChImEBra. 147. 148, 266.
huntresses. She was seduced by Zeus, who
tried to deceive Hera by turning her into a bear. CMone. (1) The daughter of Oreithyia
Hera, discovering the ruse, contrived that Boreas and mother by Poseidon of Eumolpuand
s
Artemis should himt Callisto down, but Zeus
caught her up and set her image among the was IdUed by Artemis.
stars as Arctos. Some say that Artemis bemfiif ™ called
hence see Ghionides. jj-umuipu
by Hermes. s.
She
m anger turned Callisto into a bear; others Chiron, Cheiron,
that she was pursued by her own son Areas and Chrysaor, 108, 137.
that Zeus snatched both to heaven, Callisto Chrêis, 809.
becoming
Bear. the Great Bear and Areas the Little Chrysippus, 379.
Calypso, 861, 362. Chthonius, one of Sparti, 243.
Cicones, 864.
Capaneus, 263, 265, 267, 268.
Capricorn, 6. CUix, 226.
Cassandra, 277, 283, 330, 385, 387, 388. Cimmerians, 368.
Cassiopeia, 139, 140. Circe, 160, 357, 368, 369, 360. 308.
Castalian Spring, 69. Clris, 280.
Castalides, the Muses. Citron was a lofty range of mountains between
Boeotia and Attica, sacred to Dionysus
Castor, one of Dioscuri, 166, 167, 216, 285, 286.
Caucasus, 17. Muses. Pentheus and Actseon were kiUedandthere.
the
Bee also 168.
Cecrops was said to be the first king of Attica, and Cleobis, see Biton.
to have founded Athens. See also 204, 206. Cleonsean (or Nemean) Lion, 173.
Celeus, 118.
Clio, the Muse of History, represented with a roll
Centaurs In Homer appear as savage creatures, but of paper or a chest of books.
in later accounts are described as having the
upper part of the body human, the lower part Clothp, one of the Eates, 376.
equine. GChey were said to be the offspring of Clymen^_ (1) Mother of Phseton by Helios.
Duon and a cloud. They Uyed on Mt. Pelion in (2) M'îfe of lapetiis.
TheÎy. a district famous for hunting the bull Clytemnestra, 287. 386, 387, 388, 389, 390. 392.
on Aomeback. On one occasion they fought Cnidos, 116.
with Heracles {see 176). but their most cele- Cnossos, 30, 220.
teated fight was that with the Lapithm (see 212). Cocalus, 238.
wisest of the Centaurs was Ohetron.
Centimani, 1. Cocytns, 406,
Cephûs had married Procris. but Eos. who fell Colchis, 164, 167.
ill love ^th h revealed that IProcrls was Coionos, 260.
CMily seduced by gold. Procris then fled in
shame to Crete, where she was seduced by Core, the Maiden, 89, 111.
Mmos. She later returned to Athens, dis¬ Corinth, 46, 58. 102, 106, 118. 146, 148, 161.
guised M a youth and bringing a hound and Cornucopia, G.
spear, the gifts of Artemis, that never -rnfagns Coronis, 74.
ttiem quarry. Cephalus so coveted these, that
husband and wife became reconciled. Procris Coiybantes, priests of Ehea in Phrygia noted for
however, suspected him of loving Eos. and their dances to drums and cymbals.
Jealously watched him while hunting. One day Cottus, one of the Hecatonchelres.
Creon. (1) Of Corinth, 1R2. Deianeira, 192, 193. 194. 195, 196, 197.
(2) Of Thebes, 259, 26e. Deidamla, 295.
Cretan Bull, 179, 227. Deiphohns, 277, 825, 327, 333. 334.
Crete, 68, 81, 90. 128, 219-239. Deipyle, 261.
Crethens, 152, 153. Delian Homeric Hymn, 71.
Creusa. (1) Daughter of Creon of Corinth, 162. Delos, 69. 70.
(2) WifeofXuthus.
Delphi, 69. 71. 72, 76. 117. 118. 171, 186, 242, 253.
Grommyum, Sow of, 205. 254, 271, 382, 393.
Cronus, son of Dranus and Ge and father, by his Delphiuos, 106.
sister Ehea, of Hestia, Demeter, Hera. Poseidon, Demeter, 7. 10, 25. 99. 103. 110-116, 373, 375.
Hades, and Zeus. See also 1-9. Demodocns, 60.
Cum®, 12.
Curates, 6. Demophon. Cl) Son of Celeus and Metaneira who
received Demeter hospitably. In return the
Cyclades, 132. goddess tried to make their son Immortal by
Cyclopes. Different accounts are given of the holdhig him over the fire, but the scream of
Cyclopes. Hesiod describes them as Titans {see Metaneira broke the spell and Demophon died.
1, 3. 4, 8, 9). Homer speaks of them as one- (2) Son of Theseus, 199, 211, 342. 349.
eyed giant shepherds in Sicily, the Chief being Despwna, 103.
Polyphemus (see 355). Later tradition de¬ Deucalion, 20, 21.
scribes them as helpers of Hephsestus living in Diana, 81, 89.
Mt. ^tna (see 54). The walis of unhewn stone Dictaan (lave, 6.
in Mycen® and other ancient sites are known as
Cyclopean (see 130, 143). Dicte, a moimtarn in the east of Crete, where Zeus
Cyonus, 301. was brought up. and hence called DictKus.
Dictynna, 81, 229.
Gyllene, Mt., 92. Dlotys, 132, 141, 142.
Cyllenius, 92.
Diomedes, Mares of, ISO.
Cynthus, a mountain in Delos where Leto bore Diomedes, son of Tydeus. 268, 288, 305, 311, 313.
Apollo and Artemis, hence called Cynthus, and 317, 323. 326, 327. 347.
Cynthia. Dione, 24, 60.
Cyprus, 58, 59. Dionysia, 118.
Gyrene, daughter of Hypaeus, was beloved by
Apollo and became the mother of Arist®ns. Dionysus. 10. 14, 26. 37. 61, 95, 114, 117-128, 298,
299.
She was carried by Apollo from Mt. Pelion to
Libya, where the city Gyrene was named after Dioscuri were the twin heroes. Castor and
her. Polydences (called by the Eomans Pollux).
According to Homer they were sons of Leda and
Cythera, 58, 59. King Tyndareusbf Sparta, but some said that
they were, like Helen, cldldren of Leda and
Zeus, and that all three were bom at the same
DactyU were beings who were supposed to have time out of an egg. Another tradition held
discovered iron and the art of working it by fire. that only Helen and Polydeuces were children
Mt. Ida in Phrygia was their original abode. of Zeus and that Castor was son to Tjndareua
Dadalus, 222, 284, 237, 238, and therefore mortal. Polydences. famous as
Dan®, 130, 131, 132, 133, 141, 142. a boxer, and Castor, as tamer of horses, were
Danai, nsed iu Homer of the Greeks. Inseparable. They were noted for their rescue
of Helen from Aphidn® (see 215). for their part
Danaides were the fifty daughters of Danans, son in the Calydonian hunt and the expedition of
of Belus and King of Libya. Danaus’ brother the Argonauts (see 166, 157), and for their final
JSgyptus, the father of fifty sons, suggested a battle with another pair of inseparable twins,
mass marriage, and Danaus in fear fled with Ms their cousins and rivals, Idas and Lyncens, sons
daughters to Argos, where he was elected king in ofAphareus. Accounts of the battle vary, but
place of Gelanor. The fifty sons of iEgyptus it is usually said that Idas killed Castor, that
followed Danans and asked for his daughters as Polydeuces killed Lynceus, and that Zeus inter¬
wives. Danaus agreed, but gave each daughter vened by slaying Idas with a thunderbolt.
a weapon with which to kin her bridegroom on Polydences, the only survivor, implored Zeus
the bridal night. All complied save Hyperm- to let him die with Castor, but Zteus decreed
nestra, who spared her husband Lyuoeus. that the twins should spend their days alter¬
Lynceus, after killing Danaus, became King of nately under the earth and among the gods.
Argos. The story is the theme of .®schylus’ He also set their image among the stars as
play The Suppliants. In Hades the Danaides Gemini. The worship of the Dioscuri as divine
were condemned continually to carry water in spread from Sparta. Poseidon giving them
sieves. power over wind and wave, they were
Danaus, see Danaides. worshipped especially as protectors of sailors.
Daphne, a daughter of the river god Peneus in They were regarded as inventors of the war-
Thessaly, was pursued by Apollo in the vale of dance and patrons of hards, and they presided
Tempe, but when she cried for help she was at the Spartan Games. In art eachis represented
turned into a laurel-tree, which became the as mounted on a magnificent white horse, carry¬
favourite tree of Apollo. The myth probably ing a spear,
crowned withand wearing an egg-shaped helmet
a star.
refers goddess
the to the Hellenes’
Daphmnecapture
was ofworshipped
Tempe, where
by Dlrce, 249.
Mffinads who chewed the laurel and thus in¬ Dis. 399.
toxicated themselves. Afterwards only Apollo’s Dodona, 24, 27. 28.
Pythoness nught chew laurel. Dolon, 813.
Daphnis was a son of Hermes and a nymph, who Dorians, 68.
exposed him in a laurel grove. He was adopted Doris, daughter of Oceanna and Thetis, wife of
by Sicilian shepherds, taught by Pan to play the her brother Kerens, and mother of the Nereides.
pipes, and was looked on as the inventor Of
bucolic poetry. He was blinded by a nymph to Dorns, son of Hellen, was the mythical ancestor of
the Dorians.
whom he was faithless, and Hermes caused the
fountain Daphnis at Syracuse to spring up in his Dryades were nymphs of trees.
honour. Dryope, the daughter of King Dryops, was seduced
Dardania, 273. 274. by Apollo. She was afterwards carried away
Daidanns, 274. by the Hamadryads or tree-nymphs. See also
DanUa or Daulis was an ancient town in Phoois
It was the residence of Tereus and the scene of
the story of Philomela and Pxocne, who are Echemus, 201.
hence ca,IIed Daulias. Eohidne, a monster half woman, half serpent, said
Daunns, 347. 74. be■ the mother of many monsters, such as :
to
INDEX AND GLOSSAI?Y H30 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
Athens a chest which they were
giimiBi'a, 147 ; Nemean Lion, 173; Lernean (3pen. It concealed the infant Erich forbidden tn
11^' Orthrus, 182; Ladon. 183; Sin=
Sphinx, 255 ; Cerberus, 184, 405. Her mate Accord
onen. ing to one
Tt onnpeni version .
ori +n.. ... .TT'^vn to
was Typhon. She was killed by Argus. Ugraulcuriosi
os. Pandro
With ty and sos.opened
and Herse) *wMe
the chest overe oS
EoWon. (1) Son of Hermes, took part in the serpent within it, they leapt in
the Acropolis to their delth
Argo- Sfhonh«
and was herald to the
(2) One oftont
nauts the Sparti. 243, 246. pcceeded Cecrops as King of Athens nnai®
Echo was a nymph who diverted Hera’s attention (2) Erecht
himself heus the
succeed by Padsecond was grandson was
“?®ssant talking while Zeus amused him- Erecht heus, soned of Hephastus,ion and t4 soS of
nf
the nymphs. When Hera discovered Pandion, whom he succeeded as King
the trick she took from Echo all use of her voice He was fether by Praxithea of fom of Athens
except in repetition of another’s speech. Echo sras in
then fell in love with Narcissus, clu(3mg Cecrops, and seven daughters Proto'
a beautiful gonia, PmdiDra, Procnis wife of Cephaln
youth, who repulsed her, and she pined away in
the EleusiniansChthon underia, and OtiomIs''
m-iet until only her voice remained. Artemis, Eumolpus son of
m anger at Narcissus’ Poseidon attacked Athens, Erecht
laurn love with his own coldness, caused him to
reflection in a fountain. to sacnte Otionia, whereupon hertwo s tokf
hmfsâ
In sisters, ftotogonia and Pandora, also lldest
mto d^pau he took his own life and was turned
the flower. thems sacrificed
Edones, 122. elves . Erech theus slew eSoiis
whereupon :^seidon demanded rengea
Eetion, 306. Me S
a river
either he or Zeus slewgod.
Erec Phath
hthe onus. fell to’ his“
Elatus, one of the Lapithie. and father of Ceeneus. death here. Because amber was
Electra. (l) The Pleiad. 274. found hwe
(a Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytem- Eridanus was later supposed to be the Po ^
nestra, 389, 390, 392, 397, 398. Erigone, see Icarius.
“ Electra ” of Emipides, 391. înnyes or Etunemdes, 3. 260, 271. 393,
894 404
“ Electra ” of Sophocles. 391. Eriphyle, 262, 269, 271.
Electryon, King of Mycense, was the son of Perseus Bris, 66, 280.
and _ .todromed a. His daughter Alcmene Eros, who in Latinthe was son named Amor
married Amphitryon. of Aphrodi te or by Ciinid
either
Eleîs, in Attica, had a splendid temple of Ares, Hermes, or her own father Zeus Thi
Demeter, 112, 113, 114. early Greeks thought of him as
Elpenor, 358. a winged
sprite.” but by the fifth irrespo nsible n.c.
century but helovSf
Elysium, 407, 408. was
flying on golden wings and carrying in his coWpt
Empusse, daughters of Hecate, were horrible auiyer airows which could wound bSh
demons, with the haunches of asses and wearing S an
brazen slippers. Thej' could disguise themselves pds. and torches. He was somTtS
trayeii as blindfolded. He uSiy
as bitches, cows, or maidens, and in the latter named his mother Aphrodite. See also aoenm
shape they would lie with men asleep and suck Fsyche
their strength till they died. The idea of
Empus® was probably brought from Palestine, Erysich Eryman thon, son of
Boar, 17 Triopas , dared to cut down '
where the Lilim, or daughters of Lilith, had treesthian
in a grove sacred to 6. Demeter, and when
eiinilar characteristics.
Bnceladus, 11, 12.
Eryx, Mt., 58.
Endyiôn, Kdng of Elis, was a beautiful AEolian
sleeping In a cave on Carian Eteooles, 257, 261, 265.
Mt. Latmus. was seen by Selene the moon, who Etna, Mt., 12.
came down and kissed him. He afterwards re- daughter of Cheiron, Being with
tnrned to the cave and fell intoa dreamless sleep. cMd by .fflMus, son of Hellen, was change
Hy his wife he had four sons, one of them being Their child was Melanippe. d into
.^tolus, who conquered the land now called (2) The daughter of Daunits, 347.
.®toha. The myth probably indicates the fate
of one who marries the moon Goddess. See Bnmffius, 362, 363.
Keats’s Endynmn. Emnenides or Erinnyes, 3. 260, 271, 393, 394, 404.
Enipens was the riyer god loved by Tyro “ Eumenides.” the play by AEschylus, 393, 404.
Enna, 112.
Eimolpus, "the good singer,” was the son of
Eos, in Latin Aurora, was the Dawn, daughter of Poseidon and Ctaone. the daughter of Boreas
Hyperion and Theia. She drove her chariot and Oreithyia. BQs mother threw him into the
each morning to announce the approach of her sea as soon as he was born, but his father
brother Helios, and, as Hemera, accompanied Poseidon cared for him. He was brought up in
his across the sky to arrive with him in the West Eihiopia. ami lived later at the Court of King
m the evening as Hespera. Her husband was Tegyrius of Thrace, and then came to Eleusis in
Astrffius, said by some to be father by her of the Attica. Here he became the priest of the
sUrs and aU winds save the East. Bos carried “îeries of Demeter and Persephone. He
off several be^tiful youths, including Orion, initiated Heracles mto the mysteries and taught
Oephalus, and Tithonns. Her son by Tithonus him to smg and play the lyre. Eumolpus led an
was Memnon, Eos asked Zeus to grant Titho- expedition agamst Erectheus of Athens, three
nus immortality, but omitted to ask also for of whose daughters sacrificed themselves to
perpetual youth. Tithonus therefore shrank ensure victory. Eumolpus was killed by
away unm he became a cicada. Among Greeks Erectheus, who was then himself siafai by either
in .Mia Mmor the golden cicada was an emblem Poseidon or Zeus. Eumolpus’ descendants
of Apollo the sun god. became hereditary priests of Demeter at Eleusis,
Epaphns, son of Zeus and lo, reigned over Egypt, Bimomns, 193.
and was rumoiued to be the sacred bull. Apis Euphorbus, 314.
Epeius, 328.
Euphrosyne, one of the Charities or Graces.
Ephesia (Artemis Ephesia), 81.
Ephesus, 87. 88. Euridice, see Orpheus.
Ephialtes, 11, 13. Euripides. 128, 161. 185. 200, 211, 246. 203, 267
Eplgoni, 268, 269.
Epimetheus, 16, 17, 20. Europa, 228-224, 244.
Erato, the Muse of erotic poetry and mime, some¬
Eurus, son of
339, 391.Astr®us
313, wind. 39.8, 395.and Eos. was m.the-oa, South¬
east
times carries a lyre.
Euryale, 134, 138.
Erebus, or darkness, son of Chaos, begot AEther
and Hemera by his sister Night. ■ See also 25 Euryalus, 288.
Brichthonius. (p Son of Heph®stus. Athene Eurycleia, 384.
entrusted to the (laughters of Edng Oeorops of Euryloohus, 357.
T
INDEX AND GLOSSARY HSI GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
Eurynomo, 25, 61. Hecabe, see Hecuba.
Eurystheus, 166. 171-184, 199, 380. Hecale was a poor old woman who hospitably
Eurytion, 182. entertained Theseus when he was out hunting
Eurytus, 167, 186, 105, 365. the Bull of Marathon.
Hecate, 403, 409.
Euterpe, the Muse of lyric poetry, or of music,
represented with a flute. Hecatoncheires, hundred-headed giants, 1.
Bvadne, 207, 268.
Hector, 277, 307, 311, 314, 315, 322, 336,
Evenus was father of Marpessa, who was carried
off by Idas. Evenus then drowned himself in Hecuba, 277, 278, 315, 334, 338, 339.
the river henceforth called after him. “ Hecuba ” of Euripides, 339.
Helen, 213, 215, 284, 285, 286, 287, 302, 325, 327,
Fates, or Mcerae, or Moir®, known to the Eomans 332, 334, 3S5.
as Parcae. were the white-robed Clotho, Lachesis, Helenus, son of Priam, 277, 325, 346.
and Atropos. Clotho spun the thread, Lachesis Helicaon, 335.
measured it, and Atropos cut it with her shears. Helicon, a range of lofty mountains in Bosotia
At Delphi only Clotho and Atropos were sacred to Apollo and the Muses, hence called
worshipped. It has been suggested that the Heliconiades and Helioonides. The fountains
Fates originally represented phases of the moon. of the Muses Aganippe and Hippocrene spiing
See also 26, 94. from Mt. Helicon. See also 148.
Faunus, identified by the Eomans with Pan.
Helios or Helius, the Eoman Sol, was the son of
Fortuna, Eoman counterpart of Tyche. Hyperion and Theia, and brother of Selene and
“ Fortunate Isles,” 408. Eos. In Homer he was god of the sun. All-
Furies, see Eumenides and 3
seeing. he reported
faithlessness such rape
and the incidents as Aphrodite’s
of Persephone, but
failed to notice the theft of his own sacred cattle
Gffia, see Ge.
by Odysseus’ companions. His wife Rhode
Galatea, a sea-njunph loved by Polyphemus: but bore him seven sons and one daughter, and his
Galatea loved Acis. See also Pygmalion. worship flourished in Rhodes, where the famou.s
Galinthias, daughter of Proetus of Thebes and Colossus was an image of him. Sacred to Helios
friend of Alcmene. was the cook, and his saciiflces hicluded white
Ganymede, the most beautiful youth alive, was, horses and rams, and honey. See also 79, 105,
according to the Homeric aecoimt, the son of 111, 182, 231, 357. 360, amtPhffithon.
King Tros and Callirrhog. He was carried off HeUe, daughter of Athamaa and Hephele.
by the gods to be cup bearer to Zeus, in place of
Hebe. Later writers say that Zeus himself, in Hellen, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, was
mythical ancestor of all the Hellenes. Hts sons
love with Ganymede, disguised himself as an were Êolus. who succeeded him. Dorus, and
eagle and carried him off. Zeus sent Tros as Xuthus.
compensation a pair of horses. Other traditions
Hellenes, 22, 40. 94.
do not agree as to Ganymede's parentage. The
myth was very' popular in Greece and Eome, as Hellespont. 156.
it gave a religious sanction to a man’s passion Hephmstus, 10, 17, 25, 41, 46. 47, 48, 49, 50. 61.
for 52. 65. 56. 60, 65. 82, 158, 373.
274, a 275.
youth (see Plato’s Phaedrm, 79). See also
Ge or Gffia, the Earth, 1, 3, 5, 8, 25, 30. Hera, see especially 29-35 and also 7, 10, 13. 14,
Geryon, 182. 24, 25, 26. 48. 50-53. 65. 70. 72. 73. 104, 106,
Glance, daughter of Creon, Eng of Corinth, also 119-121, 166, 167, 171, 174, 181. 189. 198, 280,
128.
called Creusa, 162.
Glauous. (1) King ofCorinth, the son of Sisyphus Heracleid® or Caflldren of Heracles, 199-202.
Heracles, see especially 164-202 and also 11, 12, 18.
and Merope,' and father of Bellerophon,
to pieces by his own mares because he scorned was tom 66, 95. 104, 166. 166, 823.
the power of Aphrodite. Hercules or Heracles, Pillars of, 182.
(2) Grandson of Bellerophon, 311, 322. Hermaphroditus, 61.
(3) Son of Minos. 231. 232.
Gordius, King of Phrygia, was originally a peasant. Hermes, see especially 90-98 and also 18, 14, 17. 26,
An oracle had informed the people of Phrygia 41. 61. 66. 77. 111. 120, 135. 136, 141. 184. 250,
that their new king would appear in a wagon, 230. 303. 357. 361, 369, 375, 877, 378.
and when Gordius arrived riding in this way they Hermione, 287, 345, 346, 398.
acclaimed him king. He gratefully dedicated
his cart to Zeus in the acropolis of Gordium. Hero, see Leander.
The pole was tied to the yoke by a curious knot Herse, daughter of Ceerops. beloved by Hermes.
To Herse and her sisters the infant Erlchthonius
and an oracle decreed that whoever should untie was entrusted.
the knot should rule all Asia. Alexander Hesiod, 2, 69.
severed it with his sword.
Gorge, daughter of Althiea. who with her sister Hesione, 188, 189, 275, 276.
Deteneira, kept her hmnau form when their Hesperides, 30, 183.
other sisters were changed by Artemis to birds.
She was wife to Andr»mon, mother of Thoas. Hesperus, the evening star.
Gorgones, 134, 136, 138. Hestia, 7. 10. 32. 36. 87. 118. 126.
Hiera, 56.
Grese, 136.
Gyes or Qyges, one of Hecatoncheiiea, 1. Hippocoon, 191.
Hippocrene, 148.
Hades. (1) The god. see especially 399-402, 409. and HIppodameia. (1) Daughter of (Enomaus, 376,
also 7. 9. 10. 65, 93. 98, 101, 106, 111, 135. 184, 214.
(2) The Dnderworld, 399-409. 377(2) Wife of Pirithous, 212, 213.
Hmmon, 266. Hippolyte, 181, 210, 211.
Halirrhothius, 67. Hippolytus, 211.
Hamadryades were nymphs of trees. “ Hippolytus,” 211.
Harmonia, 244, 247. Hippomedon, 263, 265.
Haimonia, Necklace of, 244, 262, 271.
Hippomenes, son of Megareus, married the
Harmonia, Robe of, 269, 271. Boeotian Atalanta.
Harpy, a monster with a woman’s head and a Hippothous, grandson of Cercyon, who was slain
bird’s wings and
torment mortals, 373. claws, used by the gods to by Theseus, and father of ZEpytus, the King of
Arcadia.
Hebe was cup-bearer to the gods till Ganymede BQttites, 2, 68.
replaced her. Her Roman counterpart was
Jiiventas. See also 25, 33, 198. Homer, 49, 50, 52, 60. 79, 99, 117, 128. 151, 272,
273, 322, 338, 343. 353, 369, 385. 408.
GREEK MYTHS AND
INDEX AND GLOSSARY LEGENDS
H32
Horse, goddesses of the order of nature and the tail of her favourite bird, the peacock n-ns „ .
seasons (see 26). It is said that Zeus’ fatherhood a gadfly to torme nt lo, who fled from land to
Xhemls indicates that the
Hellenes took over control of the calendar. land
coveredtdl her
she human
came to the and
form Nile Hew 'SSr
Hyaointhns, 74. EpaphiM. The Ionian Sea and bore
tto B^sphoru?
Hyades, 120.
Hydra oS Loma, 174, 196. lobates, 146-149.
health, was either the lolaus, 172. 174,
185. 192. 199,
daughter or the wife of Asclepius. She is repre¬
sented as dressed in a long robe and feeding lolcus, 162. 168. 154, 161.
serpent from a cup. a lole, 186, 196, 196. 197.
Hylas, 156. Ion, see Xuthus,
Hyllus, 193, 196, 199, 201. lonians, 68, 88, 99.
Amphitrion, 166, 170, 17i,
Hyperboreans, 137.
Hyperenor, one of Sparti, 243.
(2) One of the Argonauts.
Hrosrion, a Titan and father of Helios. Selene, and Iphigeneia, 86. 800. 387, 396. 896, 397.
Hypermnestra, see Danaides. Among the Taurians ” of Emipi
des,
Hypnus, the god of sleep.
Iphimedeia, wife of AIcbus, 13.
ÂpX)^*^ ihe father of Gyrene belored by Iphis, 267.
Hrosipyle wi^the daughter of Thoas. King of Iphitus, 186.
leôs. men Irene, called Pax by the Homans, was
m the island she the women killed aU the men
sayed her father. She wel- peace and according to Hesiod one of goddess of
cornea Jason on the Argronauts’ landing in daughters of Zeus and Themis. the Eotk
X^mnos and bore him twins. Later the women worshipped in Athens. She was
of Lemnos discovered that she had spared Thoas she appears as messenger of the
and sold her as a slave to King Lycurgus
Nemea, who entrusted his son Opheltes to her of
^ OdjAsssy she is never mentioned^
Ishtar,
Snb™ 57. origmaUy a pereonifleation of the
laoohus, the name of Dionysus in the Eleusinia Ismene, 267, 260.
mysterws. where the god n
Issa, daughter of Macareus, was loved
son of Zeus and Demeter, was regarded as the Isthmian (lames, 105. by Apollo
lapete, a TitM and father of Atlas, Erometheus. Ithaca, 289. 290. 353, 362, 863, 368.
and Epunetheus, 1.
lasion, lasius, or lasus was the son of Zeus and Itys was the son of Tereus and Procne.
Electra. Demeter loved him and bore Ixion, the son of Phlegyas. King of the Lapithie
son Piuton or Plutus, and Zeus, in anger,him a
slew treacherously murdered his father-ta-law
lasion with a thunderbolt, Though pardemed by Zeus,decrived
learia, 124. ■w ine he Prionby now
a phLto
tried mto
IcMius. (1) Wm an Athenian who received Nephele, who bore him a Centaur. Prion
bemg chained to a fiery wheel was
DionysM hospitably and learned from Ww the which roUed ceaselessly through the s^.
m
tod made to shepherds who. seeing double son was Pmthous. See Browning’s Imon.
beheved toey had been bewitched and killed
Erigone was led to his
CTave by Ms dog Masra, and she hanged Jason, 161-168.
m despair from the tree under which her herself
fathto
Jocasta, 263, 267. 258, 269.
had been buried.
Juno, Homan counterpart of Hera, 29-36.
(2) Of Sparta, 290.
Icarus, 238. Jupiter, Homan counterpart of Zeus, 28-28.
Juventas, see Hebe.
Ida, Mt., near Troy, 278. 280, 305, 325.
Idsea, 274.
Eabdacus, 262,
brother of Lynceus, was said to be
son of Aphareus. He was In love with Mar- Laohesis, one of tto Pates.
Ladon, 183,
pe^. whom he carried off in a chariot given
^ by Poseidon who was really his father. swift dog which Procris gave to
ApoUo ,fmight with him for Marpessa.
but Z^ separated the combatants, and she lisertes, 290, 363. 366.
With, his devoted twin he took
Lsestrygones, 357.
battle with their rivals, the Dioscuri. Argonauts’ Pains, 252. 253, 254, 265, 258.
Idomeneus, 297, 348. LaMa, daughter of Belus, loved by Zeus.
became one of tto Empusce. She
“Diad,’* 77, 101, 309, 318, 318, Lamus, 357.
400.
Dithyto, daughters of Hera, who in the lUad and tooooSn, 330, 831.
Paodameia, wife of Protesilaus, 303.
childbirth. In the Odi/sscy helping
JiSSS. ® represente d as women in
and later poets
goddess. Hithyia, is represen Daughter of Priam, 335.
ted. See (2) Homeric name for Electra, daughter of
Ulyrius, son of Cadmus. 244.
Hus, 274. Paomedan, 274, 276.
Aga a x
Imbros, 60. PapithsB weremem non
a mythical people .living in Thessaly
and governed by Pirithous, who, being a son of
Inachns, son of Oceanus and Tethys. was first half-brother to the Centaurs.
Amg of Argos, and gave his name to the river. ^*^slry between the Centaurs and Lapitiue
Ino, 120. 244, 246. at the celebrated struggle at
the wedding of Pirithous. See also 212.
lo. daughter of Inachus was beloved by Zens, who Parissa. 142.
turned tor mto a white heifer through fear of
Boddess Hera set Argus of the Pwnder, a youth of Abydos. swam across the
hundred eyra to watch the heifer, but Hermes. Hellespont even^ mght to visit Hero, priestess
on: nia toad. Hera placed Argus' eyes in the arowned, and Hero then flung herself into the
■?? 0“® he was
INDEX AND <3[.OSSARY H33 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
sea. Marlowe tells the story in his poem Eero , Meera, 338.
and Leander.
u.ujjcu klx _
ucr. . ffilaja, daughter of Atlas and Pleione. was the
daughter Of Thesfci^ and the wife of eldest and most beautiful of the Pleiades. * She
Tyndar^, King of Sparta. Her children were Imre Hermes
Helen, Polydeuces. Castor, and Clytemnestra. the Eomans to Zeus. She was identified by
with a goddess of Spring {see
According
Leda m the toform
theofûal tradition, visited Keats’s Ode to 2Iaia). See also 26. M.
a swan, and she laid an egg, Mautn qr;i
from which were hatched Helen, Polydeuces, ‘f,! ^
and Castor, while Clytemnestra was the daughter "larathoman Bull, the Cretan Bull, 179, 227.
of Tyndareus. Others say that only Helen and Marpessa, daughter of Euenus the river-god. was
Poly^^deuces were Zeus’ offspring; others, in- loved by ApoUo, but Idas carried her off in a
cludmg Homer, that Helen alone was child to winged chariot which Poseidon had given him.
Zeus. The rape of Leda is the subject of Yeats’s Apollo fought with Idas for the possession of
fine poem. Leda and the Swan Marpessa until Zeus intervened, saying that
Lemnos, 47. 52. 66. 156. 301, 323. Marpessa must choose. She chose to marry
Lema, Hydra of, 174, 196. .
Lethe, 406. 8^-
Leto, called
Titans, CoeusLatona, was the
and Phmbe, and daughter
mother byof Zeus
the ‘^7.
Medea, 158-163, 206.
ofApollo and Artemis. See also 26, 70. 72, 251. Medus, son of Algus
and Medea. 206.
Leuce, 402. . , Medusa, 40, 108. 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 141. 148.
Leucippus, son of (Enoinaus, was m love with lyrpfftp™ nf +i„. o .n.
Daphne, and disguised as a woman joined her of the Eumemdes, 3, 404.
nymphs. Wlien Apollo advised them to bathe Megapenthes, 143.
naked, his disguise was discovered and the Megai’a or Megera, 170, 185.
nymphs
mmpns tore rort him
mm to10 pieces.
pieces. Melampus, son of Amythaon. was the prophet and
Leuoothea, a sea-goddess, formerly Ino, beloved seer who first introduced into Greece the
by Athamas, 362. worship of Dionysus. Having cured the three
" Libation Bearers,” 391. daughters of Proetus and other Axgive women
Lichas 196
uicua:,, x»o. 5^ madness, he and his brother
frnTn 1.3 Bias received
mo as, lao. . , from Proetus two-thirds of the kingdom
Lmus. (1) According to the Ai-give story, Lmus Melaniune w>i« the chiM nf Wnino on,,
was
was the
the son
son ofof the
the princess
princess Psamathe
Psamathe bybv Apollo.
Anniin ^ and Euippe. Aiolus, son of Hellen,
Psamathe exposed her son, who was reared by Melanippus, 265.
8hei>herds, but later torn to pieces by her father’s
dogs. Her distress at this revealed her predica- Mel^ger was the son of CEnens and Althaea.
ment to her father, who condemned her to death. ■VVhen he wasdieseven
Apollo, in anger, visited Argos with a plague, he would when days old the Fates
a certain brand declared
on the
until the Argives propitiated lanus and hearth should be consumed, but Althasa
Psamathe by dirges called “ linoi.” quickly extinguished the brand and hid it.
(2) Another tradition told of a Linus, son of a Meleager accompanied the Argonauts and suc¬
Muse, who was gifted in music and killed by cessfully led the heroes against the CaJydonian
jealous Apollo. Boar. When he gave the hide to Atalanta,
(3 ) The Thebans also told of Linus the instruc¬ Alth»a’s brothers took then
it from flung
her, and
tor of Heracles, who was Mlled by the hero with slew them. Althaea theMeleager
fateful
a lyre. See also 167. branch into the Are and Meleager expired.
Althaia now killed herself, and her daughters
The ancient “ linoi ” dirges were widespread, (exeeptmg Gorge and Deianeira) were turned by
and they have been described by Frazer in The
Golden Bough. They are most probably lamen- Artemis into guinea-hens. See also 203.
tations for Linus as a vegetation spirit, perhaps Melioertes, son of Athamas and Ino,
of flax. Melpomene, the Muse of Tragedy.
^para, 56. Memnon, 318. 319, 320.
Lotophagi, 354. Memnonia, 321.
Lotus Eaters, 354. Menmonides, 319.
Loxias, 69. Menelaus, 284, 286, 287, 289, 291, 302, 310. 314,
Lucifer or " brmger of light ’* is the name of the 384, 345, 363, 385.
Planet Venus when seen before sunrise. The Menestheus, 216
eSg'X^^®'^ Hesperus when seen in the Menoeceus. (1) Father of Jocasta.
258.
1.7 t- • -u. -x,.,. (2) BonofCreon. 264.
Lyôn amered Zens by serving hun with human Mentor Odvaseus’ faithful
friend 365.
flesh. He and ail his sons, save Hyctinus, were Uuyêus laitninl mend, 866
either killed by lightning or turned into wolves. Merourius, 90.
Lyoia, 47, 68. 146, 147. Meriones, 297.
1^01118, 68,69. Merope, one of the Pleiades, and wife of Sisyphus.
Lycomedes, 216, 295, 826. Metaneira, wife ofCeleus of Eleusis, and mother of
Lyourgus, King of Edones, 122. _ Hemophon, and Tripolemus.
! Metis. 7, 25, 41,
Lycus. (1) Son of Pandion, expelled by his
brotherhim..fflgeus, took refuge in Lycia, so called I MidM
after Kingwasofthôn, or adopted
Phrygia. He kindlyson, of Gordius,
entertained
(2) Of Thebes, 249. Silenns, and when Dionysus asked him what
reward he would like, Midas requested that all
Lynceus. (1) Son of Aphareus, and devoted twin he touched should be turned to gold. When
brother of Idas, was noted for his keen sight. he was unable to eat. Midas begged to be freed
The twins took part in the CaJydoniaa hunt and of his golden touch and was told by the god to
the bathe in the source of the Pactolus, near Mt.
killedArgonauts’
in a battle expedition, and were finally
with the Dioscuri. Tmolus. The sands of this river then became
(2) Son of iEgyptus, see Danaides. rich with gold.
Lystra, 93. Once when Apollo engaged in a musical con¬
test with Pan, Midas declared in favour of Pan
and was cursed by revengeful Apollo with a
Macareus, son of ZEolus committed incest with his pair of ass’s ears. These he hid under a
sister Canace. Their daughter, toa. was Phrygian cap so that only his barber knew of
beloved by Apollo. the disgrace, until the barber, unable any
Macaiia, 199. longer to keep the secret, whispered it to a hole
in the groimd. Then a reed growing in that
Macedonia, 10. 117. spot whispered the secret abroad.
Maohaon, 824. Milanion, husband of Atalanta.
Maenades, 117, 121, 123. 127. Miletus, 74. 225.
5NDEX AND GLOSSARY H34- GREEK MYTHS AMD LEGENDS
Mimas, 11.
, Oceanus, 1, 3. 7. 25, 358.
Minerva, Roman counterpart of Athene. “ Odyssey,” 60. 322. 35.3-360.
Minoan Tradition, 6. Odysseus, 289. 290. 291, 295, 301, 302, 308 313
Minos, 220, 222, 224, 226, 227. 228. 229 230 231
233. 237.222,
Minotaur, 238.233,
239.234,
407235. . ’ CEbalns. (1) King of
Minthe, 402. Sparta and father of
Tyndareus, Hippocoon. and Icarius.
Blinyans, 99, 100, 110, 169.
2d.
Mnemosyne
ill-ill.’
CEdipus, 252-261.
“ CEdipus at Colonos,” 260.
or “ Memory ” daughter of Uranus.
“ CEdipus Tyrannus,” 260.
Moerao or Moira, see Fates and 25. CEneus, of Pleuron and Calydon in iEtolia
Moly, 357. married AJthina and was father of Tydeus
Mopsus, 351. Meleager, Gorge, Calydonia
and Deianeira . His
Mussa or Musagetes. The Muses were divinities
n Boar, and realm was
was later
presidmg over the arts and sciences. Tliey îzed by his nephews, but his grandson
were daughters of Zeus and hlnemosyne, and Diomedes, son of Tydeus, avenged
were bom at Pierla near Mt. Olympus. Their Gorges husband Andr^mon on him and put
the throne
woralup spread from Thracia and Pieria into CEneus accompanied Diomedes to the Pelo¬
Boeotia, where they dwelt on Mt. Helicon, with ponnesus, where he was eventually killed bv
Its sacred formtains of Aganippe and Hippo- two nephews who had escaped Diomedes'
crene. Mt. Parnassus and its Castalian Spring CEnomaus, 876, 377.
were ô sacred to them. Libations of water OEnone, 278, 824.
or nnik and honey were offered to the Muses. ■‘-'"“eaes
Unmally three in number, they were afterwards vengeance. See also 102, 261.
spoken of as nine, Clio of history, Euterpe of Ogygia, 361.
OTIC poetry (or of music), Thalia of comedy, Oileus, King of the Locrlans, was one of the
Melpomene of tragedy, Terpsichore of choral Argonauts. 292.
dance and song, Erato of erotic poetry and Olympia, 27.
mime, Mymma, or Polyhymnia, of the sublime Olympic Games,
hymn. Calliope of epic poetry, and Urania of founded by Heracles, 190, 378.
astronomy. Olympius, a name for the Muses and all the gods
who were supposed to Uve in Olympus and not
Mycenae. 143. 144, 370, 380, 381. 384, 389, 392, 397 m the lower world.
Myrmidones, 293, 314. twelve great Olympian gods in some
MyrtUus, 377. 378. places worshipped m a body were Zeus, Posei¬
Mysia, 150. don. Apollo^ês, Hermes. Hephaestus. Hestia
Demeter, Hera, Athene.. Aphrodit e, afd
^tenus. At a later date Dionysus became one
of the great twelve, m place of Hestia
Naiades or Naiads, the nymphs of fresh water, 166.
Narcissus, see Echo.
NaupUus, 850.
Omphale, 95. 187, 188.
Nausioaa, 362. Omphalos, 76.
Naxos, 13, 124.
twin brother of Pelias (see 108, 152 Bycm-gus of Kemea.
by Pelias. he went !^^'’ games were
pesoKemean
“i
hut Heracles re-dedicated founded in his honour,
with Melampus and Bias to Pylus. where he them to Zeus.
Îgame^king. He had twelve sons. See also Orcus, 399.

Nemean Lion, 173.
Nemean Games, 173. ° BffiSto ^69^® the capital of the Minyans of
Orês were the nymphs of mountains and
Nemesis, who was said to be a daughter of
Oceanus, was a goddess who originally measured Oresteia " of JSschylus, 388. -« ««
out to men happiness and misery, chastening grottoes.
those wlm were over-fortunate. Later she
came to he thought of as one who punished
Orestes ” of Euripides, 393.
at Rhamnus in Attica.
-u whichtshe habituall
The wheel °^398%4^‘’’
Orion, a son of Poseidon was a giant himter and
y carried was
probably m or^m a symbol of the solar year, exceedingly handsome. He feU in love with
? to whose seasons the sacred king was Metope, the daughter of CEnopion of Chios,
fated to rise to the height of his fortune or to die. fflnopion proved Merope to Orion if he would
free the Mand of wild beasts. When he
*^®336?337r34°5.
34^^98 to keep to promise Orion seduced Merope.faffed and
Nephele, a phantom created by Zeus to deceive was btod^ by CEnopion, who was helped by
Ixion, became the wife of Athamas. to father Dionysus. An oracle told Orion that
he would regain to sight if he travelled East
Neptune, see Poseidon.
and eposed his eyeballs to the rising sun. He
Nereides or Nereids, daughters of Kerens, nymphs went
of the Mediterranean, 109, 139. mde to to 'tenmos,
the East.where
OtoreHephffistu
Eos feU s inlent
lovehim
witha
Neieus, loe. Mm. and her brother Helios restored to sight.
Nessus, 194, 196. Orion later lomed .^temls as a hunter, boasting
Nestor, 190, 287. 205, SIS, 352, 363. that he ûld M all the wild animals. ApoU^
hepmg this and fearing that Artemis alsomight
NiobOi 82. 250, 261. 371, fall m tore yyrth Mon, onnningly contrived that
Nlsns, 230. toe goddeffl toonld accidentally kill him. After
Nisyrus, 12. hfc death Orion’s image was set among toe stare,
where ue appeare as a giant with “ belt and
Nomlns, the ^sturer, a name given to gods, such
as Apollo, Hermes. Pan, who protect pastures. mfword^h
toe Eastip. Kie story ofhis blindness cured
Is a myth of the sun, on whose rising
Auster by the Romans, was the the animals retire to their dens.
bouth-west
and Eos. ; wmd. He was a son of Astons Oreitlîa, daughter of Ereotoeus, carried away
by Boreas.
Nymphse were lesser deities which peopled all Orpheus, toe son of King CEagrus and Calliope,
parts of nature. received a lyre from Apollo and was taught to
Nysa, Mt., 120, 128. play by toe Muses, so that he was able to
enctant beasts, trees, and rocks to foUow his
piste. On returning from his voyage with toe
Oceanldes, nymphs of the ocean, daughters of Argonpts (see 156), he married Bnrydice, and
AjC68tIlVlS< when she died from a snake bite, he followed her
to the Underworld. Here his music delighted Parthenos, a name of Athene, 39.
even Hades, so that he allowed Eurydice to Pasipha, 231, 234, 238.
follow her husband back to life, provided only
that he did not look ronnd. On the very Patroclus, 296, 314. 316.
threshold of life Orpheus anxiously looked back, Pegasus, 108, 137, 148, 150.
and so lost Eurydice. He was so desolate with Pelasgians, 47.
grief that the jealous Thracian women tore him
to pieces in an orgy of Dionysus, a god whom he Peleus, son of .Eacus, King of ASgina, joined with
iMd neglected to honour. The Muses collected Ms brother Telamon in killing their half-brother
the fragments of his body, which were buried at Phoous. Expelled by ADacns, he went to
the foot of Olympus, but his head, thrown into PhtMa in Thessaly, where he was purified by
the River Hebrus, was carried still singing down the king’s son Eurytion, but accompanying
to sea and on to Lesbos, whither his lyre also Eurytion to hunt the Caiydonian Boar, he
drifted, to be placed later as a constellation in accidentally killed Ms benefactor. Peleus now
the heavens at the intercession of Apollo and fled to xlcastus. King of lolcos, who purified him,
the Muses.
but here he was falsely accused by Acastus’
The Greeks considered Orpheus to be the iwfe. Acastus then took Peleus on a hunting
greatest poet before Homer, and fragments of exiiedition on Mt. Pelion, and while his guest
poetry extant were ascribed to him. was asleep secreted Ms sword and deserted Mm.
The religion “ Orphism ” was characterised Yould have been killed by Centaure had
w a sense of sin and the need for atonement, the not Cheiron rescued Mm. Zeus now decided to
idea of a suffering man-god, and a belief in im- give to Peleus the Nereid Thetis as wife. Zeus
rnortality. It had an influence on such himself would have married her had he not
philosophers as Pythagoras and Plato, and been warned by Themis that she would bear a
tormed a link between the worship of Dionysus son more illustrious then his father. Cheiron
and Christianity. told Peleus how to master Thetis by holding her
Orthrus, 182, 255. fast whatever form she might assume, and all
Ortygia, 70. the divinities save Eris came to the wedding.
She in revenge cast in the golden apple, which
Ossa, 13. caused, eventually, the Trojan War. Thetis
Otrere, 317. bore to Peleus the hero Achilles, whose death
Otus, 13. he survived. See also 280, 293, 296.
Ovid, 112, 161. Pelias, 108. 162, 153. 154, 161.
Fehdes, the son of Peleus, that Is Achilles.
Pelion, Mt, 13.
Palamon, Pelopia, 382. 883.
Athamas a andsea-god,
Ino. originally Melicertes, son of
Peloponnesus, 58, 378.
Palamedes, son of Nauplius, 288, 2S9, 291, 302.
350. Pelops, 251, 325, 820. 371, 373, 375, 376, 377, 378,
Palladium, 325, 327, 330, 341. 379.
Pallas. (1) a giant, 11. Pelorus, one of Sparti, 243.
(2) a father of fifty sons, 206. Penelope, 290, 363, 365. 368, 369.
(3) a name for Athene, 39. 40. Penera, a god of the River Peneus in Thessaly, son
Pan, the misshapen god with goat feet, horns, and of p^nus
and Cyrene. and Tethys and father of Daphne
tail, was said by some to be an ancient divinity Penthesilea, 317.
coa3val with Zeus, though most reported him to
be the sou of Hermes. He was the god of Pentheus, 123, 246.
shepherds and flocks, living in rural Arcadia, Perdlx, nephew of Dsedalus, 237,
hunting and dancing with the nymphs. He
would also lurk iu forests, startling travellers Periclroenus, the Argonaut was the son of Neleus
with a sudden shout and filling them with and brother of Nestor. Though he could
“ panic.” Pan loved many nymphs, including aûme
Heracles.what shape he chose, he was kOled by
Syrinx, who fled in terror and was metamor¬
phosed into a reed, from which Pan made the Periphetes, a monster at Epidanrus who used to
M pMsers-hy with an iron club. He was killed
invented, for his love of music was said
syrinx (or Pan’s pipe) that he was wen to have
known. by Theseus.
He was also said to have seduced Selene. The Pero,
Olympians looked down on Pan as a rustic, un¬ Bias.daughter of Neleus and CMoris and wife of
controlled
death was divim'ty.
reported.He Theis theworship
only godofwhose
Pan Persg, daughter of Oceanus and wife of Helios, by
began iu Arcadia, which was despised by the whom she became the mother of iEStes, Circe.
Greeks for its hackwardness. It did not reach PasaphaS, and Perses.
Athens till early in the fifth century b.o. The Persephone, 25. 103, 106, 111-115, 214. 373, 402
Romans later identlfled Pan with Paunns. See
also 14. 77-97. 369. Perses, son of Helios o.
and Pers6 .and .father of
Panathenaic, 44, 118, 233. 403, 409.
Hecate.
Pandarens, 373. Perseus, 129-144, 166.
Pandlon, King of Athens, was son of Erichthonins Pesistratus, 44, 114. 118.
and father of Procne, and Philomela, and of Petasus, 98.
Erechtheus, who succeeded Mm.
Pandora, 17. Phffiacians, 862.
Pandrosos, daughter of Cecrops. To her and her Phaedra, 211.
sisters, Erichthonins was entrusted. Phaethon, " the shining,” was a son of Helios by
Panopeus, 328. Cljmene. He gained his father’s permission to
Panthous, 314. drive the chariot of the sun. but Ms incom¬
petence provoked Zeus to MU Mm with a
Paphos, 58, 69. thunderbolt, and he fell into the River Po. His
Paioae, see Fates. mourning Sisters were turned into alder- or
poplar-trees. wMch wept tears of amber.
Paris, 35, 277-282. 284, 287, 310, 321, 324. Phffithon’s fate may represent the ritual death
Parnassus, Mt., a lofty mountain range north-west of the boy iaterrex for the sacred king, who
of the Gulf of Corinth, The name was usually ruled for one day and was then killed, usually
limited to the two-peaked summit north of by horses.
DelpM, above which the Castalian spring iêd. ^ During the Bronze Age amber, sacred to the
The mountain was one of the Chief seats of Mng, was carried from Baltic to Mediterranean
Apollo and the Muses, and was also sacred to via the Po valley.
Dionysus. See also 20, 69, 7. Phalanthus, a mytMcal Spartan said to have
Parthenon, 44. 48, 118. founded Tarentum in Italy about 700 b.o.
Partheno Pasus, 263, 265. Phasis, river, 157.
GREEK
INDEX AND GLOSS AHV Hae MYTHS AND LEGENDS
Pherse was an ancient town in Thessaly, the home
of Admetns.
Pheres, son of Cretheiis and Tyro, was the father (2) Son of Priam, 838.
Polyeidus, 232. Harmonia.
of Admetns and Lycurgus and the founder of 2I.
Pherse in Thessaly. Polymester. 338.
Philemon, an old man of Phrygia who, with his Potomia or Polyhymnia, the Muse of the sublime
mfe Baucis, hospitably received Zeus and
Hermes.
jroiyneioes, %57. 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 269.
PhUoctetes, 198, 301, 303, 323, 324, 347.
Polypemon, see Proourstes and 206.
“ Philoctetes ” of Sophocles. 323. Polyphemus, 355. See also Galatea.
Philomela, see Tereus.
Polyxena, 309. 337, 339.
Phineus was the son of Agenor and ruled in Sal- Pontus, 1.
mydessus in Thrace. He imprisoned his sons, Porphyrion, 11.
by his first -wife, Cleopatra, because of a false
accusation made by their stepmother. Idasa. Poseidon, see especially 99-109 and also 7, 9 10
For this, or some other fault, he w'as punished
with blindness, and two Harpies tormented bim. 13. 32. .36, 42, 44, 60. 67, 73, 110, 134, 137. 139 ’
WAen the Argonauts reached Thrace, Zetes and ouD, o77.
Calais, brothers of Cleopatra, killed the Harpies Praxitiles, 63.
Iaa’ 330. 348. 362.’
and were also said to have vindicated and
freed their nephews, the sons of Phineus. In Priam, 275, 276, 277, 282, 302. 309, 315. 316 318
return, he advised Jason what course to take 327. 330, 331, 334, 336, 338.
(see 157). Milton compares hhuself to Phineus PriapTO, son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, a god of
{Paradise Lost, Book III, lines 35, 36). frmtfulness.
Phlegethon, 406.
Procne, see Tereus.
Phlegeus, 271. Procris was the daughter of the second Erectheus
Phoois, a country in Northern Greece, its chief to be King of Athens. She married Cephaius
mountain Parnassus and its chief river Cephis- See also 229.
sus, 390.
Procrustes or the “ Stretcher ” was the surname
Phocus, son of .fflacus, kUled by his half-brothers given to the robber Polypemon. He used to
Telamon and Peleus. tie travellers to a bed, and if they were too
Phoebe, a name of Artemis as goddess of the moon. short he would rack them, and if too tall, he
Phoebus, 69. would hack off their legs. He was served in the
same way by Theseus. See also 205.
“Phoenician Maidens, The,” 263. Broetus, son of Abas, King of Argolis, inherited
Phoenix, 294, 296, 361. the kingdom jointly with his tvrin brother
Pholus, a Centaur, 176. Acrisius. Soon expelled, he fled to lohates
Kim of Lydia, whose daughter Anteia, also
Phoroys, a sea-deity, was, by Ceto, the father of called Sthenebcea, he married. Returning to
Ladon, Echidne, the three Gorgons, and the Argolis, he forced his brother to divide the
three Greee. kingdom and became ruler of Tiryns, whose
Phoroneus, son of Inachus and the nymph Melia, massive walls he built by aid of the Cyclopes.
was an early mythical King of Argos. See also Melampus, Bellerophon.
Phrixus, son of Athamas and Nephele. Prometheus. 16-20, 41. 176. 183.
Phrygia, 121. Protesilaus, 303.
Phylachus, father of Iphicius.
Proteus was the prophetic old man of the sea.
Phyleus, son of Augeias, 177. subject to Poseidon, whose flocks of seals he
Phyllis, beloved by Demophon, 349. tended. By assuming any shape he chose, he
Pieria, on the south-east coast of Macedonia, was could avoid the need of praphesying, unless
inhabited by Thracian people, who in early gripped fast, when he would at last resume his
times worshipped the Muses, hence called usual shape and tell the truth. He could be
Pierldes. See also 92. found at 845.
also 183, midday in the island of Pharos. See
Pierldes. (l) The Muses. Psamathe, see Linus (1).
(2) The nine daughters of Pierus, a king in
Macedonia, named after the Muses. They were rsycne appears m late «reek hterature as a
conquered in a contest with the Muses and personification of the soul, purified by suffering
turned into birds. to enjoy true love. The beauty of the maiden
Plrene, 148. Psyche excited the envy of Aphrodite who sent
Pirithom, the son of Ixion and Dia, was King of Eros to persecute her, but he fell in love with
the Lapithre in Thessaly. He became a close her and secretly visited her nightly. When
friend of Theseus. See also 212, 218, 214. Psyche, urged by her two sisters, sought to
Pisa, in Elis, 376. 377. discover Ms Identity, he left her. Searching
for Eros, she endured further persecution, hut
Pittheus, King of Troezen, was son to Pelops and he secretly helped her, and she finally overcame
father of .®thra, 203. Aphrodites hatred, to become immortal and
Pleiades, daughters of Atlas and Pleione were miited with Eros for ever. The story 4 told in
companions of Artemis. They were changed Tne Golden Ass of Apuleius.
into doves and placed among the stars. Pygmalion of Cyprus is said to have fallen in love
Pleione, mother by Atlas of the Pleiades. with the ivory image of a maiden that he himseU:
Pleisthenes, 381. had made, and to have prayed Aphrodite to
Pluto. (1) A name for Hades, 399. Pygmalionlife
breathe into it.
married "When she
the maiden, whom consented,
he called
(2) The nymph, 371. Galatea. By her he became the father of
PodaUrius, 324. Paphus and Metharme. It is probable that the
Podarees. (1) Original name of Priam, 275. story concerns a priest of Aphrodite at Paphus
(2) Son of Iphicius, who led the Thessalians who kept the image of the goddess in order to
against Troy. retam power.Paradise.
See William Morris’s version in
Poeas, 301. The Earthly
Polites, 334. Pylades, 390, 892, 396, 397. 398.
Pylos, 92.
Pollux, Roman name for Polydeuces.
Polybus, 253, Pyrrha, 20, 21.
Polybutes, 11. 12. Pyrrhus, see Neoptolemus.
Polydeotes, 132, 133, 141. Pythia, 76. 118, 171.
Pythian or Pythius, 69.
Polydeuces, one of Dioscuri, 155. 157, 215, 285,
Python, 71, 76.
■•286... . .
INDEX AND GI-OSSARY H37 GREEK MYTHS AND LEGENDS
Eliadamantlms, 22i, 225, 226, 407. I Sthenebcea, also called Auteia, 146.
Ehea, 1. 5. 6, 7, 30. 101, 111, 122. 373. Sthenelus. (1) Was the son of Perseus and
Ehesus, 313. Andromeda, and King of Mycente. His wife
Nicippe, who bore him Alcinoe, Medusa, and
“ Ehesus,” attributed to Euripides, 313. Eurystheus.
Ehode or Bhodos was said to be the daughter of (2) The son of Capaneus and Eyadne. 268.
Poseidon. She was the wife of Helios. 288. 328.
Stheno, 134, 138.
Strophius, 390.
Salmoneus, son of iEolus and brother of Sisyphus,
emigrated from Thessaly and built Salmons. Stymphalian Birds, 178.
In his pre.smnption he emulated Zeus, who shrs- ir4. dnr,
destroyed him and his city with a thunderbolt. „ „ ’ , ■ ’ . ^
Samos, 30. 34. 1‘SaPPUants, The,” 207.
Sarpedon, 224, 225, 307, 311, 314. Symplegades, 157.
Satnmus, a mythical King of Italy, identified by
the Homans with Cronus.
Satyrs were beings who embodied the fertile power Talaus ‘’61
of nature.
wearing skuas They were represented
and crowned with vine, fii\asor men
ivy, ’ ni fVefnT, oinnt 99«
with pointed ears, small horns, and a tail. They _ of Da;dalus, 237.
were said to be sons of Hermes, and were always Tantalus, 251, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375.
connected with the worship of Dionysus. Older Taphians, 165.
Satym were oaUed Sileni See also 121, 127. Tartarus. 4. 8, 9. IS. 14, 184, 400.
Tartarus, 4. 8, 9,
Tauris, 86, 300. 395, IS. 396.
14. 184, 400.
Soman Gate, 321. Tauris, 86, 300.
300. 395, 396.
Scamander, River, 274. 313, 317. Tecmessa,
Tecmessa. 300.
^heria, o62. Teiresias or Tiresias, 258, 259, 264, 270, 358. 360,
Teiresias or Tiresias, 258, 259, 264, 27
Sciron was a robber living on the frontier between 366. See Tennyson’s poem Tiresias. Tiresiai
compelled them to
SeU6d“tLm to wash his feet on the Scironian I with his brotherof Peleus in killing then-joined
half-
rock. He then kicked them into the sea, where brother Phocus and. expelled by his father, he
a giant tortoise turtle devoured them. He was went to Salamis, where he married Glance,
killed by Theseus. See also 205. daughter of the king, whom he succeeded.
Scylla and Charybdis were two rocks between Italy Telamon later married Periboea of Athens, who
and Sicily. In one dwelt Scylla, a fearful bore him Great Ajax. He joined in hunting the
monster with six barking heads and twelve feet. Calydoman Boar, and some say that he sailed
Under the opposite rock lived Charvbdis, who with the Argonauts. See also 188, 189. 275, 276.
i Telchines were variously described. It
a aiso 108.
los' 359. llg- they were■thîa-anT'Poseid
them and thatentrusted 'on-to
mSso
SoyUa. daughter of Nisus, 230. artists in metal, maldng
the sickle of Cronus and Poseidon’s trident.
Scyros, 295, 326. But they were also said to be destructive beings,
Selene, 84, 89. interfering with the weather, and earning the
Semele, 26, 119 126 244 hostility of Apollo, who assumed a wolf’s form
Semiramis and her husband Ninua were mythical Telegonus.
whS 368. oS by*flo“d
Sicily, 66,\T2.^ ’ Telemachus, 291, 240.

Telephassa, 223, 363, 364, 365. 368.
Sioyon, 118, 382, 383.
Sileni, see Satyrs. Telephus was the son of Heracles and Auge the
Siienus was one of the Sileni who brought up Tegea.
Dionysus and was his constant companion. He reaching
was a jovial, bald old man usually drunk and Grade m to
ridinff on an ass. tTq liad the newer of po^rentaffe. He was told to sail to King
prophecy-: SeeMsolU: ® Teuthras in Mysia. and there found hto mother
^ InUed tra-yellers
the Isttons Laodlce. said*He totried tomSîeTprta^s dSm
tliein to tlie top of a fir-tree wliicli liebytied
ty^
to their way to Troy from prevent the Greeks on
laudincr in Mysif?
the earth and then allowed to spring upright. afjo 299 lanamg m Mysia. bee
He was killed In the same way by Theseus. o-r
See also 205. Telephylos, 3o7.
Sinon, 329, 330, 333. Temps was a beautiful valley in Thessaly watered
Sirens were sea-nymphs who could allure by their Daplme damfhtor
otohV rtoer
songs all who heard them. When the Argonauts Sto ^so puWfled iSêif
sailed past, Orpheus surpassed them, and xyinoo. nw mso puntiea mmseit her^ here aft^kS'ir the
atter killing th?
Odysseus contrived to hear them unscathed.
Sirius, the dog-atar. Tenedos, 301, 302, 329.
Sisrohus, son of .SJolus, married Merope, the Tenes, Cycnus, son King
of Apollo, was reprtedly
of Colonss in Troas. theHis son of
step¬
Pleiad, who bore him Glaucua. He seduced
Anticleia, daughter of Autoiycus, and mother of mother, failing to seduce him, falsely accused
Odysseus, and some said that Sisyphus was him to Cycnus, who put Tenes, with Ms sister
really the father to Odysseus. He founded Hemithea, into a chest and threw it into the sea.
Ephyra, later Corinth, and though he promoted The chest was driven to the island Eeuco-
navigation, was a notoriotis knave (see Iliad VI, phrys, whose inhabitants made Tenes king.
163). In the Underworld he was condenmed The island was then called Tenedos. Cycnus,
always to roll uphill a huge stone which always discovering his error, sailed to Tenedos and was
toppled back again. reconciled with his son. When the Greeks
Smintheus, a name of Apollo. landed on Tenedos on their -way to Troy, Achilles
killed both Tenes and Cycnus.
Sophocles, 197, 259, 260, 266, 322, 323. 391. Tareus, a son of Ares, was King of the Thracians
Sparta, 45, 64, S6, 282, 284, 285, 286, 386. and lived In Phocian Danlis. He helped
Sparti or “ Sown Men,” 243, 268. Pandlon, King of Athens, and was therefore
Sphinx, 256, 256, 257. given Pandion’s daughter Procue in marriage.
She bore him a son, Itys. But Tereus was in
Stentor, herald of the Greeks in the Trojan War.
His voice was as loud as that of fifty men. love with Procne’s sister. Philomela, and hiding
Procne among the slaves, he told Philomela that
Steropes, 1. her sister was dead, and so seduced her. He
also tore out Procne’s tongue, but Procne wove Traohis, 195-197.
a message for her sister into a robe. Philomela Trapezus, 12.
then released Procne, who, to avenge herself on Triptolemus, 113.
her husband, MUed and cooked their son Itys Triton, son of Poseidon and Amphitrite. Some¬
for Tereus to eat. When he realised what he times writers spoke
had been eatmg, he pursued the sisters witti an them ofas Tritons
having inthetheupper
plural,
partand
of
aje, but the gods changed all three into birds. the tody m human form, the lower part that of
Procne to a swallow, Philomela to a nightingale, a flsh. Tritons carried a trumpet made of a shell
and Tereus either to a hoopoe or hawk. Some
(concha) which they blew to soothe the waves
that Tereus tore out Philomela’s tongue, Triton Lake, 41.
that he told Procne that Philomela was dead,
and that Procne became the nightingale, Troezen, the birthplace of Theseus. 105.
Phflomela the swallow. Troilus, 277, 304.
Terpsichore, the Muse of Choral Dance and Song,
carries the lyre and plectrum. Troian Wax, 276, 284-342.
Tethys, a, 25. Trophonlus and Agamedes, sons of Erglnus. built
Teuoer. (1) Son of Scamander. 274. a temple for Apollo at Delphi. As a reward
<2) Son of Telamon. 189, 292. they lived merrUy for six days, and on the
Teueri, 274. seventh died in their sleep, later Trophonlus
had an oracle of his own at lebadeia in Bceotla.
Teuthm, King of Mysia, married Auge. He was
succeeded by Telephus. son of Auge by Heracles. Tros. (1) Grandson of Dardanus, 274.
See also 306. (2) Part of Troy, 273.
Thâ. (1) One of the nine Muses, and in later Troy, 104, 272-342.
tunes the Muse of Comedy, appearing with a Tyche or Tuche, called by the Eomans Portuna,
ivy.
comic mask, a shepherd’s staff, or a wreath of and said to be daughter of Zeus, was a goddess
more popular with the Eomans than the Greeks.
(2) One of the three Charities or Graces. She was goddess of luck, conferring or denying
Theano, 340.
guts toesponsibly. She was portrayed some-
Thebe, 250. tunes juggling with a ball representing the in¬
Thebes, 240-271. stability of fortune, sometimes with a rudder as
" Thebes, Seven against,” of JSachylus, 263.
Themis, 1, 21, 26. horn or men’s
guiding accompanied by Plutus.with Amalthea’s
affairs, sometimes
“Theogony,” 2. Tydeus, 261, 262. 263, 265. 268.

Thersander, 269. Tyandreus, 191, 286, 286, 346, 385, 886.
Thersites, 817. Typhon, 14. 147, 173. 174. 182, 183, 256.
Theseus, 203-218, 260, 287. Tyro, 108, 162, 163.
Thesmophoria, 114.
Thespius, 168, 192. ITdseus, one of Sparti, 243.
Thessaly, 8, 10. 117. tBysses, see Odysseus.
Thetis was the kindly daughter of Kerens and Urania, the Muse of Astronomy appears with a
Doris, who received in the sea depths both staff pointing to a globe.
Hephffistus and Dionysus. Zeus and Poseidon
both wished to marry her. but Themis foretold Uranus. 1, 2. 3. 4. 6, 25, 59.
her son would be greater than his father, and
she was given to Peleus. She became by him
the mother of Achilles. See also 32, 61, 106. Venus, a Eoman goddess identified with Aphro¬
280.293. 294,316. dite. 57. 59. 62, 63.
Thoas, son of Andrsemon, King of Calydon, sailed Vesta, a Eoman goddess identified with .ffistia, 36.
with forty ships against Troy. See also 828. Virgil, 62.
Thrace, 64, 117. 121, 128, 157.
Threspotus, 382, 383.
Xanthus, 274.
Thrinacia, 360.
Thyestes, 379, 880, 381. 882, 883, 384, 385. 388. Xnthus, son of Hellen, married Creusa, daughter
of Erectheus. King of Athens. Their sons were
Thyia was said to be the first woman to have Ion and Achseus. After the death of Erectheus,
sacrificed to Dionysus. Prom her the Attic
women who annually went to Parnassus to take Xnthus should
Cecrops j'udgedbe that
king, Creusa’s eldest brother
and was expelled by his
part in Dionysus’ orgies were called Thyiades. other brothers-in-law and settled in Achaifl.,,
or Thyades. The word Thyades, however, Euripides, in his play Ion, represents Ion as son
means
Bacchse or“raging women.” They were the
Bacchantes. to Creusa and Apollo. Carried away as a haby
to Delphi, he is at length recognised by Creusa
Thyiades, 117. and adopted by Xuthus.
Thyone, 126.
Thyrsus, 127.
Zagrens, in the Cretan legend, was a son of Zeus.
Tilphussa, Well of, 270. The Titans tore him to pieces and ate him alive,
Tiresias, see Teirosias. but Athene saved his heart. He was identified
Tiryns, 130. 143, 144. 146, 171. with Dionysus, and the ceremonies of his cult
Tisphone, one of the Emnenides. 3, 404. were designed to promote union with the god.
Titanesses, 9. Zephyrus,
wind, 74.son of Astrseus and Eos. was the West
Wtanomachia, 8.
Titans, 1, 3. 4, 7. 8. 9. 11, 16. 17, 400. Zetes and Calais were winged beings, the twin sons
of Bojreas and Oreithyia. They accompanied
Kthonus, son of Eaomedan and Strymo, was half- the Argonauts and drove away the Harpies,
brother to Priam. By the prayers of hfe lover who had plagued the blind King Phlneus. the
Eos he was granted by Zeus immortality, but as husband of their sister Cleopatra (see 157).
Eos had omitted to ask for perpetual youto, he They also freed from prison the sons of Cleo¬
shrank away till he became a cicada. See patra, whom their own father Phlneus had
Tennyson’s poem Tifkonws. Pee olso 818. falsely suspected.
Tityos, son of Qea (see 72). Tityns was sent to Zethus, 248, 249, 260.
Tartarus. Here he was pegged on the ground ' Zeus, see espeddOy 6-11, 14. 16. 17. 18, 20. 23-33
covering nine acres, while two vultures, or two i
snakes, ate his liver. and also 36, 41, 48, 60, 52, 68, 60, 61, 66, 70. 71.
|
Tleopolemus, 201. 288. i 73. 83, 91. 92, 98. 100, 101, 103. 104, 105, 106,
Tmolus, 187. 111, 119, 120, 131. 160, 164, 165, 166, 198, 223,
I 224. 226, 244, 248. 261, 266, 274, 280. 285, 319,
Tradhinlse. “ Women of Traohis,” 197. i 334, 860, 301, 371, 372, 373, 376. 403.
THE
CONTEMPORARY
THEATRE
In recent years a new kind of theatre

has been created under the in¬
fluence of writers able to break
with convention and experiment for
themselves, making more imagin¬
ative use of stage and language. Tins
section concerns the English theatre
since 195:0.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
The Function of Dramatic Art
The therapeutic eflfect of drama
The Constituents of Drama
The ritual element
The Background ol Modern Drama
The Modem Revival
The decade beginning 1955
Developments since 1965
Recent perspectives
Criteria of Judgment
Eminent Theatrical Groups

The Royal Shakespeare Company
The National Theatre
The English Stage Company
The Mermaid Theatre
The National Youth Tlieatre
Theatre Workshop
Glossary of Dramatic Terms

Absurd Drama
The Aristotelian Play
Black Comedy
The Brechtiar or Epic Play

Tlieatre of Cruelty
Expressiom'sm
Naturalism
Neo-Realism
Realism
The Satirical Play
The “ Slice of Life ” Play

Verse Drama
The Well-made Play
f
13
11-40
IV. Directory of Dramatists
Arthur Adamov Heiner Kipphardt
Edward Albee Arthur L. Kopit
Jean Anouilh Bernard Kops
Aleksei Arbuzov D. H. Lawrence
John Arden Hem-y Livings
Fernando Arrabal Robert LoweU
Isaac Babel Peter Luke
James Baldwin John McGrath

Samuel Beckett Frank Marcus
Brendan Behan David Mercer
Robert Bolt Arthur Miller
Edward Bond John Mortimer
John Bowen Slawomir Mrozek
Bertold Brecht Peter Nichols
Peter Brook
Eugene O’Neill
Albert Camus Joe Orton
Paddy Chayvesky John Osborne
Giles Cooper Alexander Ostrovsky
Shelagh Delaney Alun Owen
Nigel Dennis Harold Pinter
Marguerite Duras Terence Rattigan
Friedrich Diirremnatt David Rudkind

Charles Dyer Jean-Paui Sartre
T. S. EUot James Saunders
Jules Felffer Peter Shaffer
Michael Frayn N. F. Simpson
Max Frisch Wole Soyinka

Christopher Fry Tom Stoppard
Athol Fugard David Storey
Jean Genet Cecil P. Taylor

Gunter Grass Peter Terson
David Halliwell Jose Triana
Christopher Hampton Boris Vian
Michael Hastings Roger Vitrac
Rolf Hochhuth Frank Wedekind
Donald Howarth Peter Weiss
Eugene Ionesco Arnold Wesker
Alfred Jarry John Whiting
Ann Jellicoe Tennessee Willitims
James Joyce Charles Wood
l4
INTRODUCTION CONTEMPORARY
THEATRE
THE CONTEMPORARY THEATRE

1S50 an,l is confined to plays
produced before
1. Introduction
n. Eminent Theateical Groups
m. Glossary of Dramatic Terms
IV. Directory of Dramatists
I. INTRODUCTION
modem audience be mature play we are encouraged to
™ spectacles as saualid with many different characters at one sympathise
and the
Jl^^ssments, characters most unxeal-
wtically burstmg eftort entailed has a corresponding at the mStnt prh
into song, old
to tramps
teach achanging
S of moveme in
internal society,” the petrified
or ®i?S the Hallelujah Chorus, infantile images of father, mother, and
slbitags to
jLS'm.oSStt.ass?"' wnght s images
ff*® smpathetic response to the play-
f P^lfuSe d by figures
of these inflexibie ’ It
helps us to relax
pjmS *‘S“ cl tiiir™ s”ofXw“S-‘to pattern of relatio so\Ke
Lhem'shifts,
towardsnships
and we
tne function of dramatic art, what are what is
^f consider its con
ttie'f
stituents and nooH^^
background, and how to judge a play
eMrgy™*^^ release and a new access of
The Function of Dramatic Art. ..T.?’ ûtci'^crtliy also that drama can be fullv
event denjanding the co-operation and un»ipiv
Ill function of art to make a statement event^^rtpmo®^-^ Public performance, a social
rjecause it can flourish only in a cornmnnif-ir
Snto f “nnce an miaginative response, and the
BeeauSf P^,^y®.rs. and audience,
an eêrynce*^^® answer to a question but
other arts, gives expression to The Constituents of Drama.
that subtle and elusive life of feeling that
defies ®oniplex art in thatcal ted“““^;
lôgical deflmtion. By feeling is to be understood
the whole experience of what it feels like San art it uses
“Si-®«eut or materitwo very
to he al, one
spMch, the literary constituent, the
?Jiy^P^yfical
what it feels hke sensations,
to think. emotions, and even other
Confrontation of actorsthe
stage. Speech is man’s most precise
sensibility cannot be netted down subtle, and niature means of expression
e®n find expression in Gestiire
.i..® discussmg the visual arts pfi®® Vith animals, y^^cff ie shares’ to some
called “significant form.” is more primiti and
of the power of drama as an aid, formveis!te some
fSn
in Form^ Susanne
has developed
Longer.
»»te" Into
ll SSl
me?reiSlo wBSirs
IS
fa an
aT. mdirect
insFf concept, arguing
e:pression that allThe
of feeling. artistic form Mi
dramatist, creates an artist,
image, bea
foim that gives shape to his feeling, and it
is for
the sensitive recipient to interpret its significance.
ISf'ihPrFtr^
1QAQ*
criminal
B™; ®i mF®“nrkable wordless confined
^ Galsworthy 8 Justice, to speech
revived
scene, shoirfng in
°f drama, as was pointed
sohtary confinement cell thata
proved so moWng that it is reputedin toidshave
an amendment of the penal code. led to
or
Sf action, that actioncreate an image,
which springs anfrom
illusion
the
Perhaps the more primitive gesture has
always great with things to come.” the
Bothte gr^r emotional force, but it is the words made
alwivs“*gJ-Pflr^1Sifh tlie future and
conniot which it normally entahs. action and the
cmirnerwhfah?/"®'^^ depict such
The Therapeutic Effect of Drama.
The mtual Element.
p,.pa?r
cieate M imageachievements of serious drama is to
that will objectify terinted “script! permanence by
and help to
w
resolve deep human conflicts, ■‘'’‘'‘'“y “““ u®^p are essential to Ml drama, there is an element
that
Mcfflt people have at some time or another
come
the most f.?
arJ^spntfaffÂ,?
wrhaps *®® ooufroutation of actors
prmutive and evocative of all
way exhmrated and released,
feeling in it hasinexpUcable
andsome nmhl n’?
trag^y .neglected and
wavêSdfarB+Sa® long been of was that
Greece reUgious is ritual!
probably
ritual or-
of
^lonysus and the matrix was soncr and danpp
a tSpeutto ef&'' a henefloial. even
difficult to understand the exhilarating
^ origins of drama are to
d iêd procession,
Imlgnla to greatpagean-
effect
I'la Tn the Mcomplishes
of tSdv^' dh
thatwa aUnderstan
4th century B.O. Aristotle
beneficial which served as comic rehef to
pipgaôn of pity and terror and very recentlv
cxplaSon “c?.* effect

TlhPof senous drama on ciii
Bsychologi the have been able to combme
audience. She suggests that in watching a literary ability, a sense
haw f^®p^ ^®^ dramatists who
INTRODUCTION CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
Of Stage situation and also skill m the ase of ritual pemiine drama to the stage. Shake<me.are could
procesi The enduring power of Shakespeare Ls be enjoj-ed not onlr rt Stratford and
due to hw manifold genius m.that he could deploy but in the We.st End. It was "argdy to to
imirutable poetry, swift action, and such ritual Gielgud that Shakespeare w' now a Ls-offi
enrichments as royal processions, crowning and draw um. a uos oince
dethroning, song
pageantry, duelh'ng and wrestling, masque and
and dance. Gielguds tine histrionic sense, and his highlr
^nsitive and poetic interpretation had earned hirii
that rare distinction of being the Hamlet of his
generation and as early as 1934 his production and
The Background of Modem Drama. gemration andat asthe
perfomiance early
Newas Theatre
1934 his production
had broken andall
™ . £. • rv ii. performance at the New Theatre had broken all
The happy fusion of both literary and theatrical records since Irving
excellence which is to be found in Shakespeare’s
plays is extremely rare, for it demands not only a As actor and producer, working with other fine
versatde genms but also a receptive audience and artists, such as Edith Evan.s, Peggy Ashcroft,
2 ,?uitahle bmldmg. By the Eestoration the Olivier, Guinness and Scotieid. Gielgud later con-
delicate balance WM already disturbed and by the Hrmed his success. Enthralling interpretations
middle decades of the 19th century popular taste of plays by Shakespeare, Webster. Otway, Con-
^d ^ but banished literature from the stage, greve, Sheridan, Wilde and Chekhov demonstrated
ihe disorderly audiences of the time demanded that the claB.sic.s could have a wide popular appeal
only spectacular and sensational theatrical and
nui^cal effiKts, and in the vast monopoly theatres Other artists followed and in a successful season
of Drury Lane and Covent Garden they could at the New Theatre, Sybil Thorndike, Olivier and
hardly have heard, let alone appreciated, good Bichardson played to crowded houses in Oedm's,
dialogue. The managers discouraged men of Eenry JV, The Critic and Teer Gynt.
genius, so that poets like Browning, who had no
practical knowledge of the theatre, produced Such achievements have reminded audience and
wordy closet tomas, which were virtually un- aspiring playwright that there are nianv other
actable,
Manawhile the poplar
or Murdertheatrical melodramas
Jim MaHen in the Ited Barn, are dramatic
and so may styles
even than that ofto fashionable
h.ave helped further the ‘realism
drama-
today unreadable. tic revival that liegan in the ’fifties.
With the gradual establishment of smaller
theatres, catering for a sober middle-class rrh„ The Modern -d-™-™!
Revival.
audience, men of talent again began to write for Modern Revival.
the stage. It was the turn of literature to take AlthoughAlthough artistic
artistic work
work overflow.s
overflow.s the
the tidy
tidy
conmiand. and more popular and traditional schemes of of chronologj',
chronologj', it it is
is helpful
helpful to
to distinguish
distinguish
techniques such as niusic and clowning were now two two main
main phases
phases of of contemporary
contemporary drama,drama, begin¬
begin-
b.amshed to the music-hall and. pantomime. ning with
ning with plays produced
produced during
during the
the first
first sudden
sudden
outhur.st ofplays
creativity.
_T. W. Robertson, Henry Arthur Jones and
Pinero all furthered the trend towards realism The decade beolnnim 1S55.
but it was the genius of Ibsen, especially in such
works as OhosU and The Wild Biieli, that set a Many new playwrights first became known
high standard of excellence for the literary and during an exciting decade. There were British
realistic play of middle-class life. He expressed premieres of plays by continental writers such a.s
his profound insight into personal and social Brecht, Ionesco, Genet, Dflrrenmatt, Frisch,
problems in finely constructed plays, written in Vian, Hochhuth and Weiss and by the American
naturalistic prose, the overtones of poetic uni¬ Albee. British dramatists who soon established
versality being conveyed in symbolism that was their reputation included Beckett, Osborne,
usually verbal. Behan, Pinter, N. F. Simp.son. Ann Jellicoe,
Mortimer, W’esker, Arden. Shaffer, Saunders and
Able writers, like Granville Barker and Gals¬ Bolt. Most of these, fortimately, still continue to
worthy, although they lacked the poetic power of write.
Ibsen, firmly established in England a similar
type of literary play, realistic, well-constructed, It is never easy to identify causes of artistic
serious-nunded. concerned with the middle class renewal but one reason was that yoimg men like
and almost exclusively verbal. W’esker injected new vigour into the jaded realistic
mode by using it to express the vital stresses of
Some of the few exceptions to this preoccupation the working people they knew. Hence the settings
with the realistic and literary are to he found in in shabby basements and attics {see Neo-realism).
Shaw. Like Shakespeare, he was not only a lit¬ It was in such a setting in Osborne’s Look Back in
erary genius. He was also weU acquainted with Anger {q.i\) that there suddenly exploded that
stage-production and although much too wordy in blast of confused and impotent anger which
old age. in his best comedies he combined some of expressed the frustration of so many of his eon-
the wittiest dialogue to be found in English drama temporaries.
along with the delightful shocks and surprises of
total theatre. Androcles’ engaging Lion belongs More far-reaching was the general awareness
to the same family as Titania’s Ass and Whitting¬ among avant-garde jilaywrights that verbalism
ton’s Cat. was not enough, and their readiness to experiment
with the resources of " total theatre.” Here the
But Shaw in his prime was unique, and between way had been shown by scholarly research into
the wars the verbal, realistic play was perpetuated the history of the theatre which gave dramatists
by such writers as Maugham and Coward. Not confidence to revive valid techniques such as song,
over-concerned with psychological or social issues, music and clowning that the early 20th cent,
they used it to portray the leisured ctoes. had banished to the music-hall.
The most vital stimulus was the challenge of
hadBywith
the a’forties the conventional
few exceptions come .to West
imitateEndnot play
Ufe genius. Brecht’s Epic Theatre ig.v.) offered a more
but photography. Confined to the proscenium free and fluid form than that of the “ well-made
arch and realistic to the last trivial detail, it pre¬ play” (a.®.) and his novel uses of traditional
sented a prosaic picture of middle- and upper-class theatrical devices (such as song, masks, extrava¬
life, with stereotyped situation, demanding only gant costume and settings, direct addre.s3 to the
Stock responses and lacking interest in ideas, audience) were quickly adapted by dramatists
poetic intensity, and genuine wit. With the like Arden, Bolt and Osborne.
star cast and the long commercial nm, theatre¬
going had become not an artistic experience but a Meanwhile Ionesco, whole-hearted devotee of
social occasion. the Theatre of the Absurd {g.v.), introduced mon¬
sters like the rWnoceros and exploited stage
Apart from the novel comedies of such writers
as Hstinov and Eattigan and the verse plays of properties
frightened like empty existence.
and empty chairs to satirise
He was man’s
soon
T. S. Eliot and Ery, it was the revivals of the followed by Saundprs and by Simpson, whose
classics, English and European, that were bringing weighing-machiaes sjdnholisecl the dominance of
INTRODUCTION CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
Is
ima^nation by machinery. Beyioes recently ■ Orton, whose best play had been
restricted
Stage. to pantomime were returning to the m 1964, popularised a peculiar brS ofurndnoBri
" bS
A pepasive and growing influence was comedy ” (q.v.). macK

Artaud s demand for a Theatre of Cruelty that of 4 ,“ore serious innovation
fact. The Investigation of was the “ theatre of
Peter Weiss
Xhm IS both the most noyel and the most atavistic example for plays which coMtitute a set on
tjpe of theatre, for it attempts to re-create in kfnd ff
documentary” of the stage, the dramatist
modern terms that primitive, even barbaric endeavouring to present objectively
I'itual from which drama evolved. It was clearly a sSim
and concentration of the actual events of cSS
ex^plifled in 1964 in a play by Weiss (g.v.) and poraiT history. But however detached,
m England is stUl best known in translations, author must by the very act of selection betraythe
a
iJevelopments since 1963.
One of the most interesting aspects of recent
tiieatre has been a fresh and topical approach to h!storian^&el professional
Shakespeare.
presentmg a judicial enquiry, a trial scene bei^
Some critics and producers have traced in his inflict, suspense and surprise. Hast-
mays the bleak disenchantment of post-war
Europe. As early as 1963 Peter Brook had said ]^s Lee Hawey Oswald took the same pattern
that his production of King Lear, with Paul demanding
bcofleld as protagonist, owed much to the Polish
critic, Jan Kott, whose book Shakespeare, our
a=,«to\!«lo»vaL
Omtemporarg, was published here in the following
^ The B.S.C. has also carried out an experiment
lived through the Nazi tyranny and m a new genre,
the Stalmist occupation of Poland, urges that the the mvolvement that of “ Director’s Theafre " md
of the audience was certainly the
power-poMlcs. chicanery and violence of twentieth PiOTOse of US, directed by Peter Brook as a (Erect
cemtury Europe have their counterpart in the
\vars of the Boses and the Tudor disturbances.
He finds m Shakespeare’s Histories and in the ^tnam*^° apathy concerning the war in
Tragedies, especially Macbeth, what he terms the The avant-garde Living Theatre was well re-
Grand Mechanism ” of history, the blood-stained
.struggle for power with its terrible conseauences, ^ Beck s dedicated
^ Gr9towski company
and disciplined and by
and he claims that Shakespeare "condemns which presented Paradise Now and their
war by showmg up the Feudal butchery.” ot Prankenstein and Antigone, In this newversiom
coherent narrative sequence is diLSd genre ^
Kie series. “ The Wars of the Boses.” which was
moduced for the B.B.O. during 1985-6 by Peter theatrical
Hall and Jolm Barton with the Eoyal Shakespeare Images, mvolvli^
f movement,
“happenings ttiItup
’’—disparate
Company, vividly demonstrated the crime-ridden marticulat e cries, rhythmic sound and music!
These are frequently violent, sometimes inbuta
liist for power and the Feudal butchery. Mean¬ S'ttWislng and beautiful,
while at Stratford and the Aldwych. the produc¬ Theatre is often
tion of Eenrv V neglected the traditional, royal
splendour and showed the king, grimy and battle tabued with the spirit of Artaud’s “ Theatre
scarred, lea^g a tattered army, plagued by cor¬ of Cruelty,_ stressmg mtense suffering to convey
rupt camp-followers. Played on a bare, gaunt S? ,?®a'rchic
.stage, pey, metallic and cavemous. it was mtellng with
wrticipat iqn message
is mrited, Sometimes
actors and "spectators
audience
^ significance to auditorium. each other both on stage and in the
êchts Mother Courage, running concurrently at
tne uia vio.
A refreshing candour in the approach to social
Shêspearean comedy has also been ap¬ problems, has been evident in plays involving
proached afresh. In Clifford Williams’ enchant^ bitmg criticism of the military mentality and
promotion for the National Hieatre in 1967 of notably McGrath’s BoforsGun,
As 1 ou Like It, with an all-male cast, the women’s
not being taken as in Shakespeare’s
tune by boys witt unbroken voices but
men. Clifford Williams was aware of bythe young
un¬
orthodox theories expressed by Kott in his The
Sitter Arcadia. Kott observmg the almost identi¬ By S’ugard, Saunders, Eobert
cal appearance of modem youths and girls was Lowell and the Negro Le Eoi Jones.
reminded of those Shakespearean comedies where
appears disguised as a youth. He argues
that their theme is that of the sonnets— “ the presente(
„ l. Peter Nicholsondin mental 1967 used is now frankly
remarkabl e
impossibility of choice between the youth and the theatrical sMl in revealing the effects on the
woman, the fragile boundary between friendship
^mnts 9f ae inei^ble Illness
and love . , . the universality of desire which Mb ironic iHie National Beam (1969) was set in of a spastic ohnd.
cannot be contained or limited to one sex.” a grim hospital ward.
Notable recent re-interpretations of Shakespeare
have included The Merchant of Venice in ‘Victorian the (-1 P distressed mind. Storey’s
to seefirst
Mstume with Olivier as Shylook resembling a protagonist i? no loêr unusual a playplaydepicting
had
a young husband struggling throughas
Bothsohild flnancier. and Peter Brook’s A Mid-
sunimer Night's Sream. Brilliantly original in ^ nervoim breakdown, andgrounds his touching work
of a mental
settmg, its magical effect was enhanced by the h(3®ltm.
Both he and Mercer have been concerned
i^_e of trapezes while the actors taking Theseus and yrith the malaise of a generation
Hippolyta also took the parts of Oberon and educated beyond
xitama. Playwrights as dissimilar as
Mortimer and Trlana have presented the disturbed
lieceni perspectives. personality.
^ Meanwhile there have since 1965 been diverse , Bas steadily
mfluences from abroad through plays by Soyinka mitu(ie towards sexualdeveloped a sympathetic
deviation. In 1966 A
.TDiwas, Jar^, Mrozek. Fugard. Feiffer. Xowell, Patrm for Me, Osborne’s uncompromising record
Iriana and Ohayavsky. A new generation of
pritiah dramatists has become prominent includ- A could be performed only pri-
vately, while Frank Marcus’ The Killing of Sister
SP, George indicated a lesbian relationsMp only under
Nichols. Wood,Bond, McGrath, Storey, Terson,
Hampton and Stoppard. cover of some obvious comic satire bfB.B.G. serials
have experimented in fresh dramatic genres Some
and
teohnigues but generally speaking the most novel Dyers tne Stavrease,
Tw. although
public. But byserio-comic
1966 Charles
in
contribution of native authors and producers has tone, could give a direct and imcluttered piotnre
Been a new candour in the presentation of social of a hôsexual partneraMp, and in 1968 Christo¬
problems. pher Hampton s Total Kclipse ^wss completely
T
THEATRICAL COMPANIES 17 CONTEMPORARY THEATRE

devoted to a sober, searching, and candid explora¬ The nature and quality of the implicit feeling can
tion of the historic relationship between Verlaine then be considered. Ik it an original and genuine
and Eimband. response to experience, or perfunctory and stereo¬
typed, is it intense or diffuse, profound or shôw,
The abolition in September 1968 of the Lord subtle or commonplace, reasoned or irrational?
Chamberlain’s powera of theatre censorship re¬ Questioning its inherent feeling often reveals
moved official taboos on the dramatist’s freedom
of expression, which will in future be conditioned that a commercially successful piece, although
by the public’s response. There has been an “well-made.” is valueless, whUe an unconven¬
increasing vogue for “ permissiveness,” in the use tional work, like Pinter’s Dumb Waiter, explores
of four-letter words and in sexual reference. The and reveals deep-seated anxieties and feam.
revue Oh! Calcutta! (1970), sponsored by Tynan,
included a representation of sexual intercourse and Drama is an especially complicated art, in that
total nudity. The taboo on stage nakedness was part of its material being words, it may also in¬
broken. volve discussion of ideas. This dlscnssion, how¬
ever, should not be mistaken for a statement of
The playgoer of today is in a curious dilemma. the author’s convictions. In a good play it is an
The avant-garde dramatist relies increasingly on expression of his characters’ feelina about ideas, i.
theatrical device to the neglect of coherent speech very different thing.
while in the West End there has been a reaction
towards the styles fashionable just before the Another enquiry concerns the apinopriateness
modem revival. The “kitchen sink play” of and beauty of the form in which the feeling is
Neo-realism (a.®.) is now seldom seen and a feature conveyed. Many consider that Beckett’s Waitim
of 1970 has been a return to favour of the “ well- for Godot conveys the same mood implicit in Kina
made play,” with revivals of Gow'axd, Priestley Lear, and that each play is an image of man, dis¬
and Maugham. illusioned. adrift, assailed by despair to an alieu
universe. This recognised, the critic’s task is to
For those who enjoy both literature and exciting explore the fonn of the two plays. Apart from
theatrical surprise one pleasure is the continuous the
stream of Shaw productions which has character¬ fable,fact
theythat theyhardly
could both beusemore
a most Impro’oable
different. Kina
ised the contemporary revival. The greatest Lear is a Eenaissance verse tragedy of the fall o:
sustenance of aU is, of course, the abimdant princes, with subtle presentation of character de¬
opportunity to enter imaginatively into the world velopment and contrast, and with a coherent plot
of Shakespeare, the many-sided genius who re¬ skilfully developed through arresting action up to
conciles the opposites. Here we are especially the tragic climax. Waiting for Godot is a prcsa
indebted to the exquisite ensemble playing of the play about an abortive encounter, almost devoid
National Theatre and the Eoyal Shakespeare of individual characterisation and story, with a
Company. static, circular structure and an ending as
ambiguous and inconclusive as its beginning.
Criteria oi Judgment. Yet in either case the form of the play has artistic
significance and appropriateness and repay.s
How can the value of novel and experimental analysis, and here again the critic needs to be a
pla3;s be estimated? The ultimate test of time is flexible interpreter of the artist’s purpose.
obviously Impossible and some of the critical
principles by which traditional drama has been The most searching question to be asked of a
interpreted are no longer relevant to the revolu¬ play Is whether it is life-enhancing, whether, like
tionary plays of Brecht and Ionesco. the finest art, it gives delight or deepens under¬
standing.
The first canon of criticism is to remember that
every art form determines the criteria by which it Most difficult to estimate are these plays like
is judged, and the good dramatic critic does not Lear or Godot, which express a mood of despair.
approach any play with a pontifical set of rules But if man’s honesty and endurance axe ulti¬
but endeavours to keep an open mind, and so to mately affirmed; the play is not negative in im¬
discover its unique significance and -mue. port. Lear begs forgiveness and the tramps still
wait. Stadlarly a biting satire may be positive
Since artistic form is an expression of human If it helps to dear away old wood to make room
feeling, the first encounter with a work of art for new growth. A facile optimism may be a
should be in a mood of extreme receptivity, so betrayal.
that by shedding preconceived notions, the re¬
cipient may be aware of the feeling implicit in the Ideally the best wray to know a play Is first to
work, however novel or even hizajsre the expression see it on the stage, when its theatrical qualities can
may be. The initial reaction to drama should be be enjoyed, and later to read it at leisure, when its
intuitive. literary value can be appreciated.
II. EMINENT THEATRICAL GROUPS
We are greatly indebted to a few enterprising and ment the annual season of Shakespeare at
devoted groups — chiefly repertory companies and Stratford-on-Avon by a continuous repertory of
theatre clubs— -which help to keep drama alive. dassleal and contemporary plays at the Aldwych.
Foremost are the Eoyal Shakespeare Company and to 1962 a special experimental season was also
and the National Theatre, which have earned an held at the Arts Theatre,
international reputation by their superb produo- Under the directors, Peter Hall, Peter Brook,
tions of both classics and new plays. Some and Paul Scofield, a brilliant team of over 100
groups, snch as the English Stage Company and actors was gathered together and. the Imaginative
the Traverse Theatre, Edinburgh, have been direction and artistic perfection of the ensemble
particularly concerned in introducing new playing became world famous,
dramatists. Hi the spring of 1968 there was a rearrange-
Many repertory theatres are doing exciting meat among the artists and executives at the
work and a comprehensive list of these can be head of the E.8.0. : Peter Hall gave up his post
found to the Siaga Year Boofc. as managing director to become director witli
Among conunercial promoters H. M, Tennent special responsibilities for E.S.O. films and for
can be relied on for
revivals of period plays.the high quality of their the designtheatre
London and building of the Company’s new
to the BarWoan.
Each year at the Aldwych original Shakes-
Thfi Rnvnl makespeare
me Koyai fioniTiimD’
RbBkpqnpnrp compa pearean productions from Stratford alternate
ny. other classics and stimulatmg modem work.
When Peter Hall was appointed managing Between 1960 and 1966 there were productions of
director in January 1960 his entenmslng work highly experimental plays by Beckett, Livii^,
revolutionised the E.S.C. He decided to supple- Pinter, Saunders, and Whiting and by foreign
THEATRICAL COMPANIES Is CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
Arrabal. Brecht, Dtlrrenmatt, The English Stage Company.
Hochliuth, Tardieu, Vitrac, and Weiss. Since 1056 the English Stage Company
1966-7 saw new plays by Duras. Eoyal Court has been tireless in its discoverat tiio
^<lrrenmatt, Triana. Beiffer, Mercer, and support of new talent. Formed y md
•uyer, ana Peter Brook’s much discussed US contemporary drama, the company to promâ
as weU as revivals of Gogol and Ibsen A fecial 19o6 a Icmg lease of the Royal Court with acqSrto to
Devme (d. W65) as director and Tony Richards SrS
1968-9,i? launched in the period themselves a Writers’ on
with British premieres from Albee
Clmyavskw, Peiffer, and Kopit. Theatre,_ they were extraordinarily successf
1969-70 season there were premieres toscovermg and sponsoring playwrights ul to
of plays by Pmter, Albee, Mercer, and Gilnter unlmown. such as Osborne. N. F. Slmpsohitherto
original interpreta- .^den, and in persuadiiiTXm
ng the
novelist Nigel Dennis to write for the stage
19 /0 at the Roundhouse.
i< v^ festival in
An oflTshqot
Society, of dthein Company, the English 'stava
initiate
loifi*® ^ World May 1967 the toênriw
umaue 'i'heatre Season,fordating
opportunity seeing from
en- Sunday mght “ Product ions
such without
successe Decor”
s as Wesker’s
fn. if® “™tries, special apparatus The Kitchen ana Owen’s Progress to the Pa^
f®ll®Mii9ltaneous translation having been in- Writers beginmng to make their reputati
excellent innovation has been the mobile on
elsewhere were welcomed. Beckett’s RjidgS
loAP people which since and Krmw's Last Tam had their premifr
Ha
ana ? collaboration with educational
municipal authorities. Many distinguished toreign the Court, e Sf
toStog
plays were seen in
Theatre Club provides book¬ Arthur Miller s The Crucible, Tennessee Wlllianii
ing tacilities and concessions, discussions and ^
Quarterly magazine. Flourish. a Orpheus DescetAma, loneaco’a The Chairs
Wimoceros, Sartre aNebrassov and Alima, Genet’s S
The Blacks and B^recht’s The Good Arsmo
Ssechtvan, the first Brecht ever staged in Londonf
The National Theatre. In October 1965 William Gaskill
Devine and the autunm season 1965 succS saw new
Granville Barker and William Plays, by Jellicoe, Simpson, and Bond. tS
S' National have since been revivals of both classic
Iheatre, the maiigural production of Hamlet took modem works and several British and
premises of
auusiial plays, including Wesker’s Golden Oih/
toe'ÔidVic ^6 its temporary home, Dime, and®the Nigerian
n^T
and Wolem,Soyinlra’s
of .Passi Charles TheWood4
Lion
®*?
0^7'®’’ ?^?ready_ appointed director,
**■ ^®f™gulshed company was the Jewel. A most interestin g departure
*^® hitherto
has
established its high reputation
for pamsiteon ensemble
appearing occasion. playing, guest artists also
been to build up a large 1933,
niodern plays from all
fma
Tqqo’ n the sRussian
Md Wedekind
Fot, seminal
Lulu. TheErench
Babel’s Marya
establ AeS of
play of
T^® ^^‘ê and varied list includes mf; thê
Phkspecial Lawrence ®'season
"“■''’F®®®® dramatist, culminating
of 1968 was an
Shakespear^_ Ben Jonsoii. Wêbster,
event in theatrical
Similar histo
seasons followed ry,plays ’ each bv
of three
,^*“£’■0, Brighouse,
o Casey, Maugham, Shaffer, Arden, Shaw, Osborne (1968). Bond (1969) and Sto?ey^l969^
Ostrovsky, Feydeau, Brecht, and MiiiPr Chekhov
Lindsay ^derson and Anthony Page have
acting has been eiithusiasticaUy acclaimed and
o../-^® quality ot production
by
Y°'^®®® and the scenery has often been extremely
roSS^l® ®°-6irecto rs with fruitful,
Gaskill with excellent
and toe year
™ designs of the
for Ostrovsky’s The Storm and w^SJ®
by of Hampton,
Rowarto, âssies and Wedekind
five premieres
and of plays
Chekhov’s The Three Sisters. transferring to the two by
there has been added to the repertory West End. Theatre
a superb interpretation of Strindberg’s Dance of 0P®£®6 IP 1969, stiU encourages the
latest and most promising experimental work.
Death, produced by Byam Shaw, wltti
“ade his welcome Olivier
d^but aa
at
The Mermaid Theatre.
Vf ,
riiff/mva®'anfasemat production Seneca’s
mg cast Oedipus.
of As You Like
it with all-male has appeared, and con-
“®l®6ed Stoppard’ Rosen- Miles that in 1959 toe City
I? the efforts of first
Bernard
erantg. and GutMernstern Are Dead, a work s of great of London’s
® Shakespeare’s time was oSd new al
n1 puhhc had generously ludustry. and
given money, the
the
A most "®’is issued ^1^^ National ^ty Corporation had grranted the site at a pepper-
Sf Nic“booklet
AKattractive for each corn rent and toe four-foot-thick surviving walls
production pd is available to the audience at a ot a biiteed warehouse had been used as the sheU
®°®F- supplies authorita In- for 8- delightful little theatre of 499 seats.
formation about the author, the play, itstive sources It has an open stage, based on that of Shakes-
and imer references, notable productions and pearo s day while an excellently
critical estimates, together with Photographs, re¬ all on one tier, like a segment ofraked auditorium.
a Greek amphi-
toMtr®. eiriures p®rfect sight lines. The most
production
Productis,onsand ofplan s. ® f
the National Tlieatre have IightiM, reyolving^s
appeared at the Chichester Festival Theatre, and film equipment are Installed. tage, and sound and
I®’^® provincia tours. In Septembe
1965 the company madel its first tour abroadr the City’s artistic
iiie with foyer exhibitions, films, concerts, and
^siting the foremost Soviet theatre, the Krml- lectures. The enterprising “ Molecule aub ” for
children uses Ingenious theatrical means to
Bralfn^' **'*^'* the Freie Volksbllhne in West d®monstrate basic scientific principles.
of 1967, there was a six-week tour The ^Mermaid has a fine, varied record of
continental proctactiOM, mcluding British premises of works
^966 the company played in by Brecht, Camus,
Stockholm, Copenhagen, Belgrade and Venice? and O’Casey. There have
been revivals of Shakespeare ,
A recent welcome development has been an Beaumont, and Fletcher and Shaw, Ford, Dekker
sysr Lessing, and of foreign
playy by Ibsen, Pirandello. Henry James, and
J®®'r f 967 was notable for an Imaginatively
gS™&A,S?™
p 5®"ôwn
company, ■“ •'■•“Pett* planned^cycle of four dramas by Euripides con¬
cerning toe I rojaii War. and by toe English pre-
formed with its auditorithe
um Young Vic, was
in The Gut It miere of the fine verse play Benito Gereno la.v.) by
caters for the under-25s and has already offered a the distinguished poet, Robert Lowell.
.fP, 1968
mirabiy usedthelortheatre’s special design
toe spectacular was ad-
production
Shakespeare. of
B^cLtTd Mte’“-
GUOSSARV OF DRAMATIC TERMS Is CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
Liite s Badrian the Seventh ta.v.), and 1970 was Brechtian techmques and social commitment
luarlied by Pinter’s movins production of James I rather than careful construction were the hall¬
Joyce B long neglected Exiles la.i\). marks of her work, her masterpiece heing Oh
What a Lovely War (Ml. This paradoxically used
The National Youth Theatre. a period piece brilliantly to satirise the tragic
futility of the first world war.
Originating in Alleyn’s School and the enter¬ In 1967 liittlewood directed MacBird anil Mrs.
prise of Michael Croft, the N.Y.T. fosters in Wilson’s Diary.
yoimg people an appreciation of theatre, whether MacBird (P), by Barbara Garson, is an Ameri¬
as pdience or participants. Since 1959 it has can parody on Macbeth in doggerel blank verse.
performed annually in the West End. Constantly Described by Brustetn as " brutally provocative ”
expanding it now has several companies and in imd “ grimly amusing," it attacks the American
its foreign tours has presented plays at the Establishment,” under Lyndon Johnson.
festivals in Paris and Berlin. Several members Unfortunately Joan Littlewood made such altera¬
have become professional actors, including John tions to the text that the satirical parallel with
Stride and Derek Jakobi of the National Theatre. Shakespeare was blurred.
Since 1967 it has been admirably served by Mrs. Wilson’s Diary (M), in form a folly pre¬
plays specially commissioned from Terson. war musical, was described by its authors. Ingrant.s
and Wells,
Wilson as “ an affectionate lampoon ” on tlie
administration.
Theatre Workshop.
In 1970 she returned to Stratford E.ast, where
Between 1953 and 1961 Joan Eittlewood as she has produced Hill’s Forward Up Your End
director of Theatre Workshop at Stratford East and Wells’ The Projector, set in Walpole’s age but
mtroduced several new playwrights, including fiiggesting parallels with the collapse of flats .at
Behan and Delaney. Spontaneity, psendo- Eonan Point.
III. GLOSSARY OF DRAIvLATIG TERMS

Absurd Drama. life. He defines tragedy as the imitation of an
The Theatre of the Absurd, originating in Paris, action. By imitation he does not mean the
was Introduced here through the plays of Beckett description of an actual happening but of one that
and translations of Ionesco, Vian, and Vitrac. It is possible. Hence the poetic licence whereby
h^ had considerable impact on Pinter. N. P. the dramatist may adapt historical material to liis
own theme.
Simpson, Saunders. Stoppard, and Campton, Aristotle stresses that the action should be
while American absurdist plays by Albee. Gelber, complete in Itself and have Inner coherence.
and Kopit and by the Swiss, Ikisch, have also Tragedy must have an intelligible beginning, a
been produced here.
The concept of the Absurd was first formulated middle necesiitated by the beginning and which
by Camus to indicate the discrepancy between itself necessitates the end. “The story . . .
human reason and aspiration and an indifferent must represent one action, a complete whole,
with its several incidents so closely connected
and hpstfle universe. But like Sartre he ex¬ that the transposal or withdrawal of any one will
pressed his convictions through the traditional
dramatic form. disjoint and dislocate the whole.”
Not every playwright of the Absurd is an The action should be of some magnitude, with
existentialist and many are more concerned with “ incidents arousing pity and fear wherewith to
an irrational human society than with the imi- accomplish the purgation of such emotions.”
veise. What they have in common is a technique. Here is Aristotle’s celebrated doctrine of purga¬
All have discarded traditional realism and express tion or " catharsis ” which has been variously
absurdity through images that are themselves interpreted, some considering that something like
a ceremonial purification is intended, with an
absurd, including blxarre situations and objects,
both sad and comic, such as aged parents con¬ ethical relief
logical end infrom
■new,tension
others isthat bodily or psycho¬
meant.
signed to dustbins.
There is in the Absurd an element of SurreaUsm Aristotle emphasised the paramount importance
and Miss Bradbrook has suggested that a better of action or plot, the characters being revealed in
term might be Theatre of Dream, for it is the un¬ and through the action. The kind of plot re¬
commended is one where the hero is an eminent
conscious dream mind that juxtaposes objects and mm, neither inordinately good nor bad, whose
incidents that in the waldng state have no con¬ misfortune is brought upon bim by some error of
nection. such as a rhinoceros in a provinoial street. judgment.
Pinter seems to have an intuitive awareness of the Here is the germ of the splendid Eenaissance
hinterland of dream, while Simpson makes a con¬ tragedy concerned with the fall of princes and also
scious manipulation of Surrealism.
Erisch has ably demonstrated that the Absurd of the modem finely constructed play, such as
can be an effective vehicle for satire and many Ibsen’s Ohosts. Sndi a play has clamcal sym¬
absurdist writers, such as Ionesco and Simpson, metry, the beginning, middle, and end, booming
have satirised the modem prostitution of language in modem parlance the exposition, development,
and climax or denouement. It has its own
corrupted by salesmen and politicians, and have organic unity and inevitability. Bui although
used conversation of vapid emptiness to reveal its
breakdown as a means of conminnieation. many writers, such as Sartre, sfiH work within the
classical disciplines many have discarded the
It Is partly because of their distrust of language traditional form.
that they have had recourse to ludicrous objects Brecht and his followers have repudiated the
and images, thus extending the range of total whole pattern in favour of a sequence of self-
theatre.
contained episodes strung along anarrative thread,
where ironic detachment suiiersedes the emotional
The Aristotelian Play. involvement and catharsis of Greek tragedy.
In this day of the common man few are con¬
Brecht and Ionesco have disparagingly referred, cerned with the fan of princes, and it is interesi^
somewhat inaccurately, to “ Ailstotelianism.” to examine some of the more striking modem
Strictly speaking, this means the concept of plays and to ask how fax they stand up to tlie
tragedy which Aristotle first analysed in his Aristotelian canon. Should a new concept of
Poetics, basing It primarily on the poetic tragedies tragedy be evolved, that of potentiality un¬
of Sophocles, especially the Oedims Bex (P), c. realised, not a fhll from greatness but a failure to
426 The Aristotehan concept, revived since
the Eenaissance, has obviously been much
modified, hut certain basic principles can still be Black Comedy.
discerned.
rise? ■■ ■•
Aristotle daims that imetry in general aims at Orton (s.v.) popularised a genre in which human
that rational pleasure which is part of the good suffering Is presented as comic. The basic tech-
CONTEMPORARY
GLOSSARY OF DRAMATIC THEATRE
TERMS ll(
niflue is the shock of violent justapositions both oftheUft^ll
in language and incident. Death, mental illness,
nuirder, sexual perversion, suddenly E^ssioiflsni^but in Engfom
excite l^ gmeraUy iuf the
laughter because they are conveyed in deadpan
w
by promptly
the bathos of force. Dike circus succeeded Naturalism.
clowning,
style has some value, especially in satire, but theit
easily stifles compassion. Natmalism in drama may be reoarrieri „
special case of Eealism. and
perhaps always desirable, to it is not el?v Lr
make a shtro rtfi
The Brechtiaa or Epic Play.
_ Many British dramatists have felt the pervasive Naturalistic
t motion between the attempt
drama two s to.record as^ foitii
influence of the Bavarian Brecht MIy as possible the actual experiences
narrative play de-
of rf iifr
however banal, and to nroaBT.!- uri „„ir5r—
debate, with a loose seauence of episodic scenes
cominentary or songs. Discarding
realism, Brecht attempted not to arouse the on¬ fidelity and spontaneity. Its
looker s emotions but to stimulate him to think may keep so close to life as to dangerartistic
is that it
ataout social issues and to take left-wing action, and tension, becoming the stageloseversion fonn
of the
in tne event his amoiguous central
appealed to deeper levels of experience. situation It was Zola
tape recorder. inSeetheSUce-o£
1870s -Life
who Play
propoun?ded * “
the
there have been several instances of the ani- prmciples of Naturalism. Distrustim both the
English playwrights have
political intentions but tending to impose on fife a falsifying and artiflcini
®®slin has said that pattern,
Fina-,?™ he urged that drama nstructe
the ■well-co play*as
should drecord
objectively as possible the actual course of man’s as
joined
and John miting of The Devils in
the select ôup of British dramatists who have
genmnely benefited from the concept ion of Strindberg’s Miss Julie, 1888, is an essav
’■* condiSd b? em in
epic . . . teehnidues m drama.” yiromr
Naturat ai but^the genre is found
accompl ished form in the in its^
Russian most
theat?f
especially in Stanislavsky’s production at
Theatre oS Cruelty. Moscow Art Theatre of the plays of Chekhov the
and
In 1938 i^tonin Ai'taud m 1902 of Gorky’s The Lower Depths.
and Double a collection publishe d The Theatre
of essays Neo*Reali.sm.
which forms the theoretic basis of the and lettos
Cruelty, his central purpose being a Theatre of
ritual of There is nothing new in dramatic Realism lo v
crusty to exorcise fantasiesdescribed
. )
how Artaud
civilisation, believing, like Freud tion of the shabby lodgings and streets
?? f
underprimleged. Gorky in T/ie realistic of the
presenta¬
Si stifled instinctual life. was perhaps the first dramatist Lotcer DeS
He claimed that the theatre, as the heart of a wretched COTdition of the destitute to reveal the
and this play
common culture,, should enact a primitive ritual
^ frenzy and exaltation. In influeMCd O’NeiU's The Iceman Cometh.
production m London, with a starkly 'Sieh
? wo^d brmg to the surface and exorcise backgromd, had some effect on reatotic
the spectator s latent anarchy, violence and plays where the kitchen-sink and those modern
dustbin were
“ outlet to reSons "
Artauds theories have yet to be proved
thropology has shown that a sacriflcial An-
ntual wm long practised by primitive blood Any worth-while play has significance
beyond t^-ro formerly the fashionabfar
le
dinilmshing man’s urge to cruelty, tribes di'aw its milieuom^®
and modem neo-realistic plays
as is “ th®“e imd purpose. 'Weskm!
fîistoms {see M»6). A modem dramatic f^-napf. Delajiey, Lrvmgs, Owen* Osborne, Oiton, Bond
Bieofc can certainly make us av?are of
renressed
violent impulses but, does Sitw
it clear ell’S* Several of these playwrights have themselv
teehnigue Artaud them daw?
envisage a total^ es
been workps and their plays style cto
Psed antheauthenti
ttoatre appealing to total man, primarily
visual during their own^ culture,
are once ta-
I ®'^*toportant director would deploy Mcpstole to the middle-class audience. The fact
ircS?® ?’ plastic art, pantomime, mimicry that their work is occasionally loose in structur
may be attributable to the influence of NaturaU e
sm
wT*! ! ^foMw induce a state of trance.e’. Attack-
sTnery ^■B.) or to the author’s rmacademic bactoou
ing
luflthe Inadequ acy of a pallid architectur
conceptual language nd
moantatory effect. ' bas seldom been articulate is one of
onî language should the most encouraging aspects of modern from
toveân eô^?
fulflte Artaud’ s demands and in England mat yigorous dra^ theatre.
the specific Theatre of Cruelty has been Realism.
til® best
oTwels
and Triana s The Criminals. Its influenc Galsworthy,
seen also in T^ Architect anit^ e can be
MmewAf create a stage illusion of actual life,
tion advocated by Artaud
a methods of the well-constrac-
have had a ofwideproduc-
and
®^y distinguish
toM theltr““®"‘“ movement towards ^£!r®®S P^JteiP.and Naturalism — îts extreme
tends to discard organised plot as imposin
Espressidnism. g a
te^T^F <i®erence is that the latter
false pattern on the flux of life. a
floui*hed in Germany after the
^st world war, where its chief exponents i,«™ 11 has been Mortimer, PMys, andand
Shaffer, since the
Porter
were a succession of competently
associated with the
lucys or
pia^ôf jjapek. O wii“
HeiU and O C&sev timmin aisr.
CzediMloyalda the
^th Ifinsfatenre on
■The Satirical Play.
Plays by Shaw, '^2'’'^® ®®®P liaartening revivals of

triggered off by Stage Sixtv's
with the advmt of machinery. o*"^’^”
are symbolic types, as the HamelTh^ chMadtere MiSefspartof T-Rdowers’ Houses, with its topical
moduction
eS OneT^ê
siting the mob hi Toller’s Mm and ffm ]wMse
êiT dreor le stylised, the dialogue staccat i found few successors, for genuine
o and demanding art. Subjective
hostility and negative criticism are not enough.
"
SS.SS’SSf
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS I 1 CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
The motive power in Ibsen and Shaw was rational Verse Drama.
indignation, a most difficult fusion of strong During the 20th century several attempts have
emotion and objective reasoning, and their satire
was constructive in that it implied and indicated been made to revive drama m verse — the nomm!
positive values. It was also characterised by a vehicle for the Eenaissance playwright. Al¬
precise aim at a specific target. Vague and though the verse plays of Shakespeare and hi.s
wholesale denunciation diffuse a disagreeable tone contemporaries, kept alive in excellent revivals,
which has a boomerang effect for it become.^ still rise like the Himalayas above the con¬
temporary scene, the dramatist today who trie.si
associated not with the targets but with the play¬ to use verse has not the benefit of an unbroken
wright himself.
The graces of satire are detachment, irony, and tradition. Yeats, T. S. EUot, and Christopher
wit and it flourishes apparently in a stable society Fry all aiceeeded for a time in getting their verse
such as that of the 18th century, which produced plays on to the stage but at the moment the most
Swift and Voltaire. The European upheavals of successful poetic drama achieves its effect through
the last half century have been unpropitious for poetic prose and the theatrical poetry of its
satire and it is significant that the best plays in situation
Under MilkandWoodstage imagery. used
successfully Dylan
these'Thomas’
media.
this genre, those of Frisch and DQrrenmatt, have For many contemporary audiences it is Beckett.
come from neutral Switzerland.
The English playwright nearest to Shaw is Arden, and Pinter who have captured the poetry
inherent in drama.
Nigel Dennis, and Giles Cooper shared his ironic
detachment. The finest veme play seen on the English stage
for many years is Robert Lowell’s Benito Oereno.
The Well-made Play.
The “ Shoe oJ Life” Play. The term “ well-made play " is moat freauently
Here is an extreme kind of Naturalism, where used in a derogatory sense. Eric Bentley has
the author has been so anxious to preserve fidelity pointed out that the “ well-made play ” is a form
to the natural spontaneity of living, that he has of classical tragedy, degenerate in that although
all but discarded form, as having a cramping and the plot is ingeniously contrived, with arresting
distorting effect. situation, intrigue, and suspense, the play is
One of the most typical examples is Henry mechanical and devoid of feeling. The television
Chapman’s You Woî’lminor
Alwaysincident
Be On and
Top. talk
show¬of series. The World of Wooster, is an example.
ing the disconnected The expression was freauently used dis¬
men ostensibly “ at work ” on a building rite. paragingly of the French plays of Scribe and of
Shelagh Delaney’s TJie Lion in Lcme is also in this Sardou, ridiculed by Shaw for his “ Sardoodle-
vein.
IV, INDIVIDUAL DRAMATISTS

dum.”
This part, alphabetical in arrangement, includes ends with her virtual monologue — phrased with
dramatists whose work, whether English or in the elegance of a Henry James— -on how it will be
translation, has had its British premlfere since if she goes mad.
1950. Unless otherwise stated the quotation of Agnes holds the “ delicate balance ” of polite
date and actor refers to the British premifere. manners, while tolerant Tobias is now ineffectual
Inexpensive paperback editions are referred to and her alcoholic sister Cfiaire persists in her
thus: F: Faber and Faber. M: Methuen. sarcastic utterance of unwelcome truths. The
P: Penguin. Inexpensive acting editions can most galling, obliquely hinted at, is that Tobias
usually be obtained from French’s Theatre Book¬ is more drawn to Claire than to Agnes.
Their son long since dead, and Tobias having
shop, 26 Southampton Street, ■W.C.2. then withdrawn from Agnes, their sole offspring is
the neurotic Julia, who now returns home at the
Arthur Adamov (b. 1908). breakdown of her fourth marriage.
Adamov first wrote plays such as Professor Suddenly their "oldest ftienda,” Harry and
Edna, arrive seeking asylum from some inexplie-
Taranne (P). which translate his own personal
neuroses into images of the absurd, until with the ahle terror of “nothing." Bewildered, but
courteous, the hosts accept their gueste, but
propagandist Paolo Paoli he adopted a Brechtian
technique. BQs Spring 1871, an epic panorama of after Juliahas threatened to shoot the “ intruders,”
Agnes forces Tobias to realise that they bring
the Paris Oommvme, had its world premise in
London in 1962. Tobias, unable to discard his last ideal of
the plague/*
friendship, begs them to stay, while telling them
this truth, but they depart, realising that they
Edward Albee (b. 1928). demand a sacrifice they themselves could not
make.
The American Albee is a brilliant satirist, Here is a microcosm of a society where love and
master of a hostile dialogue of barbed inteUectual
wit, and an adept In ntilising diverse styles. He friendsMp have died, humanism crumbles, and
was adopted by wealthy foster parents and Ms little hut polite diplomacy survive, often a
vehicle for fear and hostility. In tone it is a
major plays express the claustrophobia, the bitter inversion of the Apocryphal Tobit, with its
introverted emotional Involvements, the terrible touching pictures of religious faith, family love
emptiness that may lurk behind the deceptively
secure facade of wealth. and neighbonrliness. and the “entertaining of
His early plays include the absurdist Zoo Story Angela unawares.”
The literary provenance in subject and style is
(P) and The American Bream (P), and the real¬ Eliot s Family Bmnim, where another Harry,
istic The Becdh of Bessie Smith. fleeing the furies, comes to a Wishwood, also
dominated by a woman whose husband had
Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 1964. P. loved her sister, like Clair also a visionary. But
A brilliant and scarifying satire on sterility in in Eliot the visionary is healer not destroyer, and
an American campus uses a ritual movement. Harry departs to “ follow the bright angels.”
George and Martha, named after the Washingtons, With Uterary subtlety Albee exposes the “ panic
are an unsuccessful and childless middle-aged and sense
emptiness ” In a society losing its confidence
and of values.
couple. They cherish a fantasy “son.” whom
6eo;ê, to spite Martha, symbolically " murders ” Tiny Alice. 1970,
during a liquor-ridden night party, when they
attack each other and their guests (a young couple
also childless) with ferocious mental cruelty. A “metaphysical melodrama,” of great emo¬
tional tension, possibly personal, is at surface
A Belicate Balance. 1969. P. level, like Dftrrenmatt’s The Visit ia.v.). a satire
on materialism, with the viotfan sold to Mammon.
An icy surface glasses over treacherous depths It has another facet, the schema being primitive
in the well-to-do home of Tobias (Hordern) and magic, the sexual initiation and ritual sacrifice of
Agnes (Peggy Ashcroft) and the play begins and the victim. Here Albee draws on techniques of
K (80th Ed.)
theatricjd poetry, as for tos^ce the two tramns
tect, who in his cannibalism sucks in the Emperor’s at the foot of a bme
civilisation but loses his former ma^cal power. IS remarlfable that tree in Waiting for Godot
so literary a playwrteht
Again come darkness and deafening noise, but should
this time the Architect descends, taking over the mime play. also have succeeded with the wordl=s
Emperor’s rdle.
Beckett’s cMef weakness as a dramatist is
As in Triana’s more disciplined The Criminals, the action and visual
the dramatic movement is cyclical, the remorse¬ static, imagery are frequently that too
as m the motionless dustbins to End Game
less, self-destroying recurrence of obsession, much less effectiv
especially guilt-ridden hate and dependence on e theatrically than Ionesco’s
the mother. The play has some root in anthro¬
pology and recalls Artaud’s theories, exposing movable chai aoii„..cos
man’s most grisly unconscious motivation and Waiting for Godot- 1955. rs E. .
deploying a most extensive range of theatrical OMs
devices. Garcia, the producer, uses brilliant Beckett tantalisi ng and compelling tragi-comedy
lighting, baroque music, and even an electric s masterpiece, originally written in
iork-lift truck on which to moimt a crucifixion French and prodn^d m Paris in
tranriated and performed to more1953. was later
sequence and the Emperor’s slow giving birth to countries. than twentv
the Archlteot!
Tense and exciting in its assault on the senses Characte r and incident are pared to the bone
and sensibilities, the work can yet have a shatter¬ and _ only a skeleton situation remains At
ing effect on the audience, which is implicitly singleeyenmg, on a desolate road, bare hut for a
called on to play the exhausting r61e of untrained tree, two wretched tramps. Vladtoiir anfl
psychiatrist, imahle to further any resolution. Bstragon, nicknamed Didi and Gogo, wait for -T
mysterious Mr. Godot. As they while awav the
The basic subject is that of Aeschylus’ The Eimen-
(see KSO) — ^matricide pursued by guflt. But time irith
the Greek tragedy is in effect exhilarating, achiev- farcical diversion
desultor talk andby clo™g.
is yprovided the entry of Pozzo
?? therapeutic catharsis described by and
and aLucky, bullying
Aristotle. boy later bringsmaster
a messageand that
wretched slave”
Mr. Godot
camot come but ydll arrive the next evening.
Mter ascuMing whether or not tramps decide
they shall to han^go
Isaac Babel (1894-1941).
a'lvp.y fOT the mght. but remain on the spot.
Between 1937 and 1957 the vrork of Babel, the presents “ Next day, same place," the
Eussian .^wish short-story writer, was banned In only dêrence bring that the tree has sprouted
Eussia. He died in Siberia. Sunset, the first of S' few leaves, and the basic pattern of Act I is
his wo extant plays, produced in Russia under r6P6Sit6Q.
Stanislavsky
vision in 1904. in 1928, appeared on B.B.O. tele¬ techniques
.^though _by the skilful use of music-hall
Beckett presents his tramps to the
clowns, they are at the same time
Man/a. 1907. P. pathetic^y himan as they waver between suicide
Written in 1933 but not yet professionally them together over fifty A/retful affection has kept
years, and their de¬
produced m Russia, Marya is set in Petrograd iu positions me complementary, possibly
Eehruary 1920. It evokes a precise period in re^ntmg dlfferont aspects of the even lep-
history--the flux and confusion just before the one personality.
_ PoMo and Lucky, another pair of contrasting
PolshevikB consolidated their power in March 1920. ohajactera
, are portrayed more farcically. The
The organisation of the play is poetic, the bal¬ loud, coMdent Pozzo drives Lueky
ance and interplay between two social milieus. to m toIf ^
I-Ticfey carries he
One is the decayed elegance of the liberal intel- mouth the whip rrith which he
hgentsia focused In the home of Mukovnin, a bly obeys every insolent command. to beaten and hum¬
wnner General, where the men are well-disposed for Pozzo and even thinks for He dances
him. In their
but impotent, the women unchaste. The other is appearance Pozzo is blind and Lncky
the sauaUd house where Dymschltz. the Jewish
merchant turned black-marketeer, lives with his considered personifications re-
hangers-on and crooliB.
As to Chekhov, the characters are studied in ^ctively of master and slave, worldly materlal-
^hm and values,
soul, the
or the physical and the
two aspects
psyôlo^ca! depth and the quiet naturalism of of a
the style Is sometimes startled by sudden violence sato-masochistic relationship.
as m the shootings after the rape of EudmUla.
Mukovnin s younger daughter, and the link be¬ a auiicoy ojiu Bunenug as
tween the two households.
IJie jmeertatoty is symbolised by the
physical characters’uh
origm and destinatio
to tosand n.actualities
uuciuii. of
.âmes Baldwin (b. 1924). See also M8. tune place, but the dominating symbol is the
Balden Is an American Negro novelist and tr^ps doubt as to Godot’s Identity and purpose
interpretation as to
essayist, and a champion of GivU Rights
eqmte Godot with is inadequate,
tos imdouhted Christian, references.yetA the play
tree to
The Amen Comer. 1965.
Acted by a Negro cast tocludtog stagers of Becketi, ^questioned
^ about
^ emblem of the Cross.a
its theme,
. pintnals, tlie successful play gently probes the wonderful_ sentence to Saint Augustine .quoted
f'enmne and the self-deluded elements in religious not despair: one of the thieves was ,saved. . . “ Ho
Ho
Beckett neiteer aflaimsthieves was damned.”
Augustme s statement but invertsnor denies Hainf.
it into a ques¬
Famnel Beckett (b. 1906). See also M9. tion. more distressing than direct dfinia.1, Can
accept the existence of divine
Beckett, an, Anglo-Irishman, who has mn/ip his Westion such as
home m Ihauce, is both novelist and the most symbolic shape of
distmguisted of the English dramatists of the which 18 cogently expressed to the
Al^d. His world is drastically limited, peopled outcasts at the foot of a
ctoefly by old in^ awaiting their death, but it is
the profoundly tragic world of Lear to the storm ®‘»itemplate
whi^ usingleaves,
puts forth a tree of
as a gaUows.
and it IS conceived with the intensity and haunting significance of the play is even deeper
powM and si^gestiveness of the true poet. an raploration of religious doubt, its appeal
,, work is poetic to its verbal imagery, some- anguished
times as SMrchmg and macabre as that of Webster, êmtamty of the 20th century is whether life
dnunatio prose has an underlying poetic Miy “earing whatsoever and the play shows
flexible and effective than that of. man. lost and anxioiis to m
of Eliot s yerae. In structure his plays have a apparen^ meaningles
poetic symbolto. a latent signiflcance, like that of conrideresd universe;
it to be written from the
^ novels of James Joyce, Beckett’s close fidend. pomt of view of exlstentlali^: continuing vainly
and their striking visual imagery has a kind of to hope for a supernatural revelation, the
tramps
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS !lS CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
lack the courage to come to terms with the noth¬ ohUquely, masked by the harsh irony of prison
ingness of our existence and the need to choose jests and the alternation of farcical and macabre
and create our own destiny. incidents as the unnerving effects of impending
A Jimgian psychologist, Eva Metman, has made death is shown on prisoners and warders. Al¬
a similar interpretation, remarking, “ Godot’s though the play ha.s little plot its structure was
function seems to be to keep his dependents tautened by Joan Xittlewood who also had to
treble the length.
imconscious.” The film version is a distortion.
“ Habit is a great deadener,” says Vladimir.
If
the Beckett’s play and
drug of habit enables
to facethethis
audience
image ofto anguish
escape
TJie Bostage. 1958. M.
and so find some relief, then it may have the
therapeutic value of that irtner knowledge advo¬ Again the basic situation is waiting for an
cated by Freud and Jung. execution. The scene is a Dublin brothel. Here
It is not a play for those who cannot bear to Irish patriots bring young Xeslie. captured Cock¬
suffer. When performed in San Francisco Gaol, ney soldier, as hostage for an Irish political
the first play there for forty-four yearn, it held its prisoner in Belfast who is to be executed next
morning.
audience of fourteen hundred convicts spell¬
bound. They realised that each must find his There is touching pathos as a little Irish maid
own personal message. All knew that it spoke to tries to save Xeslie. neither of these orphans realis¬
those who must suffer and wait. ing what the strife is about, but in a raid on the
hou^ Xeslie is shot. The mood Is not consistent,
Endgame, 1958. F. for here the comedy is supplied by a host of
irrelevant characters and the action Is constantly
Also re-created from the French, this play again held up by satirical songs and some mediocre
depicts a static situation. In a single, claustro¬ backehat. This pseudo-Brechtlan trimming de¬
phobic room, the selfish, materialistic Hamm, tracts from the growing sense of alarm as Xeslie
who keeps his senile and legless parents in dust¬ gradually realises his fate. But the play does
bins, Is now paralysed and blind and dependent succeed in making the business of war seam ex¬
on his servant Clov, who longs to leave him. tremely childish.
But if Clov should leave, both would die. for
Hamm owns the only store of food in a devastated
and dead world. Finally Clov sees outside what Robert Bolt (b. 1924).
mayprepares
he he a small
for boy, “ a potential
departure procreator,”
but remains immobile.and
Bolt has recently said, " I do like plays in which
Tlie play like poetry can be interpreted in several the i)eople have ideas as well as predicaments ”
ways. Since Hamm and Cloy are mutually and he is one of the few dramatists who have
dependent, it probably represents tension between scored West End successes with the play of ideas.
complementary aspects of personality. Hamm He holds the balance of discussion so fairly that
sensation and emotion, and Clov intellect. As only in the outcome is it clear that he himself is
Clov has vision and sees the boy, the situation committed. His earlier work, represented by Th e
suggests the struggle of the mystic endeavouring Floivering Gherry (1967), with Ralph Richardson,
to escape from a deadening materialism to a vital was in the realistic convention, hut more recently
awakening of the Spirit. It may also depict a he has experimented with other dramatio tech¬
period of traumatio depression when the whole niques, owing something to Brecht and to tlie
external impression
world seemsis that
dead of
andtheunreal. The of
play’s Theatre of Cruelty and of the Absurd.
overall dissolution the
personality in death, both personal and global. The Tiger and the Borse, 1960.
Endgame lacks the wry hnmom of Waiting for
Godot, andbutis less compelUng This play takes are
its wiser
title from
than Blake’s "Theof
the King, is more potent inthan Ionesco’s
its latent Exit
Tygers
imagery of wrath the horses
than is Ionesco’s play. instruction.’’ It is concerned with the Inadequacy
of detachment, the philosophy held by Jack Dean.
(Michael Redgrave), the Master of an Oxbridge
KraDP’s Last Tape. 1968. F. college, the well-bmanced man who represents
In the briefest sketch, Krapp, a solitary, de¬ Blake’s "horse,” while his wife, Gwen, the
crepit, unsuccessful old man listens to his own
" lager.” pasdonately concerned for the world’s
autobiographical tape-recording of thirty years Buffering, shows signs of neurosis. The action
ago. but the moment of miraculous insight it revolves round her wish to sign a pîUon for un¬
commemorates is now so meaningless to him that conditional nuclear disannameut and Dean
he switches off that section of the recording and eventually, to save her from mental breakdown,
broods on a description of his love-making. bravely identifies himself with her and the cause,
Beckett employs a most effective stage device thereby deserting his philosophy and his career.
to pose contemporary queries as to the limitations
of verbal communication and the continuity of social In its outcomestifled
idealism, the asplay stresses
it may be bythe -mlue of
philosophic
personal identity. detachment and the prepares of conformity. It
is typical of Bolt’s dialectic that this value should
Sappy Lays. 1962. F. he upheld by the disturbed Gwen and by Louis,
an oddly imônsible youngman.
Here again the paralysis of later life is indicated.
A woman talks ceasele^y. although progressively to Bolt departs from the realistic style by trying
make his characters larger lhan life to betog
buried in a mound of earth untU it reaches her neck. unusually articulate about what they stand for.
Beckett’s two “Mimeplays without Words”
are in striking contrast to the plays in that aU is
conveyed in symbolic wordless action. A Man for All Seasons, 1960. P.
Here Bolt attempts to give hia characteis
heroic dimentions by striking back into history.
Believing that our need today is a sense of
Biendau Behan (1823-64),
Behan, a Dubliner, uses persomd experiences as personal indivlduaUty or “ selfhood,” he chooses
as his hero of “seffhood” Sir Thomas More.
substance for two unusual plays, considerably Bolt
improved by Joan Xittlewood (g.®.). XacMog adapt consciously
history to uses the purpose,
his own dramatist’sfor privilege to
the theory
structure and depth of characterisation, they are of conscience accepted by More was not subjective
impressionistic, lively, and voluble and Behan’s and eristentialist hut Identical vrith that of
strong social convictions presented in comic terms Thomas Aquinas. Hence some inconsistency in
are fuUy integrated. his portrayal.
More was described by one of his contempor¬
The Quare FeUow. 1966. M. aries as " a man for all seasons ” and Bolt presents
More (Scofield) as not only flexibly adjusted to
The play was an effective plea for the aholition Renaissance society but al^ preserving an toner
of capital punishment. Its claustrophobic scene core of unassailable integrity. Suspected of a
is an Irish gaol during the twenty-four hours critical attitude to Henry VUI’s divorce, he used
preceding the execution at 8 a.m. of ■" the quare his skill to “ the thickets of the Jaw.” yet resolu¬
fiellow,” a brutal fratricide. The murderer is tely refused to swear the oath to the Act of
never seen and the sombre theme Is presented > Succession that would have released Mm from the
directory 6 CONTEMPORARY
of dramatists Si THEATRE
i-o»>er aij«I the ))lock, because for him periur’^ Saved. 1005. M.
lueaiit the lo.s of the soul, the self. His constancv As a result of casual sexual intercou
promiscuous Pam, Pen gets involverse w’itii fiio
d wdJk w
r>Vhnr]i Vm° corruption of
morose Muth London familv, with Pred^' thi
hiH tieat\ ® perjury sends More to putative father of her baby, arid with Ered’êwd
r
vu-iueo. challenges
He also is a man eoniparison with Brecht’s murders the baby on the stage. “
of supreme
Of fcuth iutellige
is persecut ncpan play IS largely in delinciuents’ argot
ed by
avoids open '’“i=f«l.tq a photographic stiUy of
eventually make a final choice cul.ite people, it IS m itself somewhat inarticulate
hm s. lift to astute temponsuig and commitment of
his belief. The difference is that More
Olds uneouivocally for constanc y.
Jie calls a ‘.‘bastardized ver- Barlif Morning. 1968.
&10.1 ot Brecht s style. Episodic scenes Esslin interprets this play as infantile fanfa-o-
are
’ *
menf^ mtellect
a coniBiontator tlie argii-
in ual ^'orm /aSS'S.**-
Si,archety
ii+w
father, nurse, authori
pal and tarian
grovvTi*ii 'n®i figures
•inn/inr ofoc? niothpr’
box takes a swift succession of minor ^’ijhtin gale,
parfo Tiotoria and the' on whom
Con^r" ’'atTeVictoria
adIy''®e,te has ^
civii war. The princes, Siamese twins'
ritM‘wnrivalry',
sibling r®™Ti’ and and the
Gladstone and Dtezv siiocpif warfni
eternity of mutual cannib final scene is a nightmarp
.hmiself with his own appro- significance is oral alism, whose
eroticism and psfcho !
pi ml.. Use of wit .and im.agery, using images sadism
society and its laws and thosi ofofwiter iuiui
satire, hut with an underly ing
cp
great hI p h^h,y absurd ist, substan
innocuce ous " msnf
‘ mi Blie“ film
“ version
puperlmman context. senou-sn ess and poetic ^wer ’’
has been highly praised. VVarclie says Bond is writing like a wrnfhfni
fr'ewffc Jack. MG3. Presenthig a »sXpsS
Bolt depicts the conflict between the natnrTi
ifej-Jf.® of folk-lore, Jack-of-tlie-Green (Kenneth dranfi&ccXcteS^

harroio tha5
Bead to the Beep North. 1968. M.
perein '“liibitiOM of society in the The setting, visually very beautiful is
dfimc T^rlif ^ Pfofocrat (Edith Evans), century ivtii
Japan, where the War Lord ’Shogo * ia
(he rehi^’^
Ji Pature may lead"'Odern doctrine
to violence of eventaally overthr
.Taclc own by the Commodore’ a
linaily contrive.s two murders. Bolt in d'eaiiiig
tern civilisation, with the tambourine-lVa
tpim^f^'^-r ^.'hdles st savage, represe nviuv
Wes¬
■ITlfe’
ftc Imt chae^ draw on a familiar likeinvth
Buripides
and lik in Georgina , a somewha outdate”d image nting of mispinr?
ary zeal supporting imperialism. misaon-

»
T?tc Thwarting of Baron Bolligrew.
1005. per se evil andôm on!y*^hope nXTS^'who
Dy rne critics as inventive and enterta™"oli praiseii
bv ® dubious dogma overlays the
ining. most
Virai/ rival Begina! 1970.
with two ‘heroines’ — Elizabeth I and
Mary Queen of Scots. In the same nrediciTn^t
Blade Mass.
"
iSSSffuS':'1970. 5.™!
de,sire for husband, child, statecra
and ft and woman*s
temperament sharply contrasted.heir thev iwe in
Mary is shoi^ wwnfi n SharpevUle commemoration Bond
®q,,®’®plp®jjpated, sensuous, passionate and self the aiti1la'’ând lo"
rivaf^-
horn rlwlTJth,
‘ - Blizahe f »1"1? ?fc Plots
listening to Cecil to
andmrwdV her-
Walsing John Bowen.
Leicester in the interelt Bowen first won recognition as a

of tte ?eato:® novelist.
Mail’s® return® ^'ûally that of After the Bain. 1967.
h/n
(with Afust^ iimt /of execution
l>Io Of England s coming victory over
aitnoug h Elizabeth s astute dialogu
ilthcmX®Eulnn.®rni® d^matio
es withfocusi
her ^ cieiuge jJba-asorted
advisers are more interesting. ^ survivors rtr?ff nn «
Jioit does not attempt the subtle comnlex a "reat'\lehm^®m S'™ after
itv nf
1- “ the handhng of space and hte
time the
aconv tota?oria*l\7te"
Bowen
entiodramati ttZlI
ses this fantasy bv settinc*
expYrtLî^ 1h'e''Z'’”if-‘’"^ he stTalS nal frame work: it in
ij- q?!
PropMtfe^ f ehcn
qfie f
as thrones, pulpits, emblemat
employs desks andic
descended, fro^ the
to make viable even Clever
b?mn'k2 selective
the exchang e of lighting
letlem serves
sMfts unhindered between places Thns
wide
apart and moves swiftly through the iirears,” of the raft,as xmtil
n'h.M are used at intervals evmtually
a'lity ®"*®®steaching aids
as indMdu-
EdwardBond (K 193S).
to hW^âtiSf"®”^ P^f®^ring death
to'^hp conventional apologia
ft“a
rlfaS
wliether lus obsessive images of violenc Liitle Boxes. 1068. M. Sade experimental teoh-
e incinri mques of Weiss’s iUarat
•A double
obiectivfo^'sSf^S^^^^ shows httle bill of reahstic well-made nlavs nimm
communities in isolation
SraS^SS
*n* sollpsistio and perverse as to make
S.
from‘»
troupe, .5
SMi
trmilio
Soa
elderly andi”®®®
^y withdrlvvJi deliberat^y
poverty
a, -strick
patheticen vaudeville
bnw
hi3 intelleotnal groundwork suêct
“
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS 117 CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
Trevor shows a young Lesbian couple. One girl tension between Brecht’s conscious reason and the
anticipating her parents’ visit pays an actor to uucoiisciou.s emotional experience on which every
pose as boy friend. But both sets of parents creative writer must intuitively draw. This pro¬
arrive and lively farce develops as Trevor attempt? found tension is the major source of Brecht’s
simultaneously to attend two parties and to cooi power.
scones. All the parents depart refusing to Brecht’s influence
on the dramatists has been pervasive, especially
Arden. Bolt. Whiting, and
aadmit the girls’note.
sentimental relationship and the play ends on
hhafler. rad on the producer Joan Littlewoml.
Above all his iconoctestic attitude and his fertile
T/ic Disorderly Woman. 1969. M. experiment have been invaluable in encouraging a
new rad empirical approach to drama.
Bowen follows Anouilh in his capable adapta¬
Esslin’s ve.
authoritati book Brecht: a Choice of Evils, 1959. is
tion of a Greek
to a modem idiom.play, Euripides’s Tftc Bacchae
Baal Written 1918.
Eertoia Brecht (1898-1956).
The ôral
driven vagabond
by instinct poet, Baal (O’Toole),
and emotion,
Perhaps the most original and vigorous drama¬ expresses the
tist and producer of the century, the Bavarian subjective expenenee of the youthful Brecht.
Brecht was remarkable in his command of both
literary and theatrical genius. Galileo. Written 1938-9. SL
His practice and theory underwent constant
modification. Early plays, like Baal, written to Brecht intended Galileo’s recantation as an
provide entertainment, reveal a satiric and unage of the scientist’s allowing the State to
anarchic attitude, and in 1928 the ironic The Msume authority over science. It has also been
Threepenny Opera (P), made him famous. Prom interpreted
ing as Galileo’s
him to continue cunning exiiedient, allow¬
research.
1930 onward his work became explicitly com¬
munistic, marked by the rejection of the indi¬
vidual in favour of a social ideal. But although Mother Courage. Written 1939. M.
Brecht always remained “ committed ” to Marxist _ In his panorama of war’s futility, Brecht de-
ideology, most of his later plays, written after his
withdrawal from Nazi Germany, are less didactic ggned Mother Courage — a camp follower in the
than humanist in spirit and it is by these mature •Thirty Yearn War — as an epitome of the haggling
works that he is beat known in Britain. profiteer. But his intuitive imderstanding of this
After 1949 Brecht consolidated the famous ujmamic, maternal figure, bereaved eventually of
all three children, has endoived her with an
Berliner Ensemble in East Berlin, where he ambiguous fascination.
developed his influential techniaues of production.
The most permanent feature of Brecht’s mature TheM. Good
P. Person of Szechwan. Written 1988-40.
drama are the Epic form and the Verfremdung, or
alienation ” effect, both developed in reaction to
the traditional dramatic form, which he dubbed Shen Te (Peggy Ashcroft), the benevolent
" Aristotelian.” He considered that the closely prostitute, has to disguise herself as Shui Ta, the
constructed Aristotelian play, which encourages harsh task-master, in order to srarvlve in an unjust
the_ audience’s emotional participation in the commercial society.
action, syphons off the spectator’s emotion, leav¬
ing him a passive and acquiescent member of Puntila. Written 1940-1.
society.
According to Brecht, the drama should be not The drunken generosity of the mean land-
ritual but debate. The spectator should be a owmer. Ifimtila, designed hy Breeht to highlight
detMhed observer, calmly investigating the view his harshness when sober, has however given him
of the world that confronts him, rationally con¬ an attractive inconsistency. The chauffeur who
sidering arguments and stimulated to decisive ter.
rejects Pnntila’s daughter, is a Schweikian charac¬
social action. _ It is taken for granted that he wUl
find the solution to problems in communism.
Brecht therefore developed his “ Epic,” or The Eesiatable Rise of Arhtro Ui. Written 1941.
narrative play, loosely constructed with a sequence
of individual scenes, functioning as independent The late Britirii premiere, 1967, of a minor play
dramatic illustrations or quotations to the narra¬ vivldly illnininatea Brecht’s principles and
tive. method. The Chicago thug, ITi, and his cronie.?
He uses a variety of techniques to establish the bnriMQue Hitler and his entourage rad the horror
narrative tone, such as an actual story-teller on of Nazism is offset by the brilliant clowning by
the stage, explanatory verses relayed before the Bossiter of IJi’s abject cowardice and monstrous
scenes, and banner headlines which foretell the arrogance. The play successfully parodies Shake¬
events to be portrayed. Although by throwing speare's verse, especially In Richard JII, but the
the action thus into the past tense, he discards the picture of Chicago gangsters as vegetable dealers
lure of suspense, his dramatic intelligence, vigour, IS unconvincing.
and inventiveness excite lively interest and
curiosity,
The Caucasian Chalk Circle. Written 1944-5. M.P.
To break down the traditional identification of
the spectator with the action, Brecht developed The prologue to this delightful fairy-tale con¬
stitutes an overt plea for communism rare in
his celebrated “ alienation ” effect. devMng tech¬
nique to keep him at a critical distance. This Brecht’s later work. The rascally judge Adzak,
imp lie using an image that suddenly makes the who takes bribes from the rich and gives judg¬
familiar appear strange and novel to the onlooker, ment in favour of the poor, is one of Brecht’s
so that he is shocked into recognising its signi¬ typical contradictory characters.
ficance.
His _ productions^ \fere thus avowedly non-
reallstlo and theatrical, sometimes appearing like
an inspired charade. He used not only direct Peter Brook (b. 1925). Director.
narration but direct address to the audience, US (or ambiguously U.8.). 1966.
forrnalised settings and properties, masks and
^ylis^ mê-up, sometimes grotesque in charac¬ US is a collaboration between director, actors,
ter. His text, " scarcely more than a prompter’s designers, musicians, and writers in an attempt to
copy, was ffeely adapted during rehearsal, so that confront the Vietnam war and to involve the
an acquamtance with the pattern of Brecht’s audience.
mime and gesture is often necessary to the full Brook admits anti-American bias.
understanding of his plays. The Pirst Act is a violent theatrical assault on
Few tod in Brecht’s mature work the plea for apathy. Brook re-employs techniques ftom
communism that he intended, and many of his Weiss’s Marat-Sade and alternates utmost
protagonists, designed as exponents of capitalist stilhiess, as in the initial mime of a Buddhist self-
villamT, appeal strongly to the sympathy. The immolation, with loud music and noise. Di the
compelling and fhscinating central ambiguity can hideous uproar rad confusion of a bombing raid at
be ascribed, as Bsslln has pointed out, to the the climax a giant war-efiBgy from the proscenium
DIRECTOHV 8 CONTEMPORARY
OF DRAMATISTS fl THEATRE
assault is The bizarre situation sWIfulIy dratnati
difference to others and obsession soc
succeeaed m Act Two by a penetration In with the clutter
dialospe lietween a whitedentb
mau of the past that stifles natural growth.
about to buni biingelf alive and a girl wbose “
cold ,, ft IS uiuminating to contrast THo-nn’o r
parochial mdifference. In
actor silently -*-nanas use of
the same family triangle.
rtleês Jutterflies, one of which he bums. Sbelagh Delaney (b. 1839).
aanng and controversial use of theatre
the emotion of the audience in
thefr portrayal
W SaiTnel depS.”^^
then_ a novelty and they owed '7^
Albert Camus (1913-60). Only A Taste of Honey now retains
Iênoh existentialist philosopher and cance,
OMvits unconventional
production by subject Zv staUfl
Joan EittlwMd^ e^)®
nancy of m adolescent expecting a belnir
wSk Iwhv
of
of the Absurd, describing itenunciate d thein concept
as whatever human befriended by a homosexual youth
incompatible with man’s desire for ”
reason, jurtiee, happmess, and purpose.
ê-mus expressed his the
views through Nigel Dennis (b. 1912).
form and plays most
laimhar here were those written before he tJr® tradi-
iSsSS
moved on to a more humanistic philosophy. had . voitaire. In a Shavian preface tn mo
Caligula. lYeacb puhh'cation 1945. P.

®oman Emperor, Caligula, suddenly de- assumptions of psychoanalysis Lee
™ accordance with the absurdity of Prges that both undermine self-reliance
anri
the universe and by Ms violent and perverse
Senators his own recognition to delegate power over the miTTu ‘®Pd
of the absurd meamnglessness of existence.
Cross Purposes. French publication 1945.

WHICH jW Sin S'ShSI^“ I‘““•"H
SraSaffif''
JS r
p.
in^?’ happiness is dramatised

Cards of Identi ty. 1956.
iS"'"' “ ■»
StaXlS’cr'
^r/ffe'-sar^Ss?, “• “ «'
&"‘S7a
«Sf asg?ffi“gst“Si
, ^,0 play was adapted from Dermis’=i
Paddy Chayveshy (b. 19S3).
The Latent Heterosexual. 1968.
American play begins as a hilarious DS"4i,*‘‘5^'S aST/?.ss
7T
S^^bodiPd
His novel1 has
1 *9 outrageous poet, addiction
just earned
awountant advises Mm to him
Morlev
372,000 and his
ssssifScSSuraaisSII;
evade taxation bv a
and by turning himself into a any appeal toof scientiflcevldmce ^®nfled by
The MaMng Moo. 1967.
sensatio
seiSi nm success,
^^Stf but soon the prostitute, is a
OomorjifinTi
Morley’s personal IdeMity™S
paral^d, be mstes a frantic effort to libfrnfp
biffiself and can ffnd Ms only resomrce in
sufcidf^
^"unement. in Ms preface he suggests fimf tn

personality by Big Brain™ ^
Giles Cooper (1918-66).
HvertMim in Oie Garden. 1902.
a™ &
August for the People. 1961. P. ^ tTag‘t*^
P.
Cooper deftly uses sophisticated corned v fni- a^tte d— at a fee—
n/imiffi?® tameness of the home
to “ stately public’’ when
« Mels
^ôn the sacriflce of pitoclpM Kney
bourgeois society. Four bored wor^™^®”®^ inventiveness of Dennis’s ear^
rs|X’tsft”«3;ssS Marguerite Duias (b. 1914).

nirvellst and script-writer of tlie
S4S'?oSs.?a,sfs^%„™™te. Amowr, has a sensitive flxir
Ehaldl^to ' play

Bapvy to
as in the w^
one-act &
Family. 1966. p. La Musica, a|oS °^|p|»
1966 (pT.“
Ha/ys in the Trees. 1966,
mg woman admits to herself Ms callora egi^

DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS hS CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
Friedrioli Durreuinatt {b. 18S1) ing his work as exDerimental, " that of the first
The German-Swiss Darreniuatt acknowledges generation only.” The Terse he evolred was of a
the Greek dramatists, Shakespeare, and Swift as poetic rhythm, “close to contemporary
major influences. He describes his work as speech pd based on natural stress. Normally
theatre of paradox,” reve-aling “precisely the “used a line with three stresses and Tarying length,
paradoxical eifeets of strict logic.” He is an ,In his two plays of the ’thirties Eliot had
unsparing critic of contemporary society, whose adopted the ritualistic themes and patterns of
dangerous tendencies he exposes in striking and wsok. drama and had achieved a certain tragic
bizarre
bizarre Actions.
ttctions. reminisfiRTit,
reminhoent Ilf of ttiB
the iiw
later Shaw. intensity.
intensity. But
But the
the Goi'I-faii Partu
Cocktail Party inaugurated an.
new style, the theme still being Christiaii re-
TTie Marriage of Mr. Mississippi. 1959. demption and the plot deriving from Greek
4n extravac-iTirn nrcpa tiio p-r.r,p i, drama, but the idiom, that of the fashionable
twemi two SAnfSi cathLi ?! Planners. In spite of subtle organisa-
fardCTl extwnfe ^ “Json has been an uneasy one.
Moses ’*istote™lted°al retrfb^H w cunous that the creator of Pnifrock should
oS nSr I^TTiim, P*® ®®®"^ ™SiH® *0 animate his dramatis per-
by AnglSn'doctriMtS^^
an nnscmpulois politician. do They" “t^the
The Visit agmnst which they are so taiVeccab lTbSomd
carefully placed.
A old
An ,1'multi-millionairess
II- 1®*®
revisits her birth- ways and subtlety
and the beauty of the of reference
language makeof them
these
Place and
place auu offers
oners the
tne inhabitants
inuabitants £1,000,000 toto aoepsnt tototlthe reader, but they are less compelling
murder her
murder her former
former lover,
lover, u-hn
who hnii
had rtanion kc on the
denied her the stage,
stage.
paternity order. Gradually persuading them-
sel ves that they are acting justly they comply. The The Cocktail Party. 1949.
Cocktail
.Bfirrenmatt cleverly maintains suspense in his
withering satire on love of money, hypocrisy and mi,.-, This play, revived in 1968, has its literary
the sycophancy of press and radio. ’ origin m Hercules
demi-pd Euripides’being
tragi-comedy
replaced byAlcestis. the
Eeiiiy. the
The Physicists. 1968. psychiatrist,
of tne whose IS intervention breaks the back
not easy to sympathise with
society itself and the impossibility of escaping the The ConUdentinl

consequences of one s tlflnking. rierl-
cieru. iq-vI
I9t)3.
ch^cfcer, attempting to suppress , Described as " high farce.” this play derives
scieiffiflc discoveries that may lead to the hydro- from another tragi-comedy of Euripides, the Ion
■ . retires to a private asylum pretending whose theme of parents seeking their lost children
to be in contact mth King Solomon. There he Is
first in danger of two spies, pretending to the reappears m Terence. Plautus, and Shakespeare,
evpnf™iit*^nf
eventually of the mad Einsteto and whose
proprietress Newton,useand The Elder Statesman. 1955.
of a ,
his discoveries will lead to the destruction of the ^ ?bot here returns to a tragedy, the Oedipus at
human race. Cfonm ^ Sophocles, hut the youthful peccadilloes
, w D?™ Claverton appear pallid compared with the
The Meteor. 1968. patncide and mcest of Sophocles’ protagonist.
.pother play of paradox
wishes to die hut cannot. has as hero a man who
Schwitter (Patrick Magee), famous dramatist ^'^®® Eeiffer.
Feiffer, the New York strip-cartoonist of inter-
bis orbit LUile Mierders

. 1967.
ScMtter the The blustering Newqnist family of New York
who/eefe on the hves of embody what Pelffer has called^ the “national
incident — ^hls dialogue paranoia ” in face of “ random violence ” and when
art b.also
w ®P®i® i!'
h^ been cymcally swgests that his the daughter, Patsy, introduces her flancfi Alfred
prostitution, for he too has who Is so strong that he never retaliates thevare
supphed artificial emotion to meet public demand, incredulous. But Patsy
The chief weakness of the play is that the sur- bullet. Alfred adopts the Ne^Xt is killed by some stray
ethS ^d
passers by.
one-act play h^
StcTXv has been Inflated
- too far. " f“bly is happfiy united sniping down ’harmless
(ê main theme is clear.
fascinated by it. . . . Peace is “ Man hates war bn t is
CJharles Dyer, “ran as_a novri, which maya Sissy.” account
The play
1 as _a novel, which may account for
for the
the
Dyer’s first success was The Rattle of a Simple S;?i„ °;ber stimulating ideas which are never
'ian. ^ tainingintegrated, and also for
satirical vignettes not some highly
entirely enter-
relevant.
The. Staircase, 1966. P.
One of rthe frankest plays eonoeming homo-
sexuahty fe a diMoê betweenrthe middle-aged ®n8 Shavian satire scintillates with dramatic
Charles Dyer (Scofield) and Harry C. Heeds and verhM paradox, epigram, and ironic under
(Magee) during „a wretched
AAAuuAcu. uiuAuaj iiigiu, lu
Sunday night in msir
their statement, ttiiu
and imyruvBB
improves on reading,
reading.
nokv harlier Ss sbon
po^barl^r shop fn
In ■Rri’rt.n-n
Brixton, t.liA
the now.
cage they have ,Tt is is BiviaiI
timed 1a in ‘'+V>a _ _ >• with
"the immefflate future,”
co^habited.for twenty years. America waging war in three continents, and is
Charlie is sardomo, aggressive, cruel: Harry, set In the library of the Liberal Brackman (Dot-
a messy talker” is softer, protective. Their nee). America’s “ oldest elder statesman.”
endless saua,bhlmg in ribald argot, comic, and On his noth birthday he is cynicallF dictating
searmg. vents then; exacerbated irritation, but the record of his shilly-shallying career, used by
Mdemeath IS glimpsed the pain of social isolation. Eeiffer as an image of the American Liberal
the mother fixation, the frustrated hankering for compromise as a betrayal of principle, a “s^-
offspnng, the fear of exposure. out. His narrative Is punctuated by teletype
and _ television presentations of mounting Insur-
_ „ reetion off-stage. Then two heavily armed
T. S. Ehot (1888-1966). See also MZ4. îtators, for Peace and Civil Eights, formerly
diastet *? raors. ir?, r

directory of dramatists iao
as a tacMc to shake up Congress' and the “ interplay of different >.
ftunceabyliima3atacactoshakeiiTvr>™arAcoi _ . Ary theatre n-
feama moves swiftly
wMe oirt of hand ” S the events successfullythrough tlfe^vearri'i ad
tSoped M^n\vlr®®’
SilS" ‘ir^« “sss. “iis

i-ue play operates as an urgent warning
.
Marshall’s memory. ^ ™ wiliiam
AIs S5SS'’£S'S'"‘“'
Yard of Sun. 1970. “»■■ “1 as MSte
Michael Frayn.
The Tim of Us. 1970.
war^PahKa^^to&^êe
hivolving only two “ galvanic liturgy of life >■ In a-
ended
ended with a hilarious playlet Eedgrave). In one there
resolTCd. are still brothers’ ennmJD^f'^r-
Angellno’s
genuine technical virtuosity of the which had the
Feydeau farce!
Tn^nifi'tn”^
Boberto,
eldeS sontowards
families'strive the^reLm ^
ex-Partisan, now a devoted doetil'°’f
scathiÎy scornful of easy-gotog T inv? -’i
Maz Frisch (b. 1911). politicianEdmondo.
missing and Blackshirt. Md Sfo T^f^tie ^
who suddeifly t5^f
war-profiteer, Edmondo is smugly
*^™i®?-Swlss who has been influenced eager to hrp
^ncial expertise to contrive the
famiUe^ for-
1 Bnwillmgly Boberto is stirred Tiv 'irfiTv,D'« i »
ScffeSoS’y of outiSe!^ ^ d^zling wife, embodiment of the n^ssinwS'^” ®
T/w M're~JRaisers. 1961. M. citement of the ]ô But bef ®i?-
A delig'litfiil Absurdis
ineptitt ude
saitire on botirsTen fs ^ ^gtaiMom so comlcallV mr M
slows Sma Rpif
(.Mfred Marks) persuading hrmsplf that
to set fee heto can
nouse Dy invitiiig them to a good dinner
tiid awhose putative husband
concentration camp, andhas just rptrirTS!?^r *’’’
now bluêsîi?b^
atuation is analogous to that of Benes of Gzechn^
dwakia who included conmuSsts to Ifls go™
Germans who connived H 'buif^nf ^ legal invalid wife. There Is
AltthOUgh the SCh6IX16 Oif this mtipf >nT»v\«-v»«
^fbon^+bA^®*^®®’^
ooniedF t too Giosetta
neat and and AngeUno
Its themeis somewha
of resurgence. flat it is trnp*S
The fridts ofAnnf
Jndorra. 1964. M. Jn
me iSdT
Athol Fugard (b. 193S).

^ Gentile and his assumption of
FugMd now has his own Theatre flrnnn Id b.v
aorwlthout byôfetr'’'® home Port Elizabet
town.Knot.
The Blood 1966. P.h. ^ ™
Christopher Fry (b. 1807).
to the mixed race of
C^P6
vere7*bTii®^L“fn2™^ “ f*® for bringing dialoê ColOUlTCdS, 0n6 ** tides for whifp”
between them, both comic and naive aul
and regions
Sl^P plays,1961,
of Prisoners, !the®iattM ftaught
of with intense
the terrible love and h^? “Sr^^
in churches during the Festival of Britain strains imposed by raeiKS
People Are Lwim There. 1970. O U.P.
slattemIyfS°tan^^^^^
ScJSStA. t esiTly
doiightfiil ^ , dynamic and magic of verse TTIh
"verse was snmef?Tnna +««
^ retarded poor white,** and the
f®,p?°^,to the grim “rock bottom ": of

felicitous comedy of liituto?" ^ and
The ParJi is lAgM pinough, 1964.
ft of humour “S
at the ridiculous pfeht of the
oiaCom&^niwA^v ^ ®®®entric and saint-like

ssji,aa, s.riMs
filS“ SMS? ?ssroi°iSa” CcS!?, ®t®'y rechUs Sartre’s In
Curtmantle. 1963.
protagonist dean Genet (b. 1910).
lived ®®*i®t. abandoned as a child has

niSiHn^ri ®ocfal outcast and criminal and while
^terrapudiat’Wl^t^/Lp^
Sr "*
i^rassKa*” ^*^tt.
Inoomonla
=1
»«*. «d a s.is“s
DIRECTORY OP DRAMATISTS l2 i CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
In his^ destructive scorn of contemporary Here MalOTlm, a beatnik ex-art student, compen-
society, lus recourse to rituals of violence, and his sates for Ms inadequacies— professional and sexual
incantatory language. Genet satisfies the re¬ Dy fantasies of Hitlerian power. He imposes
quirements of Artaud’s Theatre of Cruelty. on his three chums his farrago of “Dynamic
imurrecbon,*’ which so distorts reality that they
The Maids. 1056. P. Malcohn.
au im^y beat up the nice girl who wants to help
Two sisters, maids to a fine lady, continually The sources of disaffection and violence are
take it in turn to enact the r61e of mistress and scrutinised incisively hut with sympathy.
maid so that each can vent her envy and rancour
on the mistress. When their plot to murder the A. D. Bufford. 1969. F.
mistress misfires, one of them herself drinks the
poisoned cup of tea.
Dufford, like Malcolm, a fantasy-ridden medioc¬
Their compulsive charade, designed originallv rity, commits child-murder in order to hit the
for a cast of young men. mirrors the obsessive and heatUmes. Too much interest Is diverted from
self-destroying conflict of envious love and hate in crime.
his fantasy to conflicting interpretations of his
the mind of the outsider.
Trlana's The Crminals has a similar theme and
technique.
Christopher Hampton (b. 1946).
Tfie Balcony. 1957. P.
When Bid You Last See My Mother? I960. P.
This ceMored play had its world premifere at
the Arts Theatre Qub. It opens in a brothel, Hampton frankly explores the predicament of
where the frequenters enact their fantssfeH of the adolescent Ian, a bitterly alienated homo¬
powM by dressing up as bishop, judge, or sexual, in Ms triangular relationsMp with a former
until after an. abortive revolution they aregeneral,
called school friend. Jimmy, and with Jimmy’s mother.
upon by Coi^ to Impersonate th^ authorities
m actuality. Eventually the defeated revolu- Total Bclipse. 1968. P.
brothel to enact the part
of Chief of Pohce, who is then satisfied that Ms
image also has been established in popular regard. Thê story of Verlaine’s passionate Infatuation
for the ûiwer poet Etmbaud (prototype of
The film gives a softened version of the play. Brecht s Baal) is dispassionately and convinc¬
ingly presented, almost like a chronicle, the open¬
ing and closmg scenes being particularly skilful.
Giinter Grass (b. 19S7).
The Philanthropist. 1970. P.
Grass, a notable German novelist and author of
some early absurdist plays, has recently written An Mgenious comedy, ironic paraUel of Molifere’s
propagaâ for the Social Democratic Party of pie Misanmrop%st (M), Is " set in the near future ’’
Federal Germany. in the room of a bachelor don. Philip, the " pMl-
The PleUans Rehearse the Ujprising. 1968. anthroplst.”

- In an^ arresting coup de thidfre an aspiring
dramaUst. trying to eonvine» Philip and his
Produ^ here first by amateurs in 196S. and ftiend Donald of the likelihood of hia protagonist’s
thm by the E.S.a in 1970, 2%« Rlebians Is set in sulc^, unfortunately blows out his own brains.
a theatre in East Berlin. The date, 17 June 1058, Shortly afterwards a dinner party for six ncca-
IS that of the spontaneous yet formidable rising of some brilliantly precise and apt repartee.
the workers In East Germany against the Ulbricht As in MoIiSre, the characters are boldly delineated
rdgime. and effectively t»ntrasted. Philip, a literal¬
.,3^he play— not a documentary — îmagines a minded philology don. dlsoWms critical judgmmit.
sitimtion in which the Boss, clearly a counterpart hut Is fascinated by words M isolation, his lonely
of Brecht the dramatist-producer, is rehearsing pÎme devising anagrams. So anxioTis is he to
his Germanised version of CorioJanm. whose please that he is terrified of hurling people, but
protagonist is the aristocrat, who, spuming the his mumblte evasicms give more offence than
reteHious plehians. all hut betrays his country. Don 8 trencSiant oritic^ms.
Into the Boss’s theatre intrude rebellious The evening cuMalnatesMcmnlc fiasco. Philip,
workers, asking him to write a manifesto which too topere^lve to realise that his fiancde. CteHa.
will give coherence to their inarticulate demands. wants to stay, lets her be " taken home ’* by an
But the âmatist who has indefatigably urged imscrupulous acquaintance, and out of pique she
intelligent revolution, scorns their amateur in¬ Bleeps with Mm. Meanwhile Philip is too timid to
competence. Despite the advice of his wife, he ref^thenOTphomaniac, Aramlnta, whostays the
temporises, exploiting the worlmts’ gestures and nlrat under conditions too appallMg to relate."
tape-recording their dialogue as material for Ms Eext day, Celia, having dficovered Araminta
own play. at breakfast, returns ^âin to break off her en¬
^ PinaUy, moved by the enthusiasm of a girl, gagement with one too weak to control her.
herself inspired by Katrln in Bredit’s Moflier Hhfiip, crestfallen, decides to approach Liz, only
Gom<me (a.i?.), the Boss resolves to support the to find that she has spent the nît with Don!
uprising. But already the Eussian tanks are Harking back to Scene 1. Philip transpo^
movh^ in. Bitterly he realises that he has Imagme the theatre as real ” into ’* I hate thee,
himself played the part of Coriolanus. sterile anagram.” Then, taking a cigaretM and a
-r, sm^ pistol, he goes to join Don and Ifz. Is this
Brecht play
s rMereflects not only dictatorship.
In a satellite Grass’s disquiet Itabout
con-ambiguous finale a token suicide, Philip having
cerM the predicament of the modem artist— that previously given up smoking fOr fear of cancer, or
of Grass himself— as to whether art or political does the anagram indicate a new ftultftil Involve-
mentinUfe?
commitment should take precedence. A si^fl-
oant minor Incidmit in Ike play is that the re- , ê significance of tMs " bourgeois comedy " is
°i
Intellectuals, Dnivereity , to
^lidailty, the workers'
is merely cry. further
to bar their comedy apprecfiated
of manners. by comparison with MoHfeie’s
imdows. Grass clearly indicates that the lack common theme is the foibles of the age, in
of effective support of artists and intellectuals to MolKre courtly hypocrisy, in Hampton growing
the revolution they advocate results in a tragic indifference to violence. Don’s hilarious report
cleavage in the nation— hence the sub-titlfi, A I of the news that an unhinged Tory disguised as a
German Tragedy. i woman has mown down half the Cabinet is dis¬
cussed with cool ncmchalanoe. Only Philip is
apalled.
David Halliwell. Hampton’s ifliaraoters are of the same metal as
their prototypes hut the coin Is reversed. The
MtSe Malcolm and His Struggle Against the idealistic misanthropist, Alceste, rebukes flat¬
PtWMicfts. 1066. P. terers, even Ms beloved, the coquettish OClimCne.
finally deoidi^ to withdraw from society. The
A deUckmsly funny seud-up of the angry young geê Philip is m his privileged vocatbm already
man cult is located in a Huddersfield gaixett. Withdrawn, but lacking the courage of his own
CONTEMPORARY
OIRECTORY OF THEATRE
DRAMATISTS
convictions,” diffidently condones even some confidence in crowino- a ni-,r 1,11. ^

the “ frivolous ” Celia. brings tiulb. This
But Hampton’s focus has shifted from a man’s stS gM keepSouIe
friendship between two men. and eaiSly coSIsSiiS ^'"i^her
i denvative to be entirely self- seaman brother. The heqitnnf
subsistent but Hampton skilfully incorporates a Alvin and Anna fq iTi/iip-ifafi
into his meticulously structured comedy.
with some charm and
“atml distiSc Mon
Three Months Gone.“'ideated
1970.
Mikael Hastmgs (b. 1038). In a seauel Anna now orphaned is pregnant

Hastn^s’Boii’iBesiTOj/lfewasproduced when of their relationshi encoimter with tne
Alvtoanu
he was 18. Ia,cs and U.UIV After
^jici (P)
kJL y appeared
uypeiireu in
m 1957.
lyoY. Ap -l.p îsdistance.
here swa.mnpri
But
•outJ w
the delirflf»r-
SficMv
, their relationship is here swamped bv evfriTi^
The Silence of Lee Harvey Osivald. 1966. P.
'te Silence of Lee Harvey Osimld. 1966. P. mcidents many of them phantasy invnlvfnt^
ZjJi.' i. nvuiB tueaire, encounter witn AIvlu s mother
the ^viuamoiner.
assassmat
begins with ion a ofstraightforward
sequences and stills.
Kennedy, illustrate d byof film
narrative
Then verbatim passages from_ the official in- Ionesco (b. 1913).
recomtruSions
technique which *of Oâld’s domest?c*^Ûâ
diffuses the sense of authentE of tteÂbsSd
not rationally, °ffifers
thlh%i^l^se?
Playwrights
but through images that
^êôa&^
. thataiem
Rolf HoohhuthCb. 1931).
Hpfffihuth, like his predecessor Schiller is ioP®seo stumbled^m°toôcatio*°Ss'^sh^®u
Using some dramatis personae M. r. 3-“»srpKa?£€*

who represent ^°e1^*®to^convPuHnn?i'^‘°“ thought, the
historical personages, this play in verse exprêq muSSS * pressures, the urge to
the fafiure of Pope Plus Sip oJist’s “ remi! Xch f ®- d^ccation of lanê
sentative, ' to i>rotest against the massacre of the “notliinc madeemate. has become
arrowmg eitect.
s of life’s absurdity has deep roots
Soldiers. 1968. Sode™ of tte
Hochhuth’s inordinately long play had its f??i? e-^d absurd in its pÎntiahtiS ^^HPhpiwS
of “non 9Pd protest at the bombing Y ^^“a^tistog his own inner hmt he ^ w
,®et symbolically at experience. In The Si^Sierd’s
ee°iîJ“ a realistic play- plaiidy stated that for h m^he
h- persona
^hd^stoncal months. May to ^^f?fn?^®®’
are assigned -S T®^
naturally that he is little nreoccunwi
^?ehhPfh embodies his theme by problems. Ee^rffingAhe
presentmg Cherwell as the eminence grise ” who iûman condition as wider and deeper fpo
advocates to Churchill (John^lffios)f (he wm- condition, he dislffies my of hSti^!
to bSmhw^®°^®S^ of ruthless satuS- ‘Z o°ofo™to and dSiSdy reS
the i® counterpointed by *1^® , epmnutted ’’ and didactic play.
modem warfare TrvSo?°®^®®*5?“'^°®f*i®®™ciPies and technique
only barbarity but treachery. Thfe i^® mdicated in r&ms of Bwh^h^
Hon
tipn ^tp
with his ally, the Polish GenArfl,!confronta-
Riimrotj r^lism, the concentdripatic
of theassumptiom.
** ATiDfnfai4.av^fiuito
at Sikorskl s insinuation that Chur-

death is a striking and of ®? much,tactic,
ôck Ionesco has most
using evoked a* new
Ingenions
image and is defended by *0 express his convictions He
grounds that a play is an f^fc™Pfs to go right down to the very basism?
to hav?- s^p^êv&f Pâ?o^.°M®e"^^t WhM

whenl^^SSli^l^f^-^traducingChmcM Sn^^^ôUtlf'ômlc.
the filial Act, Bishop Bell is presented in a *j plays, as in those-Haftrtgi^.^*"^
of Pinter the
protest to Churchill against tlonal dividing lines between tragedy and comedv
®^“ntsâssiS
ontortunately proceed to
to their loffieai S^t
rime poignant, expressing as thev afeTt
away, for his amusing imagS thSe
dn VuiTno-n iHo
Snîv®® *^® pressure of the play is a^traglp import. ouanous

dominant
while, organising the Intricate political topmes
detafi liferato^t^f
in a ®P?eties whtoh*eltoa5fe®S
of his oharMto^ Sl nt
remarkably convinoing Hokopes Shus to make the stage settings sn^dc'
and ^^tljosyncratio. massive, ^nm?“?tate acHon into visual terms: to project
£L.»4vsr“ “ ^ “« s Shinoceroa Bsxd
»o». p, S^«2S
.,^0 households are revealed simultameoiiHlv of fortitude.
T
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
|23
impiwt on English drama, especially on Simpson Alfred Jarry (1873-1907).
and Saimders, _ Although Pinter has a philosophy
and style aU his own, his work is based on similar Vbu Hot. 1906. M.
presuppositions.
In 1896. Jarry, Initiator of the “ Pataphyrics ”
movement, scandalised Paris with his startling
The Bald Prima Donna. Written 1948. Cbu Roi, preeureor of Absurd drama.
CharacteiB from an English language manual The characters appear as grotesque puppets
shocking _ and comic. Uie shameless, greedv
come to life and pour out their clichtis in a " parody UIiu caricatures both Macbeth and bourgeois
of a play, which Ionesco first considered to be a jmlganty and m his brutal conquest of Poland
tragedy of language,” but which proved becomes a monstrous prototype of ruthless cruelty
theatriplly very funny. The first dialogue be-
twren husband and wife is now a classic.
Imus Ionesco, almost by accident, wrote the Ann Jellieoe (b. 1928).
first of many satirical exposures of the sterile
lanCTage of those who live a merely mechanical Ann
existence. its markJellicoe’s initial work as producer has left
on her plays.
Discounting the concept of man as a rational
The Lesson. Written 1050. P. creature and stressing that people are driven
emotions she concentrated in her early plays by on
. -f old professor coaches an eager young people to a higtoy emotional and irrational condi¬
girl. Elaborately “ proving " the impossibility of tion. She deliberately tried to stir up in the
commumcatmg by words, he arbitrarfly decides audience the emotions portrayed
what various words shall mean, until he rapidly on stage, em-
rapes and murders violent stimuli— a barrage of visual action,
his pupil, the fortieth that day. rh^hm, sound, and sheer noise. Words were
reduced to a minimum and these few frequently
Ionesco Illustrates the prostitution of language toeantatory and meaningless. Ann
to power, the sexual element in power. wanted the audience to yield unthinkingl Jeliicoe
y to the
in the teacher-pupil
relationship and mdeed in all authority. eiîonal impact and to refrain from nai-inp
What does this mean? ”
While these plays were often intense and excit¬
Jack. Written 1950. ing. they were severely limited to range and
manner and to some degree obscurantist. The
Urged, by hte conventional family to settle down emotional is only one aspect
Bohemian son. Jack, resists and it IS toextricably entangled of human experience,
with
Kouert^, the proposed bride, because having only epenence wliich is just as valid. intellectual To dwell
two no^s she is not ugly enough. He eventually atoost exclusively on the irrational to the neglect
suce^bs to Eoberte H with three noses. Ionesco of coherent speech— man’s hard-won tool of
parodies submission to bourgeois conformity. thought — is partial and misleading.
The function of the artistic image is so to reveal
The Chairs. Written 1951. P. aspens of experience that they can be recognised
and harmonised, and to elucidate the significance
An ancient concierge and his wife prepare for a of the image intelligence is necessary.
crowd of CTests who are to hear his final message In later work Ann Jeliicoe appears to have
to posterity. As the totally invisible guests discarded her theories.
axnve the couple fetch more and more chairs for
them, until, with the entry of the professiona The Sport of My Mad Mother. 1967 P.
orator who is to pronoimce the message, they lumpl
into the sea. But the orator is deaf and dumb A gang of Teddy hoys, living in terror of
^d 1m writing on the blackboard is a meaningless pother gang which never appears, is dominated
jumble. by the fierce and enigmatic Greta. Exulting in
The empty chairs constitute a most effective their teelmgs of violence, they express themselves
th^trical image for man’s failure to communicate, to inarticulate and disjointed words and phrases,
and the dumb orator makes the record of a life- staccato cries and toeantatory songs. Film, a
tune seem utterly futile. It may also suggest how commentator, emphasises these with a set of
meaningless the words of author and actor. mstnmietos, tocludtog a motor-hom, which mn.Vpg
Ionesco says. The theme of the play is nothing¬ soimds that are often discordant and a-rhythmic.
ness made concrete.” AU this makes a receptive audience aware of
what it may feel like to belong to an adolescent
Vidims of Duty. Written 1962. gang, but Greta Is not easy to accept. A mother-
schoolmistress figure, she finally gives birth to a
By trMisfoxming a detective into a psycho- embodiment of the Indian goddess,
analyafc, Ionesco argues that there is Ettle differ¬
ence hetw^n the psychological drama and the ^li. The epigraph of the play is “ AU creation
mere detective play. Jeliicoe explained my
IS the sport of Mad Mother, EaU.” Ann
that the play is based on myth
pd uses ritual, bodying forth " fear and rage and
Amidie. Written 1953. P. being rejected from the womb or tribe.” Such
A corpse in the flat of a married couple, con¬ gunltoUsm demanding an interpretation of its
signlfit^ce is out of key with a play so deUberately
stantly growmg at a frightening rate, is a grue¬ anti-toteUect ” and restricted to a direct
some and appropriate image of their dead love. emotional impact.
Minoceros. Written 1968. B, \ The Knack, 1961. E.

More and more Atoooeroses appear to a smal ,, The knack in question is that of getting girls and
provincial town. They are the inhabitants who phrM out of the four characters are frankly exposed
one after the other, want to be turned into the® to the^lrratlonal grip of sex. The inhibited Colin,
aflok-sknmed, aggressive animals. PtoaUy oal’ struggles with the over-experienced Toleh for the
possession of Nancy (Elta Tushingham) and
B6renger JOlmer) resists the urge to conform. '
TOe terffymg pain the action is carried forward as much hy
Im-e of conformity is here skUfulb
and movmgly iUustrated. ' improvisation as hy coherent speech. The film
version captures the play’s spirit.
Exit the Kitiff. Written 1963.
Shelley. 1966.
_ In an agnostic counterpart of the ISth-centun
meryman, Ionesco shows King B6renger (Alei
GmnnMs), in his disintegrating palace, reluctanth ^ A lucid, weU-dociunented chronicle play illus¬
trates incidents to Shelley’s Ufe. But the simple
submitting to the process of dying, his final re’ straight-Une structure is not suited to the com¬
source being fortitude alone. This dramatb plexity of poetic genius. The personality that
elegy, inspired by the final scenes of Eichard II, ii emerges is that of the selfless social ideaUrt and
deseed witti bold simplicity, presenting man’i pamphleteer and the theme his theory of free love,
mortal dissolution with unflinching honesty anc involving Hajriet and Mary in disaster. The
a tenderness new to Ionesco.
predicament is viewed from the woman’s angle
DIRECTORY ^ CONTEMPORARY
OF DRAMATISTS 12/ THEATRE
Mid the_ initial germinal situation, that with
Indians. 1968.
The career of Buffalo Bill Cody exemnliflpo ti,„
mF® r'
Xhe ireqnentoversimplified as to be false.
change of brief scenes, effective in
themselves, has a fragmented effect.
The Givemvay. 1969.
released to re-enact their toner
A wqtdd-be satire on commercial “ free gift ” Cody, at the climax, fa^d bT
competitions (and television stardom) is too the a^rfri
painfully obvious and flimsy to carry any weight. ghosts n ofatEed
punetio their Indians voiceslnatem
virtual, exterm Arnerica’s^mm^
James Joyce (1882-1941). See also M6. Bernard Kops (b. 1928).
Kops, who was born in Stennpv nf
Joyce’s only play, wiping folk, left school at the age of tHrt°en ^
hhaw, was after some rejected by both Yeats and
vicissitudes of production Good-bye World, 1969, Chanoe S fh
,
justified under Pinter’s direction in Aêl, 1960, Dream of Peter Mann, 1960
oae-aot, Sfrai/ Cats and Emviv (P)
Its theme is the agony of mind and spirit en¬ Bottles mri
Enter Solly Gold. 1962, chosen for pertoitnVil^
gendered by a courageous attempt to live beyond
ttie eontoes of law, convention, and habit. Kops is less successful with realism than
Eiehard Eowan returns to Dublin, a famous wii-h
the provinces by Centre 42. ®®rio™aiice m
TOiter. after mne years’ voluntary exile.
He
by common-law. who had
son°^Me^^* Ireland with him. and their little deî- Siurnf&nM^nr

m measy tha^frelatiothejde SsMe'êSr-hero.^th
nsUp with
oMfeoS
Eowan again meets Beatrice, who has always ! who m some his easy-going mother
cases is courted by a srdtor wbnm
loved him and with whom he has for years corre¬ isllkes. Eventually the hero realises
sponded voluminously about his work. Prom devoted giri is his true mate that >1
oimplex motives, partly to assure himself that K^|^ al
"i®®® emotion plara thr^
MOTc?
Bertha s union with him is still absolutely
free of that of the Oedipus-Hamlet myth, on to which
conventional ties, he encourages her growing
mtinmcy with his old friend and disciple. Eobert. he Sooi^
grafts the happy ending lly
of the
But ^rtha. who in her simplicity is envious of geodes IS often
critici sm, especia of fairy
mass-pr tale™
oduced ™
Beatece s education and subtlety of mind, a secondary theme.
feels Xll6 SluuKlCfiioil of tlLo PlSiVS is "tllpiT* fflfrxr
rejected pd confused. Eobert that he is acting d joy^S +aTG
m an imderhand way, and Eiehard that he
must
be evM wounded by doubt as to their fidelity.
Only parejital feeling for Archie and Bertha’s
profound tenderness for Eiehard save them.
Por
prtha, with ‘ something wiser than wisdom in
tension between spontaneity
1^®® an intuitive insight beyond ream™. * ^ ^ tbeir dream for of
Eichard’sprobmgmanipulatinglntelllgence. lOSllUg^ flUd 6XC6116I1C8 of form lias
Since
^chard is to some degree a self-portrait, Joyce’s ai\
obmctive self-criticism is remarkable. âxed that dramatic intensity is often
plays are loosely construeted, and saorifleed
This taut and olose-knlt play in “ three the dia¬
cat and logue sometimes so naturalistic as
Ptet “is present here to be banal.
now, recalls Ibsen.
complexity of viewpoint and entangle- D. H. Lawrence (1886-1930). SeecdsoWI.
Is ample material for
^ Hopkins television sectuence,
Tamm io a Stramer, 1066 (E). „pîTi®/®“®^kable that the plays of Lawrence
Heiner Kipphardt.
In the Matter of J . Robert Oppenheimer. 1966. M. ^ followed It in 1967 w^
already performed in 23 capitals.
Ihe smiroe Is®?®bner. “father of the A bomb.”
documentary, fifrf tosetber with me Widowina of
the 8,000 pages of
Iîmel Security Board
J Energy Commtoon in 1954. thf crftics. Laurence season
accHtoedZ
conmnmi ty ^th falthfid rST^/^heiS
Po taking over a month with 40 witnesses already familiar through the con-
2®3 bbaped so that evidence is
™J+^*u'*b^nly6'pîiesses.
w^ Kipphardt’s aim
to folloiwHegel m stripping away ^fe who feels “ niperim ’’ to herSr
the adventi¬ hM!
tious eircumstanc^so that the essaatlal
dfriSi
bas made a few additions. ot to wife or sweetheart,
of b£ bearth and home, sonwith
ibe gifted j^lousy
and profoun d
™ document s are based all
and on emotional imnlicaiions, move forward
de^Hom^m statements, with si
!.®^®™®^y naturalism that is undistu
rbed by a
*b.®i'®fore,hasike
an central
extraordidiiemmas
nary authen-
are
New Scientist pointed
^ t^b® audience to answer the searching extraordinarily nfod-
Henry its°
Mn in Livings dtan
(b. 1029).
quîons raised. Was Oppenheimer,
with his
OTmmi^t connîons, a security risk? The protagonist of Livings’ frank and refliffitfo
Cana
p'^^b state authorities and keeîs m^dies of working life «maU^TmtteS
unfores^ reactions culminate in htorS
for the use made of duaster which topples down the petty rulers
to^JveriS?^® responsible
Arthur L. Kopit (b. 1938).
a toa bghtly used to suggest
Oh Bad, Boor Bad; 1961, Stop
sociafIt,emsce^
Whoeverdisregarded 1060.whoB. support the
You Are.people
«• parodies the devouring ATn<>ricaTi bi a fectory.
J^b° emanates all her môlk. She «ft£S5»bislpiifi Is urvolvel
cant Perldn Warbeefc,in aa series
lavatory
of
ber hushond’s corpse in a ludicrous mishaps, hut indirectly
gets his own
cMd.
ppus*A gruesome *5? treats
Bkeudla her son Isof 17 ot a
n femtasy pre^ted M in awife
^naedy, Siii
which ismS
fSntasy-like soane
very
TOifte^*^ fcragifarce,” hut there is little latent ot Warbeck s death, a stance, and a gas explosion.
f
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS l25 CONTEMPORARY THEATRE

Big Soft Nellie or the Sacred Nit.
I Hadrian
Peter Lnlte.
the Seventh. 1907. P.
A farcical comedy has as protagonist a mother’s
boy who is the laughing stock of his mates.
The play derives from a novel by Eolfe {alias
Coryo). an extraordinary, autobiographical
Nil Carbormidimi. 10G2. P. fantasy of his own wish-fulfilment, where the oft-
rejected hero, Pose, becomes Pope. Luke wisely
The scene is the kitchen of an E.A.F. station Kientifles Bose with Eolfe and presents the eleva¬
and the action culminates in a riotously-funny tion to the Papacy as a dream, astonishing,
mock commando raid, which exposes both the spectamilar. and witt5% within the shabby frame-
pilfering cook and service routines that lire now W'ork of Eolfe’s own cireimistances.
an anachronism.
Eh? lflG4. M.
John McGrEth (b. 1935).
Of Irish extraction. McGrath, who had wide
In an ultra-modem factory the incompetent
experience in the army before reading English at
young boiler-man, Val (David Warner), brings Oxford, has now had several plays published.
his bride to sleep in the bottom bunk and gives
most of his attention to growing giant muSirooms. Emils while Guarding the Bofors Gun. 1966. M.
and eventually blows the place to smithereens.
Agam a light-hearted farcical comedy shows the _ to situation, McGrath’s masculine and dis-
underdog confounding established authority. ciplmcd play is a realistic counterpart of Giles
Cooper s radio fantasy MaOirv Beacon.
Incidently a fool’s lapse starts the “mushroom
The futility of military routine is exposed with
cloud.’’
steejy irony as. on a freezing night in Germany,
dunr« the Cold War, seven men guard the obso¬
Honour and Offer. 1969. M. lete Boiors gun. The frustrating situation also
The pompous lodger and mortgagee. Cash, engenders personal conflict. The imcontrollable
secretly desires his " delicious ” landlady and hates desperado O’Eourke defies Lance Bombardier
her needy and unscrupulous husband, a slick Evans. An insecure boy of 18, Evans is so
travelling salesman, who eventually fools bim obsessed by the hope that promotion may provide
hnn a way of escape to England that he connives
at insubordination.
suicide destroys them Finally
both. O’Eourke's reckless
Eobort Lowell ib. 1917). See ako MSS.
Bakke's Night of Fame. 196S.
The first dramatic work of the distinguished
American poet. Eobert Lowell, is The Old Glory, A play, faithfully based on the novel, A Danish
a recent trilogy of plays in free verse based on Gariibit, by William Butler, takes as subject the
stories of Hawthorne and Melville. Their unify, pnssoner’s last night in the condemned cell of an
ing motif is the flag. American prison.
Bakke, condenmed for an apparently motiveless
murder, enjoys being as provocative as possible,
Benito Cereno. 1967. discomforting the well-meaning guard by first
requesting then contemptuously rejecting the
The third and best play of Lowell’s trilogy is traditional routine of food and consolation. He
aased on a short story by Herman Melville, entangles the priest with Ms contention that
which had its origin in actual incident. society is exercising not justice but revenge, his
About the year 1800, while off Trinidad. Delano, only constant demand being that he shall meet Ms
Captain of an American trader, observes that a “ buddy,” the executioner.
Spanish trader, the San Domingo, is in great diffi¬ This granted. Bakke so needles and infuriates
culties and generously goes to her aid. the executioner that the man is betrayed into a
Captained ostensibly by Benito Cereno, the San violent outburst, gloating over his imminent task.
Domingo is in fact in the hands of her cargo of Bakke. gleeful and triumphant, has proved Ms
revolted slaves who have spared his life only that point about revenge.
he may navigate them back to Africa. The effete McGrath shows great ingenuity and expertise In
and exhausted Cereno lives at the knife point at manoeuvre and sudden surprise, but he has not
the hands of Babu, the wily and insinuating Negro quite acMeved the tension and suspense nor the
who is m actual command.
progression of the Bofors Gun. The significant
Delano fails to realise this, for Cereno dare not encounter with the executioner comes too late and
speak plainly, and the American is too opaane and is treated too briefly.
self-assured to interpret ironic hints. Only when
Babu openly defies him is he enlightened, but too
late. The oifly safe course now left to him is open Frank Marcus.
violence and without wamiog his seamen massacre
aU the Negroes. The best-known plays are The MUing of Sister
In a final ominous incident the last survivor, George, 1965, and Mrs. Mouse Are Tm Within?,
196S. Both ^ve a humorously sympathetic
Babu, cries out “ The future is with us ” before account of an unusual human relationsMp, offset
Delano empties his pistol into the Negro’s body, by boisterous comedy coming from off-stage.
crying, “ This is your future,”
This is one of the most truly poetic plays to be
seen In London for many years, lucid In verse, David Mercer (b. I9S8).
rich in themes and suggestive power, austere in
design, while the theatrical poetry of mimes, Since 1961 Mercer has written television plays
rituals, and masaues is used with ironic sfenifl- and also the flim-seript Morgan or a Suitable Case
eance. The Director, Jonathan MDler, envisaged for Treatment. His first stee play. Ride a Cock
it as a kind of inverted Tempest, the Spanish ship Horse, was produced in 1965. He is concerned
a black magic island and Cereno a drugged with the psychological predicament of today’s
Prospero held captive by Babu, and he produced able, educated young man of artisan origin (a
it m the formal and stylised manner of opiera. reflection of his own situation as eon of a Yorkshire
The play is also remarkable in its relevance to engine-driver). He usually depicts Mm as
estranged from his parents, disorlmitated, and
America’s dilemma, domestic and foreign, includ- cMldless.
mg her ambignoufl attitude to the contemporary
Negro. Jonathan Miller points, out that Lowell Originally drawn to Marxism Mercer has recent¬
ly said that whatever the society he is examining,
here shows “ the penalties of uninformed gener¬
osity” and of the trUogy as a whole he says, “ whether the Yatican or the Kremlin,” he is
“ These plays are about the big-hearted blindness most concerned with the individual "who’s catch¬
of the American nation and they ôw Qifite ing the muck that’s flying off the ideological
clearly how the cotmtry's cardinal virtues can . . . fan,” but he has not yet successfully dramatised
harden into the very vices which so disable the tMs concern on the stage.
American pxusult.” Belcher's Duck. 1966.
In a world increasingly threatened by discord
between white and coloured peoples Benito The rickety English class structure is the frame¬
Cereno has an even wider implicatian. work of a complex play.
l26 CONTEMPOHARY THEATRE
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS
On his ramshacMe country estate, contemptu¬ outwards to society as a whole,
of which the
ously seiyed by his former batman, Belcher, Sir fanuly IS but the growing point. Signifi
Gerald is becoming senile, Helen, his icy ttie benign mother-figures— cantly—
Miller’s
avaricious niece, persuades Belcher to goad her balanced characters axe la^vye^s,
^ death so that they may together His plays a,re well constructed, the
dialoaup
inherit the property. She then scornfully dis- economic and telling, and he has progresse
the realism of All My Sons, publishe d from
mMes Belcher in favour of Victor, his bastard son. d 1947 to
Victor, expemively educated by Sir Gerald, is much freer experimental techniques, while
mentally unstable and impotent, but this familiar prose style has become more fluid and 'the
eloquent.
Mercer fl^re is now on the periphery. The
con&ct l^tween the chaste and physically timid Death of a Salesman,
Srr Gerald and the coarse and drunken Belcher has Published 1949. p.
become the compelling focus. A compassionate and finely-balanced play
impingement of hire-purchase com-ex-
After Baggerty. 1970. M. meiciahsm on the agemg salesman,
Willy Loman
Bernard Link, dejected after two unsuccessful also reveals his overwhe
deeply lming
affection ate man.
sense a™d
of guilt
marriages, suddenly finds his new flat invaded by towards wife and sons. The play is
the vociferous American Claire, deserted wife of worked mt
the former tenant Haggerty. She brings her on two plmes, the inexorable present and Willy’s
past wlMh obsessively enacts itself
witi^ his
decorators ” from “ Rely-
Idiosjncratio “ confusion.
On add to the comic
Meanwhiie rather stereotyped flashbacks in the
form of inonologue reveal emotional stalemate: Mcelien^® Aim version with Frederick Marahris
Bernard, international drama critic, addresses The Crucible. Published 1953. P.
his parochial engine-driver father (invisible to the Starkey’s The Devil in Massa-
pdience): and the adoring heiress, Claire, f.n.ivn
to the indifferent and anarchical Haggerty
chiiselts^ dealt with a witch-hunt in Salem in 1692
unseen). (also and pomted out Its relevance to our own age. also
intensities.” In 1952 the
embprassment is intensified activities of McCarthy gave it a special
bj the unheralded arrival of his father, prejudiced urgency
powerful play Miller uses tMs historfcal
and censorious, yet pathetic.
meident to depict not an mdifferent
society hut
The pl^ ends with two acts of cruelty. An one m which positive evil is unleashed.
empty cofifin arrives from Haggerty, indicating The e^ls
his he e:^lores are the persecutionEstabl
demise, and Bernard, exasperated by his father’s ofishmen t In
a minorit the
y and
mental atrophy, symbolically hangs the funeral mdividual conscience.
wreath round his neck.
(Dharacterlstic^y MUIer focuses attention
A latent topic is disillusion with communism on the
and fnoleiit protest, but ^^d he invents Ms former
the alienation of artisan Mercer’s favoiuite theme,
father and educated son adifltery "^th Ablg^. so that the play
partisan manifesto but a study of the is not a
finds no resolution. The dialogue is vigorous complex
and contradictions of actual life. The self-rlg
inventive, especially in invective. MeS
Blinf. 1970. M. groi^h

toîci^ of the persecuto
andtopoignantl
self-know rs and Proctor’s'^ otto
fully y ledge and
portrayed . courage are faith¬
1 • presents the improbable situation of a
tandly septujênan Kensington vicar, Flint A View From Ok Bridge. 1966. P.
(Michael Hordern), agnostic since ordination,
whose sexual obsessions and irregularities Eddie Carbone, a BrooMyn docker, is so
have gripped
the scandal of the diocese. by jealous possessiveness of Ms wife's niece,
he eventually betrays her two kinsmen, tW
illegal
hmmgrants. to the Authorities.
h®r from Holloway gaol, already pregnant In a play of repressed sexual passion, wdth
by Lints
another’ Flint inadvertently sets the vestry
on of a tod of situation new to him and the heighten-
fire. Meanwhile his wife, hysterically nf ^d homOTexnallty. Mler shows mastery
crippled
since her honeymoon, sets fire to the church.
W
is then murdered by her sister, formerly Flint’s
mistress, who promptly goes mad. Flint A lawyer,
sûeS”" ^ AJfleri,
^ realised
acts to
as ataut
Greekandchorus
dlsoiWe
and but dis
Dixie .âpe abroad on Ms motor-bike and side- powerless to toteryene, for Eddie infringes
some-
® V® “ l»t>our by the roadside, he thlj^more pri^tive than the legal code and
It is
wiiB^^ly ammunition lorry and Is
kUled^ pnmitive vendetta that he is eventually
Mercer has clahned that Flint’s “ humanity
more valuable and more deserving of our love is
Incident at Viehy. 1966, P.
the institution to which he and
be-
_ But to contrast the hero, presented as responsibility of society
endearing, vdth some stagey clerics is unoonvinc- fbr the mdivtouM m a play wMoh
revivals of Shaw exposes the
latent racial hostility wMch even the
best men
make mint look paltry as a “play of ideas.”
m^îmconsciously harbour.
lie takes is antisemitism, the place
^pecMy as the mdividiial
sre the vicar s haplesss women
who "i catch the the scene a bleak ^te-
“ melodrama In plenty and some lively room within sound of a railway, where
farcical comedy, but wordy meditations, virtuaHy deporting Jews to tfie sealed of
monologues, Mog the action, so that the play
lacks
invention of the sparkling Feydeau JeTWsh mspecta, await 8TOPP
T V investig
Ofation.
men andTherea is
boym
farces recently translated by Mortimer.
^mog>he
tees re of chill
to summon horror aid susienK
up Ms otto pitiful defence against
Arthur Miller (b. 1915).

Arthur Miller, an admirer of Ibsen, shares embSk^nn journey he must
his the
purpose and of the Indivi- ioM^door’ “en summone
o remain, d thehehtod
two most
diml s r€»RouBibllity to the community. ^cul^
analyst (Anthony Doctor Lednc,
(Suayle) and Von Berg a Jewish
Tills Is (Aleo
bM^ced by a sympathetic understanding of
the indivlduM in modem society. the ^d humane Viennese Prince, who is
® chaiêi^ deeply felt and realised, are
MiMe men who êr throng their ho^toed by the vulgarity and barbarism of
the
of character or judgment in social own errors Doctor Leduo convinces
“ evens
condition
.^hice of hw unconscious antisemitism and
the Pri^ jnves to safe-conduct to the doctor.
pattern is that of paternal responsi-
biffiy wSto-'a
father’s distress pShaf^f^rto" soette toS
as he sees Ms errors h^tagvrifl J^®??® oyhe an pK"?£rW
identity on the
f
l27
DIHECTOHY OF DRAMATISTS CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
relations with her knowing her to be a minor, had
I^duo,
of their Miller
r6le. also criticises the Jews’ acceptance
srto^quently paid for an abortion and that his
TI^ disturbing play makes the greatest de- whole life had been slowly undermined by a rank-
mai^ on the emotions, intelligence and humanity hng sen^ of crime and inconsistency. When
of the audience, who like the Prince to some de- tells him Uiat there was no occasion for an
CTee undergo psycho-analysis. But the play is aborOon md that she got the money from him to
a, fine restraint. As in
Aischylus Asamemnm the '\dolence takes place
go abroad Chard
frustrated berserk.the bewildered and
her lover,
_^th goes
Iwhiad cUos^ doors, with the significant difference m,The plot t^hua an inversion of DGrrenmatt’s
that m Miner s play the chorus and yictims are
identical. ^ commanding themes of guilt and
process of judging are
1 j,
boldly focused uiexhausting
the complex compulsive person-
The Pric^. 1969. aiity of Chard. Balancing the themes of guilt and
Two brothers confront each other in an attic retripution is that of permisslvene®, represented
by berena. She is unfortunately pictured in
crowded with the heavy furniture of their dpnd a
superficial way as a shallow Bohemian, and her
tatcp, a nBancier rained in the Depression. menage is not unlike that satirised by Mrozek
Its imminent sale is the occasion of their first in
encounter m sixteen years. Tango, ^nd much of the potential tension of the
\ictor Pranz, who had given up a scientific Is author too in-
career to support his father, is now a policeman difigent to his off-teat characters?
Mortimer returns
at retiring age but too Immobilised by his past
to -Sw^/and much of the
begin a new carrer in spite of the hysterical
preffiure of his wife. Walter, a surgeon, in his
shck pursuit of success has had a prolonged iascmated, tolerant, andi® amused,
™ attitude,
to the cere¬
monies and quiddities of the legal process.
breakdown and a broken marriage. The “ price.”
ostensibly that of the furniture, is the price each
lias paid for his decision in life and its inexorable
A J ourmy Bound Mv Father. 1970.
results.
The blotters ruthlessly dissect and probe back autptepgrapliical play, affectionately cen-
to the motivation of tbeir cboice. Walter is Tji- Mortimer
Bhnded by a minors own father, also a barrister.
accident. Father became
forced to admit calculated callousness but drives increasingly eccentric, his odditis often proving
^ realise his sense of social reôn- very^ disconcerting to his small, rather isolat^
sibility wM also flawed, for he had. sentimentally lamily circle.
sacrificed ^ potentiality to a disingenuous father It is now apparent that Mortimer’s own boyhood
too cowardly to work again. Md schooldays and his father’s idlosyncrac
But no reconciliation ensues. Victor angrily farcmation with the law have all helped ies and
to give
refusing the dubious job which Walter offers as a romance to the earlier plays. Chard in The
salve to conscience. Judge especially shares with Father
Miller describes his play as stripped to the maanensms
several
and also a lUdng for young people.
skeletal structure of two lives, the home the dead
h^ from which they had developed. But the
toarai^rs are complex and through the Ibsen- Slawomir Mrozek (b. 1930).
Uke situation runs a thread of delightful and
sigmficant comedy. Solomon, an ancient Jew, l&ozek, a Pole, who began as journalist and
snrvlyor of wildly differing professions and four cartoonist, recently established a reputation
marriages, is the furniture appralaor and embodies for satirical short stories and short plays.
the resiUence lacking in the Pranz’s. When he Tango. 1966. P.
lalls he bounces. He shrewdly decides to buy all
the fixture at a fair price and at curtain fall SHozek’s first full-length play is like a satirical
sits gtefully in the chair of the beaten fatter, cartoon, an expressionistio
chncMng exuberantly at his decision to begin exposure of the
hfe afresh. raltural and political vicissitndes of SOth-ceuturr
Burope as hterahsm, fascism, and communi
Tbe play is realistic, but the muted significance sm
of VMious remnants of bric-a-brac is symbolic in
A_ slovenly household of ageing Bohmnlans ixuiiiuiimu
raeirt. Organised with meticulous artistry, it is succeed onely ano
sentimental ehensh the r.
their memories of youthful
lucid and profound, and rich in the wisdom of retelhon against social convention when
just to
expCTience ^tilled. Acted without a break it tlie tango 'was an act of defiance.
bolds the audience absorbed. Hie son, Arthur, detesting their sloppy anarchy
of taste and morals, enlists his reactionary great-
counter-revolution to
John Mortimer (b. 1823). rratpre the stois o_m. But he soon resorts
to
fascist ^t and force, terrorising the family until
Mortmer, a barrister, first won success with his ^ henchman,
short plays, such as The Dock Brief, 1957, and lout._Eddie. The curtain falls as Eddie
Lunm Hour, 1960 (M)., originally written for radio forces Eugene to partner Ii?tti fn a tango.
and television.
??
charaoten^tion audience esperiaUy the flatness of
^ , Here 1^ talente are seen at their best, especially mcidentaJ to the cartoon style
ms gift for seizing on an imusual encounter be- may he a httle unsatisfiring. but the novel satire
exhilarating. is
twem .the lonely, the neglected, the unsuccess-
toh^^whom he envisages in realistic setting of
shabby gentility, and he is particularly sympa-
tiietie to those who allow their fantasy to overkip Peter Nichols. F.
or swamp actuality.
^ But the moment of insight that gives pathos to A Say in the Death of Joe Egg. 1967,
his short plays is not enough to illuminate thnap
of fniyenggi. like Wfmi Shall We Tell Caroline? Nichols has shown remarkable sensitivity and
mWThe Wrong Side of the Park,, which lack dêlopmg his theme— the esperial
substance. Mcnlties of monogamy when the only child,
a
Two Stars for Comfort (1960, M.) is also im- ten-year-old gul. is hopelessly spastic. He uses
satisfactory. In its basic situation it is an: inflated tccknimies of revue as ttie parents re-enact
wMon of CoBea Tour Sand Baggage (M), with their fru^ratmg encounters with doctors and
httle beyond sentiment and pseudo Laurentian But below the jesting facade grows the
special pleading to fill the gaps. reMtolioE that the wife s compulsive maternity
blinds her to her husband’s needs and that his
The Judge. 1967. M.
Nichols has
endmance a spastic child
Is orum hlinand saysg. ““
“ It’s a play
After AO years’ absence &om his native city, about marriage. . . , Not autobiographical."
the bachelor Mr. Justice Chard returns for his laro
assize. He seems to expect some unspecified ao- The National Sealth, 1969. F.
cnsation about Serena’s Bohemian establishment,
but when the judge finally confironts Serena there :to a bleak men’s ward in a decaying hospital the
he demands condemnation of himself. st^ are normally competent but faceless. Inter¬
It is revealed that as a youth he had once had polated are brief T.V. scenes of Nurse Norton’s
OmECTORY OF DRAMATISTS ^^lertainimM
S2S r.SloaMPORA
CONTE ne. RY 19S4. P. THEATRE
consultant, the chaplain. , young wastrel. Sloane. alreadv

and the visitor, have the pungency of revue. The î^rderer, finds a cosy refuge with
ward orderly acts as compare to the whole, and slattern of forty, she smothers him wlth'^therlf'
?h» ® s^vocate who maUciously destroys sexually insatiable, she seduc^ toifrom
the begmmng of a positive relationship between a Her brother, Ed, a hoiê^f-i?
protective schoolmaster and the
alcôhc he is helping. employs
t«es toSloan as his
escape “ chaliffem™
lltera
their Uy to share min
possessivenes^ him
sharp precision and comedy of brutal mmder of their father puts bim into their
partial truth. power having
eaA and they
him agree
for sixQuite liters itefiToiTo,.
months at a time.
it won
Eugene O’NeiU (1888-1953).
of h^^^ the L^ftMticf vST l.w&sttTbeltpfey
Eecognised as the greatest and most influAnfiai op the run is
environment and t™£ iSbom chUd S ■
teea,tecal sitiiation which rivets the audience

rsf’sSe.tP'tS'Ks
On the stage these gifts went far to compensate
, r «&BrairhM iSr£ti4w“"
•'"’•*
M. P.
sinÔTlyS.
rh^lain. pol3rhi^TOokb^^!^dTaîS*te
His plays are better acted than read sewet^
coffin theTo^from*?^?'^^®! “■
a burglary cruninal
m his mother's
^ O’NeUl. lacking the advante of anêrican Siica^ ^ macabre and
tomatic tradition, experimented Sv SSStSe of exuberant
Europe^ style-a
personal techniqLues before finding his oto m^t remesented” ^ Pohce which is
faithful realto^to OTggertê cheap Sttee of
overtones of emotion and refiection ôeap aet^tive fiction. The characters are card-
British playwrights like WeskW and Alun Playls mteble fw
to mdividnals. especially to working people living
reveal the subtle
oommittS &ph^ t ® ^ completely
and „ ■ at,
mnibitmg ties that bmd members of a family or tJrmes of Passion. 1967. M.
■^retiuem; ana tussy scene

style. te
passiona So far they have not matched O’Nem’^ ham lia?® 27w Brping.
passionate and
and gripping
gripping intensity .
intensity. fP®?^ scene
The Iceman Cometh. Published 1947.
r^p° ctfvely^ ^ television
Go^s flcTo^r pfpths. ^ ^^Man on the Stair. 1967. M,

S’^riyal of the dionysiac Hickey. But Hickey 1® illuminating to see how Orton’s first nintr
attempt ^ ô^hue and savage comedy, uses the plot but
»®® Reams'’ to reaffiy th® atoosphere of Pintei^tet play The
deeply than before Orton cuts any aura of mysterV and
®®^n^®Trr !» 7 ^® Pcssimlstlc theme ™akes all e^licit. The occupants of the room
^®S; ® Pwh and the situation ®'^® MBce, a criminal living with an ex-
that of Beckett’s JPaitftiff /or Godot. “ Prostitute. Joyce, The intruderis rboy“ ten-
Long Pap’s Journev Into Night. PubUshed 1966. ?® âdHvedy hoSeSfaltaOTit. Md moi^Mto
addiction Md Eugene learns that he must leave

fwf^^+®T fer a sana,torium. As it was Prxtingham Camp. 1967. M.
ae one
The note of hope
BreudlM in a^deeplymou^meveri?
love-hate ralaffi^ a?e ®m: tb^ on holiday camps shows an uprising of
folded Avith tender understanding. incldente
It was tet ^projecte
Parody hasa film
d as some highly Wi6
script, a modem
Joe Orton (1933-67).
a successful commercial exponent
sassjwxtettr'” “™ ”«?o’fss^“te^£!Ss
of ®'reuân_ foresight shows Pentheufd^teoy^ by
tiT7iK«r ®csaiaiity, and violence portrayed r"S Erpingham meets his fate simply because he
parody of the . 4/arce io a psychiatric clinic is typically Orton

sneak its discrepancy between decorous speech and
wail, nrum Its implications it is almost imnos-
valê ^0^“ Osbome (b. 1929).

discriminate betweim the âvou^^SteT^hte torrenSSêtenne f^®a<'«'®al talent,
plays Md the expertise and aplomb which it *f*® lorunallst’s flair for
K manipulated, and some feel that he ^feces the a iteneration.
image of life. Anger.
®®*®'®®® ‘f*® 1966 wfts
(E). now
werewell filmed inandLook
evident too Back in
faîiar
to need description. It was perfectly timed and claims it to be a folk art with an immediate,
its success immediate. The protagonist. Jimmy direct contact. The film version is good.
Porter, voiced the pent-up feelings of contempor-
ary youth, especially of the ela-sses newly educa¬ Luther. 1961. F.
ted, now baffled by the complacency of the
privileged classes who had muddled through two Luther, based on a recent biography, is a lass
ware and left them without sense of security or subjective work, although Osborne again takes for
direction. The play’s pervasive mood of self- hiB hero a rebel, the son of an unsympathetic
pity and strident denunciation runs, with some mother, and emphasises the emotional and not the
variation, through much of Osborne’s later work, mtellectual sources of Luther’s proteste.
although with the passing of years it seems in¬ tae play is imitative of Brecht’s Galileo both in
creasingly subjective and irrelevant to the current Its loose epic structure and also in the attempt
.situation. to present the protagonist in an eaulvocal light
In his major plays. A Patriot for Me excepted, The first two acts give a sympathetic and leisurely
Osborne keeps to the same basic pattern of charac¬ portrayal of Luther’s early conliicts of conscience
terisation and structure. In Jimmy Porter he and vigorous attack on superstition while in the
created an unforgettable character, a myth. But third act he is hurriedly presented as having
Jimmy with some change of occupation and age is treacherously let down the peasants who had been
comstantly reappearing, disaffected, disorganised encouraged to rise against the Emperor. But the
by self-pity, articulate, and dominating. Archie political reasons for Luther’s dilemma are not even
Eice and BUI Maitland are older but they also are mted at and we are Invited not to think, as in
Narcissus figures driven on by sado-masochistic Gahleo, but to condemn while ignorant of relevant
urgeis to destroy themselves and their circle, fects. Stiucturally this sudden volte face is most
and it is difficult to escape the impression that damagmg to the play.
the typical Osborne protagonist is not presented The most effective scenes, such as Tetzel’s
with complete objectivity but serves in some sellmg of indulgences and Martin’s sermon at
degree as mouthpiece of the author. Osborne’s Wittenberg are splendid rhetoric, without a word
minor characters are sketched in a perfunctory, of dialogue and directed straight at the audience.
rather stagey way. serving chiefly as audience or SkilM period production and the acting of
target to the protagonist, and there is little drama¬ Albert Fmney as Luther made the play theatrically
effective.
tic confrontation of eauals.
Closely linked with the structure of the plays is
the nature of the dialogue. Osborne’s forte is Two Plays for England. 1962.
rhetoric, the thinly disguised monologue, splen¬
didly uninhibited, with some of the inebriation and 'Two slight plays make a double bill.
excitement of the pub, and with the same coarse The Blood of the Bambergs is a parody of a
and bawdy jests. Sometimes it is a tirade of royal wedding. Monarchy is held up to ridicule
mvective, sometimes shriU and hysterical, always along with its trappings of ceremonial and fulsome
conmanding, always flowing exclusively from the adulation by press and radio. The bridegroom
protagomst. Minor characters are given little hav^ just been killed in his racing-car, an
opportunity for repaj-tee or discussion, their idle press photographer is secretly passed
being for the most part to act as “ feed.” on m his place. The final act is a film with an
Osborne’s plays cannot legitimately be de¬ unctuous running commentary, the film device
fended as satire for in comparison with the deriving from the German Expressionist theatre,
masterpieces of Ibsen and Shaw they express where it was first used by Ernst Toller,
merely negative hostility and are not based on Under Plain Cover is intended as an attack on
any_ clear concept of the values that should be sensationahsm in the press. Tbe first part shows
realised in a good society. a pretty provincial couple dressing up in rdlea
There aren’t any good, brave causes left,” symbolic of sex fantasy, their activities accom-
Junmy Porter. Neither here nor in any pamed by a thin trickle of dialogue. In the second
other play is there anything to suggest that half dramatic presentation is abandoned in favour
Osborne do^ not endorse this destructive state- ot a charade and commentary by a reporter who
meiit, one of tlie silliest of the century. revels that the couple were brother and sister,
His invective Is moreover too general, in- feeble presentation of the compelling themp ofa
discrimmate, and direct to be effective. Trig mc^t. The flrat scene is a pallid imitation of the
weapon is the bludgeon of sarcasm, seldom the brothel scene m Genet's The Balcony,
rapier of irony. Some notable exceptions are to iSles has powerfulwhere the
sexual
be found _m Luther where the targets are limited and pohtical Imphcations lacking in Osborne’s
and specific and the speech where Tetzel sells play.
mdulgences is finely ironic. In this play Osborne Hiese sketches do not profess to offer convincing
has learned from the intelligence of Luther and studies of character to action and unlike intelligent
the process of history. He is too emotional and satire they do not imply positive standards nor
subjective a writer to excel In an art which use the mature techniaues of irony and wit, but
dejnands disciplined thought and detachment.
jrely on parody and mimicry.

The sameness in structure and tone in Osborne’s
work is cleverly mitigated tiy experiment in
theatrical teehmques. The realism of the garret \Inadmissible Evidence, 1964. E.
scene in Look Back in Anger was In 1956 strikingly ^Â play, which many have praised highly, has
ori^nalv In The JEntertainer and IfUther he the ingredients of a commercial sucross. It pro¬
profited by the example of Brecht, and Under vides the sensational spectacle of a middle-aged
Plain Cover was Influenced by Genet. solicitor. Bill Maitland, obsessed with sex, and
disintegrating under the influence of drink and
such a rdle for the star actor
The Entertainer. 1957. P. (Niool Wilhamson) as to constitute a stage four
deforce.
Osborne here attempts to use the Brechtian play op^ with a dream sequence as
device of endistanoing,” employing a framework Mtland IS tried m the court of his own
of music-hall sceuM, where Archie Rice (Olivier), What follows is his rancid outpouring of self-pity,
a seedy comedian, tries to hold the stage with as during fortêight hours, he is progressively
tawdry patter and songs in a dubious show with deserted by staff, clients, and mistress. Some of
uudM called “Eock’n RoU New’d Look.” These the mmor oharaeters are here reduced to unheard
are mtended to ‘ endistance ” realistic scenes of voices on the telephone and one aciiess serves to
Archie’s shabby home. But the “ endistanoing " impersonate three faceless chents. Maitland’s
device serves little purpose for the overall mood flagellation of himself and his circumst^ces is
unrelieved and monotonous.
of unquestioned disillôn “whooped up” by
drink and patter is in both planes nrurelieved.
Cluerulous complaint that England has lost the A Patriot for Me. 1966.
fflory and glamour of Edwardian days is crystal-
hsem on the^realistio plane by the report of the The protagonist of Osborne’s best play, pro¬
death of Archie e.son at Suez and m the music-hall duced privately, is Eedl. a distinguished aimy
hy^the presentation of a nude Britannia, wearing officer of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, who
only her helmet. through his homosexuality is blackmailed into
Osborne turns to the music-hall because he becoming a spy for Tsarist Russia.
D.HECTORV OF DRAMATISTS FSO CONTEMPORARY THEATpf
Wtf &«’SflSSiaR-,D£!
portion of characters and s^t “-‘"a* «w Weia. i,
ên
discover pfto te ovS? stormTS?
£L^h&“aSS SL'Senoâ lisSSIISE™i*

i/v52^^Mid^ sequeiwe
loyera prostitutes
sutode IS aMost
of. sordid infidelities
His final by male trlnated
rmmaskinf fmd
^ which they have been indoo- S
a foregone conclusion.
rheplarspansthe years 1890-1913 and Osborne a, „
presents the ethos and atmosphere of the Imperial Owen {b, 1926).
elite, undermined by espionage and Of Welsh stock but -nntp t - ^
treachery, m a vast and unforgettable panorama. Almi Owen spent
• his youttstylo
most cliarflctoristic to UverM^
is thf» ■noTn -««•»■
mother.»
■d Bond Honoured. 1966. Ltoeruonf locS^Mtom of

^ translation of LaLope
distorted Fianm
de conflicttheimplicifta
ambition the*cla^“f
of the
Progress to the Park. 1959.

s?‘'
Time Present. 1968. F. £S„“K ass “ei"” p. « “sT'Sffi
l^^^ônist, Pamela, is a neurotic actress
by ttie familiar “ Electra
complex, an exaggerated devotion to her father eddArntto SKSSto
f "ti,? iSS
fiKMsa,'2?riS‘M.S
unable
SurWr to estabJisli ™wany dying off-stage,
satisfac she is
tory humaii
relatioMhip, to spite of love affairs and
<tevoted Constance, a successfu the
l
Laûr MP».. m whose flat she is living.
Pamela s role is static and Terbal* reiterati
of her shallow scheme of values (a preferen on The Bough and Beady Lot. 1959
ce for
her rather md a relentle contem n^ of
® spatel ofreîsce
^“•'imenta
he?f!
Md dhpr
mdlacri mlnate derision. Phrased in ptuous
modish
IS
argot some gibes have a bitter wit, especial
slSpSSSs
ly
Pleasing to the prejudices of the illiberal. ^
A-.ô^trlycd plot is super-imposed. The ex-
nuMant atheist as to whether they shall rKrIi
tn VP *be climax, Pamela’s declsimi r
CoMtmce“o^°Iove r Pregnancy by Cathohc monastery which bwto î®beU a
n 'ybich should arouse com-
wpii?i becomesof the
tnesome
play’s rather than moving
apparent assumption
tatorKt.'^ outpourings have objective value and There’ll Be Some Ohanges Made
. 1969.
Tfie Hotel in Amsterdam. 1968. P.
United by fear and dislike of their
employer a
torn magnate. crypticaUy referred to iîn v o X ®’ betrayed by her fltet lorer
three couples retreat to a- luxury hoteltoin aa KX.;
bis encroarfiiments.Amster- M&e*s SS! °^*bemalesex. Thiplay
i*b® weekend in denouncing K.X Harold Pinter (b, 1930).
tonhing, and exchanging desultory jokes
®'borit homosexuals, mothers, and and *^fmerly an actor, is now considered as
rmtil the unwelcome arrlyal
of a relative and the news that K,L. A K®
himseff disturb the tenuous camaraderie.has kiUed the “ Theatre
bis audience, for he efhas an hypnotic
ouch a structure is perfunctory, bnlv flip Satopt b®b^' He exerts an almost «b®y
gariôus Md petulant Laurie (Scofield)
dlvidu^sed and the characters reveal andis diR to- i
i
corer little of value about tMves bas devôped swiftly, and two main
m^^h i
sideligh
aiutuignct is
IS that
tJiat Laurie fancies
fancies i
ph^ ^
mmsclf as an authority on ** thp. Arpfl.ffira -n-rrv/u&Bn •»> plays,
? culmtoanow be distinguished. The early
ttog to The Caretaker in i960 were
OTnoemed with the underpr ivileged and showed a
inter^t m sex. More recently Pinter
plored new ground has ^
tofp^ . Thesion
of compas playsandhônlybee^
a i^
rP°?K a®f“^®d"^^âtir?°''soL”°Sritics' has usually been sophisticated* and thn stf-Hfriiia
o^®« h a H °nS«u sexual experience : the background
ttlt teffif
Alexander Ostrovsky (1823-86). todlScf oWa^l

cei^Sp^p^5!“*xl5?J=S:® JlayB have, a
““"“a® ®?b-consoions life and most of his
tel ^tSf5L is unfortima-

The Storm. 1966. ®^^®^bt d^mîf ts into a fa^te
medflfip ^Bif ' r^timôf
sequence ofevents, half
tt^mMt
Written to 1869, Ostrovsky’s fltip realistip ninv
mdesm en of an isolatedFifamlllar
fredp^p^ township, to tte avari
pe^ hte cave, terrifled of irito
who are
ciom, ignorant, and bigoted. ^
Ipm -^^lôvna, is a warped and
mMaiatch, who saps the vitality of hpr -wMirruth- ^mv nf catastrophes of natura
son and cruelly tyrannises over
his hapless wife. Sasies ®*® !^bl dream-Uke,
DiRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS i:3 t CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
The situation that first fascinated him was that The Boom. 1957, M:
of » room, a floor, arid two people. He has said
. Etoter s first play, written in four days for the
Obvioi^y they are scared of what is outside the
room. The danger that breaks In on them is both ^5®®' fl^Ps^rtment of Bristol HnlverEity. is al-
comic and shocking, but bizarre as the predica¬ mady characteristic. Eose, left alone at night,
is
ment may be, the play is anchored in actual ex- a'lê of the door of her dingy room,
penence. I think it is Impossible,” he says. êclaUy when a blind Negro, Eiley, enters
TOth a message tom her father. Her husband on
— and certainly for me— to start writing a play to return savagdy Eiley and Eose goes hlmd,
tom any kind of abstract idea. ... I start
writing a play tom an image of a situation and a
couple of characters involved and these people fiB^S.®^^®i’' 9^ Efley- possibly a rather clumsy
always remain for me quite real.” isin dramatm
comfort image of
.Peioflrama
an mdMarent but tiny
tic,man’s the Utarea
room
of
situation is so novel and striking universe.
that, like poetry, it can be interpreted on more
than one level, both as a revelation of those periods
of intense private aimiety when the individual, Tf^
m .Dumb
ana P.WaUer. written 1957, produced 1960.
all but tetraught, holds on precariously to some
tmy foottmld, smd also as an image of the predica¬ ™fl hired assassins
ment of the whole human race whose existence Is toea..ily await their roysterious ” organisation,”
unlcnown victim in a base¬
tiueatened by governable forces. T.ikA 'irnfi.-a
whom ment rcwm in Birmingham. The clattering
he admires, Pinter expresses vividly the
feeling of inscrutable menace tom some vagne descent of a mechanical Ionesco-like dumb-waiter
hnmdrum human existence. tEeu araiety, until it is revealed that
The Birthday Party, m particular, has much in ® lilmseT. Situation and dialogue
are both comic and taut with menace. The trite
common with Kaflm’s The Trial.
In to first three plays the threat is left dell- phêolo^. as_ the killers mention “the senior
uerateiy xmexplflinecJ, so that an anra of partner. _ the job, and" clearing up,” ironically
surrounds the a-ctwn and yiolence actuallymystory breaks
business jMgon. The tiny play is a micro-
through, but m The Caretaker there develops a a treacherous world where violence can
more subtie menace tom within, threatenin suddenly break up man’s apparent aUianees.
nmd rather than the body and there is no govert the
violence. The BiriMay Party. 1958. M.
The theme of macertainty has persisted through- tuU-Iength play, the room is
« A hlaflrat play. The Boom, 1957, he mysti- m a shabby board^-hoTO kept by the motherly
fled to Mdience by contradictory information claims to have been
about insimfl^t details. This trick served a concert pianist, has taken refuge, until he is
perhaps to heighten the atmosphere of insecurity
but so^ oniicsToimd it irritating,
plays, Tfte CoUednon, for instance, we and in later rammed by the arrival
Goldtog a sinister
and ofthe brutal
find instead
a higto significant uncertainty as to people’s ^,^9® and Ben are there “ to do a
■rerawty that^dimixreclsio
motives. Pinter ahas explicitly chism,
imo™ a®^®^
parody of bram-yra
stated n conveys truer picture to a and
Sêy stog, duringcate¬
fantastic his
of OOT e:p)erieiice. _ " The desire for verification ôney and IMicrous birthday party he is Mnd-
folded and to glares broken—
gbe understm^ ble, he says, “ hut cannot
satisfied, md he points out that it is particu-always destraeton of vision. Next morning symbolic
the
of
Stanley away, conventionally dressed pair lead
In btok
iMiy difflonlt to be precise about people’s iimpr trousers incapable of speech.
life and motives, especially if they are inarticu- hlSMrsonality dMnteCTated.
iate. He consistently rejects the rOIe of the omni¬
scient play^ht. like Ibsen, and looks at to The mêimce here is economically sustained
characters through the eyes of the ordinary
observer, frequently puzzled by human lneoi£ Identity of the three main Pfl fact that
characters the
is never
Histcncics. revealed adds to the terror. Some see Stanley as
Âxelated thenm has been the ambiguous nature the pohti^ reftigee; some,
treated with increasing inas the artist who is made since he was a pianist
to conform hy the
Hiley may be in
Tns Ptwm, to the pathos of maimed personality in definiteness sSJ ,^ JI®
the play has a widedeliberate
reference lack of
to all
The CardaT^.axiA the possibility of divided who seek refuge from, a strange and hostile world.
perMnality m The Lover. Some of the disturbing
tooination ttat Pinter exerts is due to the state The Caretaker. 1960- M.
of ymoertainty in which he leaves his audience,
. is Kt in a junk-filled room, where the
min ?/ the .^Burd Pinter is closest
feeling to Beckett, and he shares with Ionesco Mnd^ Aston hves in to brother’s derdict house.
an aw^ne^ of the way that comedy interlocks He brmp home an old tramp. Davies, who
.Everything is funny,” says OTOCTÎy agrees to stay as “caretaker” and
vmter, mb greatest eamesfiiess is funny: even then tries to encroach further hy playing off one
bromer
DOtll, against the other, until finmly rejected hy
4. what I try to do in
f *5^ recognised reality of
how we behave and the
Ih a naturaMstio background Pinter has created
how we speto. Occasionally, like Ionesco, he two unforgettable chajad^rs, prênted in
Eeigfiten the absurdity psychologjoal depth with reference to their past,
have a _ quick ear for the and i has depicted their failnre to come to terms
aDSUTu cliciira oud ôU'S&iwitufs of everyday ’wiMi compassion and restraint.
speecxi* ...
Pinter is a styfist in the use of stage dialogue, ]hum _Davi^_ His isvery
one who bites the hand that feeds
identity is suspect for he passes
ooctoey dialect. It is talk raiier i;
Buber under an assumed name, having " left Ms papers ”
But he never retrieves
dMOTbed as monologue disguised as dia- 1them, toe Betoett s Krapp repressto part of his
his ^racters talk at people rather past. i Aston haltingly tolls Davies how he once
They rarely listen or respond, had 1 pCTwds erf unique lucidity, now destroyed by
®®S5 ^ôlftenng up to self-confidence In an toto^ as temfying shock-treatment he was subjected to
imttent _ monolorae ” spiced with empty boast- iimmentel hcCTital, but Davies* only reaction Is
appropriate to the con- lato 1 to thtoten him. It is remarkable that when
toed and defeated people he portrays, who even
jAston Anally ^ rejects Davira* last encroachment
tect ^ fl®f®tove jargon shrink from humnn con- t toe pi^t Of toe tramp should seem as pitiful as
dialogue appears on the f^ton s^ oy^ Pinter *fl ®Jifl having
tBe playwisely
with rejected his
the violenfe
^ttls.more than a tape-recording of c death of Davies.
castm talk:, there is beneath the demotic prose a , Tto mature play shows a man actually opening
1 compellingr than the carefollv toe t door to his fears and mastering them. Aston
cateuteted verse rhythms of T. S. Eliot. m ms long speech faces toe wrong done to
' i
.Esslin’s study. The Peopled Wound, by people.” His unique vision destroyed, to
recommended. 1970. is ja tonly oreattve outM has been tinkering with to
hands, but as he tries to break out of his isolation
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS — CONTEMPORARY TMFil-r«»»
uiâppily mfetTa* flegradation is
s«.» ss- - i%|i|gpSsS!

ASimtAdie. 1001. M. 5Jd(ien% Hamler*®®
A short PlaF. sho-sra an elderly couple haunted TeMv fa cant term for brothel)
&. “i^sr; ts
home insfcead, of the husband °.egt.„tSiSss tSff “ ••
Posiîbiv fh<i cUortf j-i- ^(^ccoMing is professionally brilliant hnf
A Night Out, 1961. M.

s.is?,&sa,sL'si“= “ ““oS
Landscape and Silence. 1969. M.
i^Pcnoe fa apparent in two shorf
This compassionate and realistic brief niav pteys, where inconclusive words and
shows the clerk. Albert, trjdng onHight aSion are
from the retarding domination of his to es^ûl
Sn| S iMiation. Both recall Krapp’s Last Tane
self-rightMus mother. After threate broadc in
potently he finally finds himself ning her faoIaHnif setpersonal
themeis fa
^°se ast, in the
in
prostitute who proves equally peevishtheand
rooSi of a their nrpetitiv
kitche e memorie
of a countr s of past love.*' “
y house, where the mlddlâspd
te genteel. It is doubtful would-
gestures have won him anywhether Albert's violent
independence. Ashoroft) of the day s commonplace events
She. and
Ashcr^?? absofbe d to dre^w
hfawtfe (Pefl^
The CdllecMon. 1962. M. tender encounter on the sea-shore —
^possibly
with him when yoimger — îgnores him play^
+AAi ®P“e and brief, although it
Ellen sits between two men. Both
1 *'’■ stranger, BUI, in although she has all buthave loved
forgott en
dM
md tells the
so, but durmg James,
com-seherof husband, that she
the friendshin that Fe almost immobUe. thS- S
develops between the two men. Bill ês ttoee
while Harry^ an older man who hnR family characterised. Bates
oc^ned“* what fa supposed to havl ftii country, memories
mostly atofnight-
S?are*red^ l^’nf
’^®P^®m love^
Bimes^*^ ^ Iiome, becomes increasingly jealous of bers the market, a brothel’
perhaps to pique
^vouT Or tmee areas, lu comparison wifh
Krap2> s
fncii+T.- lier to male frv TapCf Silence is likefa three
om simul-to
discarded
Iteiflnf fn™Ju changing of partners has the tanep^ and hesitant tape-recordings to
ment . e economy of a dance move-
Pinterian violenc fa here only lightly indicated. The Tea Party and The Basement. 1970.
Tê Lover. 1963. M. Pl^yf originally seen on television were
short play shows the hiMbanfi 1 to ons
the medium of film,
make a^ft transiti from objectiv e since both
a,nd the wife (Vivien Merchant) first to subject ive fantasies. They werehappenln ho^w
srs
M affectionate but distant partners
and then ^S*F-ulIy as possible to the Slle
Tfm »^°®Five
TOe performancechange of clothes m ero^ lovers
of symbolic rdles including
S teUsh garments, had already beef
Pmter cleverly adapts the device
'
r Af ?e“% Hmement. written first, is encroa
like a chic version
chment on
renKlt o^!
patibte_
natfrTe til®, apparently
strands in the marriage relation incom- ' iriGna
ship
mAAo'f^ Ga«tofcef. ^ A fastidious bachelor K
Stott,;
distinction analogous to that between a who hrings hfg criri Urtfi*
Aphrodite . promptly
fHAPd^ci+AM^®®2,®®’’i,'^®*®®“®® 1^0 1^® flat an old
Law MtemRes take possessito. friendly
evfn of t^ chathost's
Urania and Aphrodite Pandemus. ^P^ro^t® luteseff fautasi^,between such as romantic seduction of
^d bedânf:
The Homecoming. 1965. M, the gul and violent duellingr6tes Stott L?w
withreSd. The
tolfcor demanding admittance.
iA -^l^cflcan
IMchad Bryant), a Doctor of PhUosophy The Tea Party centres on Disson a middle-
University, brings his wife Buth
aged plumbing tycoon. Just before his
bnm?f
home 2“ ®' surprfae
in North London, where Max visit(Paul
to hisBogensi
former to a young woman socially mSfiage
to widowed father, stiU lives with his his superior he el-
two yomger gag® a new secretary. Wendy (Vivien MerehapH
Enai. Butn before her marriage
S’ ^ MaJlTrSedhad beep a laTOatea. His confusion increases when his
3atronis'^
tetuated h3g®®tactij
wife comes with whfm
to the
e.suspects hffa s^M:
an office as us
his secre-
th^mifff ‘ît^“^w»iifu"y!iEr between her and her parasite brother.
incestuo liaison
Hmce wife, secretary, and even he as busbapfi
have each
ta^®ThSot ll Srffi by feyfa braS” vision, not a curious distorted doubly DfaS
surprisingly, becomes confused A
j. j® is all presented with clinical ^ngle tabie-tennis ball appears to hfm as two' and
f® Induced to suspend
i .ly at the last moment is this cool i "l“ifl?®f8 culnunat®, at an office
H outburst of human ^ ^^Sl blindfolded^
Inssed and the audlen^ is “ (fartain Md
Fj P®®frl®P his ssexual
mcident and n®ds.
Kuth^nswf? crawls sobbing to in the protago
bUnd n-to
shêd into feeling the degradation involved, I'll® Ptey J^°w
' hte^sîffi MRitiAA'^» outeet.
lias echo® of been
The
Party, but now all on a fashionable level. Birlhclnv
at ^ ^ disillusioned
^hfe. It would be ridiculous to maintain glance
what we know merits reverenc that
be interpreted as a e." fantasysays Lemiy
of sexual Terence Rattlgan (b. 1911).
Ratification, which in a dream state escapes thp
teX'jf Kh'î &

âttigan, with his flair for light comedy
^^nnôiff
fa an
ppert in the well-made play. His fatef’ more
anci liosBi 1962, about T. E. Ijawrence,
A Bequest to the Natioii. 1970. Alas Poor Fred.
Neton“^^*dayTta ISd problems

it sympathetically probes intimate i&e of a half is the symbol of so™ a roairried
nation^ hero. its®Ce ™oS b^w 4n
I hifatuation for Emma and Ms duty, to ■“ s?S?onfs
®«“3'tion is Mfce that of Ionesco s
which finally she generously yields. Eattigan
cleverly uses Nelson’s schoolboy nephew to
^ dramatic link with lady The Ark. 1959
lelson and as the invemle sensibility,” whereby . In a more direct style
tt. « ^ this^ , full-length play of
Emma’s tipsy dechne is sharply focused. ideas In are-mterprets
mwe dnect thestyle
Old this full-length
Testament play of
story.
David Eudkind. Ends and Echoes. 1900.
Afore Night Come. Kiis is the general title for three clever one-
acters. In Barnstable, the most amnsing one, a
orchard the fruit pickers
hê is âdually collaiBing around its unwitting
enact the ritual murder of a freakish old tramp inhabitants, a symbol of the dlsiategration of their
whoin they (Mead as a threat to their virility. conventional way of life.
realistic workmg day world is infused with the A
primitive terror of The Golden Bough.
Nest Time m Sing to You. 1963.
Bared on Ealeigh Trevelyan’s
Jeaa-Paul Sartre (b. 1905). hermit of Canfield, who died in 1942.book on the
this moving
Tim plaj^ pf the Erench philosopher, Sartre, Pfay mes the rehearsal style of Pirandello’s Six
cmraders. Like
be fully mte^reted only in the light of his theme of solitude. an elegiac aulntet fa explores the
atheistm emstentiahst philosophy. Discarding
conventional morality, Sartre insists that the
individual must evolve his own etMcal code A Scent of Flowers. 1964.
throu^ daring fireeiy to choose and act for him-
j t,™ “5?®* tWs fteedom for others,
j seeking to establish an interdependence
Iof methe thyjreyioM play, this fa a reconstruction
pa^. It fa gradually revealed that the
he “engages.” or “commits” him¬ character, fa in fact the spirit of a girl who has
self m the political stn^gle. mst ccnnmitted suicide, because her love for a
Sajte hims^ is a communist and his best plays, married man fa incompatible with her reUgion.
like those of Brecht, are ftfily " committed ” to The proceeds by her touching encounters
left-img Ideology. Ihey have songht to vindi¬ TOth play
the circle of relatives and friends to whom
cate the inevitability of violence in the struggle she had turned in vain for help.
ireedom and to decry the “ bourgeois mor-
^hty which shrinks from such crime.
Neighbours. 1967.
Sartre Is also concerned with the " absurdity ”
of n^ s preMcament as a rational creature in an Nembrnrs was presented with another' short
mogical and indifferent universe, but nniiVs play, Dutchman (E). by Le EM Jones. Both use an
Ionesco. he presents the situation, not through emotional encounter between a Negro and a
fwSw “^ses but through the medium of the white woman to focus the strain between the races.
traditional weU-made play. A Negro invites himself into the flatlet of a
.Sartre h^ had a considerable influence on the
(Jtoate of Ideas, encouraging an attitude of harsh yoiw .woman on the floor below. With some
hesitation she entertains him. He then steadily
disnhision and stimulating the current discussion chaJleiigre her enlightened liharalism as merely
5® to whether or not drama should be a vehicle patronising and finally in what amounts to moral
for social and political convictions. It is interest- blackmail asks her to come and sleep with him.
contrast the views of Wesker and Pinter Corfused and compassionate eke yields.
on this issue.
The IniM meet^ fa conveyed with mudh
delicacy. Then as the Negro assumes the rdle of
Lucifer and the Lord. Published 1961. D. counsel^ for the prosecution, a logical pattern is
imconvmcingly forced on the naturalistic material.
. dilemma between non-violence and force
IS here given greater universality by being pro¬
jected back mto the time of the Peasants’ Eevolt
m Germany. The brilliant General Goetz, having Peter Shaffer (b. 1926).
failed in a poUoy of Cliristlan love, imflinchingly
eanbiMes a rutMess violence as the only possible Bhaffer is an assured and ingenious dramatist
"reahst ” social ethio. whore first success was with the realistic well-
made play and who has siace moved on to freer
modes of composition.
Nekrassov. Published 1956. P. His plays operate successfully on two levels:
A satirical farce ridicules the sensational anti- they offer insight into the subtleties of personal
conmnmism of a section of the popular Erench relationships, especially into the difficulties of
press. adjimtment between people of different cultural
background, and they also Involve discntiainTi of
ideas. The aesthetic problem of dfetingulihing
Altma. Published 1956. P. between genuine love of art and snohbish preten¬
sion fa a recurring theme, often presented In a
IGiM play, showing a former Nazi officer going triangular atimtion.
mad in an attempt to justify his own res<5t to
its own isrecourse
torture, an attack on “ Western morality ” in
to torture, used by Erench Five Finger Exercise. 1958. P.
colonials m Algiers. The film version well repro¬
duces the claustoophobic horror. An ^ve. realfetio play shows Glive, the young
ffambndge student, growing away from his
stifling inother, with her pretensiona to modish
James Saunders (b. 1925). culture, but. failing to make contact with his
honest philistine father. The advent of an
.In Saunders’ early work the influence of enlgnatic stranger, Walter, acts as a catalyst.
Ionesco fa apparent in the satirical use of a banal Mother and son are both attracted to Walter, the
dialogue, in whioh the characters converse without father’s fierce jealousy fa aroused and Waltm fa
communicating, and in the reference to some narrowly saved from suicide.
concrete symbol wMch represents their B.TnriAt.iPB
or predicament. His later work is reminiscent of %affer shows some of Ibsen’s precision in his
prebmg of a family situation where the members
PirandeUo. Nevertheles Saunders’ ingenious change and develop as they become painfully
plays have a freshness ands vigour all their own. aware of their hidden drives.
The Private Ear ami the Public Eye. 1962. N. F. Simpson (b. 1919).
Two short and spare triangular plar.s Viotli N. F. Simpson’s plays of the Absurd are in the
denionatrate the influence of artistic taste on tise peculiarly English vein of Lewis C'ari{il! ar.ci
relationship between the sexes. Edward Lear, a world of surrealist fantasy, iidu-
smiilur and nonsense. It is ahnost a contradic¬
The Private Ear. tion in terms to organise such material coherently
and to do so in a full-length play is a tour de force
Bob, a shy mnsic-loyer. asks Ted to help him which Simpson brought off in his One Way
entertain a girl whom he has met at a concert. Pendulum. Bj.s best work ridicules the mechani¬
But the ignorant girl is won by the complacent cal and conventional existence, the attenuation oS
feeling, of the little suburban home, his usual
milieu.
Ted’s vulgar patter and Bob. left alone, defaces
his gramophone record and forces himself to listen
to the broken music of love.
21ie Resounding Tinlie. 1057. P. F.
The Public Eye.
A most unusual play, which pokes fun at
A witty, ironic comedy shows Charles, a correct suburban life, discards plot, progress, iuid charac¬
and pompous dilettante, unwarrantably jealous, terisation, and the imiform dialogue is one
employing a private detective, Louis (Kenneth continuou-s flow of clever verbal paradoxes and
Williams) to spy on his wife. She become,?
attracted to Louis because of their shared joy in non-sequiturs.
pears at intervals Theandapologetic
in the final“ author ” isap¬a
act there
things of beauty. With the entry of the ico¬ parody disemssion of the play by a panel of
noclastic Louis, a brilliant, comic invention, farce ‘ critics ” — devices used by Ionesco in The
and tenderness go hand in hand with liigh comedy.
Shepherd’s Chameleon.
Simpson’s verbal agility is e.xhilarating. but
The Bernal Bunt of (he Sun. 1964. .some find the play over-cerebral. It is certainly
at the opposite end of the spectrum from Ann
A sw’eeping “ epic ” drama of Pizarro’s fantastic Jellicoe’s The Sport of My Mad Mother.
conquest of Peru skilfully uses, as narrator. " old
Martin,” who watches his own boyhood as page
to Pizarro.ceremonial,
Shaffer deploys “ total theatre in” One [Vay Pendulum. A Farce in a New Dimen¬
in dazzling processions and masks, sion. 1959. F.
ritual dancing, mime and strange, metallic music.
There is rich thematic material in the clash of Here Simpson has devised a framework built of
whimsy and yet firm enough to carry its own logic
“ two immense and joyless powers.” in the con¬ and to be dramatically satisfying. The characters
flict of Christianity and Sun w'orship. Personal are drawn simply, hut consistently, each with his
tragedy deyelops in the mutual attraction felt
by the grizzled Pizarro (Cohn Blakeley) and the own “ humour,” in the manner of Ben Jonson and
young Inca. Atahualpa (Eohert Stephens). Captor the dialogue is a close parody of banal family
and prisoner, they painfully seek for the god in interchange.
each other and the Inca accepts death both as a ITie play concerns a suburban family, the
sacrifice to friendship and the final test of his faith. Groomkirby’s, whose son, Kirby, is teaching a
collection of weighing-machines to sing the
Hallelujah Chorus. His Inefifectual father is
Blaclc Comedy. 1065. combining his two favourite hobbies of law and
A highly successful brief comedy frankly uses " do it yourself " carpentry, by building an
an effectiye deyfee of Chinese theatre. During a enormous model of the Old Bailey in the living-
room, where the phlegmatic mother pays a char¬
party the lights fail and the stage, although sup¬
posed to be in darkness, is still fully illuminated, woman
Finallyto aeat up takes
trial the ” place
left-overs.”
in the Old Bailey and
so that the ludicrous behaviour of the dramatis Kirby is convicted of murdering forty-three
personae is visible only to the audience. people in order that he may wear black, the
weighing-machines being part of a complicated
The Battle of Slmvlngs. 1970. device to cause a holocaust of dea,th.
Tlie main theme of the play is the tyranny of
The idealist Sir Gideon (Gielgud), whose home things, which is exemplified by the absurd
IS " Shrivings ” (suggestire of confession and Ionesco-like objects. These iire treated with the
penance) is an eminent philosopher. He is com¬ respect due to human beings while human beings
mitted to belief in human iierfectibility and are treated as things, and father and son are so
pacifism, and lives a celibate life with his un¬ obsessed by things that they cannot get into touch
selfish wife, Enid. With them resides David, son with one another.
of Gideon’s former pupil and friend Mark (Patrick The tyranny of mechanical routine and social
Magee). Mark is a famous poet long expatriate, custom is also indicated. Kirby will only eat
who now visits Gideon on the occasion of their when a cash-register rings and will only wear black
both receiving an Oxford award. when it is sanctioned by funeral convention.
The life and ideas of the robust and cynical The anxiety and guilt which result from a
Mark, who is now toying with Roman Cathofleisra. starved and mechanical existence are flnallv
have become the antithesis of Gideon’s and he symbolised In the nightnuire parody of a trial
maliciously challenges his host to an extraordinary scene in the final act.
contest. He will return to humanism If. what¬ Although the stage objects are novel and in¬
ever he may do, Gideon can endure his presence triguing and can be assigned a clear meaning they
for the weekend!
Mark then disillusions Enid by revealing lack the suggestive power of Ionesco’s chairs or
rhinoceroses. Contrived rather than intuitive,
Gideon’s homosexual past. He seduces the girl they fllustrate more than they iUmninate the
friend of his own son and cruelly pronounces him humfui condition. But the play is an original and
to be a bastard. successful experiment and the implied comment
Both contestants win but both are broken. on the imeonscious assumptions and compulsive
Gideon, bitterly taunted by Enid. Is provoked to habits of the Groomklrbys has a wide reference.
strike her and reduced to despair, while Mark is The film version is recommended.
attacked and beaten down by his son.
The play, Uke Bolt’s The Tiger and the Borss
(ff.e.), is an honourable attempt to dramatise philo¬ The Cresla Bm. 1965.
sophical and ethical problems, especially the
discrepancy between man’s idealistic convictions A play about counter-espionage proved dis¬
and his personal relationships. But len^hy appointing. partly because its mockery is directed
exposition and discussion delay the final action at a schoolboy dream rather than at a general
and the characters and plot aie too schematic mala ise, partly because it lacks the bold structural
tor an organic development. outlme of One Way Pendulum. Even the absurd
The fact that the play appeared soon after the objects-^keys, codes, disguises— are trivial com¬
desith of Bertrand Russell and recalls his friend¬ pared with the ‘' Old Bailey;” Simpson has also
ships with writers such as D. H. Lawrence, lost some of the claiistrophobic compulsion of his
rather weakens its Impact. earlier plays by his constant swiiishing of the
suburban couple to Two critics are watcbing an absurd clrawiiig-
^ It B mfortuMte that a promise ■ • latent
1 t wi,theme tahmg whodunit, with a corpse ignored by at!
the centre of the stage. But tlie main
—the compulsion felt by the Secunty man to focus of interest is the critics. Both are obsessed,
myiuge to swret mformation — is swamped by the introverted Moon, only a “stand-in,” by
— jealous hatred of his professional superior, the
the si^gestion that in Bngland Intelligence .should ateent Higgs, while the eupeptic Birdfoot is
logically be in the hands of private enterprise! always infatuated with the latest actres.s.
Tlien at the ringing of a stage telephone
The Bole, 1957, and The Form are one-acters in absurdity completely takes over. The cal! is
the same style as the full-length plays. from
stage Birdfoot’s
where he suspicious
takes on wife! He ofis the
the part drawnfickle
on
lover, soon to be followed by Moon, when told that
Wole Sovinka (b 1934! ff*® stage both
minutes corpse is that
critics of Higga ! Inof a their
in consequence few
Soyinka, a Nigerian and an English graduate, is obsessions have been shot dead, the
an admirer of Brecht. Arden, and Dflrrenmatt, sharp crack of retribution not unusual in Stoppard.
Beneath the glittering, zany surface of the play
The Boad. 1966 ff*® concept of drama as the mirror, Hamlet’.s
™Hnnn oof i-r* .
d™ . , , “mirror ourselves
up to nature,” wherein we see and
'I’fiP o -vaj _ _ _ _ i._ _ _
ne f-ma, set in a drivers haven in Nigeria, identify with the dramatis personae,
successfully product with a large cast of coloured The play formed part of a double bill with
actors,
LCtors, later won a Dakar award. Sean Patrick Vincent’s musical satire. satire^ The
Audition. It appears that Stoppard’s comic
The Lion and the Jewel. 1966. O.IJ.P. gemus finds its best vehicle in the short plav.
In a lively
Jompany comedy,
Airlcan presented
.aotm-s flip jewel
iAn-ol amiDime
by iathe iua t^^lhe virtuoso invention can sustain
Company of African actors, the is Sidi. the
belle of a Yoruba village. Elated at being
^ glossy magazine, she rejects
both the native schoolmaster and the old chief- David Storey (b. 1933).
tarn, the Lion, imtil cunningly seduced by him she Storey, also a novelist, is the son of a Yorkshire
exultantly joins his harem.
miner and helped to support himself at the Slade
Native culture, with vivid ritual dance and helped to support himself at the Slade
music, is presented as more alluring and virile tEan Piaymg professional Eugby for Leeds. He
European, which is mocked both in during tbe flto-scnpt for his owi novel. This
mimes
numes and in the shabby, ineffective school- school- Life, and Lmdsay Anderpn.
Anderson, while
master infatuated with Western gadgets. nlay^^^noW MiSfon ^ revise his discarded
Anderson has directed Storey's three subsequent
„ _ plays and the imaginative rapport between pro-
Tom Stopiiard (b. 1937). ducer and playwright hM led to their being inter-
Stoppard has writto plays
tke engaging Alberl s Bridge (P),forandradio, including tteme hfstoiw’f woS^^to^Mereer’s is
for television, the stress felt by the educated offspring of working
^ ^ ^ plays involve reference to mental
Mosencraniz and Giitidenstem are Dead, 1966. P. trouble or instability and he is much interested in
™rtay lift, fts-

With his own action or rattomSon £0^112 “ Storey's own experience. Yet they
archtype is Beckett’s Waiting for Godot mcreasmgly poetic in approach, in
He humorously chooses as protagonists the f. ^ significance is consciously ambiguous,
two nonentities, Eosencrantz and (luOdeMt^^ definition.” Storey
Summoned inexplicably to Elsinore, they Sg deliberately leaves all the optiom open. He
about, always on the fringe of great events thev do reading something through,
not understand, passing the time like Shakes- ^‘®j ^S^s completely what it is all about, then it
pearean jesters, in witty word play and fruitlefs ^ dead, but If it mystifies him then it has " taken
speculation as to theirissituation
Their predicament and destiny.
a suggestive on^ independent life of its oivn.’’
image of the _
versatility is
bewilderment of the ordinary man faced with Br®“ising.
world events heyrad his grasp and, at a deeper
level, with
being on thistheearth,
e^tential problem of man’s very The Bestoraiion of Arnold Middleton. 1967. P.
and the imminence of death » .
The rehearsals of the Players, the counSart ^ -^“old. a young schOTlma.ster (as Storey once
of the enactments of Pozzo and Lucky In Godot ^ eccentric, his latest acquisition an
create aa further
create further film
film of
of imreality
imreality and
and illusion
illusion. outsize of But
revision. armour introduced
Arnolds during
clowning the play’s
disguises the
_ The play is too long, the second act not suffi¬ fact that he is going mad.
ciently contrasted, hut it is remarkable that so
The theme is reminiscent of Mercer’s Morgan,
derivative
and a play should be so delightfully fresh the gorilla
original. “®il® reminiscent
smt, but theof exuberant
Mercer’s Morgan,
comedy
tenas to blur tbe issue and the interpretation of
Enter a Free Man. 1968. E. the^kero^ instability and lightning recovery is

This comedy is an extended version of a tele¬
vision play of p63. EeiUy (Michael Hordern), In Celebration
a self-styled " inventor ” of unworkable Heath teieoration. 1969.
EobhiMn gadgets, “ leaves home ” regularly Three sons return home to celebrate the fortieth
every Saturday to spend in the pub the ten shil- wedding aimiversary of their parents, doting
ungsmocket money allowed him by his working collier husband and complacent matriarch, who
daughter, always to return home when his money considers herself his social superior,
has run out. His long-suffering wife (Megs With first-hand realism Storey conveys the
JenMns) has consoled herself with the hope that disorientation and embarrassed filial feeling of
ff hes to he a failure anyhow, he might as well sons educated beyond their origins. The eldest
fail at something he’d like to succeed at ”! brother, the iconoclastic Andrew, is hell-bent on
The
rvri. situation, although genuinely
gcuuiuojj' funny
luuuj' and
! tearing down the family facade and tries to force
play.
pathetic, IS not adequate to a full-length play. on stolid
that their Colin and sensitive
amhltious mother hadSteven his theory
distorted their
The Beal Inspector Hound. 1968. E E. lives into a ftoe rêctabillty to appease her own
mii- - j i , sense of guDt. When six months pregnant, she
stSso ^*'®kJ®6fit , burlesque, like had felt obliged to marry the collier father and
uses Sie device of the play- after the firstborn had died at the age of seven,
y^hm-theylay. It is a simedtaneous parody of she had tried to commit suicide,
jaded theatrical convention and modish theatrical After an extravagant dinner at the local hotel
jargon. Andrew lash^ the bewildered father with his
scorn and only the concerted efforts of Colin and is to find writers rather tiian plays
Steven can help to reassure the old man and get his encouragement and suggestions and tin-™, i.
morning before he can con- several plays located in the I rTci^
front the mother. theme of these is the mysterloia now:^
motivation is not fully as opposed to urban sophistiSiUon ^ and ®
credible but tins compassionate and close-knit Budldnd’s Jl/om J\rfp7it Come (o v ) a SniSir
rtay. with the past haunting the present, recalls often runs through them 4eestmM cnnllf®
Ibsen, especially since Andrew is an ignoble Terson’s greatest gift his
counterpart of Gregers Werle in TJie Wild Duck. a way that is both very ftoiy ^d^
moto ^diS
Protoundly
I/ie Contractor.
„ 1969. serious
The lêsham playstime.”
at the same include A NigM to Make fh^
Five men leisurely assemble and later dismantle I’¬
ll huge tent for the weddhig of the contractor’s il ^d ^11 Bmiour
daughter, while members of the family drift In and iqrV p Mooney and His Caravans,
out. The workers’ banter and taunts and the hPpnTno -,o+- n ....
fanuly casual talk hint at hidden hurts, bub the remarkable through his
tocns of the play IS the actual work on the tent— direrfor of fUA^Yrr tkoft,
as m Ionesco a " thing ’’—presented here with no Sere wis ooi^ n i .Zagger (P)
absurdity or phantasy but with almost the faith- bidffîinô
fulness of doeumentary, for Storey can draw on Terson, Croft, and‘^Wch
the
ills own experience of the job. wh Apprentices (P), which began
iheTheplayimage is however
cannot metaphorical
“be confined to any and
one because
defini- mooted (tarinlrPbPnrRi?^fS*-n'^‘“ considerably
Storey finds it one of his most satisfying ^
works. He sometimes sees it as “somehow affectionate
related to the decline and falling away of oapitSdst faek
?fôn™?twt
society ” or " as a metaphor for artistic creation.” the yoimger sShSone^^^^^^ modem society to
ket seffie
plete it still contmues to make sense — and com- younger school-leaver,
— as the story of these men who put up
this tent and that’s that.”' Zigger Zagger. 1967. P.
Homi' 19
Mome. 1070 70. I*°miiiating the play is a remarkable maninula-
tion of a youthful foothaU crowd which aSs m v
Sitting at a garden table, on the only two chairs backcloth to the scene. Harry school-
available, two ageing gentlemen. Jack (Ealph leaver and near-delinauenk. Is so possessed by its
Harry (Gielgud), gently and Dlonysiac freiw that he is opaaue to all efforts S
diffidently make conversation. Jack, slightly more autliontative figures such as the youth officer and
dapiwr. and prone to pointless family anecdote. respectaWe relatives to gear him Into a lob
iisuaUy tês the Mtiative In their exchange of Eventually ^dgingly accepting life’s economic
dated clich4s and banalities. The broken pbrases demands, be becomes an apprentice,
refer to mres now separated, ambitions unfulfilled,
the clouds, but real communication can only be Ttie ApurenMee
s urns
unspoken and there is sad irony in Jack’s. "So -P.
rare these days nowadays to meet someone to Hutum mid-day breaks in a factory yard
whom one can actually talk.” crowded and animated as a Breughel overahed
When these leave, their places are taken by two play football, fight, flirt, arid wrangla
rough, Cor blimey ” women, fnU of prurient ®m:ned foreman and older hands, caustic
innuendo and scandal, and when the gentlemen S'®* tolerant, act as foil,
return and courteously escort “the ladies” to . chief personalities are vividly presented
corn êf hMh,” it has gradually become ap- centre is the derisive, Ir-
parent th^ gus is a mental “ home.” Act EC Bagey, priding himself on his “ rebel’s
begins With tbe entry of a leucotomfeed young S't heart, yet an enthusiast for
mm who aiml^sly shifts the fomiture about. barbmous initiation” ritual. But the
heart-breaking in its naturaUstic Pôsress of events leaves him stranded. Led by
fldehty to human madeauacy, is handicapped by ‘‘“® studious Geoff, his felloire, including Harry
some monotony of incident and dialogue. But. S? gaiMae quaUflcations and gettfaig on and out!
like Beckett s Godot, also a strange quintet, it factory, modernised, wiU need brains not
poetic suggestion. Tbe ironic title ,aU have lost interest in the " initla-
and the fmmiture. Inadequate for 2000 people, are “on. Bagley. a married man at 18, his wife
significant as is the apparently irrelevant juxta- already pregiant after a brief holiday encounter,
positton of phrases, which are in themselves drifts towards the older fitters he had
^blguous metaphors. ("This little island:’’ despised.
“9,h. PO.” “The sun has
®®S; ... Eopple of hours.”) Hnzn iaro
9^® ^^tine ofhope and vitality (perhaps that mt,’
of England herself) is most potently expressed by , ^® crowd techniques of the N.Y.T. were again
the unadorned shape of the play, the decline of the deployed in a lively dramatising of student pro-
day from morm^ to evening, the sky overcast, students’ own lack of a
the ram that of the old men’s silent tears. positive.
play uniCVmg purpose became reflected in the
m itself.
Cecil P. Taylor. Spring-Seeled Jack. l^tQ.

Taylor is quizzically interested in left-wing ^se^ttmg for another N.Y.T. play, now
espeoiaJly theh inconsistencies and fallacies directed by Barrie Butter, is the rowdy ymd of a
He is very successfbl in a brisk, brief comedv like crowded block of council flats. Lop, just back
1966 fP). In Bread and Butter, 1966 (P) from prison for petty larceny, finds scant sym¬
bis natumlirtic oiitline biography of two Jewish pathy from the noisy, mixed population. He
couples m ttie ^^rbals between 1931 and 1065 m becomes suspected of murdering an old tramp and
done but too slight to sustain , the mounting hysteria he is identified with
the ftill-length play. me mythical terronst and voyeur. Spring-Heeled
Jack. Only _him.
Negro saves the intervention of a sympathetic
The central momentum of the play tends to he
Peter Terson (b. 1932). dissmated in extraneous currents of action and
is a prolific writer, with a talent for farcical episodes.
lertile, fluent dialogue, which immediately estab¬
lishes personahties and relationships. His most
BuccessfM work has been done in active co-opera- Jose Triana (b. 1831).
ti<m with two directors, Cheeseman. and Croft.
rii 1963. wMe wmkiiig as a games master in the Trima, bom in <^ba, spent four years in Madrid
vale of Evesham, Terson first contacted Cheese- out returned to Cuba after Castro’s revolution and
man. director at Stoke-on-Trent, whose policy has now written several plasms.
it
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS iST CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
The Crirnmals. 1967. ruined adolescent, Melchior, searching for the
grave of his sweetheart, dead through an abortion,
The first Cuban play staged here depict-s three is encountered by the ghost of his suicide friend
adults, a brother and his two sisters, acting out
fantasies of childhood, hatred of thwarting parents, and is himself only restrained from the same fate
and the tyranny of home, which culminate in a by the symbolic Man in the Mask.
frenzied ritual of their murder of the parents at Lulu. 1970.
the end of Act One. The trial of the children in
Act Two gradually develops Into an enactment of Lulu is the title given by Peter Barnes to his
the adaptation of two plays, Barth Spirit, 1895. and
falls parents’
the ritualmutual
begins detestation.
afresh. As the curtain
its sequel Pandora’s Box, 1903. Barnes’s version
This Intense play, in the genre of “ Theatre of keeps to the basic substance if not to the spirit of
Cruelty ” Iq.v.), has less wealth of imagery than the original.
Weiss’s Marat-Sade but a greater universality of Wedekind’s protagonist. Lulu, the incarnation
reference than Genet’s world of criminals and of the instinctual life, symbolises sexual passion
perverts. It may have been influenced by the in its beauty, rapture, and terror. In her
work of Arrabal. narci&sism and uninhibited passion she destroys
Triana shows great psychological meight; all who become hopelessly infatuated with her.
children’s play is often a dramatic projection of unbridled erotic fantasy alternating with horror
their inner anxieties and conflicts and at all ages and the grotesque.
the sterile process of fantasy gives only temporary
relief and must be endlessly and exhaustingly Lulu In Barnes’s Act I, eorresponsing to Barih Spirit,
causes the death of her first hashand by
repeated. The most signltloant moment of the shock, the suicide of the second, and shoots the
play is when the word “ love ”
as an alternative only to be rejected. is timidly offered third, Schon.
In Act H, the sequel, she gradually degenerates
An extremely apt parallel to Triana’s^vision was to amateur prostitute, still adored by two ruined
the contemporary Keith lecture (26 Ifov. 1967),
when Dr. Leach, the social anthropologist, criti¬ devotees, a lesbian counte.ss and Schon’s son. To
him she has been successively foster-sister, step¬
cised our unthinking acceptance of the inward mother, and mistress, the incarnation of a
turning type of family life, where " The parents Freudian dream. These two also die and she is
fight: the children rehel.” Of such a family herself assassinated by a pervert casual client.
Dr. leach said, " The strain is greater than mrat Jack the Ripper.
of us can
source bear,”
of our socialand be considered it to be the
discontents. Barnes’s adaptation neglects the mystery and
pathos of the original. The characters are pre¬
Triana’s pxay effectively shows it as a potent sented flat. Only the countess and SchOn’s son
source of man’s aggression. Some critics have are a little more than two-dimensional and so
seen in it implications excite some sjunpathy. Fantasy and horror are
dominance of America. of Castro’s resistance to the abruptly succeeded by grotesque batbos in the
modish spirit of black comedy ig.v.).
Boris Vian (1920-69).

The French Vian was influenced by the Absurd¬ Peter Weiss (b. 1916).
ist approach of Ionesco. The German-speaking Weiss has adopted
Swedish nationality and Marxist doctrine.
The Kmpire Builders. 1962.
Man’s futile flight from death is imaged in a 2’he “ Marat Sade.” 1864.
family trying to escape from a terrifying noise by
moving up to a higher and higher floor and The full title of this verse pfey, one of the mwit
meaner quarters. Eventually the father alone impressiveis exemplifications
reaches the attic, where he dies. Cruelty, The Persecution ofand
Artaud’s Tlieatre of
Assassination of
Jean-Paut Marat as Performed by the Inmates of
the Asylum of Ckarenton under the Direction of the
The Generals’ Tea Party. 1966. P. Marquis de Sadel As the title indicates this
Written in 1951, Vian’s biting, alsurdisfc satire complex work operate on receding planes of
on the military mentality represents his general cruelty, thus exciting in the audience that vivid
behaving like a small boy, afraid of Mama, and experience of violence which is the aim of Artaud.
asking his playfellows — other generals — to tea. Artaud's demand for primitive ritual which
After deciding that war would be a nice idea, they shall exorcise repressed fantasy is met by
then select the target — ^prophetically Algeria. Corday’s threefold visit and murder of Marat and
also by the lunatics’ frenzied miming of the
ceremony of the guillotine — background motif
to the whole play. The use of pantomime
Eoger Vitrac (1899-1953). and gesticulation on the open stage satisfy
The French Vitrac, an associate of Artaud,
Artaud’s demands for spectacle, for “ poetry in
attempted Surrealist plays which anticipate the
Theatre of the Absurd. Peter Brook pointed out that these eleanents are
Victor. 1964. not consistent
achieved by the with
devicea Breehtian “ alienation
of a play within a play, ’’the
—
protetlng
space.” comments of the dirôr of the asylmn.
Victor is a boy of 9 but 7 foot tall and with a the intellectual debates between Sade and Marat
mature int^gehee. He and his outeize girl¬ and the ribald songs of a grotesque quartet of
friend are the only rational beings in a farcical zanies. The effect is an inextricable blend ot the
adult world. comic and the violent.
The InvestigaMm. 1965,
Frank Wedekind (1864-1918). A documentary of the Frankfurt War Crime
The plays of the German Wedekind, a passionate Trials, edited by Weiss, had a multiple premlfere
amorallst. are preoccupied with the mysterious in East and West Germany and at the Aldwych.
power of sex and in their Intensity they sporadi¬ Described by Wete as an" Oratorio in 11 Cantos.”
cally break throngh the bounds of realism into after Dante’s Inferno, monoply
it indictscapitalists,
the millions,
fantasy and symbolism — techniques later to be including the German who
deployed, although to different ends, in Bxpres- tacitly supported the Nazi atrocities.
sionton (q.c.). At the first impact the grisly facts leave an
overwhelming impression of horror. It is re¬
Spring Awakening. 1863. markable that the author’s restraint and dignity
ill presenting them and the formal austerity of his
Published in 1891, the play which concerns the design have in retrospect the effect of cattutrsis.
lyrical rapture and the agony of puberty, is a
fervid indictment of a disastrous and repressive The Song of the LusUanian Bogey. 1969.
"morality," of secretive or hypoorital parents A passionate indictment of Portuguese colcmial
and grotesquely tyrannical schoolmasters.
Finally hi a scene of nightmare fantasy, the exploitation and oppression of Angola recalls in
CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS |38
OTch a triumphal movement as the finni climax
some of its teclmiaues Peter Brook’s US. It was but the generM pattern of the play is of recoil and
splendidly acted by the New York Negro En¬
semble. listlessness,. held oMy by Sarah’s unshakeabie
faith in carmg and Ronme’s honesty with himself.
Arnold Wesker (b. 1932). Bools. 1959. P.

There is here a sMlful shift of scene to NorfoM
Wesker, eon of a Jewish-Hungarian father and a
Russian mother, first became a chef, and worked where Beatie Bryant (Joan Plowi-ight). a farm’
in Norwich, London, and Paris, before taking a labourer’s daughter on holiday from London re-
visits her fimilly. Beatie is engaged to Ronnie
sis months’ course at the London School of Pilm
Technique, where he wrote his first play. who has form three yearssmd
beenin trying to educate her'
He is known not only as a dramatist but also especiaUy the arts the Intelligent use of
as a devoted socialist. Since 1962 much of Ms words (the “bridges” of communication). She
time has been given to Ms efforts to bring an has Ignored his advice but endlessly parrots hk
enjoyment of good drama and art to people who eaymgs to her pMegmatic family.
would otherwise lack opportimity. To this end Preoccupied with the primal necessities of life
he has foimded — îmder the aegis of the Trade the Bryants are the coarse “ roots ” from which
Unions — the well-known Centre 42. Bea tie has sprung. In spite of a rough friendliness
they are ignorant, prejudiced, stubborn and
Wesker's early plays were in the naturalistic above all inarticulate.
idiom, centred on the vivid portrayal of an East When on the day appointed for his visit. Ronnie
End Jewish famUy and a farm-labourer’s family sends instead a letter saying their marriage would
in Norfolk. He evidently found naturalism in-
not \TOrk, Beatie is at last galyaMsed by shock
mro finding thoughts and words of her own
These folk she realises are without spiritual root®
EveryOiing became the dominant style. Wesker’s or standard. Then comes her ecstatic moment
hold on dramatic structure Is erratic, but he has
an exhilarating sense of movement on the stage. of self-raallsation. She is at last thinking and
_ His most individual characteristic to his pas speakmg for herself.
sionate concern for his characters. They are Although he .does not know it Romiie has
presented in the round, living, aspiring, and erring, realised his ambition, “ to save someone from the
so that they acMeve an independent existence, fire.
especially the women. Although male protago¬ The play is well constructed, the characters and
nists like Eonnle Eahn and Pip are seen both in malogue are convincing, Beatie delightful. The
their strength and weaknera. Weaker does not about and “bridges”
entirely detach himself Scorn them, somehow developdiscussed
Ideas organically from"roots”
the situation.
conveying his personal reactions to them — a
conflict of love and exasperation. He has never¬
theless gone much farther than Osborne, for in¬ I’m Talking about Jerusalem, i960. P.
stance, in creating a truly objective image, as his In 1946 the. Kahns’ daughter and her husband,
more flexible dialogue indicates. He has a keen Dave, settle m. Norfolk to put into practice the
ear for social and personal idiosyncracies, espec¬ theones of William Morris, but Dave, finding that
ially urban Jewish voMbllity and the fumbling his hand-made fumiture cannot compete eco¬
speech of the country labourer. nomically yrfth the factory product, faces their
Like Sartre, Wesker is deeply “committed.” failure and in 1969 they return to London.
He is a convinced socialist but not a propagandist, The theme of disillusion is here fully analysed
T?L^..PJ2.ys explore the moral and practical by the voluble Kahns, but the mood escapes
difficulties of the socialist position and he shows
tmuraal honesty in portraying Ronnie Kahn, the dwpair md Dave’s self-respect and sober appraisal
facts is contrasted with the em¬
most voeM of socialists, as a weak if not renegade bittered cyMcism of a friend.
personality.
The play is weak structurally. There is in-
sumcient action and Dave is not a sufficiently
commmidmg figure to hold tMngs together. Then
The Trilogy-— The trilogy consists of three natural- ^timate study of tender family relationships,
istic pliyrs m wMch a discursive history of the suitable to a novel, is embarrassing, except for
Jewtm faiMy, the Kahns, is fused with political bnrf moments on the public stage.
debate on the course of socialism , .Two symbolic moments in Act II Indicate that
Wesker was realising the limitations of realism.
Chicken Soup wWi Barley. 1958, P. (Jne is the miming of a simple ritual of recon-
TMa is the springboarcl of the trilogy. It cmation, the other a ritual enactment of the story
of creation.
opens on October 4. 1936. the morning of Mosley’s
attempted march through the Bast End of Lon-
domjvhm the curtain rises on the basement flat
™ Kahns, a Jewish family dedicated to The &fiogy as a Whole — Wesker’s trilogy throws
socialist acti’suties. It is 1967 when the play ends up vital questions of good and evil, both personal
and social, the chief perhaps being that of heredity.
with .the disillôn ofthe son. Ronnie, at the
Russian occupation of Hungary. Mu^ Ronnie Isand
Each of the Kahns is a five human being lumtations? Mrs.Beatie
Bryantinherit their parents’
right when she says.
presented not for moral judgment but with The apple don’t fall far from the tree”? Is
sympathy. Especially commanding is the mother man foredoomed and Ms sfruggle vain? IroM-
cally it K the undependable Harry who suggests
Sa^. What J^ might call an “ extraverted
feeUng that giving people some love may help them to
type, .she is ignorant of events, con¬
temptuous of books, a strenuous mother figure chaose, île of socialism he says, “ It’U piirlfv
and yet in her aggressive dynamic the most Itself. Who was right and in what degree?
mapuline person of the group,
amteble but shiftless husband, iniSmcy,
contrast to her
and tbe The Kiickm. 1969. P.
vaoiUating Ronnie.
_ oen^ theme of the play is the conflict In a two-aeter, Wesker draws on his experience
Miween attitudes ofrnind, caring,” or concern as a_ohef to give a vivid impression of a day in
^
The the welfare of others, and indifference to it.
battie the Mtên of Marango’s restaurant. The play
is fought on two fronts, in the home is notable for its skilful contrasts in pace and
and politically, it being taken for granted that movement. The quiet morning quickens to a
socialism is an expression of “caring,” The fren^ anxiety at lunch-time, and the doldrums
sUlw^ Sarah is the centre of the two-fold coii- ot the ofmtemoon are succeeded by the sudden
lliot, for she attacks both social inertia and that outburst of a Uermau who goes beserk.
of her husband and son. The swirling vortex is an image of the blind
Straoturally the play is sprawlmg, but Wesker actmty of society, and. while avoiding the rigidity
ahc^ showsAt Ms sense of theatrical of Mlegory, Wesker clearly indicates that the
movemmt. the mtmtive
end of Scene I there Is an kitchen is a microcosm of the world, where men
exMaratmg leap forward as the little band of
fighters surges from the basement to the light A with êm casual contacts find them^ves in a
rituatlon bwond their graspi The play ends with
more experienced dramatist might have placed the dramatic Irony of Marango’s failure to per-
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS l3 9 CONTEMPORARY THEATRE
ceive that work and food alone cannot satisfy The Friends. 1970.
man’s desires. Her brother, lover, and friends surround
Although it destroyed the clanstrophohic
atmosphere the Aim wsion caught very well the Esther’stheydeathbed.
origin, Of Jewish
have become affluent worklng-cla.<5s
and cultured
movement of the play.
but have lost direction. Disillusion as to the
workers’ capacity for culture is a theme adum¬
brated but not clarified. The situation is static
Chips with Ei'eriftMng. 1962. P. and the dialogue often embarraralngly introverted
and self-conscious.
In B.U.B. iRossum’s Vnixersal Robots) the
B^ressionist playwright, Karel Capek, used
robots as dramatis pemonae. In Chips with
Evei^hing Wesker brilliantly deploys Expres¬ Jolm Whiting (1915-63).
sionism to illustrate the process whereby military John Whiting was an original playwright who
discipline can reduce individuals to a robot-like
was much preoccupied with the theme of self-
unuomity, both the complacency of authority destruction.
and the inertia_ of the ranks. but was slow to find his own style.
A squad of nine E. A.P. conscripts is subjected to A Penny for a Song. 1951.
a battery of bullying abuse from the corporal and
psychological manipulation by the commissioned Written at a time of great personal happiness
offlcera, until, their personal identity submerged, this is an agreeable whimsy, depicting two eccen¬
they learn to move as one mechanical unit and tric brothers in their DoreetsMre residence pre¬
pass oiit to the blaring of a military band playing ' paring to repel the armies of Napoleon. The
God Save the Queen.” appearance on the stage of a balloon and a home¬
Exprrasimiism is iiarticularly appropriate to his made fire-engine give the authentic period touch
purpose. He uses type character to represent ot gentlemanly interest in scientific invention, and
somal forc^ — the brat example being Corporal i mime. also impart to the farcical idyll a dash of panto¬
Hill— -and the identity of the reemits is. with two
^ceptions, indicated very lightly. The dialogue Whiting cleverly gives a comic perspective to
is for the most part staocato, while brief, stylised, the recent fear of foreign invasion and so takes the
symbolic sceues. such as the square Mshing and sling out of terror.
bayonet practice, succeed one another rapidly, a
triumphant instance of Wesker’s iunate command
of stage movement. Saint’s Fay. 1951.
, recruits presented in greater won This play, written before A Penny for a Song,
detau; the plight of the gentle Suiiler, broken and the award in a Festival of Britain Play
suffering, is sufficiently generalised to give pathos Competition.
and depth to the play without disturbing its tone, It concerns self-destruction, its central figure
but the predicament of DQionuBon is treated with being the octogenarian Paul Sonthman, once a
too much psychological detail to be in key, famous revolutionary poet who had long ago
especially as the portrait is not entirely eon- gone into self-imposed exile because of popular
vineing. outcry against his work.
The son of a general. Thompson is at first The plays opeiB well Southman is a striking
resistant to authority and appears to be trying to figure, an embodiment of the angry artist at war
assuine leêiîp of the squad. But the habits wnth society, and like Swift in his aggrrasive scorn
of compromise, his scurrilous style and final
of a class that can eat *’ chiiis with everything ” madness. His situation is at first sufficiently
are too distasteful for him, and accused by the
distanced to be convincing, but when the fashion¬
recrmte of “slumming” and assailed by the
blmidishmeats of the officers he suddenly capitu- able young writer Procathren introduces the
latra and assumes officer’s uniform. glossy contemporary world it begios to seeiu
The overall effect is tense and powerful and implausible. Later Procathren accidentally Mils
scenes of moving comedy, such as the breath¬ Paul’s grand-daughter. Stella, and then orders
taking mime of stealing coke, alternate with those three deserting soldieis to hang Paul and Stella’s
where the audience, facing the same direction as husband, also an artist, and the initially powerful
the xecmlts themselves, cannot escape feeling the theme is swamped by melodrama.
obliterating effects of the military machine. The play generally is overloaded with half-
developed symbolism and allusion.
Tfie Four Seasons. 1966. P. Marching Song. 1964. P.

In a play much concerned with the existentia¬
The course of love through the four seasons of list stress on the inescapabflity of choice, Whiting
the year is traced through, the shared experience returns to the theme of self-drabruotion.
of a man and woman whose previous marriages The setting is generalised— a wealthy house
had foundered. Wesker has unsuccessfully ap¬
plied an Expressionist style to unsuitable material, “above a capital city In Europe.” Eupert
Forster, formerly a general, who seven yearn
a static situation without incident or plot. previously had inexplicably lost a decirive battle,
here meets his dilemma. He must ffithex feoe a
trial, whldh might cause imlirical unreri:. or com¬
Their Very Own and OMen City. 1966. P. mit suicide. The choices are represented by two
The driving power of an imusual play is prob¬ people.
In Act n Forster encounters Dido, a young
ably Wesker’sideal
own in struggle to realise a communal woman who revives his sense of humanity and
and artistic Centre 42. will to live. She represents the female ffide of
He ddifully integrates a sweeping expresslon- personality, the Jnngian anima and her name
Istlc panorama of social trends since 1926 with the recalls the Dido of the .Eneid, who by her love
creation of rounded, idiosyncratic charactera deflected ffilneas from the path of military duty
The inspired architect, Andrew Cobham, has a enjoined by fate.
vMon of the ideal city that sihall set a pattern of In Act III he has a very different meeting with
living for the community, but ite fuU achievement Captain Bruno, the embodiment of military ambi¬
is thwarted by obscurantist Trade Hnimia and by tion, who represents the male aspect of personality.
his accepting the patronage of a Tory Minister and To him Forster at last confesses the cause of his
a capitalist Industrialist. Andrew’s emotional life fatal defeat. He had been so overcome with
is split Iwtween ftustrated friendship with an compassion for children whom he had destroy^
aristocratic girl and estrangement form Jessie, his while they were impeding his tanks that he had
homely wife. been unable to follow np his advance. Bruno
A vantage point is offered by recurring dream¬ stigmatises the delay as mfiitary error and guilt
like scenes in Durham Cathedral. Acting as a and Forster commits snloide mther than face
flash forward they show Andrew the youth with disgrace and imprisonment.
his fellows and Jessie. Ecstatic with joy at the This is a strongly constructed play, its dominat¬
sublimity of the cathedral be envisages his own ing theme worked out with single-minded aus¬
life-work. But the final scene, in keeping with terity. But it lacks thrust and momentum.
the disillusion and compiomi^ that have blitted Forster’s reversion to his original decision to
his vision, serves as a sad, ironic flaEih-badk, commit suicide gives it a circular movement and
!40
CONTEMPORARY
DIRECTORY OF DRAMATISTS THEATRE
’’'hout a briber
it is more concerned to clarify judgment of tlie put on Pe]ice’.s own work. The Two Characte
r Plan
!>ast than to affect the future. In its acknow¬ and sister who stay immured in an overwo
ledgment of the discrepancy between military code ^
and humane ethic it is highly topical and stimu¬
lating. house m their terror of facing the world oiSiS^
riieir father had killed their mother and'^tw
comimtted suicide and people now aspect*
The Demis. 1062. V. brother-sister relationship. Whether it fs* th?
relationship of Felice and Clare or of the dramiS the
Suggested to Whiting by Peter Brook, this personae is .left ambiguous in a PhanS e
intricate and distinguished play is based on Piece hovering on the confines of realtyhke
Md
Aldous Huxley’s The Devils of Loudim, which
teeats of an actual case of suspected diabolism in illusion, samty, and madness. ^
France between 1628 and 1634.
Whiting employs two focal points. One is Chai’Ies Wood (b. 1932).
Grandier (Eichard Johnson), again a man who
Ever since Cockade, 1963,
myites his own destruction, a worldly and sensual been chiefly concerned with Wood’s plays have
priest who is yet gifted with a rare religious in¬
sight and compassion. The other is a hunchback iIotIpT military life Au
pnore.ss (Dorothy Tuttn). Although she has not
met Grandier, she becomes obsessed by fantasies
of his amorous adventures and her resulting Dingo. 1967. P.
hysteria, which spreads throughout the convent^ Wood employs Expressionism to present
IS suspected as diabolical possession, instigated by phantasmagoria of the last War. beginning in a
Grandier. Eicheiieu, for political reasons, uses the
cteert Md grmding tteough Stalag to the mcon-
uhis as a pretext to get rid of him. Grandier, in ditipnal surrender of Germany. It is an assart
spite of excruciating torture and degradation, the on the eniotions and sensations in a passionat
prelude e
his faith.to bis bemg burnt alive, struggles to retain attempt to bring home war’s physical horror Imd
spiritual attrition,3’i’Soism
but Wood’s specific expedlen
and political concernicvs
In its subject and theme The Devils is strikingly
similar to Miller s The GnicAble. Both plays show
I homne moyen senanel accused of diabolism and andThethe scureilou
futility sof words
the heroism
matter they
less deimn ^ ^
than certain
fieset byanda woman’s jealousy, fanatical super¬ persistent unages: the ranicer. Dingo, epito^
stition, malignant spite, yet still keeping his bitter disiBusion: Tanky, rendered simple-mindedS
integrity in the face of death. because he was powerless to
. There are significant differences. WTiiting’s screaming to death m a flaming release his mate
tank; an EN8A
intricate play is not realistic but Brechtian in comedian who serves to parody Churchff
style, with a series of brief episodes and a com¬ riietonc, and breezy morale-boosting of High lto
mentary by a sewemmn, whose ironic and
sceptical remarks counterpoint Grandier’s elo¬ in a bikim for a concert party designed to
quence. It lacks Miner’s reference to the con¬ re
an escape ftom Stalag. cover
subaltern, di-essed as a blonde
temporary scene and its final note is one and now.^th
of harsh
pêssumsm, as the sewerman teUs the prioress that powerful but sprawling, cluttered
Grandier s bones are being prized by the crowd
one-aded. . It attacks the Ideawire
the barbed . •’•“uay,
as superstitious " charms.” a more dead from
disiiffer ested rdle than that Britain
in previous pteyed
The final act presents an almost unbearable It was Fought, not for others, says Dingo, wars
spectacle of a barbarous ritual of physical torture but
a.s the maimed and twitching Grandier is paraded
m pubhc procession through the streets. “H”. 1069.
4.r,L usual
M, reasons/' an emotive statement
that needs scrutiny. onawmcmo
heroic march of the
Tennessee Williams (b. 1914),
Tlie American Tennessee Williams Is a play¬ elderly General Havelock, or “H.” during the
wright of great talent, whose freely flowing Mutiny. _:ms cplumn vastly outnumbered and
mturalistic plays combine violence and melo¬ decimated by disease, he yet relieved Cawnpore
Md won twelve desperate
drama with haunting portrayal of personality, Lucknow where he died of battlesdysentery.
before relie^g
fluent dialogue, and original settings. A. devoted and chivalrous CMstian and a
Of recent yîs following major plays have co’MaS'iMie’’. Havelock yet ordered
terrible reprisals then current.
V,i?o Menagerie,
Glass Car Named sepoys or sh<»ting them alive from the
Desire, 1949 (D); The Rose Tattoo (P); Oat on a mouto of cannon. His equivocal behaviour
Cammo Beni, the least realistic
Sîiddenlv Last Summer (P), Period, helps to resolTC and focus Wood’s own conflictin
impiflses, his fascination with military msdnUneg
1961, and The T-wo-Character Play, and Ifls horror at the bestiality of
breathe the atmosphere of play IS more unifled than Dingo. war, so that the
’r®i’y* centred in the
the Deep South— often decadent in tone— Wil- Protagomst. But the irony
lia^, rahke the extravert MBler. is preoccupied ™ *'^® contrast between the stylised
not with sociM issues but with the inner hfe of his
Victorian l^âge and the
chiMcters. Compelled by their own passions the many brief unconnectedbrutal deed, and in
and obsessions and caught in the web of family onerecaUingthe mutual episodes, as, for
love and sacrifice
relationships, they break away only at great cost
and pam to themselves and others, so that a sepoys. These, demandreg
mood, of detenmusm. sombre but not altogether
de®anmg. broods over much of Willlama* work. Mde-de-oamp is his
He portrays the, vulnerability of those who rero son suggeste the tender perspective of home.
desne or love ^ything intensely, humanity’s Eesolute m coS courage
aggression and despair, aU lSdhis
disffifrom ^*^°“ and obedience, the son
of which he claims to find within himself. The father in opinion and faith and
ôlenoe charMteising so much of his work reaches 0'' Christianity at Have-
m Suddenly Last Summer. death gives pathos to the scene.
Brechtian repie style is well suited to the
Êspecially poitoant are Williams’ penetrating
psycholomc^_studies of life’s pathetic failures: address to the audience
Pi^^htia , map
n devices are
the cnppled Laura retreating to her glass men-
ageriB’ Btoche Dubois, of Street Car,
alcoholic Brick and his childless wife in and the
the Gat.
awmng, arrestlngly con-
bl êln&an
on atrocities a® tfre simple
tian in spirit d at Cawnpore, Brech¬
too is the
The Two Character Play. 1967. deliberate theatricality of
PmtaTrSg
, ,^1^® Glass er-sist
'^’’Oth Menagerie, the
er relati plav
onship ,
them to be mad, the cast of a touring
theatrical company have just deserted the the
weakness^&t
ol the hm ^rtt^l
play is that ^t, not
two he does thl”cbj |f
attoto
star actors, a brother and sister. Felice and Clare
Alone on the stage, the pair hysterically decide ^fr® e^ândmg stature of a Galileo or a Mot^
to
IDEAS &
BELIEFS
This section explains many of the

ideas and beliefs that have domi¬
nated men’s minds during the cen¬

turies. The arrangement is alpha¬
betical and the subjects fall broadly
into three gi'oups : religious, philo¬
sophical, and political.
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
eonvictm with which they mb held. Since man has been moved to action so often
by his beliefs thw
are worth senons study. The section thi-ows a vivid Ught on human history.
Man has always felt a deep need for emotional security, a sense of “ belonging.” Thia npofi i,na
*H*‘‘*?^ S? innumerable reUgious systems, nearly all of wWch ha^ ten cm
cemed with man’s relation to a divine ruUng power. In the past people have
been accustoSLrf
think of their oim.rellgion as true and of aU others as false. Latterly we have come
man a religious stnv^ there is cpnmion ground, for our need in the world today is a to rStelhat in
morSy wS w
human bemgs may hve together in harmony. v* jr ^ wnereoy
fh ® “ the constant challenge. Science to a SiveSiTata the

s“iSc iS constantly being submitted to severe critical tests. Basic
n especially cherished beliefs, and of how they fit into the modem picture of th?
to & Mr LdSful theater te tried
On the other hand he may overdo his attempt

A and overoompensate. Hence we have the bully
Abecedarians, name (derived from A B C) of asmal! who is re^y a coward, the small man who is
Qermm religious sect, founded by the Ana¬ self-assertive to an objectionable degree (Hitler
baptist Storch in 1622, who claimed that, as Napoleon, St^n, and Mussolini were all small
mowledge of the Scriptures was communicated men) or the foreigner who like three of these
directly by the Holy Spirit, it was wrong to learn men wanted to he the hero of their adopted
to read. See Baptists. Aterian, Napoleon the
Activl^s, those in a political movement who insist Italian, Stalin the Georgian,
on taking active steps towards their objectives But what about the man who can do none of
rather than merely putting forward a pro¬ these tMngs. who continues to fail to compen¬
gramme. sate? He, says Adler, becomes a neurotic
Acupuncture, a near-medical cult originating in because neurosis is an excuse which means “I
l>c,sed pn tlie supposedly therapeutic could have done so-and-so but ...” it is the
effect of implanting fine gold needles in the unconscious flight into Ulness — ^the desire to be
spinal column. Practices of this kind, which m. Iflius a man who used to have a good iob
are of arguable scientific status, seem to flourish lost it through no fault of his own and develoTCd
111 parts of the world where orthodox medicine a imrvous break-down.” one of the symptoms
has made little progress or where doctors and ot whi(* was a fear of crossing streets. Adler
tramed staff are scarce, nevertheless, it is woifld have asked: “What purpose is served
always worthwhile examining them, even If only by this symptom? “ F^y does he uncon¬
to attempt to Identify the presumably psycho¬ sciously not want to cross streets’ ” The
logical basis of their effectiveness. In the case ^wer was that he had only been offered in-
of aenpuncture if any physical effect occurs ferior jobs, and although he felt for Ms family’s
may be because the insertion of the needles hasit sake ihat he ought to take them,
some anaesthetic effect on the nerves which inside said: No, I have ten an something important
have been prodded.
Adleritm Psychology. In 1911 the Viennese m^ md I cannot bear to do insignificant work
— u 1 ^ nounable to
fault of mycross
psychoanalyst Alfred Adler (1870-1937) toown) streets I amto work.”
to go out unable
gether with his colleague Carl
broke with their friend Sigmund Gustav Jung
Preud o^ ourselvesdisclosing
Adler s treatment0“ Involves can sub-
so that wet.-hcaa deal
disputes concerning the latter’s theoretic TOth the real situation in a more realistic way.
approach to psychoanalysis. Jung and AuiBy lie cnticim of Acer’s theory is not that it is
were themselves shortly also to part company, not true. It is. But it is not the whole truth,
each to^ set up and develop his own " school ” for people ^much more subtle than Adler gave
of psychoanalysis. Adler’s system of psycho¬ them credit for: Freud recognised this element
therapy is based on the idea, not of sex as a
dnving force as in the case of Freud, but on the thatj. there
gsoondary gain to
was more ” in
it than he knew
that.but Neverthe-
neurosis
conceptof " compensation ”or adrive'forpower in some simpler
in an attempt to overcome the ’‘inferiority ca^. See also Psyohoanals^
complex which he held to be universal In Attiytionis m, in Christianity, a doctrine advanced
human hehi^. Tte child naturally feels In- at vanous tlm^ wMeh holds that Jesus was not
maWng him feel ™ of his human spiritual
msigniflea^ , or guilty or contemptible, even ^ designated by God as the Son
wolUng. wWoh mês him iMihportan wit.hfa
feel important outside, of ^d at the moment of Ms baptism in the
t ^rdan, aa told in aU the four Gospels. Among
iimr^sM this feehng. Or the Child may have
the seig who held this “ heretical ” doctrlM
ph^^_ defects: he may be small or tmder-
weight. haveto wear glasses, become lame, he tiomst _ view differs from (cr.p.). The “Adop-
the orthodox “ Con-
oonst^ly m or stupid at school. lu these cepUoi^t view only in regard to the moment
wa:^he fievrtcms a, sense of inferiority whioh
for the rest of Ms life he develops a technlaue to
w- uu Adventtats
Mare , a groupJesus ofwhen
American
the incarnation took
religious sects,
over9^ may he come
done in several
.
to teome capaWe m the very ways: hemaytry
respeots in wMch
the .^^famlllar being the Seventh-Bay Ad-
'êh observes Saturday L the
un ongmall
have iniMmpeten
y had t-— hence many great orators Witii ..moan than a million
speech defects: many mi^bera throughou t the world, it shares with
pmntersjioor eyesight: many musicians have otiier^ Aav^tisfcs a belief in the imminenfe
be^ partially deal ; like FTietzache, the weak- second coming of Christ (a doctrine fairly wide-
about the superman, or like
otv? the.IJ .S^. during the early decades of
h^ljh^' strong man, be bom with poor predicted
A ^ by WilJmm Mfller for 1843,worldthen was
for
AGN-ANG IDEAS AND BELIEFS
J3
1844). Modem Adventists content themselves vague primitive notions of magic, spirits and
with the conviction that tlie “ signs ’’ of the witches, birth and death, gods, virgin mothers,
Advent are multiplying, the “ blessed event " resurrection, etc. In the treatment of neuroses
which will solve the world’s ills. Believers will Jung believed in the importance of (a) the
be saved, but the sects differ as to whether the present situation which the patient refuses to
unjust will be tortured in hell, annihilated, or face: (6) the bringing together of conscious and
merely remain asleep eternally. unconscious and integrating them.
Agnosticism. See God and Man.
Albigenses, also known as CatharL French 12th In the at1940s
waned, leastandin 50sacademic
Interest in Jung’sasideas
circles, the
cent, heretical sect {named after the town of emphasis among experimental psychologists
Aibi in Provence), who maintained that material shifted
things belonged to the realm of Satan and that fic line.closer
Thisandwascloser
alsoto true
the “inhard
the ” field
scienti¬
of
salvation was to be achieved by crushing all psychoanalysis where the Jimgian as opijosed
animal instincts, particularly the sexual in¬ to the Freudian point of view became progres¬
stinct; universal continence would end the sively less popular. At the present time this
domination of matter by the extinction of the
human race. The eating of animal flesh was for¬ trend is views
offlseat beginning to reverse,telepathy,
on astrology, and whileetc.,
Jung’s
are
bidden and vegetarianism enjoined in order to still unfashionable, a reappraisal of the signifi¬
weaken the desires. Those who rigidly kept to cance of his views on the nature of the uncon¬
these rules were initiated into the grade of the scious is taking place and many psychologists
“ Perfect those unable fuUy to comply were feel that his contribution to our understanding
known as the ‘ Believers ”, Condemned as of the nature of human mental processes has
heretics by Pope Innocent m, the sect was been greatly underated. See also Psychoanaly¬
finally exterminated in the Alblgensian Crusade
led by Simon de Montfort towards the end of the sis.
Anaxehism, a political philosophy which holds, in
12th cent. (In his thoroughness, de Montfort the words of the Ameriwin anarchist Josiah
also succeeded in destroying the high culture of Warren (1798-1874), an early follower of Eobert
the Troubadours.) See Manichaeism.
Alchemy, ancient art associated with magic and Owen, that “ every man should be his own
astrology in which modem chemistry has its government,
The his own law, interference
idea that governmental ids own church.”
or even
roots. The earliest' the mere existence of authority is inherently
ftom ancient Egypt mention of alchemy
but its later comes
practitioners bad is as old as Zeno, the Greek Stoic philo¬
attributed its origins to such varied sources as sopher, who believed that compulsion perverts
the fallen angels of the Bible, to Moses and the normal nature ofPolitical
man. Justice
WiUiam (1793)
Godwin’s
Aaron, but most commonly to Hermes Tris- Emiiirv Concerning was
megistus, often identified with the Egyptian god the fln^ systematic exposition of the doctrine.
Thoth, whose knowledge of the divine art was Godwin (father-in-law of Shelley) claimed that
handed down oifiy to the sons of kings (cf. the man is by nature sociable, co-operative,
phrase " hermetically sealed ”). ofItsmetals.
main rational, and good when given the choice to
object was the transmutation act freely: that under such conditions men will
Egyptian speculation concerning this reached form voluntary groups to work in complete
its height during the 6th cent, in the Alex¬ social harmony. Such groups or communities
andrian school. Brought to Western Europe by wotfid he based on eauality of income, no state
the Moslems, one of its most famous Arab ex¬ control, no property: this state of affairs would
ponents was Jabir (c. 760-c, 816), Imown to the he brought about by rational discussion and per¬
Latins as Geber, who had a laboratory at Kufa suasion rather than by revolution.
on the Tigris. One school of early Greek philo¬ The French economist Froudhon (1809-66)
sophy held that there was ultimately only one was the first to bring anarchism to the status of a
elemental matter of which everything was mass movement. In his book What is Property?
composed. Such men as Albertms Magnus
he stated bluntly that “ proi)erty is theft ” and
(1206-80) and Boger Bacon (1214-94) assumed " governments are the scourge of God.” He
that, by removing impurities, this materia wima urged the formation of co-operative credit banks
could be obtained. Although Bacon’s ideas where money could be had without interest and
were in many ways ahead of his time, he firmly goods could be exchanged at cost value at a rate
believed representing the hours of work needed to pro¬
turn base inmetals
the philosopher’s
into gold, andstone,
in an which could
elixir of life duce each commodity. Like Godwin, he dis¬
which would give eternal youth. Modem approved of violence but, unlike Bferx, dis¬
science has, of course, shown in its researches approved of trades unions as representing
f>rgn.TiTRAf1 groups.
into radioactivity the possibility of transmuta¬
tion of certain elements, but this phenomenon In communistio anarchism these ideas were
has little bearing on either the methods of the combined with a revolutionary philosophy,
alchemist or the mysteries with which he sur¬ primarily by the Enssiam Michael Bakunin
rounded them. (1814-76) and Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921) who
Anabaptisis. See BaitUsts. fevoured training workers in the teehniaue bf
Analytical Psychology, the name given by Carl “ direct action” to overthrow the state by all
Gustav dung (1876-1961) of Zarioh to his possible means, including political assassina¬
tion. In 1868 anarchists joined the First
system
Adlerianof psychology),
iraychology which,
took itslike origin
Adler’s from
(see IntemationM which broke np a few yeans later
Freud’s psychoanalysis after a bitter struggle between Bakuninists and
diverged in 1911. Briefly, from which from
Jang differed both Marxists. Subseguently small anarohist groups
Freud: (1) in believing that the latter had laid murdered such political figures as Tsar Alex¬
too much emphasis on the sexual drive as the ander H of Eussia, King Humbert of Italy.
baMc one in man and replacing it with the con- Presidents Camot of France and MaoBZlnley
oept of libido or life energy of which sex forma a of America, and the Empress Elizabeth of
part: (2) in his theory of types: mmi are either Austria.
extrovert or introvert (i.e. their interest is Anarchism and communism differ in three
turned primarily outwards to the world or in¬ main ways: (1) anarchism forms no political
wards to the self), and they apprehend ex¬ party, rejects all relationship with establMied
perience in four main ways, one or other of authority, and regards democratic reform as a
which is predominant in any given individual — setback; (2) oommnnism is against capitalism,
sensing, feeling, thinking, or intuiting: (3) in his anarchism against the state as such; (3) both
belief that the individual’s unconsdous mind have the final goal of a jfiasêss sodety, but
contains not only repressed material which, as anarehism rejects the idea of an intennediate
Freud maintained, was too unpleasant to he period of socialist state control accepted by
allowed into awarene®, but also faculties which communlsn. Philosophical anarchists, such as
had not been allowed to develop — e.0., the the American writCT Henry David Thoieau
emotional side of the too rational man, the (1817-62), were prhnarily individnaliBts who
feminine side of the too masculine one: (4) in believed in a return to nature, the non-payment
the importance he attaches to the existence of a of taxes, and passive resistance to state control:
collective unconscious at a still deeper level in these respects Thoreau strongly influenced
which contains traces of ancient ways of Gandhi as did the Christiau anardfist Tolstoy .
thought which mankind has inherited over the See also Syndicalism.
centuries. These are the archetypes and include Anglicanism, adhmnnce to the doctrine and
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
ANG-ANT
discipline of the Anglican, as the genuine repre¬ tongue was a great landmark in the historv of
sentative of the Catholic Church. See Church of the Bible and the English language. Wrclif’s
England. principles were condemned by the Eonno
Church of his time but were readily awent^
Anglo-Catholioisin. To Queen Elizabeth I the during the Eeformation. Tudor antic!eric&<mi
Church of England was that of the “ middle arose from motives ranging from a greedy desire
way ” in which human reason and commonsense to plunder the riches of the Church to a genuine
took their place beside Scripture and Church disUke
authority. The extent to which these various of the powers of the priesthood whose
factors are stressed create.s the distinctions be¬ spmtual courts still had the right to decide on
points of doctrine or morals in an age when the
tween " high ” and “ low ” church. Anglo- layman felt he was well able to decide for him-
Catholiffl tend to reject the term “ Prot&stant ” self. In innumerable ways the Church was per
and stress the term “ Catholic *’ and, although mitted to extort money from the laity It w
few accept the infallibility of the Pope, some
Anglo-Catholic churches have introduced much generally agreed, says Trevelyan, that tiie flnai
or all of the Eoman ritual and teach Eoman submission of church to state in England wm
dogmas. See Catholicism, TraotarianisirL motivated quite as much by anticlericaUam m
A nimism. To early man and in primitive societies by Protestantism. The rise of the Eeformed
the distinction between animate and inanimate churches in England satisfied the people
objects was not always obvious — it Is not generally and antidericalism never became the
enough to say that living things move and non¬ fixed principle of permanent parties as hap¬
living things do not. for leaves blow about in pened in France and Italy from the time of
the wind and streams flow down a hillside. In vpltaare onwards.
the religions of early societies, therefore, we find Antisemitism, a term first applied about the middle
a tendency to believe that life exists in all of the last century to those who were anti-
objects from rocks and pools to seas and moun¬ Jewlsh in their outlook. Although this
tains. This belief is technically known as attitude was prevalent for religious reasons
animalism, which differs from animism, a throughout the Middle Ages, modem anti-
somewhat more sophisticated view which holds remitism differed (a) in being largely motivated
that natural objects have no life in themselves by economic or political conditions, and (6) in
but may be the abode of dead people, spirits, being doctrinah-e with a pseudo-scientifle
or gods who occasionally give them the appear¬ rationale presented by such men as Gobineau
ance of life. The classic example of this, of (1816-82) and Houston Stewart Chamberlain
course, is the assumption that an erupting (1865-1927), and later by the Nazi and FascS
volcano is an expression of anger on the part of philo.sophers. Beginning in Eussla and
the god who resides in it. Such beliefs may Himgary with the pogroms of 1882 it gradually
seem absurd today, but it is worth realising that spread south and westwards where, in France
we are not entirely free of them ourselves when the Dreyfus case provided an unsavoury
example in 1894. Thousands of Jews from
we ascribe “ personalities ” of a limited kind to Eastern Europe fled to Britain and America
motor cars, boats, dolls, or models which incur
our pleasure or anger depending upon how well during this period: for in these countries anti¬
semitism has rarely been more than a personal
they “ behave.”
Anthropomorphism, the ascription of human eccentricity. During the last wax the murder
physical and moral qualities to God or gods (in of six million Jews by the Nazis and tiipfr
psychology to gods or animals). Psychologists accomplices led to a further exodus to various
use the term .dnftropopaftii/ for the ascription of parts of the world and finally to the creation of
such qiiallties speclllcally to the Deity. the state of Israel.
Anthroposophy, a school of religious and philo¬ The mdividual Jew-hater makes unconscious
sophical thought based on the work of the Ger¬ use of the psychological processes of projection
man educationist and mystic Eudolf Steiner and displacement: his greed or sexual guilt is
(1861-1926). Steiner was originally an adherent projected on to the Jew (or Negro or Catholic)
of Madame Blavataky’s theosophical movement because he cannot bear to accept them as his
{see Theosophy) but in 1913 broke away to form own emotions, and his sense of failure in fife is
his own splinter group, the Anthroposophlcal blamed on his chosen scapegoat rather than on
Society, fohowlng ideological disputes over the ms own inadequacy.
alleged " divinity ” of the Indian boy Krishna- But there are social causes too and politicians
murti. Steiner was much influenced by the In some lands are well versed in the technique
German, poet and scientist, Goethe, and believed of blaming unsatisfactory conditions (which
that an appreciation and love for art was one of they themselves may have in part produced)
the keys to spiritual development. One of the upon minority groups and persuading others to
first tMks of his new movement was the con¬ do the same. Historically, the Jew is ideally
struction of a vast temple of arts and sciences, suited for this role of scapegoat: (l) in the
known as the Goetheanum, to act as the head¬ ^ddle Ages when usury was forbidden to
quarters of the society. This structure, which Christians but not to Jews, the latter often be¬
' was of striking and revolutionary architectural came moneylenders incurring the opprobrium
style, was unfortunately burnt down in 1922 to generally associated with this trade (e.g.. to the
be replaced by an even more imaginative one simple-minded Eussian peasant the Jew often
which today is one of the most Interesting
buildings of its kind in the world. Anthropo¬ represented, not only the
also the moneylender “Christ-ldUer,”
or small shopkeeper but
to
sophy, which ceased to expand greatly following whom he owed money); (2) many trades being
its founder’s death, is nevertheless weU-estab- closed to Jews, it was natural that they con¬
hshed in various parts of the world with special¬ centrated in others, thus arousing suspicions of
ised. and often very well equipped, schools and . mfluenoe *’ {i.e. Jews axe felt to occupy a place
dinios w;Mch propagate the educational and m certam trades and professions which far ex¬
therapeutic theories of the movement. These, ceeds their numerical proportion to the popula-
which include the allegedly beneficial powers of tton as a whole): (3) even with tiie ending of
music, coloured lights, etc., have made little ghetto life, Jews often occupy en masse some
impact on modern educational ideas, but the parts of cities rather than others and this may
schwla have acquired a reputation for success lead to resentment on the part of the original
m the training of mentally handicapped child¬ inhabitants who begin to feel themselves dis¬
ren, though one suspects that these successes possessed; (4) Jews tend to form a dosed society
are due to the patience and tolerance exercised and incur the suspicions attached to all closed
m ihese establishments rather than to the societies within which social contacts are largely
curative value^ of colour or musio “ therapy ” umited.to members; marriage outside: the group
itself. Despite its apparent eccentricities, antlmo- IS forbidden or strongly disapproved of. and
PMopl^
ture, the has made its mark on art and architec¬ the preservation, among- the orthodox, of
outstanding modem painter Kandin- cifitural and reUgious barriers tends to Isolate
being particularly influenced
by Sterner B Ideas and teachings/ them from their, fellow citizens. Discrimina¬
tion, hateftil as it is. does not come from one side
AntddericaUsm, resentment of priestly powers and only and it is such barriers as these that hdp to
maintain an old and cruel folly. See Baoism,
insistence the I4th incent,
pimeges, intraceable England to Wydif’s
on the right of all Zionism. Judaism.
men to. have access to the Scriptures. The Antivivisection, opposition to scientific experi¬
translation of the Bible into the common mentation upon live animals based, according to
Js
APA-AST IDEAS AND BELIEFS
its supporters, both on the moral groimds of the I Armtoianismjthe doctrine of Jacobus Armlnium
suffering imposed, and on the less secure claim or Jakob Harmensen (1680-1809). the Dutch
that many doctors and scientists of repute have I minfeter of a Protestant church in Amsterdam,
rejected the value of information gained in this who had trained in the universities of Leyden
way. It is true that the protagomste of the and Geneva where he learned the Calvliilstic
moyement during its early days In the mid-lOth doctrine of predesttoation (See Calvinism).
cent, molnded a number of eminent physiciaiis Later he became deeply convinced of the felslty
and surgeons, but few today— whatever their of this beHM which maintained that God had, by
moral scruples— would deny the value of the an eternal decree, predestined which people
results obtained. Without animal experiments were to be saved mid which eternally damned.
we should be without vaccines, sera, or anti¬ In face of the bitter opposition of his opponent
toxins against smallpox, tetanus, typhoid, Franz Gomar and his party who held this view.
diphtheria, poliomyelitis, and a multitude of Arminiua averted that God bestows for¬
other diseases; we should have no detailed giveness and eternal life on all who repent and
knowledge about vitamins, or about the effects believe in Christ. In England a modified
of radioactive fallout: we would unable to Arminjanfem was later to become the theology
test out new drugs for safety before using them of Wesleyan Methodism.
on human beings. There are in Britain two or
three large national anti-vivisecUon societies Assassins,
the Persiana sect of Modem
Hasan i Sabbah Shi’ites,
ic. 1090),founded by
which for
and several smaller ones. Much of their work more than two centuries established a rule of
is co-ordinated through the British Council of terror all over Persia and Syria. The coming of
Anti-Vivisection Societies. Animal experi¬ the Mongols in 1256 destroyed them in Persia
mentation is controlled by Act of Parliament and the Syrian branch suffered a similar fate at
wMch makes obligatory the possession of the hands of the then Mamluk sultan of Egypt,
licences by experimenters, inspection of labora¬ c. 1270. It was a secret order, ruled over by a
tories by the Home Office, and the Issue of grand master, under whom the members were
annual returns of experiments. Many people strictly organised into classes, according to the
would like the number of exi)erlment8 on degree of initiation Into the secrets of the order.
animals reduced and the law changed to pro¬ The devotees, belonging to one of the lower
hibit any experiment in which there Is any risk groups, carried out the actual affiassinations
of inflicting suffering. under strict lavra of obedience, and total
Apartheid, an Afrikaans word meaning “apart¬ Ignorance of the objects and ritual of the
ness,” referred to hy South African Govemmait society. It is believed that the latter were
spokesmen as "separate development” or given ecstatic visionB under the influence of
“ self-development.” To others it means the hashMi. whence the term hashsMshin, which
system of total racial discrimination between
became corrupted
black and white South Africans — the per¬ Assooiationfcm. In to “ amssin.”the Aôclation-
psychology,
manent inhabitants of the country — âs enforced ist school of the 19th cent, accepted the aôcia-
by the Katlonalist Party since it came to power tlon of ideas as the fundamental principle in
in 1948. Some degree of racial segregation has mental fife. It was represented in Britain hy
existed in South Africa since the earli^ days the two Mills and Herb^ Spencer, in Germany
of colonialism in the mid-17th cent, and the by J. F. Herbait (1776-1841). To these, mental
policy was continued hy the Hnlted Party under activity was nothing but the association of
Smuts and Hertzog from 1984 onwards though “ ideas ” conceived of as units of both thought
it was never a political issue. This changed and feeling — the emotion of anger or the percep¬
when the Nationalist Party gained power and tion of a chair were
oppressive measures against the non-Whlte fri)m them the self did both " ideasPersonality
not exist. *' — and apart
was
segment of the population have grown steadily simply a series of these units ocmfing and going,
under Malan, Strydom, Verwoerd, and Vorster. adding to or cancelling each other out. in accord¬
Apartheid Involves the beliefs in racial purity ance with rigid and medianistic soientiflo laws.
and bmskap, or white supremacy. It means Assumption ol the Virgin. The Eoman CaUnflic
keeping vast African populations fa a condition belief, that the Blessed Virgin ascended bodily
of helotry. The official iiollcy of the South to heaven after her death, was proclaimed hy
African Government is to create separate self- Pope Pius XII tovrards the end of 1960.
governing black states in which the Afticans Protestants are liable to make the mistake of
would be guided to self-govranment and. It is BuppOBhig that such dogmas are new additions
claimed, eventually to independence. Ihe to the faith invented by the pope of the
first so-called bantu reserve was set u® in the moment. According to Catholic doctrine, no
Transkei in 1902. But Africans Ariih. 70 per addition can be made to the “ faltii once de¬
cent of the population would have only about livered to the saints,” and every dogma is
IS per cent of the land: dries and mineral areas Sustifled hy refaranoe to Bible texts and the
would remain the reserve of the whites. TotM tradltlonB of the Church. Both Eastern and
apartheid or complete separarion of the black Western Oiurohes have been pemfitted to be¬
and white races In South AMca rematos un¬ lieve In the Affiiumption of the Virgin for over a
likely to he reahsed since mining, the naaln thousand years, and the new dogma mraelr
Industry of the country, is based on relarively diariaes the old belief and makes tt binding on
low-paid African labour, thefaltiifuL
Afrikaner conservarism may be challenged by Astrology, a imido-sdenoe beaitog much the same
the recent split in riie goyerning NationaBst historieal relationship to £Btix»xKany as alchemy
Party — ^between the verligtea (enlightened) and does to <diraDtotry. Oifeinalty it was dlvMed
the verhrampies (closed Inwards)— a develop¬ into the two brraches of Natural Asfcrok^y
ment which could lead to a more humanitarian which dealt with the movements of the heavenly
ouriook on race. bod&s and tbffir calculation, and Judicial
ApoHlnariatifem, the heretical hdltf tau^t by Aerology which studied the allied inffuenoe of
ApoDlnaiis (c. 818-c. 890). btthop of Xaodicea, the stats and planete on human Bib and tete. It
near Antioch, that in Jesus the human mind was was tire forma: that developed into modffim
replaced by the Divine Mind or Logos. The sect astrmiomy; the latter was. and rematos, a
_ was later absorbed hy the Monopbysltes (5.1?.). primitive myth.
Aiianlsm, formed the Gnbject of the first great Astrology owes most to the early Babylonians
controversy within the Ghiisrian Churdh over (or Chaldeans) who, being laig^ nomadic in an
the doctrine of Ailus of Alexandria id. 880) who envircmBtent width peimftted an unobsfamcted
denied the divinity of Ghiist. The doctrine, view of tiie sky, rûifly accwted the idea that
although at first influenti^ was condemned at divine energy Is manifested to the movements
the Gouncll of Nicaea iS26}. called by the of the sun and planets. Gradually this concept
Xlmperor Donstanrine, at which Aiins was became enlarged and the relative imffitions of
opposed by Athanasius, also of Alexandria, who the planets both in relaticm to each other and to
maintained the now orthodox view that the the fixed steis became important together with
Son Is of one substance with ihe Father. Arius the idea of omens — ^tbat. if a particular event
was banished and the heresy bad di^ out by occurred wMtet the planets vrete in a partioolar
the end of the 4tb cent., but disbeliaf in the position, the recurrence of that position herakled
divinity of Christ has fonned part of the doctrine a recurrence of the same srrt of evoot, Soontiie
of many minor sects since, notably in ITni- planets became associated with almost every
tEoianism (a.ti,). aspect of human Ufe. Tb^were bound up with
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
ATK-BAP
fche emotioM. ^th paits of the body, so that J6 material-— e.p. for flesh, wood, hair, bone. The
astrology plaj^d quite a large part in medicme atoimsts taughu that atoms were
up to late mediaeval times. Not only was the smgle substance and differed onlyallinmade me con
of -i
position of the planet to he considered but also
the particular sign of the zodiac (or house of necti
etc.) ons
winch(pict ured
ed as hooks groov
enabl them to , join es. othM
each poiirtR'
was occupying, and it was believed characteristic ways. Theirs was the first mow
possible to foretell the destiny of an individual
by calculating which star was in the ascendant towards modem atomic theory and a pre®
deces sor of the modern concept of chemical
u.e._ the siCT of the zodiac nearest the eastern
honzon and the star which arose at that precise My theory ^which 1,“ holds that ®to™slni states to
refers can
moment) at the time of his birth. Astrology be amlysed without loss into menta elementary units
was popuLw among the Egyptians, the Komans e.p. Assqc iatio
(whose authorities found the Chaldean astro¬ Authoritarianism,nisma dictatorialiouri and Behav
formsm (oav) ¬ '
logers a nuisance and expelled them from t.imp. to ment as contrasted with a democratic ofonegovern based
time), and during the Middle Ages when on popular sovereignty. Its alleged advantage
asttologera were often highly respected, ® a'''Oidance of the delays and
llespite the apparent absurdity of astrological fald to be characteristic of the latterineili ciency
, but like
example, how could the pattern of
• sta^ra billions of away possibly
influeMe the temperament of single individuals
on earth— -a substantial number of intelligent
and well-educated people take its study in
serioumess. The most interesting "convertall ”
was the psychologist and phUosopher. Carl
B
Ju^ who conducted a complex experiment in Baconian
which he compared the “birth signs” of Method, the use of the inductive (as
happily mamed and divorced couples and opposed to the deductive or AristotellM) method
clammd to find that those most re'wonmg as proposed by Francis Bacon in
matched in astrological terms were favourabl also those
y me 17th cent. Md J. S. Mill in the 19th
more_ likely to have permanent wedded bliss. Deduction argues from supposedly certain cent first
Jimg s otherwise world-shaking finding has principles (such as the existence of God or Des¬
teen shown to he based on a simple statistical cartes s I think, therefore I am ”) what the
fiillaoy and is likely to be of little practical value nature of the universe and its laws must be
to young people uncertain about their choice of whereas the only means of obtamlng true know¬
marriage partner. However. Jimg took his ledge ot the universe, in Bacon’s view, was
nndinjB as evidence ior his own theory of by tue amassing ol facts and observations so
syncju'onicity ” (<?.».), an involved and near- that when enoiigh were obtained the certain
metaphysi cal notion which holds that events in 1
the univer.se may be signific.aiitly related in a child e■"’ouW be toown in the same way that a
numbered dots in a playhook joined to¬
non-cauisal ” other by a pencilled line create a picture,
astrology is still fashion. For simpler souls
principally a source of enter ôwever, this is not the way science progresses
taininent, though human in practice (s^ P3(l)). Bacon underrated tte
clination to peer into the beings’ natural in¬
future often draws importance of hypothes is seMes.
Md theory Md over-g
them mto astrology with at least semi-serious tbe In discussin
motives. the scientific tradition. Sir Karl Popper in his
Atheism. See God and Man. book, Co)i3ectures and EeMaiionSt says: ‘‘The
Atlantis, a mythical continent supposed to have most important function of observation and
lam somewhere between Europe and America reasoning, and even of Intuition Md imagina¬
and a centre of advanced civilisation before it tion, IS to help us in the critical examination of
was inundated by some great natural catas- those bold cqiuectiues which are the means by
atrophe m pre-Christian times. There is little, which we probe into the unknown.” Two of the
it _ My, serious historical peatest men who clearly saw that there was no
evidence for its existence, but orthe archaeolog ical
legend of the
Uplden LiUid destroyed when the waters of the _ Galileo VI ™ing as m inductive procedure were
and Einstem.
Atlantic closed over it has remarkable staying Birna’ism, faith teacMng the unity of
power aiKl is believed by large numbers of It arose in religions
IrM from Md
people. Plato wrote convincingly about the
wonders of Atlantis in his dialogues Timaeus 5 (^“za AU Mohammed,
1817-02), thought to be manifestations of
?? i
that the bibhcal storyother writers gave suggested God, whoSo? m hisBaha’u’
of the Flood is based on essenceUah (Mlrza Husaiil
imgmeiitary Mcounts of the Atlantean deluge, Emphasis is laid on service to is miknowa
omers. It has
ble.
dhe lost continent is also of occult significance communities in SOO states.
largely as the result of the writings of W. Baptists, a Christian denomination whose distinc¬
bcott-Elhott whose book, The Story of Atlantis tive dootrmes are that members can only be re-
(recently re-published by the Theosophical baptism “upon the confession of meir
bocietj^. alleged that by clairvoyance he had laith and ^ps and mat baptism in no wise
Been able to contact the spirits of Atlanteans appertaineth to infants.” Baptism is mere-
who had been destroyed because of their addlo- total liêrsion of adults. Modem
biMk magic. There even exists in Baptists base meir doctrines upon the teaching
fJntam today a minor but ardent religious OH the Apostles and some hold that
maintained the true beUef
suU exists - llie -A-tlanteans,” who hold that Atlantis
mday, but on a different meta¬ they regard as the corruption of
physical plane, and that it is possible to com- tbe RomM Church in mediaeval times. On the
munlcate with it via individuals with sup- other hMd any connection wim the Ana-
ppsemy mediumistic powers (see the Reformation is
Membera of the Atlanteans meet Spiritualis m).
regularly to rejeoted and the beginning of the modem
hear talks about the vanished continent and
® liish priests who Smyth,
^pbh in Amsterdam
a ministercameof
pi Atlantis. Hello- Arconaphus. Such beliefs, rader the influence of the ATmiTiia.ng (q,n.) and
though unusuaJ, are essentially harmless and bi 1612 when the first
merely reflect the groat variety of religious atti¬ wasBapUsfc
built at New-
tudes which human beings enjoy and to which Church,
they are entitled.
A
Armlnian Calviiustic
dpctrme of helefs and held
redemption open to all, but me
group of early Jôsophy. the atomlsts were a
Greek thinkers, the occurred with the forma-
whom were Leucippus (fl. c.most im-
440 b.o.) taon (A the P^leular " Baptist Church which
was Calvinist to doctrine. In 1891 me two
??? yonder wntemporaxy men, Democritus
although (<j.
it bodies were united m the Baptist Union and
throughout the world,
h^
of any been agre^ that matter must be composed notably m the U. 8. A.
ultimate particles and that change must
be due to me manner in which these mingled or
separated from e^h other, it was supposed that ^ (me AnabaptistHolland movements of Germany.
also practised adult
tJiere existed different types of particle for each baptism m aaoition to a primitive cozmnimiBm
BEA-BUA IDEAS AND BEi-IEES
J7
and demanded social reforms. Persecuted by were unscientific and should be replaced by the
both Catholics and Protestants, their leader. study of behaviour. When annuals or human
Thomas Mtinzer, and many others were burned beings were exposed to specific stimuli and their
at the stake (152.')). However, this sect was responses objectively recorded, or when the
noted for its violence under a religious guise, development of a child, as seen in its changing
and its taking over of the state of Jianster in behaviour, was noted, these alone were methods
1533 was characterised by wild licentiousness, which were truly scientific. Watson con¬
since, as Antinomians. they believed that the tributed an important idea to psychology and
elect ” could do no wrong. A revival l)egun did a great deal towards ridding it of the largely
by Menno Simons (d. 1661), a Dutch reUgioas philosophical speculations of the past. But he
reformer, led to the formation of the Mennonite also wunt to absurd extremes, as in his view that
sect which, whilst rejecting infant baptism, gave thought is nothing but subvooal speech, eon-
up the objectionable features of the Anabaptists. eisting of almost imperceptible movements of
This reformed sect still exists as small agri¬ the tongue, throat, and larynx (Le., when we
cultural groups in the original strongholds of the think, we are really talking to om-selves). and his
movement and in the Dnlted States. further opinion that heredity is, except in
Beat Generation, a term first used by the American grossly abnormal cases, of no Importance. He
•svriter Jack Kerouac (d. 1960), author of The claimed that by " conditioning,” the ordinary
Totvn and the City and On The Road, to define individual could be made hito any desired type,
various groups spread across the face of the regardless of his or her inheritance.
country, but notaidy New York and San Fran¬ The work of Ivan Pavlov had begun about
cisco. who, belonging to the post-war genera¬ 1901. but was unknown In America until about
tion, represented a complex of attitudes. ten years later, and it was through another
Briefly, these are: rejection of the values of the Eussian, Vladimir Bekhterev, that the concept of
past and lack of conviction in the possibility of “conditioning " was introduced into the country.
a future for humanity — ^hence an acceptance of Bekhterev’s book Objective Rsydioloov, describ¬
nothing but the immediate present in terms of ing his new science of “ reflexology.” was
experience and sensations: rebellion against translated in 1913 and played a great part in the
orga^sed authority, not out of any political development of Behaviourist ideas. The con¬
conviction (as in the case of anarchism), but ditioned reflex became centra! to Wat.<3on’a
rather from lack of any interest or desire to theory of learning and habit formation {e.'j., he
control events, nature, or people: contempt for showed that a year-old child, at first unafraid
the “ Sauare ” — the orthodox individual who, of white rats, became afraid of them when they
stuck firmly in his rut, “ plays it safe ” and re¬ came to be associated with a loud noise behind
mains confident of the rightness and decency the head). Finally all behaviour, including
of his moral values. The “ Beatnik ” has con¬ abnormal behaviour, came to lie explained in
tracted out of what one of them describes as “ an terms of conditioned responses: these were built
increasingly meaningless rat-race rigged up by up by association on the infant's three innate
and for Squares ” which wastes effort and emotions of fear, rage, and love, of which the
brutalises feeling. He loathes the pretences original stimuli were, for the first, loud noises
without which, he claims, the Square cannot and the fear of falling: for the second, inter¬
succeed, and throwing off all masks is in¬ ference with freedom of movement : and for the
different to the opinions of others, his dress, or third, patting and stroking.
the need to work, thus entering into "the in¬ Because of its considerable theoretical sim¬
plicity and its implicit suggestion that human
capable truth and squalor of his own lieing.” behaviour could be easily described (and even
He “ digs ” (likes) everything, tries everything modified or controlled). Pavlovian psychology
from drugs to sexual relationships, which have
no significance outside the sensations of the appeared very attractive to the Communist
moment to the advanced Beatnik or “ hipster.” regime in Eiissia, and before long it became the
^ chick.
men are Ofaddressed as " man.” all women as “official” dogma in universities and research
course, the above is an intellec- laboratories. Whereas In America and VVestem
tualisation by such Beat writers as Kerouac, Europe its severe Ihnitations became graduaUy
*ên Ginsberg, and Carl Solomon or Norman apparent. in Eussia these were ignored or dis¬
Mailer of a philosophy which for many Beatniks guised for ideological reasons with the inevitable
would be meaningless, being satisfied with any outcome that Soviet psychology failed to
excuse for their own exhibitiontem, sexual evolve and. at one stage, seemed to be no more
promiscuity, and psychopathic tendencies. than a pallid offshoot of physiology. The
Beards (in men), bare feet, sloppy clothes, and recent liberalisation which has been taking
unwashed bodies were the familiar Beatnik place throughout Soviet society has led to a
uniform. considerable broadening of scientific horizons
The Beat generation of the 1940s and 60s and Pavlovian ideas are no longer looked upon
gave way to the Dove generation or Flower with such imauestioning reverence. In non-
people, with their flowers, beads, and oowbeUs. Commnnlst countries simple Watsouian be¬
Their social philosophy was the same — ^living in haviourism has evolved into more sophisticated
the present, unconventionally, seeking personal studies of animal learning, largely pioneered by
medom, believing drugs to be essential, claim¬ the Harvard psychologist, Skinner. These
ing to be acting against the rat race, dissociating techniques, which have shown that animals,
toemselves from politics, taking a superficial from monkeys to rats, may he tan^t to solve
mterest in the religions of the East, borrowing a remarkable range of physic^ problems (such as
much of their language, music, and lde£^ on pressing complex sequen<»s of buttons or levers
dre® from the American "hippy”; yet be¬ to escape &om a cage) have themselves turned
lieving in the creation of a new and gentler out to be rather disappointing in terms of
society based on different forms and values. advancing our general understanding of the
Both the Beat and the Love generations have workings of the human and animal brain.
appealed largely to the younger segment of There Is a growing feeling among psychologists
society who, disillusioned with orthodox religion that the real keys to the understanding of
and traditional politics, have sought outlets for mankind will only he found through the study
their powerftfi, if poorly expressed, drives and of man himself, and not of his shnpler animal
mnotionB. Early group manifestations of the cousins. See also Gestalt psychology.
Beat and Drop-ont variety had limited internal Benthamism. See Dtllitarianism.
structure and no co-ordinated political motive Blatfic Power. The division of the world’s popula¬
and have thus constituted no threat to the tion into races is now generally agreed by
^tablished political fbrces and governments of scientists to have arisen as the result of climatic
the world. (Julte recently, however, clear signs and environmental pressmes— -the darker, more
of coherent organisation in these numerically highly pigmented peoples tending to be better
sulMtantial groups have begun to emerge, giving equipped to withstand higher solar output than
rise to a powerful anU-estabUshment movement the fairer, more northerly based types. For
known M the "undergronmd ” (<7.t!.). various reôns. agcdn largely dimatio and
Behaviourism, a school of psychology founded in environmental, the first great advances in
1914 by J. B. Watson. (1878-1968), an animal civilisation came from the temporary ascend¬
psychologist at Johns Hopkins TTnlverslty. ancy over the black or near-black. Hntil quite
Baltimore. Its main tenet was that the method recently — ^not much more than a century ago —
of introspection and the study of mental states the technological gulf between white and black
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
B01_“BUS
so TMfc that the negroid races were often J8 minority 7Yi€us7ii7istvot hence the radicals hp
hela in slavery by the Europeans and while came known as Bolaheviki and the
mSatM
might be repugnant to most ^ ifonsheviki, aîicised as Bolsheviks and
today, attitudes to coloured people stiU reflect
a notion of Inherent white “superiority” British
Menshevd Israehtes
ffl. ,Seea rehgious
Communi group
sm, Marxism f* ™
who hold
whiiA it Is ^y to deny intellectually but difficult
Englt eh-sp ^ktog Slethnf
to shake-off emotionally. In the IT.S.A., the (of the, White Bace) are the lineal descmiStf
most advanced and at the same time the most of the lost Ten Tribes ” of Israel (deported
i,onuented multi-racial society bargon ffi Assroa one the bv
role of the substantial negroid inpopulatio the world, the befiev the fall
Angloof Samaria
-sSoSs in to 721
te
n has God s Cfiicffien People in the literal
V dramatically in the last himdred years,
shifty from that of slave to friendly servant, the term as it is used in the Old Testamesense ffi
of
theoretical, eaual. With Hfôm the world will be brought in readines hJ
s for
this swt has come a corresponding change in rile ênmu^ fiffie official organSfoSts the
^^ntish-
the black community's view of itself, from
reUef at being no longer slaves, to gratitude at ffiflcial Îsrael
journal World Federat
is the Nationalion of which the
Messagef
being allowed to do the menial Jobs in the measurements ofSome the
American society. More recently, with ad¬
vances In educational opportunity and Increas-
mg political liberahsatioii, the attitude of the Buddhism,
hegro m the XJ.S.A. has shifted yet again — arose gain one of 'the great Oriental religions It
from subservience to intellectual and physical north India uist backgr
the 6th cent.ound of Hindui
b.o., its foundersm(realin
even, perhaps, to inJierent super- or legenda ry) being the BOndu prince Sid^rtto
lonty. _ Kiis new stand, rare at first, but spread- Gantama, known as the Buddha or “ En-
rwimy aoro^ iimerica and other parts of ^htened One. Distressed by the problem
the world throughout the 19G0s. human suffermg from which even death of
has crystallised allorod
m the concept and ideology of “ Black Power ”
a movement of growing significance and im¬ clootniis of Of cyclo of liv6S"~Ii6 loft lifa
portance in modern society. It is hard to trace and his beloved wife and O'child
dnr-tîP?7l™®® accepted the ffiMu
to beeme
the moment at which t^ formally emerged but liôus men^cant Oiiid. ascGtic, studying witb.-
one of its first expressions was the use by out success for six years the beliefs of Brahmin
hemits and self-torturing recluses.
Negroes of the phrase “ Black is beautiful,” an
apparent wakening of the belief that their ftmtless search he sat down imder a After this
tree (the
colour, physique, features, hair, etc., were in no Bo-tree) and finally came to understand
mferior to those of Europeans, the
oai^ imd cure of suffering. The ûB of hfe
buddemy In Negro commimitira it became no
artificially straighten hair, JEofeôtiona
truths are me; enshrined in the " four
(i) that existence is un- noWe
to Dleacli tlie skin, or even to copy wtiite that unhappi ness is caused by
American doting, social habits, speech, and s^h teire or craving; (3) that desire can be
:ôiisside Mgfdy important
^ rejection of the white
+1, ^ ^ M "Shttoe desires:
-Oan destroyedrightby
, . patterns — came an inoreasing
fPccch. Pto. and truthful: right ” whose
path conduct
SuSfi
tefief that?the f should haveas political
black races machinery well, a gfe
molutog abstinence notcishtfcld
only from Immorality
power of their own and not as but ateo from taking life, whether human or
livelihood, harming no S^ht
pressing on; right awareness of
SMiThe Black Power evolution of Caucasian
eSL movement at this moment tte^past, the pment, and the future; and lastly
political representation in the light contemplation or meditation. The more
togely because it spurns the
offering up candi- foUowhi ttiese 4l“ to
election, but its strength and growing Ji® individuality, not by annihilation,
potency is weU understood by enlightened but as the dewtop slips Into the shining sea/’
politicians who take careful account
Buddhism teaches the way of salvation
by meigmg with the universal Ufe.^^^
“Ti fr proposed “ racialist ” % o(îcs ^d disciplin ; It preaches the
^w
destmy pf tema--that a man’s eactions control his
after death as inevitabl as cause pio-
^ x: ttuu xevomiaon ir necessary, effect, so that his future is ysolely in his own
^ supporters In all sections of the
portion— mdmong many of the youêr keep^. A universal God plays no part in this
^tber open conflict between ^ many Buddhist nations no word
blKta and whites m, America will ever neither afflm^
break uQued by 3Bii<MIia hirnsQlf but siuidIv
w w*'' soale is at this
Utoralisatlon andtime imcertain,
better oppor- igaored. Nor
advancement Buddlm superstition
claiia to be^^?entered
ffitimateiy serve to ease date; prayers were made
TOuld Inevitably provoke bloody conflict. o? rader ritaal
served stupas.^veloped,
aMtbebeUefsacr&d ^Lara
rolics pre^
The” ^
ov^ aggression and rutWessness of backlash f^^.ofBnff
(Tnpitaha)Qffhastotro
Power movement and its adherents isthe Btok
probahlv xe dividedduced; thesacre
into three parts: d\^t^
for the
^„™derstodable swim ofSAd layman, the nmnks, the philosophers.
thesuppress
pendul ^
ion, They
strength and grim sense of pur- Md imme^tely after the
TOse shomd not be imderestimated. fllhe
famous incid^t at the Mexico Olympics, H ê last at iffie order of
when
;êricm Negro athletes gave the “Black
as their national anthem was Budm^ spread to Ceylon. NenaL Tibet
existence of themove- ®mma. Siam, Ghina,
fOTmffer and
himself
n^t to the attention of millions of viewers Steio&i^'
world, and probably served as a m India. In Tibet, Buddhism develope
to white people to realise that yji® d Into
temg frffineiMS
i*n6 uAys Or inferior * And ** siroerior ** î^mn_(«.v.). In Ceylon and Burma It per-
developed into the Maha-
alternative
are gone for eve r. name forsuperio r races
Commun ism wna
î wito
nn Its bodhlsattvas
^*^® and
Hinayana ), while
avatars. in
^ derogatory **^® nrast important beingSects
the
Kusslan Social Democratic
5“* (Japanese Zen) Buddhton (ff.r.),
li^d in London in 1908 active movements in
ef radicalism or moderation. countnes where the serenity
It was the radlcffi feeMon headed hr Lenin iwhii Buddhism appeate
subsequently led the 1917 Bevohit ion and be
SiSr ttia majority of votes. The trapdonaJ code of honour of the
Bussia n for majority is bolsAinsivo and Samuiar or Japanese military
“ humanists
for ^d eSri^M[“®® caste corte-
CAC-CHA J9 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
gponding to the Eiiropean concept of taiight- organised on an accepted basis of faith and
hood and ehlvalry with which it took its order; (6) they insist on the necessity of
separate origin in the 12th cent. Even today It " liturgical ” worship thi-ongh estahlished
is a potent influence among the upper classes, forms {e.g., baptism, holy communion) ; (c) they
being based on the principles of dmplieity, emphasise the continuity of Christian tradition
honesty, courage, and justice which together
by the use
Creed, theof Nicene
ancient Creed)
creeds {e.o.,
and the Apostles’
regard the
form a man’s idea of personal honour. Bushido
was strongly influenced by Zen Buddhism iq.v.). ministry as a succession (Apostolic succession)
deriving from early practice. In this sense
there is thought to be no necessary contradic¬
tion between Catholicism and Protestantism
regarded as a renev/al of the Church in the 16th
0 cent, by an appeal to the Scriptures as inter¬
preted by the early Fathers of the Church.
Calvinism, the branch of Protestantism founded This definition obviously excludes Quakers.
basically (although preceded by Zwingii and Christiau Scientists, and many Nonconformist
others) hy Jean Chauvin (1509-64), who was sects.
bom in Noyon in Picardy. John Calvin, as he The Eoman Catholic Church is the religious
is usually called, from the Latin form of his organisation of all those who acknowledge the
name, Oalvinius, provided in his Jnstifutiona of bishop of Home as head of the Christian
the Christian Religion the first logical definition Church, recognizing him as the lawful suc¬
and justification of Protestantism, thus be¬ cessor of St. Peter, who was the apostle ap¬
coming the mtelleetual leader of the Eeforma- pointed by Christ to be the head of the Church.
tlon as the older Martin Luther was its emo¬ "Whereas
tional instigator. The distinctive doctrine of preaching inplay
the Protestant Churches
a central part (each prayer and
individual
Calvinism is its dogma of predestination which soul seeking direct communication with God),
states that God has unalterably destined some in Eoman Catholic worship the central service is
souls to salvation to whom “ efficacious grace the Mass, or Holy Eucharist, the seven sacra¬
and the gift of perseverance " is granted and ments (baptism, confirmation, eucharist,
others to eternal damnation. Calvinism, as penance, extreme unction, ordera, and marriage)
defined in the Westminster Confession, is estab¬ being administered by a special priesthood.
lished in the Eeformed or Presbyterian churches Church discipline and organisation are strong
of Prance, Holland, Scotland, etc., as con¬ and authoritarian. See Papal IhlallibilitF.
trasted with the Lutheran churches, and its Catholic Apostolic Church, a body of Christians
harsh but logical beliefs inspired the Erench wMch originated in England c. 1831, founded on
Huguenots, the Dutch in their fight against the teaching of Edward Irving <d. 1884). They
Spanish Catholic domination, and the English disapprove of the term known.
“ Irvtngites
Puritans. The rule set up xmder Calvin’s they are sometimes The” by which
common
influence In Geneva was marred by the burning doctrines of Christianity are accepted: sym¬
at the stake of the anatomist Servetus for the bolism and mystery characterise the elaborate
heresy of “ pantheism,” or, as we should say. iitmgy, and lights and incense are used.
Unitarianlsm. Characterology, the attempt made over many
Perhaps its greatrat siagle influence outside centuries to classify people into personality
the Ohmrch was the result of Calvinist belief that types on the basis of physical or psychological
to labour industriously was one of God’s com¬ characterfetics. The first attempt was made hy
mands. This changed the mediaeval notions Hippocrates in the 5th cent. b.c. who classifled
of the blessedness of poverty and the wickedness temperaments into the sanguine (or optimistic),
of usury, proclaimed that men should shun the melanchdlic, the choleric (or aggressive), and
luxury and be thrifty, yet implied that financial the phlegmatic (or placid) : these were supposed
success was a mark to result from the predominance of the following
it was related to theof rise
God’sof favour.
capitalismIn either
this way
as " humours ” in the body: red blood, black bile,
cause or effect. Max Weber, the German yeUow bUe, or phlegm respectively. Theo-
sociologist, believed that Calvinism was a phraatus, a pupil of Aristotle, described, with
powerftil incentive to. or even cause of, the rise examples, thirty extreme types of personality
of capitalism [q.v.Y, Marx, Sombart, and in (e.g. the talkative, the boorish, the miserly,
England, Tawney, have asserted the reverse etc.): th^ were basically literary and imagina¬
view — ^that Calvinism was a result of developing tive
capitalism, being Its ideological justification. arose butwhich
aboutattempted
the same totimeinterpret
** physiognomy
character”
Capitalism is an economic system under which the from the face. Physiognomy became of im¬
means of production and distribution are portance again during the EenalBBance and
owned by a relatively small section of society there are stfll those today who believe in it in
which runs them at its own discretion for spite of the fact that, broadly speaking, there is
private profit. There exists, on the other hand, no connection whatever between facial features
a propertyless class of those who exist by the and personality {i.e. although it may be possible
sale of theii labour power. Capitalism arose to tell from the features that a man is an idiot
towards the end of the 18th CMit. in England or some extreme abnormal type and some idea
where the early factory owners working with of character may be obtained from an in¬
small-scale units naturally approved of fee dividual’s chaiacteristic facial expressions, it is
enterprise and fi«e trade. But fee enterprise not possible to tell (as Johann Lavater, the best-
has no neceâry connection with capitalism; by known physiognomist of the late 18th cent,
the beginning of this century monopolies were believed) from the shape of the nose, height of
developing and state protection agahist fordgn the brow, or dominance of the lower jaw.
competition was demanded. Capitalism is whether anyone is weak, IntellectuaL or de¬
opposed by those who believe in socialism iq.v.), termined). The contention of the 19th cent.
first, for the moral reasons that it leads to Italian criminologist Cesare Lomhroso that
economic inequality and the exploitation of criminals show typical facial characteristics —
labour and the consuming pubhe. and that prominent cheekbones and jaw. slanting eyes,
public welfare rather than private profit should receding brow, large earn of a particular eiape —
motivate the economic system: secondly, for was disproved by Karl Pearson early this
the mactical reason that capitalism leads to cmitury when he found that 3,000 criminals
reouiient economic mdses. Defenders of the showed no mgnifioant differences of features,
system, however, maintain that it conduces to carefully measured, from a Bimilar number of
efficient production by providing the strongest students at Oxford and Gambridga
incentive to enterprise and good service. It has. however, been noted that people in
Catholicism. Eor those who are not Homan general tend to be intellectual or emotional,
Catholics the term “ Catholic ” has two separate inward- or outwaxd-looMng, and rids observa¬
meanings. The more general refers to the whole tion is reflected, in the cla^flcations of the
body of Christians tifeugbout the world, the Scottish psyoholo^st. Alexander Bain (d. 1903),
more speotflo refers to a paxticiilar view of into intellectual, ariastie. and practical; Niet-
Christiamty. In this latter sense the Church of zsclie’s Apollonian and Dionysian types;
England, the Orthodox Eastern Churches, and
William James’s “tender" and “tough-
others consider themselves “ Catholic ” meaning minded ’’; and 0. G, Jung’s introvert and ex¬
that (ffl) they belong to Christ’s. Church as trovert. Careful experiments have shown that
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
CHA-CHR Jio
these are not clear-cut and that most in¬ disc, is becoming gradually merged into ortho¬
dividuals fall in between the extremes. dox medical practice.
Some connection has been found between Christadelphians, a religious denomination formed
temi>erament and body-build. Tlie German m the U.S.A. about 1848 at the time of the
p.sy chiatrist Ernst Kretschmer (b. 1888) showed êrican Civil War by John Thomas, an Eng-
that manic-depressive patients and normal hshman from London. They claim to represent
people who are extroverted and tend to alter¬ the simple apostolic faith of the 1st cent., and
nate in mood (as do manic-depressives to an in common with many other sects, hold that
exaggerated degree) were usually short and they alone interpret the Scriptures truly.
stout or thicb-.set in build: schizophrenics and None but those who share their beliefs will rise
normal people, who both show shyness, serious from the dead and enjoy immortal life when
or introverted reaction-s, were usually tall and Christ returns after the battle at Armageddon
slender. The former of “ pyknic ” body-build when His kingdom wfll be established on earth
are " cyclothyme ” in temperament, the latter with its capital in Jerusalem. The political
with “ sehizothsTiie ” temperament are of two events of our time are regarded as fulfilments of
l)0<lily types — the tall and thin or “ asthenic ” biblical prophecies preceding the millenTiiai reign
and the muscuiarly well-proportioned or of Christ over the earth. For them heaven and
“atliletic.” The jionerican Sheldon has con¬ hell do not exist. In social life Chrlstadelphians
firmed these observations on the whole and keep to themselves and hold aloof from organisa¬
gone into further details. According to him the tional activities, though they do take an interest
basic body types are: (1) endomorphic (rounded in political events if only from the point of view
build!, corre.sponding to Kretschmer’s pyknic, of their belief in biblical prophecy.
noiPially associated with the viscerotmic tem¬ Christianity, the religion founded by Jesus Christ
perament (relaxed, sociable): (2) mesomorphic whose teaching is found in the New Testament’s
(squarish, athletic build), normally associated four Gospels. Simple as His creed may seem
with the somatotonic temperament (energetic, It soon became complicated by the various ways
assertive); and (3) ectomorphic (linear build) in which Christians interpreted it, and the
nonnally associated wdth the eerehrotonic tem¬ differences within the early Church are reflected
perament (anxious, submissive, restless). in the numerous Councils held to define truth
Glandular and metabolic factors have consider¬ from heresy. The Eastern Chiuch of the
able effect on human personality and also, to Byzantine Empire from the 6th cent, onwards
eoms extent, on iihysique. It is not too sur¬ had differed in various ways from the See of
prising, therefore, to And an association between Home and by 1054 the breach became per¬
body build (or “ somatotj'pe ” as Sheldon manent. The 16th cent. Reformation was the
termed it) and general mood. However. other great break in the unity of the Church and
once Protestantism had given in effect the right
Sheldon’s original clear-cut and oversimplified to each man to interpret the Scriptures in his own
categories of body-type are no longer looked
upon as reliable indicators of personality. way. the tendency to fragmentation increased
Chartism, a socialistic movement in England so that, by 1650, there were no fewer than 180
(1837-56) which attempted to better the con¬ sects, mostly dogmatic and intolerant towards
ditions of the working classes. Named after each other. Today there are many more, some
of which are mentioned in this section under the
The People’s Charter” of Prancie Place
(1838). its programme demanded: (1) universal appropriate headings. Nevertheless there are
manhood suffrage; (2) vote by ballot: (3) equal signs today that the trend of disunity is being
electoral district, s; (4) annual parliaments: (5) revemed. The modem ecumenical movement,
p.arment of members; (6) abolition of their which has its roots in the great missionary move¬
property qualifications. Cliartism was sup¬ ment of the 19th cent., aims to bring about a
ported by the Christian socialists (g.D.). J. F. D. reumon of Christendom by uniting Cliristians
Maurice (1805^72), and Charles Kinney (1819- throughout the world on the simple basis of the
75) with certain qualifications. The movement, acceptance of Jesus Christ as God and Saviour,
wliile doomed to an early death, had oonsider- i.e., on the basis of Christian fellowship. The
ahle influence on the evolution of socialist movement finds expression in the World
ideas in England. It is worth noting that its Council of Churches (q.®.). T’he Christian life is
demands — with the exception of the nn- expressed in the words of Christ: “Thou shalt
workalile annual parlhiment ” — ^have largely love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and
been met today, though at the time they were thy neighbour as thyself.” For many it is the
thought by many to be both outrageous and humamtanan side of Christianity that has mean¬
impossible. ing today; to accept responsibility for others
Chauyinisni, a term applied to any excessive de^ as well as for oneself. g«e chart, JH.
vqlion to a cause, particularly a patriotic o) Christian DemocratSj a term describing the mem¬
military one. The word is derived from bers of moderate Roman Catholic political
toeliqias Ciiauvin whose excessive devotion tc parties existing under various names in Bel¬
hapoleon made him a laughing-stock. gium, France, the Gemian Federal Republic
Chirognomy, the attempt to read character from (most German Protestants are in East Ger¬
the lines in the hand (as contrasted with ohiro- many). Italy, and the Netherlands. In several
inaney or palmistry, in which an attempt is of these countries they are the largest parlia¬
made to tell the future in the same way) is an mentary party, their platform being based on a
^cient practice which, like astrology (q.p.) programme of moderate social reform advocated
has no discernible scientific basis hut a very by members who in many cases have been active
coiisideraWe popular following. As with m wartime resistant movements. In spite of
astrology, where it is hard to see what kind of efforts. of Dr. Adenauer of Germany and Sr.
Inn: could exist between the constellations and Fanfari of Italy in 1966 a Christian Democratic
human behaviour, so it is equally hard to see International has failed to develop.
how the configuration of lines on the hand could Ctoistian Science, a religious denomination founded
be paralleled by psychological attributes. by Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910), an American
Ihis arCTinent might be thought of as irrelevant lady who sought to organise a church which
if pahnistry, etc. actually had predictive power, would reinstate primitive Christianity and Its
but the plain fact is that when put to ascientiflo lost element of healing. The sacred books of
te.st, practitioners of these arts turn out to show toe movement are the Bible: and Science and
no abilities beyond those with which a normally Meaim tmXh Key to the Scriptures aSitl), a re-
perceptive individual is equipped. VTSioimif Science and Health, first published by
Chiropractioe, the art of manipulation of the joints, Mrs. Eddy In 1875. Its main tenets (quoting
in particular the spine, as a means of enring from an official Christian Science source) are
diseiês, is a slightly fashionable quasl-medlcal that nothing is real save God and His spiritual
practice. Few qualified doctors employ its creation, including man in His image and like-
questionable principles though, as with Its near-
neighbour osteopathy, it seems on occasions to ne^; toat man’s
wholly good; essential nature evil,
that matter, is spiritual
disease
be a usetul complement to medical treatment. sickness are unreal— -illusions existing only
Much controversy surrounds the status of through Ignorance of God. Therefore Christian
practitioners of fringe medicine of this kind. In Scientists renoimce for themselves medicine,
Airienca osteopathy (bone manipulation), surgery and drugs and rely on healing through
which seems to be beneficial in many cases for
the condition loiown as prolapsed or “ slipped" The name of the movement seems misleading
prayer."
CHR-CHU J 1 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
since it has nothing to do with axiy of the nattiral fully realised to a new society since Christianity
eciencea of which Mrs. Eddy had no first-hand implies social responsibility, and material
knowledge. In using the word. Mrs. Eddy meant factors are admitted to have an important bear¬
that the teaching and acts of Jesus were rooted ing on the ability to lead a truly religions life.
in unchanging divine law. Mrs, Eddy was at In the H.S.A. the eminent theologiaixs Paul
first interested in Spiritnalism and afterwards, Tillich and Eeinhold Niebuhr support these
having been a patient of a faith-healer named views. The factory-padre in Britain and the
Qulmby, claimed to have been divinely healed. Catholic worker-priests of Prance bear evidence
kSome say she was indebted to him more than to the continuing influence of the early move¬
she cared to admit, others that there is no link ment. In England the Christian Socialist
with her teaching. There is also controversy Movement (CSM) was revived in 1960 by the
about the efficacy of her methods. The denom¬ coming together of organisations like the Social¬
ination has a widespread memterehip: its ist Christian League and the Society for
newspaper, the CJiristian Scknee Monitor, read Socialist Clergy and MirJ.sters. Sec also Fabian
by many outside the movement, has well- Society, Guild Socialism.
written accounts of events going on in the world Church of England. There is some evidence of
around us. possible continuity with the Christianity of
Christian Socialism, a movement launched in 1848, Eoinan Britain, but to the main the Church de¬
a year of revolutions throughout the continent, rives from the fusion of the ancient Celtic chiuch
by a group to England deigned to commit the with the mlffiionary church of St. Augustine,
Church to a programme of social reform. The who founded the See of Canterbury in a.I). 597.
lesdera, notably J. E. D. Maurice, Charles To archbishop Theodore to 673 is ascribed its
Kingsley (both Anglican clergymen), and John organisation to dioceses with settled boundaries,
Ludlow were deeply moved by the wretched con¬ and in parishes. St. Augustine’s
ditions of the British working class and the two communion with Home from the church was the
first, but to
priests had, indeed, given active support to the Church of England was not brotight within papal
Chartist movement (q.v.). However, all in¬ jurisdiction imtll after the Norman conquest,
sisted that socialism in its existing forms and was at no time under the complete domina¬
ignored the spiritual needs of mankind and must tion of Home. It rematos the Catholic Chinch
be tempered with Christianity. Tracts were of England without break of continuity, but
written to expose the sweated mdustries, the during the Eefoimation the royal supremacy
conseQuences of unrestrained competition, and was accepted and that of the pope repudiated.
the evils following the enclosure system: but, It is the Established Church ii.e., the official
more concretely, Christian socialism fostered church of the realm), crowns the sovereign, and
co-operative workshops and distributive socie¬ its archbishops and bishops to the House of
ties based on those of the Eochdale pioneers, Lords can act as a kind of “ conscience of the
organised a working-man’s college and Itset also
up state ” at every stage of legislation. The policy
elementary classes for education. of religions toleration has been accepted since
supportedandthebargain
trade-union the 16th cent. The Church is organised, in two
organise for itsmovement’s
members. right to ecclesiastical provinces (Canterbury and York)
The traditions of Christian socialism have and 43 dioceses. Its form of worship is
been carried on by the Fabian Society, by embodied to the Book of Common Prayer.
adherents of GnUd Socialism, and by individuals The Anglican Communion ccmaprises the
who reject Marx’s teaching of revolutionary churches to aU parts of the world which are to
change, and seek to bring it about by the communion with the Church of England. All
methorto of action through political parties, the bLsbopa of the Anglican Communioa meet
education, and encouragement of the unions.
every ten toyears
(first held 1S67).to over
the which
Lambeth Coni'erence
the Archbishop
They believe that Christ’s teachings can only be
Early Christian Church

(Churdi of the Eoman Empire)
4th certt.
2rd~7th cent. Schisms in the East.
Controversies concerned with the relation of Jesus
Christ to God and to man: Ariantem, Nestortonfem.
Monophysitlsm, Monotheletism
Nestorian Armenian Jacobite Coptic

Church Church Camnto Church
Great Schism IQSi
Western Christaadom Baatem Christendom

LaMn Greek
Eme CSonstanttaopIe
Orthodox Eastern Chunfii
Mediaeval Insuisîon beam c, 12S1
Spanish Inqwisttion began 1481
Counter Seformation and Inouisttim Beformatim, 16ihr-17{h e&cA. Benaissance 15ft emt.
at Borneo 16th cent.
Eoman Catiolie Church itism Humanism

Eroteslani
T- Lutherans
Moravians 1- 1-
Calvinists
Church of England (Eenry VIII’s break with
Borne 1534. Excommum^
cation of IBksch A
Presbyterians 1570)
Nonconformism
Baptists Congregationalista Methodists Evangelicals Modernists Anglo-Catholios

IDEAS AND BELIEFS
Jl2
CHU-CON
of Canterbury by custom presides as primus before princes, at ease and polite with his eauals
inter pares. The theme of the 1068 Conference and behaving with “ lofty courtesy ” to his in¬
was “ The Ilenewal of the Church,” and for the feriors. Promoting the idea of “ the golden
first time observers and laymen were admitted, mean, he was not impressed by heroic deeds or
©mich o! Scotland, the established national church uniKual people, and was greatly displeased when
of Scotland, Presbyterian in constitution, and he heard that a truthful son had reported that
governed by a hierarchy of courts — the kirk- his father had stolen a sheep: “ Those who are
sessions, the presbyteries, the synods, and the upright.” he said, “ are different from this: the
General Assembly. See Presbyterianism. father conceals the misconduct of the son. and
Clairvoyance. See Telepathy. meson conceals the misconduct of the father
Communism, Ideally refers to the type of society One feels that Confucius woul d have felt not at all”
in which aU property belongs to the community put of place in an English public school. Virtue
brings its own reward in this world, ceremonial
and social hfe is based on the principle “ from Is important, politeness when universal would
each according to his ability, to each according
to his needs.” Since no such society as yet reduce jealousy and quarrels; “reverence the
exists, the word in practice refers to the Com¬ spirits
to what put keepa man
class them shall
far off.”
belong, Destiny decides
and as destiny
munist Party’s attempt to achieve such a IS but another name for Nature prayer te un¬
society by initially overthrowing the capitaUst
system and establishing a dictatorship of the necessary, for once having received his destiny a
proletariat. The modern movement is based man can deimnd and obtain from Nature what
on Marxism as further developed by Lenin who he chooses — ^hia own win determines all things
Although not very successful in his lifetime so
applied Marx’s analysis to the new conditions far as the rulers were concerned. Confucius had
which had arisen in 20th cent, capitalist
society. Noting the large trusts and combines numerous disciples who coUected hfe teachings
which axe found, together with those of hfe later
which (acOTrding to the Marxian “ theory of follower Mencius (372-289 B.O.). in the Wu
concentration ”) with their large concentrations China (five classics), and the Shih Shu (four
of capitid were ousting the small producers of
an earlier stage, Lenin concluded that the state books) which contain the Analects. The Great
(reprraenting the ruling class) and these large Learning. The Doctrine of the Mean, and the
capital interests were collaborating in im¬ Book of Mencius. In time Confucianism be¬
perialist policies which would inevitably lead to came with Taoism and Buddhism one of the
recurrent wars: that the skilled worker would mato Teutons in China. Unlike Buddhism it
become more important and, receiving higher had httle influence elsewhere.
wages, would betray the proletariat by moving CongregationaUsts, the oldest sect of Noncon-
to the right; and that the poorer workers would fomusts who hold that each church should be
continue to support revolutionary socialism. dependent of external authority.
Conmumsts believe that their first task is the origin ecclesiastical
from the Brownists of
establisliment pf socialism under which there re¬ Elizabeths days. Robert Browne (c. 1560-
main class distinctions, private property to some e. 1633), an Anglican clergyman, who had come
extent, and differences between manual and to reject bishops, was forced with his followers
pram workers. The state is regulated on the to seek refuge, first in Holland and then in
ba^ from each according to his ability, to Scotland where he was imprisoned by the Kirk,
each according to his work.” In time this gives in later life he changed hfe views and is dis¬
place to commimism as described above. owned by Congregationallsts because of his re¬
Marxism-Leninism develops continuously with version to AngUoanism. His former views were
pracrice since faOnre to apply its basic principles spread by Henry Barrow and John Greenwood
to changed circumstances and times would who. under an Act passed in 1592 “for the
result in errors of dogmatism. Mao Tse-tung punishment of persons obstinately refhslng to
worked out the techniaues of revolutionary action come to church ” (and largely designed for the
appropriate to Ohma : Che Guevara the guerrilla suOTression of this sect), were hanged at
tactics appropriate to the peasants of Latin Tybum. They had preached (a) that the only
^lerica . * ‘Anyone’ ’ , says the veteran Marxist head of the church is Jesus Christ: (6) that
thinker. Geoi^ Lukdcs, “who thinks he can contrary to Elizabethan doctrine, the church
apply a book written by Lenin in 1920 to had no relationship to the state: (c) that the
American youth in 1969 . . . would he terribly omy statute-book was the Bible whereas the
mistaken.” Two fundamental principles of com- Articles of Religion and the Common Prayer
muman are (1) peaceful co-existence between were mere Acts of Parliament: (d) that each
countnes of different social systems, and (2) the congregation of believers was independent and
class struggle between oppressed and oppressing had the power of choosing its own ministers.
classes and between oppressed and oppressor The body fled once more to Holland and were
natrom. Chma, for example, holds that it is a among the Pilgrims who set sail in the Mayfimoer
imstake to lay one-sided stress on peaceful tran¬ for America m 1620 whilst those who remained
sition toward socialism otherwise the revolution¬ wre joined by Puritans fleeing from Charles I
ary will of the proletariat becomes passive and They became free once more to live in
tmprepraed politically and organisationally for imder the Commonwealth only to be repressed
iSee also Marxism, again imder Charles H. EinaUy full liberty of
granted under Wflliam HL In
CoMuciaMsim Confhcius (Latinised form of 1883 the Congregational Union of England and
Kimg-Fu-tzu) was bom in 651 b.o. in the Wales was formed which has no legislative
feudal state of Lu in modem Shantung pro¬ power. It has issued a Declaiation of Eaith by
vince. He wag thus a contemporary of Buddha, which no minster is bound: he is responsible to
although nobody could have been more dis- hfe OTO church and to nobody else. The sect
sim^r. mwe Buddha was metaphysical in Is jirid^read
ms thought, Confucius was practical: Buddha where it is held both in Britain
in special honourandbecause
the U.S.A.
of its
was qnrfml, Confucius had hardly an original connection ndth the Pilgrim Bathers.
head; Buddha wanted to convert Conservatism. The name ‘ ‘ Conservative ” came into
mdivlduais to an other-worldly philosophy general we after 1834 in place of the older
ConfueiiB wanted to reform the feudal goTCrn-,
ments of his time, believing that in this way name
IS Tory.”used
nowofwidely although “ Tory democracy ”
to describe Conservative
their snbiects would be ma^ happier. Other ^ reform policy. Originally the party of
socialaristocracy
rchmom have, in their time, been revolutionary ; ffie and landed gentry, Conservatfem
oonturius was a conservative who wanted to
ormg back a golden age from tiie past. The cent, been
has ppported from the end of the 19th
by the large business Interests, and more
rally rêct in which Confucius agreed with the recently by lower-income groups iu the popula¬
Buddha was that neither was particularl tion. Although originally based upon the
mterMted in the supernatural, and God or godsy teachuags of Burke and Disraeli, Conservative
httle part in their religions. doctrine has been considerably modified
Much of his time was spent in going from the smce 1946. The Conservatives increased their
court of one feudal lord to another trying to im¬ paxhamentary strength in three successive
press them by ins example. Bor he suffered from generM elutions from 1951-59, but were de¬
the cimpus belief that the example set by the feated by Labour in 1964 and 1960. Contrary
™^*“‘e>ices hfe subjects. He made much of to all the fludiiii^rs of the pre-elecfcion polls, this
etiquette, trembling and speaking in low tones trend was reversed in 1970 when the Conserva-
COP-DET J13 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
tives regained power with a substantial talented but rather mad poet, Aleister Crowley
majority. On the continent, Conseryatisin has (1875-1947) who scandalised pre-war Europe
generally been identified with fear of social with his very well-publieteed dabblings into
progress, exaggerated respect for authority, Satanism. The sell-styied “ wickedest man in
and nationalism: such parties have more often the world,” Crowley was a pathetic rather than
than not been extremely reactionary and shocking figure and died a drug addict. He
anti-democratic. See. also Section C, Part I. can hardly he said to have significantly ad¬
Coptic Church, the sect of Egyptmn Christians who, vanced the cause of Demonology, though it has
holding to be admitted that he tried very hard. See also
to grant" the
Monophysite ” opinions
two natures, (i.e.. Man,
God and refusing
of Witchcraft, Magic.
Christ), were deoiared heretical by the Council Determinism and Free-will. The question of
of Chalcedon in 451. They practise circumci¬ whether man is, or is not, free to mould his own
sion and have dietary laws. Their language is destiny is one which has exercised the minds of
a direct descendant of ancient Egyptian. Like philosophers since Greek mythology conceived
the Armenian.^, they are regarded as an hereti¬ of the Fates as weaving a web of destiny from
cal branch of Eastern Christianity. Their re¬ which no man can free himself. Socrates em¬
ligious head is the patriarch of Alexandria, phasised that man could through knowledge
Cynics, a school of phllcBophy founded in the time influence his desttay whilst ignorance made him
of Alexander the Great by Diogenes. Choosing the plaything of fate: Plato went further in
to liye like a dog by rejecting all conventions of pointing out that man can, and does, defeat the
religion, manners, or decency, and allegedly purpcffles of the universe and its divine Creator.
hiring in a tnb, Diogenes unwittingly brought on It is our duty to live a good life, but we can live
his school the title “Cynic,” meaning not a foolish and wicked one if we choose. Aristotle
"cynical," as the word is understood today, wrote " Virtue is a disposition or habit involving
but “ canine.” His teacher, Antisthenes, who deliberate
so morality purpcee
would beor achoice.”
sham. If this were not
had been a disciple of Socrates, decided, afle
the latter’s death, that aU philosophy was use¬ The Troblem for Theology. The last of the
less auibbling and man’s sole aim should be great philosophers of antiquity and one of the
simple goodness. He beheved in a return to great influences in moulding Catholic theology
nature, despised Itaury, wanted no government, was Plotinus (c. 204-270). Soul, he taught, is
no private property, and associated with free, but once enmeshed in the body loses its
working men and slaves. Ear from being cynics freedom in the life of sense. Nevertheless, man
in the modem sense. Diogenes and Antisthenes is free to tmn away from sensuality and to¬
were virtuous anarchists rather like old Tolstoy wards God who is perfect freedom; for even
(except that in the practice of their beliefs they when incarnated in matter the soul does not
were more consistent). entirely lose the ability to rescue itself. This
conception was carried over into the beliefs
of the Early Chiistian Apologists because it
appeared to be in line with the teaching of Jesus
that He had come to save man from sin. Sin
B implies guilt, and guilt implies the freedom to
act otherwise; furthermore m all-good God
Darwinism. See Section P, Part IV. See cHeo cannot be responsible for the sin in the world
Vifaligm.
Deism. See Clod and Man. which must be man’s responsibility and this
again impUea freedom. Pelaglus (c. 366-c. 425),
Demonism, Demons, and the Devil. Demons are a Welsh priest, not only believed in freewill
ethereal beings of various degrees of significance but. questioning the doctrine of original sin, said
and power which are believed to be implicated that when men act righteously it is through
in men’s good, but especially evU, Erom
fortune. their own moral effort, and God rewards them
They are common to most cultures. the for their virtues in heaven. This belief became
anihropologieal point of view the demon arose fairly widespread and was declared a heresy by
as a widespread concept in the following ways: the Church, being attacked notably by St.
(1) as a psychological projection into the outer Augustine (854^-480), a contemporary of
world of man's own good or evil emotions and Pelagius, who believed in predestination — that,
thoughts; (2) as a survival of primitive animism since the sin of Adam, God had chosen who in
(a.u.). thus spirits are believed to haunt places, all future history would be saved and who
trees, stones, and other natural objects: (3) damned. This represents one tradition in
when by warlike invasion the gods of the tou- CIhristianity: the determinism which leads to
quished become the devils of the conquerors (as Calvinism {q.v.). 8t, Thomas Aquinas (1227-
when the Jews occupied Canaan): (4) as a 74), the greatest figure of scholasticism and one
primitive belief that spirits of the dead con¬ of the principal saints in the Koman Catholic
tinue after death to hover near their former Church, compromised between the two positiona
habitation, and not always entirely welcome to in the sense that, believing man to be free, he
the living: (6) the conception of a supreme yet held that Ad^’s sin was transmitted to all
source of evil (the Devil or Satan) wMdh took mankind and only dlviae grace can bring
shape among the Jews during their sojourn in salvation. But even when God wishes to be¬
Babylon under the influence of Zoroastrianism stow this salvation, the human wlU must co¬
{Q.V,), a religion in which the struggle between operate. God foresees that some wiU not
the two spirits. Good and Evil, reached its h^ht accept the offer of grace and predestine them to
in the imagination of the ancient world. The eternal punishment.
Satan trf the Old Testament was first regarded The Problem, for Philosophy. With the
as one of God’s servants (in the Book of Job he Benaissance, thinkeis began to ffee themselves
goes up and down the earth to see whether God’s from the domination of the Church and to study
commands are obeyed), but when the Jews re¬ the world objectively and freely williout pre¬
turned from their captivity he ihd become conceptions. But the more man turned to
identified with Ahriman, the spirit of evil, who science, the more he discovered that the world
was in continual conflict with Ahuia Mazd^ the was ruled by apparently inexorable laws and,
spirit of good. As Dr. Margaret Murray has since the sdentist must believe that every event
pointed out, the primitive mind ascribed both has a cause, he was led back to detesrminlsm.
good and evil to one power alone; the division Man as part of the universe was subject to law
into God and the Devil, priest and witch, be¬ too and aU that existed was a vast matfifine.
longs to a higher stage of civilisation. The )Pran(da Bacon (1561-1626) separated the fields
worship of evil itself, or of its personification in of religion and science hut left man subject
Satan, is a curions practice which seems to have completdy to the will of God. Thomas Hohhea
developed hand-in-hand with Cihristianlty and (1688-1679) was a rigid determlnist and
to have received steady support from a small materialist althou^ having had trouble with
but measurable minority. Many of the cere- the church in France whence, as a royalist, he
monl® involved in Satanism or in the so-called had fled, he took care to announce that the
Black Mass appear to have beeaa no more than Christian God is the Prime Mover.
opportunities for sexual sôeSses of one kind or Modem philosophy begins with Eend Des¬
another — such indulgenG^ being traditionally cartes (1696-1660), a Frenchman who tried to
barred to devout Christians. The alleged power reconcile the mechanical scientific imiveise of
of sex as a form of magic was propagated t)y the his time with the spiritual need for freedom.
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
DIA.-DI<3
He did this by separating completely mind and114 sure in a cylinder to rush out occur because mosi
body: the former, he said, is free, the latter of the atoms axe "situations.
obeying " theBut soientifle “ law ”
completely determined. But. by admitting that xelatmg to such this does not
the will can produce states of body, he was left mean that some atoms axe not busy rushing
with the problem of how this could happen — a across the stream or even against it — they are
problem which the so-called Oocasionists solved but the general tendency is outwards and that
to their own satisfaction by stating that the wlU is wpt we note. Lastly, the modem philo-
is free and God so arranges the universe that sopMcal sepol of Logical Analysis would
what a person wills happens. Baruch Spinoza probably ask, not whether Eree-wlil or De-
tenninlam is the true belief, but whether the
(1832-77), a Dutch Jew whose independence Question has any meaning. For what scientlfle
of thought had led to his excommunication
from the Amsterdam Synagogue in 1656, was experiment could we set up to prove one or the
a complete determinist. He asserted that God other true? The reader wiU note that some of
and Nature are one, everything that happens the phiiosophers mentioned above axe using th°
words to mean Quite different concepts.
is a manifestation of God’s inscrutable nature, Dialectloal
and it is logically impossible that things could Materialism, the combination of Hegel’s
be other than they are. Thus both Hobbes and dialectic method with a materialist philosophy
Spinoza were determinlsts for entirely opposed produced . by. BArl hto (1818-88) and his
reasons. The former as a materialist, the latter friend Fnednoh Engels (1820-95). It is ^
because he believed in the absolute perfection philosophical basis of Marxism (a.v.) and Com-
and universality of God. Yet the great reliôus munlsm (Q.a.) “Dialectic” to the ancient
mystic and mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623- Greek philosophers meant a idufi of dialogue or
62) held that, no matter what reason and cold conversation, as used particularly by Socrates
logic may indicate, we know from direct religious m which philosophical disputes were resolved
experience that we are free. John Calvin by a series of recessive contradictions: a t.aaaiq
IS put fproard and the opposing
(1509-64) and Martin Luther (1483-1646) were
both determinists. See Calvinism, Lutheranism. contradiction or antithesis until in side holds its
the course of
To the more practical British philosophers, argument a synthesis is reached hi which the
John Incke (1632-1704) and David Hume conflicting ideas are resolved.
From mesis through Antithesis to Synthesis
(1711-76), free-will was related to personality. Hegel m the 19th cent, put forward the view
Locke believed that God had implanted in each
mdmdual certain desires and these determine that tlus process applies to the course
the wdl; the desires are already there, but we and history as they strive towards theof perfect nature
use our to satisfy them. Hume argued that state.. But to lum, as to the Greeks, the conflict
a man s behaviour is the necessary result of bis was m the
chanmter and if he had a different character he reôn behmdfield of ideas. The
events works through“universal the ideas
would act otherwise. Accordingly, when a held by a particular society until they are
mans actions arise from his own nature and challenged .by those of another which supersedes
dîres he is free. He is not free when external them and m.tum, usually by war. becomes the
events compel hun to act otherwise (e.p., if he agent of universal reason until the arrival of
strmea another because his own nature is such a new challenger. Hegel ikerefore regarded
he is free as he is not if he is compelled to do so yrar as an instrument of progress and his
against his desire). Leibnitz (1646-1716). al¬ Prussian compatriots found no difficulty in
though as a German metaphysical philosopher identifying their own state as the new agent of
Mdlng very different general views, said much progress by universal conquest. Feuerbach.
the same thing- — that choice is simply selecting XiasÎIe, ana otlier early socialists were im-
the deslm that is strongest. Bub most of the
18th cent, from Voltaire onwards, with the great prised byevolved
sooiette some of Hegel’s
(with the ideas:
assumptio e.g., that
n that
exceptions of Eousseau and the later German
fin^r ideal society would be achieved)
phdMophera, Kant. Fichte, Schopenhauer, ^ 1
and Hegel, who were initially influenced by hiTn relative so trotli,
that amorals*type ofandsocietyconcepts
tltot were
was
accepted determinism. Boussean (1712-78)
began to stem the tide by his declaration that gq^ atButonaMarx
mother. time and -srasEngels
not necessarily so at
in effect turned
ruM Is a free soul striving to remain free and
only prevented from being so by society and tbe Hegel pride-dot
rejieoted his belief^ that accepted his dialeetio
ideas were the motive but
cold science which stifles his feelmg heart force. On the contrary, they said, ideas are
aeain the will became important as Kant detKmined by social and economic change as a
(172^1804) asserted that ^llef in freedom is a r^t .of materialistic forces. Wee Calvinism,
tbe Marxist view is
moral necessity althongh it cannot be proved by
reason; the moral nature of man shows that
there is a transcendental ” world beyond the pt
out that
ratherCat^that changed
a developingmen’s economio
capitalism ideas un-
sem^ where fr^qm applies. Mehte and coTOcpisIy changed his.) The historical
Schell^ fomd freedom in the Ai«olnte ego ^teriaJism of Marxism purports to show that
OT Godôf vriiom each individual was part and mexorable dialectic determines ikat
tip also free. Hegel (1770-1881) saw the feuMim fe displaced by capitalism and
whole universe as evolving towards self-aware- '
ne® pd freedom in man although this could tneste)
^pitahpinevitablyby îtog leadsa to proletariat
sooiali^(itsand anti-
only be frfl^ really clasffie^ society. Offie state, as a tool of thea
free&m. Even God inhlmseif a society that makes for
only attains full
conspioimess and self-realisation through dop^t m class,
nmteriahs withers
is applied in allaway. Dialectical
spheres. As a
mmds of such mdividnals as are free. Glhisthe is
ttie goal of ttie, dialectical proce®. (See rtiitoMiffiy tpre is little to be said for it save
that It has ôwn us the
man s thoughts uponeuirent material close dependence of
The Scientists and social
Dtoctioal Ffew. For the scientist locc
Materialism.) the conmtions.^ But as a battle-cry or a railonal-
Ip of cause and effect is a nsefifl hypothesis isatlon of Marxism it wtelda immense power over
Bince. byând large, it is necessary for him to _the minds of men. Sea Marxism.
assume that all events axe caused. Neverthe¬ Dlauetics. Bee Scientology.
less the modern tendency is to i.hfmr in terms of Diggers, one of the many sects which flourished
statistic^ probability rather than relentless
mephamstio causality, and, althongh the free- pder the. Commonwealth (others were the
Muggletoni
concern the scientist as ans. the Levellers, the Millenarians.
and the Fifth Monarchy Men), so-called beoanse
^cj3i Ifc is that freedom and detennSaisni (key attempted kq dig H.e. cultivate) untUled
(assuniing the terms to have any meaning at all)
axe not neceMaxily opposed. In sociology, la^. Gertard Winstaifiey. a profoundiy re-
for iigiquB man, and leader of the Diggers, believed
example, we know that certain actions wUl pro-
poe certain results upon the behavloar of people m tp gnomic and social equality of man and
castigated the cleigy for npholdlog the class
m general. e.p., that raising the bank rate will structure of society. In his book The True
oipmrage businesa expansion. But this does a Standard Advanced (1649) he wrote:
not mean that Mr, Broxvn who decides in the Every day poor people are forced to work for
peums^nces not to add a new wing to liia a da,y. though com is dear. A-nA yet
factory te not using his free-will. Even in the
CMe of atoaw. as Dr. Brouowski has pointed out. titpw pnest stops their mouth and t^
the (msenred results of allowing gas niwiftr pigg. them .tpt inward satisfhotion of mind ’ was
meant by the deolaxatlon ‘ the poor in-
DIS-EDU IDEAS ANO BELIEFS
J15
herit the earth*. I tell you, the Scripture henge (LKW) belong to a Bronze Age culture
be really and materially fulfilled. You jeeris to
at (1860-1500 B.C.). Nor have Druidism and
the name * Leveller I tell you Christ is Christianity any relationsMp. Almost nothing
the Head LeveUer.” Is known of the religion. Yet such were its
Disciples of Christ, a Ihotestant religious groim romantic associations that, even today, one
founded in the United States early in the lOtls heaiB of " Druidic ” ceremonies practised at the
centiny by Thomas Campbell, a Scot, his eon appropriate time of year on Primroise Hifl in the
Alexander, and Barton Warren Stone who had heart of London (though whether seriousls’ or
broken away from the Presbyterian church. with tongue in cheek one does not know). In
The basis for faith and conduct is the Bible it¬ Wales the name Druid survives as the title for
self, each individual interpreting it for himself. the semi-reiigiou3 leaders of the annual festivals
The group has always had a liberal reputation of Celtic poetry, drama, and music known a.s
and stands for racial equality and Christian Eisteddfods. Lingering, but now tenuous,
unity. The Disciples of Christ Church is parti¬ druidic connections are to be found in all
cularly strong in the central and western states Celtic parts including Cornwall and Brittany,
of America. where Eisteddfods are also held.
Docstiste, a Gnostic sect {q.v.) during the early Dualism, any pUIosopMoal or theological theory
centuries of Christianity who believed that, since which implies that the universe has a double
it was unworthy that the Son of God should have nature, notably Plato’s distinction between
died a humiliating death on the cross, the entity appearand and reality, soul and body, ideas
that was crucified was a mere phantom. and material objects, reason and the evidence
Mohammed, who believed in Jesus as a prophet of the senses, which infers that behind the world
but not as divine, adopted these views. The as we perceive it there Ees an *' ideal ” world
heretical Albigenses were influenced by Docet-
ism. Gnosticism, and Manichaeism im.v.). ance. isInmore
which “ realsuch
religions ” than that of mere appear¬
as Zoroasteianism or the
Doukhobors, a religious sect of Eussian origin, QnosHc and Manichaeism heroes (gg.c ), It was
founded by a Prussian sergeant at Kharkov in beUeved that the univeme was ruled by good
the middle of the 18th cent., and now mainly and evil “ principles ” — in effect that there was
settled in Canada. lake many other sects they a good God and a bad one. In i)sychology,
belong to that type of Christianity which seeks dualism refera to the plulosophlmd theories
direct communication with God and such bodies which believe mind and body to be separate
tend to have certain traits in common such as entities. The opposite of dualism is monism
belief in the “ inner light,” opposition to war and which asserts the essential unity of the sub¬
authority in general, and often ecstasies which stance of the universe.
show themselves in physical ways such as
shaking, speaking in strange tongues (glosso-
lalla). and other forms of what to the unbeliever
seem mass hj^teria. Liturgy, ritual, or cere¬ E
mony is non-existent. The Doukhobors were
persecuted in Tsarist Eussia, but in 1808 Tolstoy Eteumenism, a world movement which springs
used his influence to have them removed to from the Christian belief that aU men are
Canada where the government granted them brothers and that the Christian Church should
uninhabited land in what is now Saskatchewan : be re-stmotured to give reality to tbe belief.
and seven or eight thousand settled down in i Christ’s church exists not to serve its own mem¬
peace which they enjoyed for 3nany years. bers, but for the service of the whole world.
Eeoently. however, their practices have caused Some .see the answer in a united church of a
dfflculttes once more: for even the most tolerant federal type (unity in diverrity), others in an
government which is prepared to accept pacif¬ organic structure with one set of rules. The
ism. total dependence on commnnallr-owned period since the convening of the Second Vati¬
agriculture, refusal to engage in commerce, can Council by Pope John has been one of fer¬
non-payment of taxes, rejection of the marriage vent discussion among Christian theolcîans
ceremony and separation “when love ceases,” with
World theCouncil
aim ofof promoting
Churches. C’hristian unity. See
finds it difficult to tolerate, as civilisation
advances ever doeer to Donkhobor communities, Eriucatlon. Education was no great problem to
their proneness to “put off these troublesome primitive man, but as societies became more
disguises which we wear ” — i.e., to walk about complex people began to aek themselves such
naked in the communities of their more orthodox questions as: What should young people be
neighboitts. What the future of the Doukho¬ taught? Bm should they be taught? Should
bors in their various sects (for even they have the aim of their education be to bring out their
their differences) will be it is impossible to say. mdividual qualities or rather to make them good
but it is difficult to believe that these simple servants of the state?
people can long resist the pressmre of modem The first teachers were prteste who knew most
civilisation. about the tradition& customs, and lore of their
Dowsii®. Bee Eadiesthesia. societies and thus the first schools were in re¬
Druidism, the religion of Celtic Britain and Gaul ligions meeting places. This was notably true
of which Druids were the priesthood. They of the Jews who learned from the rabbis in the
were flnafly wiped out by the Eaman general synagogue, and throughout the Middle Ages in
Suetonius PauHnns about a.p, 68 in ttidr las* Ghristendcan as wUl be seen later.
stronghold, the island of Anglesey There are The Greeks. We begin, as always, with the
two sources of our presait bellefe in Dmldlsm: Greeks whose etty-states. based cm slavery,
(1) the brief and factual records of the Eomans, educated men (not women) for the sort of life
notably Plhiy and Julius Caesar, which tell us d^cffibed in Plato’s Dialogues — tte lefenred life
that they worshipped in sacred oak groves and of gentlemen arguing the problenm of the nni-
presumably practised a religiQE doing reverence vfflse at their banquets or in the market-place.
to the powers of nature which must have had its This made it necessary to leam debate and
roote in early stone age times and had many esratory (or rhetoric) especially for those who
cruel rites, e.g., human sacrifice: (2) the beliefs proposed to take up poliU®. T3ie Sophiri;
put forward by William Stnkeley. an amateur philosophy taught the need to build up wn-
antiquarian who from 1718 did valuahle work vincii^ arguments in a persnarive manner, to
by his Btudiea of the stone (drdes at Stonehenge team toe rotes of logic and master the laws and
and Avehury. However, influenced by the customs of toe Athenians, and to know toe
Eomantio movement, he later put forward the literature of toe past so that fllustrations might
most extravagant theories which unfortunately be drawn from it. These strolling philosophers
are those popularly accepted by th06« without who taught for a fee were individualists showing
archaelogical knowlectee today, Stonehenge toe student how to advance himself at all costs
and Avebury were depicted as the temples of the within his oommimity.
“wbite-hafred Druid bard sublime” and an Socrates had a more ethical approach, believ¬
attempt was made to tie up Druidism with early ing that education was good in its^. noade a man
Christianity, above all with the concept of the happier and a better citizen, and emphasised his
Trinity. In fact, these circles have no connec¬ position as a member of a group. Hla method
tion with the Druids. They may have made of teaching,argument
toe dialectic or “ Socratiorather
” method,
ceremonial use of them bnt reemrt evidence involved and discussion than
snggests that the megalithlc stonra at Stone¬ overwhelming others by rhetoric and is briefly
EDU IDEAS AND BEL.1EFE
Jl6 power, and .survived only in the monasteries, we
meHfcioned under Dialectical Materialism (g.®.).
Today this method is increasingly used in adult ^y mention St. Benedict (c. 480-c. 5«) of
education where a lecture is followed by a Monte Caô. There, in southern Italy, a rule
period of discussion in which both lecturer and was estabhshed which became a part of monastic
audience participate: for psychologists have hfe m general. Monastic schools were originally
SMwn that people accept ideas more readily mtended for the training of would-be monks, but
when conviction arises through their own argu¬ later others were admitted who simply wanted
ments than when they are passively thrust down some education: thus two types of school de¬
their throats. veloped. one for the interni and the other for
ext-erni or external pupils. Originally studies
Socmtes’ pupfl Plato produced in his book were merely reading in order to
j-he Mepubhc one of the first comprehensive study the Bible
systeios of education and vocational selection. wntmg to copy the sacred books, and sufficient
Believing that men are of different and unequal calculation to be able to work out the advent of
abihties he considered that they should be put holy days or festivals. But by the end of the
mto social classes corresponding to the.se bth cent, the seven liberal arts ” (grammar
aliierences. and suggested the following method; rhetoric, dialectic, arithmeti
and astronom y) were added.c, geometry, music’
(1) For the first 18 years of a boy’s life he should The Renaissance. The close of the Middle
he taught gymnastics and sports, playing and
smftng music, reading and writing, a knowledge Ages saw the development of two types of
of literature, and if he passed this course sent on secular school One came with the rise of the
to the nest stage: those who failed were to be¬ new merchant class and the skilled trader whose
come tradesmen and mercbants. (2) Prom 18-20 pfids or early trade unions established
those successful in the first course were to be schools to tram young men for their trades but
given two years of cadet training, the ones mtimately gave rise to burgher or town schools'
thought mcapable of further education being the other was the court school founded and sup¬
placed in the military class as soldiers. (3) The ported by the wealthy rulers of the Italian
remainder, who were to become the leaders of cities— Vittormo da Peltre (mentioned above)
society, proceeded with advanced studies in PJ'^Med over the most famous at Mantua.
philosophy, mathematics, science, and art. These Eenaissance developments are paral¬
buch education was to be a state concern, state leled m northern Europe by the Protestant re¬
supported and controlled, selecting men and formers who. having with Martin Luther held
traming them for service In the state aecordln mat everyone should know how to read his Bible
to their abilities.
P to interpret it in his own way, were
Plato’s pupil Aristotle even suggested that the logically committed to popular education, com-
state should determine shortly after birth which pulso^ and universal In theory this was in¬
children should be allowed to live and destroy tended for bibUcal study, but writing, arith¬
the physicaOy or meataUy handicapped; thaf metic, and other elementary subjects were
marnage should be state-controlled to ensure
desirable offspring. However, in their time neil
v.^'n exist,said
aid notLuther that, evenwasif heaven
education importantand
the leiMred and individualistic Sophists held
and few accepted the educational views Philosopheisrs.
Views ofeducation
Unwersal From this conception
a Protestant period on-'
of Plato or his pupil iraras people were free to put forward any ideas
Borne. The Bpmans were not philosophers about education, foolish or otherwise, and to
Md most of their culture came from Greece. create their own types of school. Of Fniriici.
Adnii^tration was their chief aptitude and philosophera who theorised about, but did not
Ctonti^n (A.D. c. 35-c. 95) based his higher practise, ûcation we may mention the
education on the earlier classical tuition in rationalist panels Bacon (1561-1620) who saw
pnbhc speaking, but he is important for em¬ learning as the pssipation of aU prejudices and
phasising the training of character and for his the collection of wnerete facts; the
humanistic approach to the method of teaching and totalitarian Hobbes (1688-1679) materialist who. as a
that caused his InstituUo oratoria to be in¬ Toyalpt, believed that the right to determine
fluential for centuries lateiîndeed one might
almost say up to the time of the great Dr. the absolute rights of the sovereign power or
Arnold of Eugby. Education, he beUeved. In
rmer: thef gentlemanly Ms subjects is one of
Locke (1632-1704)
should begin early but one must whose ideM was a sound mind in a sound body
the child not old enough to love “histake care that
studies does to he attained by hard physical exercise, wide
not come to hate them ” by premature forcing: experience of the world, and enough knowledge
stimiM must be made pleasant and Interesting
and students encouraged by praise rather f.iia.Ti m peet ttie requiremen
result tswould one ableenviron-
of thebe pupil’s to get
tocouraged when they sometimes fail; play is on with Ins fellows, pious but wise in the ways of
to be approved of as a sign of a Mvely dis¬ me world, mdependent and able to took after
position and because gloomy, depressed children mmself. informed but reticent about his
are not likely to be good students: corporal and reUgiouB study were
MppMdge
not . Classics
to be carried to excess, since Locke held that
pumstoent should never be used because “ it
is an insult m you will realise if you imagine it mese pbjects had been overrated in the past.
you^lf Locke s pupil was the well-to-do. civilised young
what he taughtThebutworld became interested not in
how he taught it; he was the man of the 17th cent, who knew how to behave
m society.
pioneer oj humanistic education and character-
teumng from Vittorino da Eeltre (1378-1446) of Jean-Jaoques Eousseau (1712-78). a fore¬
Milton and Pope who com- runner of the Eomantic movement (q.®.). which
mendM his works, to the modem educationists despised society and its Institutions, put emo-
who
DOOkS.have studied their pupils as well as their
Emile describes
® •7®'!. “■ the education reason.
of a boy His
which
bookis
natural and spontaneous. Society, he holds,
theTl^ Middle Ages:
development The Religious View. 'WKh
of Christianity education once irarps the growing mind and therefore the child
more became a religious problem. The earliest should be protected from its influences until his
converts had to be taught Christian doctrine development in accordance with his own nature
aim wembefore
givenadmission
instraction in “ catechumenal ” so complete that he cannot be harmed by it.
to the group, but as the Duri^ the first 4 years the body should be
religion _c™e mcreasingly into contact with bevetoped by physical training: from 6 to 12
other rehgions or heresies a more serious training me child would Uve in a state of nature such that
was necessary, and from these newer " cateohe- ne could develop his powers of observatioD and
tl<^ schools, where the method used was the his smises; from 13 books woiild be ns^ and
catechism (i.e., question and answer as known mtêotuM training Introduced, aitbnugh only
to aU Presbyterian chUdren today), the Apolo- ^ with the child’s own interests, and he
gists arose among whom were Clement of Alex- would be given instruction only as he came to
andna and the great Origen. From this time ask for it. Moral training and contact with his
education became an instrument of the church leUows to the principles of sympathy,
and in 529 the Emperor .Tustinlan ordered all kindne®, and helpfulness to mankind woiUd be
pagan schools to bedosed. ^ven betwMn 16 and 20, Girls, however,
of the best in mediaeval education anouid be educated .to serve rmen in a spirit of
whilst the lamp of civilisation burned low modesty . and.inrestraint. His own five dbildren
tturmg the Dark Ages, after tlie fall of TinTnaT^ he deposited a fotmdUng hospital
7 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
Sum7mTy. Broadly speaking, then, there accepted the atomic theory of Democritus, he
have been four main attitudes to education: (1) was not a detenninist, and if he did not dis¬
religious, with a view to a life beyond death; believe in the gods he regarded religion and the
(2) state-controlled education, with a view to fear of death as the two primary sources of
unhappiness.
uniform subservience to authority: (3) “ gentle¬ Epiphenomenalism. See Mind and Body.
manly ” educ-ation, with a view to social graces Ekastianism, the theory that the state has the right
and easy oongre® in company; (4) the “child- to decide the religion of its members, wrongly
centred ” education, which attempts to follow
the pupil’s inner nature. It is unnecosaaiy to attributed to ikastus of Switzerland (1524-83)
mention the ordinary method of attempting to who was believed to have held this doctrine.
instil facts without any considerable degree of The term has usually been made use of in a
co-operation between pupil and teacher in order derogatory siense— e.g., by the Scottish churches
that the former may, with or without interest, which held that the “ call ” of the congregation
follow some occupation in adult Ufe; for this was the only wa.j to elect ministers at a time
the philosophers did not consider. Today there when, about the turn of the 17th and 18th
remain the two fundamental principles: educa¬ cent., they felt that Episcopallanism was being
tion for the advantage of the state and its foists on with
them.its state
“ Episcopalianism ” ii.e.
ideology or education for individual develop¬ Anglicanism) church, ecclmastical
ment and freedom. hierarchy, and system of livings presented by
Four educationists of the modem period who patrons was to them “ Erastian ” in addition to
have inflnenced us in the direction of freedom its other “ unscriptural practices.”
were Johann Pestalozzi of Switzerland (1746- Essenes, a Jewish sect which, during the oppres¬
1827) who, by trying to understand children, sive rule of Herod (d. 4 B.C.), set up monastic
taught the “natural, progrefflive, and har¬ communiti^ in the region of the Dead Sea.
monious development of all the powers and They refused to be bound by the scriptural
capacities of the human being ”; Friedrich interpretations of the Pharisees and adhered
Froebel (1782-1852) of Germany, the founder of rigorously to the letter of Holy Writ, although
the Kindergarten who, like Pestalozzi, was in¬ with additions of their own which cause them
fluenced by Eousseau but realised the need to by orthodox Jews today to be regarded as a
combine complete ijersonal development with break-away flnm Judaism. Among their
social adinstment: Maria Monte^ri (1869- practiera and beliefs were puriflcatlon through
1952) whose flee methods have revolutionised baptism, renunciation of sexual pleasures,
infant teaching: John Dewey (1859-1952) who scrupulous eleanUness, strict observance of the
held that the best interests of the group are Mosaic law, communal possession, asceticism.
served when the individual develops his own Akin in spirit, although not necmarily identical
particular talents and nature. with them, were the writers of Apocalyptic
Bleatics, the philosophers of Elea in ancient literature preaching that the evils of the pi^nt
Greece who. at the time when Heraclitus would shortly be terminated by a new super¬
(c. 536-476 B.O.) was teaching that change is all natural order heralded by a Messiah who would
that exists and nothing Is permanent, were reign over a restored IscaeL The casting out
averting that change is an illusion. Of the of demons and spiritual healing formed part of
three Iraders of this scdiool, Xenophanes these general beli^ which were in the air at
asserted that the universe was a solid im¬ that time. The seat has an importance far be¬
movable mass forever the same: Parmenides yond ila size ca: what has been known about It in
explained away change as an inconceivable the past since the discovraty firom 1947 onwards
process. Its appearance being due to the fiict of the Dead SoroUa (see Section L) of the
that what we see is unreal: and Zeno (the best- Qumran community occupying a monastery In
known today) illustrated the same thesis with the same area as the Ee^^ and holding the
his famous argument of the arrow which, at any same type of belief. These scrolls with their
given moment of its flight, must be where it is references to a "Teacher of Blghteousnm”
since it cannot be where it is not- But if it is preceding the Messiah have obvious relevance to
where it is, it cannot move: this is based, of the sources of early Ghiistianity and have given
coui^, on the delusion that motion is dis- rise to speculationa as to whether Jesus might
continnous. The Eleatics were contem¬ have been influenced by views which, like His
poraries of Socrates. own, were unacceptable to orthodox Jews
Empiricism. While not a stofle school of philo¬ but in line with those of the Dead Sea com¬
sophy, empiridsm is an approach to knowledge munities. At the very least they seem to
which holds that if a man wants to know what show that early Christi^ty was not a sudden
the univase is like the only correct way to do development but a gradual one which had its
so is to go and look for himself, to collect facts
which come to him through his senses. It is. in Ethical a movement typical of 19ih cent,
essence, the method of science as contansted rationalism which attempted to ccnnhine
with rattonaUsm iq.v.) which in philosophy im¬ atheism (or at any rate the absence of any belief
plies that thinking or reasoning without neces¬ in a God which was inconsistent with reason or
sarily referring to external observations can based on revdation) with the inctilcattcHi of
arrive at truth. Empiricism is typically an moral prinriples. Prayas were not used and
English attitude, for among the greatest em- ordinarily the service comisted in the ringtag of
pMeal philosopheiB were John Dodce, George edifying comporithms intetîersed with read*
Berkeley, and David Hume. <See Bationalism. togs fixMB poems or mosB Of a similar nature by
Epienr^nlsmi The two great schools of the great writers bolding appropriate views. It
Hellenistic period (is. the late Greek period terminated in a talk on an ethical at scientific
bînning with the empire of .Alexander the theme. There is an Ethical CSiuxdh in London
Great) were the Stoics and Epicureans, the and the South Place Institution where Moaouie
former founded by Zeno of Citium (not to Conway preached flnm 1864 to 1897 still
be confused with Zeno the ElM,tic) (a.«.),
the latter by Epioums, bom in Samos In Ethnooentrism, the exaggerated tendency to think
842 B.O. Both schools settled hi Athens, where I the charactoistios of one’s own group or race
Epicurus taught that “ pleasure is liie be¬ superior to those of any others.
ginning and end of a happy life.” However, he Evangelioanism,tiie beHef of those Prototantstota
was no sensnaUst and emphasised the Im¬ which hold that the ênee of tbe Gospel oon-
portance of moderatitm in all things because sists in the doctrine of salvation by feltii in the
excesses would lead to pain instead of pleasure atoning death of Christ and not by good works
and the best of all pleasures were mental cmes. or the sacraments: that worship should be
Pleasure could be active or passive but the "fi«e.” rather than liturgioal through estab¬
former ccmtain an element of pain since Ihey are lished forms: ttat ritual is unacc^tate and
the process of satisfying denres not yet satiated. superstitious. Evangelicals are Low Church¬
The latter involving the absence of desire are the men.
more pleasant. In fact. Epicurus in his Evangelism, the preaching of the Gospel, em¬
peonBonal life was more stoical than many Stoics phasising the necessity for a new birth or conver¬
and wrote “ when I live on bread and water I sion. The evangelistio fervour of John Wesley
spit on luxurious pleasittes.” He disapproved and George Whitefield (see Methodism) aroused
of sexual enjoyment and thought friendship one the great missionary spirit of the late 18th and
of the highffit of all joys. A materiaUst who 19th cent. George Fox. founder of the Society
8 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
of Pnends (3.«. ), was also an evangelist. Evan¬
gelists can be Low, Higli, or Middle Cliurch-
men.
F
Fabian Society. In 1848 (the year of The Corn-
Existentialism, a Wghly subjective philosophy munist Manifesto by Marx and Engels) Europe
which many people connect with such names as was in revolt. In most countries the workera
Jean-Paul Sartre (b. 1905) or Albert Camui! and intellectuals started bloody revolutions
(1913-00) and assume to be a post-war move¬ against the feudal ruling classes which were no
ment associated with disillusion and a sordid less violently suppressed; hence on the con¬
view of life. However, existentialism stems tinent socialism took on a Marxist tinge which
from Soren Kierkegaard (1813-65), the Danish to some extent it still retains. But at the
religious writer ’* — ^his own description of him¬ time England was undergoing a slow but non¬
self — in such works as EitherjOr, Fear and violent transition in her political and Industrial
Trembling, and Concluding Vnacientijic Post¬ life which led the workers in general to look for¬
script. Between the two wars translations of ward to progress through evolution. MarriaTTi
Kierkegaard into German Influenced Martin never became an important movement in
Heidegger’s (b. 1880) great work Being and England even though it took its origin here.
Time and the other great existentialist Karl There were many reasons for this: the agitation
Jaspers (b, 1883): it has strongly influenced of the Chartists (q.v.): the writings of Mill
modern Protestant theology notably in Karl Euskm, and Carlyle: the reforms of Eobert
Barth, Eeinhold Niebuhr, and Paul TiUich and Owen; the religious movement led by the
beyond that field Gabriel Marcel (b. 1887), the Wesleys: the Co-operative societies : the
Spanish writer Unamuno (1864-1936) in his Omstian socialists. Furthermore legislation
well-known The Tragic Sense of Life, anAhtaxtin stimulated by these bodies had led to an ex¬
Buber of Israel (b. 1878) in his I and Thou. We tension of the franchise to include a considerable
have it on Heidegger’s authority that “ Sartre number of wage-earners, remedial measures to
is no philosopher ” evenoften
if it turn.
is to his works that correct some of the worst abuses of the factory
modem existentialists system, recognition of the trade unions, etc.
Existentialism is extremely tlifflcult for the This was the background against which the
non -metaphysically-minded to understand: it Fabian Society was founded in 1884 with the
deals, not with the nature of the universe or what conviction that social change could be brought
are ordinarily thought of as philosophical prob¬ about by gradual parliamentary means. (The
lems but describes an attitude to life or God held name is derived from Quintus Fabius Maximus
by the individual. Briefly, its main essentials the Eoman general nicknamed “ Cunotator.” the
are; (1) it distinguishes between essence, i.e., that delayer, who achieved his successes in defending
aspect of an entity which can be observed and Eome against Hannibal by refusing to give
known — and its existence — the fact of its having direct battle.) It was a movement of brilliant
a place in a changing and dangerous world which mteUectuals, chief among whom were Sidney
is what really matters; (2) existence being basic, and Beatrice Webb. H. G. Wells. G. B. Sha\v
each self-aware individual can grasp his own Graham Wallas. Sidney Olivier, and Edward
existence on reflection in his own immediate ex¬ Pease. The Society itself was basically a re¬
perience of himself and his situation as a free search institution which furnished the intel¬
being in the world: what he finds is not merely a lectual information for social reform and sup¬
knowing self but a self that fears, hopes, believes ported all contributing to the gradual attain-
wills, and is aware of its need to find a purpose, m^ by parliamentary means of socialism.
plan, and destiny in life: (3) but we cannot grasp The W’ebbs’s
pur existence by thought alone: thus the fact that mdividuallstanalysis of
enterprise society emphasised
in capitalism was a
all men must die ” relates to the essence of man hang-over from early days and was boimd to
but it is necessary to be involved, to draw the defeat itself since socialism is the inevitable
conclusion as a person that “I too must die” accompaniment of modem industrialism: the
and experience its impact on our own individual necessary result of popular government is con¬
existence; (4) because of the preceding, it is trol of their economic system by the people
necessary to abandon our attitude of objec¬ thmiMelves. Utopian schemes had bera doomed
tivity and theoretical detachment when faced to failure because they were based on the fallacy
by the problems relating to the ultimate pur¬ that society is static and that Islands of utopias
pose of our own life and the basis of our own could be formed in the midst of an nncha.njring
conduct : life remains closed to those who take and antagonistic envlromnent. On the con-
no part in it because It can have no significance:
(5) it follows that the existentiaUst cannot be ffST* Ifc was
The new becomes old, out.
pointed before develops:
oftensociety it is con¬
rationalist in his outlook for this is merely an sciously regarded as new.” Social reorganisa-
escape into thought from the serious problems of tion cannot usefully be hastened
methods by violent
consonant
existence: none of the important aspects of
me— failure, evil, sin. folly — nor (in the view of with this natural historical progression —
Kierkegaard) even the existence of God or the gMual, peaceful, and democratic. Tbe
truth of Christianity— can he proved by reason. habla^ were convinced that men are rational
“ God does not enough to accept in th^ common Interest de¬
he expressed it;exist:
(6) lifeHeis is eternal,"
short was howhi
and limited velopments which can be demonstrated as
space and time, therefore it is foolish to discuss nectary; thiM pubUc opinion will come to see
m a leisurely fashion matters of life or death as if that socialisation of the land and industries is
there were all eternity to argue them in. It is essential in the same way that they came to
necessary to make a leap hito the unknown, e.g., acc®t the already-existing acts in respect of
accepting Christ (in the case of the Christian housing, insurance, medical care, and conditions
existentialist) by faith in the sense of giving and of work. Gradual “ permeation ” of the power
risking the self utterly, This means complete groups — ^trade unions, political parties,
comxmtment, not a dependence on arguments managers, and enlightened employers — ^wonld
speed the process.
as to whether certain historical events did, or
did not. happen.
To summarise: existentialism of whatever ofJ&e
the Society collaborated first in the formation
Independent Labour Party and then with
troe seems to the outsider to be an attitude to the more moderate Labour Party and the trade
hfe concOTing itself with the individual’s ulti- unions and Co-operative movement. But in
mate problems (mine, not yours); to be anti- general: it disapproved of independent trade
rotionaUst and anifl-idealist (in tbe sense of union action since change should eome from the
being. it seems to the believer, practical)— In government and lake political form. The class-
effect it seems to say “ life is too short to fool war of Marx was rejected and so too was the
about with argument, you must dive in and be- idea of the exclusive role of the working class
come committed ” to something. Sartre who reform must come from the enlightened co¬
calls himself an " atheist existentialist ” is operation of all classes — not from their opposl-
apparently committed to the beUef that V heU is . tion. .
other people,” but for most critics the tmain Faculty Psychology, a school of psychology,
ailment against existentialist philosophy is b^caliy belonging to the early 19th cent,
that it often rests on a hl^ly specialist per¬ wmch sought to explain mental phenomena by
sonal experience and, as such, is incom- refCTring them to the activity of certain agencies
mumcable.
or faculties such as memory; imagination, will,
Extra-sensory Perception. See Telepathy. etc., as if they were entities in their own right
FAL-FEE J <9 IDEAS AND BEX.IEFS
rather than mereir general terms for various *' H Buce ” himself, a cabinet of fourteen
groups of mental phenomena. Its most es- ministers selected by him .md approved by the
treme form was phrenology (g.v.) which found King to supervise the various functions of
no less than thirty -seven so-called faculties. govermnent. and the Grand Council or direc¬
Falangists. The Fascist Party of Spain founded torate of the Fascist Party, all the members of
in 1933 by .Tos6 Antonio Priino de Kivera, son of which were chosen by the Dace. Parliiment.
the man who was dictator of the conntry from which was not allowed to initiate legislation but
1923 to 1930: he was shot by the Eepublicans. only to approve decrees from aliove, consisted
In 1937 the falansists who had shown unwel¬ of a Senate wiUi life-membership .and a Chamber
come signs of social radicalism were merged with of Fasci and Corporations composed of nomi¬
the other right-wing political grmips to form the nated members of the Party, the National
Falame Espmola Tradiciomlista v de bis Juntas Coimcil of Corporations, and selected repre¬
de Ofenaive Naciaml Sindicaligfas which re¬ sentatives of the employers* and employees'
placed the Cortes H.e, the Government) between confederations. Private enterprise was en¬
1939 and 1042 when the Cortes was reinstituted. couraged and protected but rigidly controlled:
The Falange is the only political party allowed strilms were forbidden, but a Charter of Labour
in Spain. See Pasdsm. enforced the collaboration of workers and
Fascism. Prom the end of mediaeval timra with employers whose disputes were settled in labour
the opening up of the world, the liberation of the court.s presided over by the P.arty. All decisions
mind and the releaw of buslnffls enterprise, a relating to industry were government-controlled
new spirit arose in Europe esemplifierl in siich ie.g., wages, prices, conditions of employment
movements as the Benaissance, the Beforma- and dismissal, the expansion or limitation oi
tion, the struggle for democracy, the rise of production), and some industries such as min¬
capitalism, and the Industrial Bevolution. ing, shipping, and armaments were largely state-
With these movements there developed a certain owned.
tradition which, in spite of hindrances and dis¬ Italian fascism served as a model in other
agreements or failures, was universally held both countries, notably for the German National
by right- and left-wing parties however strongly Socialist Party, in Spain and Japan, and most
they might fail to agree on the best me,ans of European nations l>etween the wars laid their
attaining what was felt to be a univers,al ideal. small Fascist parties, the British version led by
The hard core of this tradition involved: belief Sir Oswald Mosley being known as the British
in reason and the ptwibility of human progress: Union which relied on marches and violeiiee.
the essential sanctity and dignity of human life: Tlie Public Order Act of 1936 (see D45) was
tolerance of widely different, religious and passed to deal irith it. Although fascism in all
political views: reliance on popular government coimtries has certain recognisable chanic-
and the responsibility of the rulers to the ruled: teristics, it would be wrong to think of it as an
freedom of thought and criticism: the necessity international movement taking fixed fomrs and
of universal education: impartial jiistice and with a clearly thought-out rationale as in the
the rale of law: the desirability of universal case of communism. It is doubtful, for ex¬
peace. Fascism was the negation of every
aspect of this tradition and took pride in being titled towhether
ample, Japanese
be described " fascism
as such, and the” was en¬
Spanish
so. Emotion took the place of rejison, the Falange differs in many respects both in outlook
" immutable, beneficial, and fruitful ineauaUty and origins from the German or Italian varieties.
of classes
dUte ” and
to rale themthe replaced
right of universal
a self-constituted
suffrage In factused
often the word " fascist,”
as a purely like "term
emotive bolshevik.’*
of abuse.is
because absolute authority “ quick, sure, See Falange* Namsm.
unanimous” led to action rather than talk. Fatalism. Sec Determimsin.
Contrary opinions are not allowed and justice is Feedback Cult is the name given to a curious fad
in the service of the state: war is desirable to which began in America in 1970 and. which is
advance the power of the state: and racial in¬ interesting because it incorporates complicated
equality made a dogma. Those who belong to scientific equipment and experimental psycho¬
the “ wrong the
” religion, political party, or race logical methods into its practice. The basis of
are outside law. the cult is as follow.s: for nearly fitly years it has
The derive
attackslargely
on liberalism'and l)een known that the brain Is the source of
slate from Hegel exaltation of the
and his German varied electrical signals of very low power
foUoweis: the myîcal irrationalism ficom such wliich can be detected by attaching electrodes
19th cent, philosophers as Schopenhauer. to the scalp and amplifying the pulses emitted.
Nietzsche, and Bergson: from Sorel {see Much scientific controversy has surrounded
Syndicalism) camewould
the idea these pulses, and their inten»retation by skilled
an image which have ofthethepower
" myth,” and
to arouse clinicians can lead to the detection of hidden
the emotions of the masses and from Sorel also cerebral disorders such as tumours, epileptic
the rationale of violence and justification of force. foci. etc. The presence of one particular rhythm
But these philosophical justifications of fascism the so-called alpha wave, which beats at 14
do not explain why it arose at all and why it cydes per second — is hdieved to be dependent
arose where it did — In Italy, Germany, and upon whether or not the individual is " attend¬
Spain. These countries had one thing in com¬ ing” to something, particularly to the visual
mon— disillusionment. Germany had lost the fleldi. It is this aljffiB rhythm, or rather its
1914-18 war, Italy had been on the winning side control, toat is the basis of the feedback cult.
but was resentful about her small gains, Spain Within the past decade it has been discovered
had sunk to the levd of a third-rate powct, and that when some people axe ooimected to an
people were becoming increasingly restive under electroenGephalograph (the device which reeoKte
the reactionary powers of the (kitholic Church, brain rhythms) and axe shown the reoowled
the landed aristocracy, and the army. In tracings of their own brato waves as they
Marxist theory, fascism is the last fling of the actually occur, they find it possible to modify
ruling class and the bourgeoisie in their attempt and control the nature of the wav® — ^the alpha
to hold down the workers. to particular. This, a scientific curiosity rather
Italian Fasdsm, The corporate state set than a major discovery, soon caught the atten¬
up by Benito Mu®olini in Italy dahned to be tion of followers of yoga and other systems
neithrar capitalist nor socialist, and after its seeking enhanced relaxation, “mental dis¬
inception in 1922 the Fascist Party became the cipline,” etc. The argument was advanced
only recognised one. Its members wore black that for centuries man. had been seeking to
shirts, were oiganteed in military formations, exercise control over his own mental activities,
used the Boman greeting of the outstretched without however having much opportunity to
arm. and adopted as their slogan "MnÛni is assess his success — or lack of it. The mse of the
always right.”
not allowed Mambership
to exceed a number Of the Party tovfas
thou^t be EEG with the individual’s brato waves “fed
back ” to him for ii®>ecition would remedy this.
suited to the optimum size of a governing da® The result has been a sudden surge of lay
and new candidates were drawn, after strict interest in electroeneephalography and a boom
examinations, ficom the yonth or^nisations. In the sale of small, portable EEG madiines.
The Blackshirts, a fascist militia, existed sepa¬ Followers of the cult, who may sit for hours
rately from tlie army .and were ruled by Fascist inspecting the output fixim their own brains and
Headguarteis. attempting to modify it at will, claim that the
At the head of government was Mussolini, activity promotes mental “ relaxation ” .md a
L (80th Ed.)
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
FET-FRE
greater and deeper understanding of their own launched an official enquiry — -Project Biueboo
l-
personal problems. It is probably hardlyJ20
necessary to say that iwychologists are „ 1,0 solve the mystery of thew
extrêi^y dubious about the reality of this as 'identified
iph objects " or "TLP ®
therapy, and the feedback cult wlU that thefin^ybtok. folded
of the insightings
1969 after concluto-
were
probably die away as soon as some new and mtoterpretations of natural Phenomem
ttiat there wM no evidence for the TOmmoffiv and
equ^y attractive scientific toy is developed. held view that earth was being visited
FeHohj^, onginafiy a practice of the natives of craft from bySa^^
Wpt Africa and elsewhere of attributing magi¬ some other planetary
cal properties to an object whidi was used as an rather simUar conclusion was arrivedsystem ^
toous Unlveraity of Colorado project— at by the
amulet, for putting spells on others, or regarded the
M poêssing dangerous powers. In psycho- Condon Ooittee-^whlch published
te tod!
refers to a sexual perversion in ^?*ef m the existence of flying saurers
which objects such as shoes, braffiiiferes, hair, IPff, ^ this clear-cut official
ere., arouse sexual excitement. and theu ongm as alien space vehicles & ex^
Feudally. The feudal system took its origins mgly wide^read and is held very strotol
people m ail walks y hr
from Saxon times and broadly speaking lasted of life. In 1959 this Sffi?
the end of the 18th cent. It was a military social phenomenon attracted the attent
and imlifcicai organisation based on land tenure the psychologist, C. G. Jung. He noM^d iofrM
this period was the press were tocltoed to report stetemethat
entirely on agriculture. The that saucere exited when nts
made by prominent
activltiM of mm divided them into three classes people and not publish contrary
P*® l?lrst Estate was the clergy, ™s,de by equally prominent people. He con
Mpo^ble for mans spiritual eluded that flying saucers w&e in some tov
Sreond was this nobility, including needs; kings
the
and
welcome Phenomena and ®to modem myth,
his brillian he
t liMfi
emperor as weU as the lesser nobles: the Third
was composed of all those who had to do with hypothesised that the H.E.O.s were the modf^n
an<* mainly agricultural life of
ivale ® nt of ion
content “signs
that inthe the sMes:”
praying men, the fighting men saucers were Klooked
S
and admmsfcrators, and the toilers were all held Ppo,? ^ê harbin
to be dependent on each other in a web of civilis atioM who had gers
come ofto advanc
save theed afipn
world
from its descent into nuclear catastrophe—
The theory of “ a weo or aicMngeis in modem dress to fact
mutual responsfeudalisibiliti m, es.
although
practice,it was
by noas Whatever the validity of this imavinsiti™
e^rcise a great fascina ^ ™iieffi true that they
ably for
tion
^ therefore
*^55 modem sense of the no PMpie, some of whom invest millions of
them with definite
S? mm secular power overspiritual
them tocharge
the rehgious8ignific8mce. The beat exampl
e ofthl
emperor frorn whom kmgs held their kingdoms open mcorporation of flying saucere tote n
turn the dukes and counts received the . rellgioiM belief system is to be found
hmd over which they held sway from the in the
king with headqua rters ^to totemat org^
Eos ional but Mn
Members of the S^nd Estate held thefr iSs
of fidfillmg certain obligations termer Eondon clerk,Angeles founded
George King. Mr.
people living under ^toig, who ffiaims to be the mediumistic lini.-
received a fief or piece of
^towed It. To
1^1/,^®/!^?® ®'%® vassal of the Tnan who
him he owed mliitaiy^rriM
giving his lord counsd. He under-
/^ê.m sect,
dedtoted which is entirely sincere and
its beliefs, also makes pilgrimages
h rôm hôrd when he feh into ra^y to the tops of various mountains which
have
?15S daughter'
Ms ^scm. s dowry , toiritually
to theircharged
flying "saucers.
with the aid of the
aM ^ m- til®
thP ^ vassalof protecti on Inand
return the
justice,
^ household Udd though such ideas may seem to most,
educated them for knl^thood.
Ip Jla yery marked decline in ortoo-
wge fiefs rmghi be complicated by the fact that
subdivided and abbots often understood wiihto
thp?o
past decades.^ Toreadily
twonW^f^ an increasi
^p^M^ ânds held in fief the
fromland of a
nobles. nnst belief which we haveng seen
number of
in the
SSrS “ s&asif arjj!

soil or carrying rendered
out his
seî
t^* manorM lord in return for prot^
||£S,S“&‘srss‘s?K2
land’ aecmty of his life and
imdo p?®pasture
^ from a which
share he
in provld^ftr
the common
Jo bfe thousands of years ago. To memhPTfl
®' ^tar stage he could buy Is wS lh
theÂethe century for
rius Society, than those that spimg
modemneni, hl^
his
nSt ekampiftoidea
since ahe was attached to the
fee Shn,wh’
ireeapm)
soil and lives on Venus ’and rides
^ empty churches
or temporary
5 ms land hand
hi<f ?nnd’^ nor lose his livelihood
he could neither & dSvS
Eeudai SS ^ “®'“'er blasphemous
e^toart totween orthodox religions and
6 toEngland by rtatnte to then one can expect such
Hw ‘ be^ inopCTa- offbeat ideas as the cults surrounding
tSti 8f feudal system €sist6d
and many reUca mdof to
it oncers and the science-fl^SSt fivtog
flomstsh.
oteitotf
ûrieriain. See Htopianism,
wmtries. . It shares with
pâîôt!'KêthimoM^ saw a^fe°rf liff®®^ orgaatoation with different
u^ch
whtor ^ fhP®’
^timated the airof att
at thousands
£®K‘® fed
miles an J wmou oneieuow-member
^“Ittotion ceremonlM!
later told the press Skipped
tS°h™l it ac^K regalia, and various grades of en-
cne water, and the phrase firing aanopra ” lightenioaent. luBnglaudfiêmasoiiry
was erroneously bom. What ArruMd n^nîT,r was first
saw has never bee™ mtisfôrêmtoto^— m 1725 agd 1737 respectively. Masons
ef mankind, claim
and
the sun s rays m a way that made tbem , e“t various dnudtable works. Many
the^^T?flMTo^^ h^ht jM jet fighters refieettog ann^ to the movement. Wha^^
M ^scs but since that date literally hundreds
w people an over toe
reported the sighting of strange obiects ®®*i “0 <lePl>t that on the
In the
Tu - ** iittvtj luiiorveuea in politics
sizes, imtiauy the Amerlcaai
Catholic Church, Absurd attempts have
Air Force
rStnSiP banned by the Ewmim
FRE-GES IDEAS AND BELIEFS
J2I
made (and auite ixraaibly are part of Masonic nings of an empirical science of psychology were
beMef) to trace the society back to early and underway. In the early part of the 20th cent,
even Biblical times. Historically, of course, the experiments of Pavlov (s«e Behaviourism)
this is absurd, nor have freemasons any con¬ and his co-workers suggested that the behavionr
nection with the masons’ guilds of the Middle of an animal, or even men, might ultimately lie
.ciges which were intended for masons in the reduced to a descriptive accoimt of the activities
ordinary sense of the word. of nervous reflex Iwms — ^the so-called con¬
In its early days, and indeed until a decade or ditioned reflexes. With the publication of
so ago, memheiship of the freemasons conferred Watson’s important book on Behaviotuism in
definite business and social advantages, par¬ 1914 it looked as though the transfer of psycho¬
ticularly in small communities where the leading logical studies from the field of philosophy to
middle-class figures were generally memljers. that of science could now take place. Actually
Eecently this advantage has markedly declined the over-simpUfled picture of cerehral and
and freemason lodges nowadays tend to be mental pictures which Behaviourism offered
little more than worthy charitable organisations. was rather comparable to the billiard ball view
The publication, by a munber of disgnmtied of the universe so fashionable in Victorian
ex -masons, of the full details of rituals, initiation science. Just as BehaviourLsoi implied that
ceremonies, regalia, etc., has also tended to rob there was a fundamental building block (the
the movement of one of its greatest attractions conditioned reflex) from which all mental events
— its role as an amiable secret society. could be constructed, so Victorian physics
Freudian Oieory. See Psychoanalysis. assumed that the entire universe could be
Friends, The Society o!, or Quakers, a religious described in terms of a vast coUection of atoms
body founded in England in the 17th cent, by pushing each other around like billiard balls.
George Fox (1624-91). The efflenoe of their The development of nuclear physics was to
faith is that every individual who believes has shatter the latter dream and at the same time a
the power of direct communication with (Sod challenge
who will guide him into the ways of truth. This came from to
the the naiveexperimental
Gestalt “ reflex psychology
school. ”
power comes from the ‘‘ inner light " of his own The founders of this school were Max Wert¬
heart, the light of Christ. <3nakera meet for heimer, Kurt Koffka and WMlfgang Kohler,
worship avoiding all ritual, without ordained three young psychologists who in 1912 were
ministers or prepared sermons: there is com¬ conducting experiments — notably in. vision —
plete silence until someone is moved by the Holy which seemed to expose the inadequacies of the
Spirit to utter his message. behaviourist position. The Pavlov-Vfatson
In the early days Quakers gave vent to view, as we have said, implied that complex
violent outbursts and disturbed church services. sensory events were no more than a numerical
Friends had the habit of preaching at anyone sum of individual nervous impulses. Wert¬
who hapiiened to be nearby, their denunciation heimer’s group proposed that certain facts of
of “ steeple-houses " and references to the perceptual experiences (ruled out of court as
“ inner Ifeht,” their addreîng everyone aa subjective and therefore unreliable by Watson)
“ thee ” and " thou.” their refusal to go beyond implied that the whole (Oestalt) teas sametliim
" yea ” and " nay ” in making an assertion and more than simply the sum of its parts. For
refusing to go further in taking an oath, must example, the presentation of a number of photo-
have played some part in bringing about the grapl^ each slightly different, in rapid series
savage persecutions they were forced to endure. gives rise to cinematographic motion. In basic
Many emigrated to Pennsylvania, founded by terms, the eye has received a number of discrete.
William Penn in 1682, and missionaries were “ still ” phot(®raphs,
sent to many parts of the world. The former Iierceived. What, they and yetwas“ motion
asked, ’’ is
the sensory
violence gave way to gentleness. Friends not input corresponding to this motion? Some
only refused to take part in war but even processes within the brain, clearly added some¬
refused to resist personM violence. They took thing to the total Input as defined in behaviour¬
the lead in abolishing slavery, worked for prison ist terms. An obvious alternative — in a differ¬
reform and better education, jis we know them ent sense modality — is that of the arrangement
today Qnakera are quiet, sincere, undemonstra¬ of musical notes. A cluster of notes played one
tive people, given to a somewhat serious turn of way might be called a tune: played backwards
mind. The former peculiarities of custom and they may form another tone, or may be mean¬
dxess have been dropped and interpretation of ingless. Yet in all cases the constituent parts
the Scriptures ia more liberal. Although are the same, and yet their relatioaship to
Quakers refuse to take part in warfare, they are one another is evidently vital. Once again the
always ready to help the victims of war, by whole ia something more than the simple sum of
organising relief, helping refugees in distress, or the parts.
sending their ambulance mdts into the heat of The implications of all this appeared to he
battle. that the brain was equipped wiih the capacity to
Fundamentalism is a term covering a number of organise sensory input in certain well-defined
religions movements which adhere with the ways, and that far from being nalsleading and
utmost rigidity to orthodox tenets; for example scientifically unjustifiable, human subjective
the Old T’estament statement that the earth studies of visual experience might reveal the
was created by God in six days and six nights very prindples of organisation which the brain
would be held to be factual rather than alle¬ employs. Take a field of dots, mote or less
gorical or symbolic. TheieisastronginlnOTity randomly disteibuted: inspection of the field
undercurrent of support for various Funda¬ will so<m reveal certain patterns or clusters
mental religions, including such sects as Jeho¬ standing out — ^the consteUattems In the night
vah’s Witness^, the Seventh Day Adventists, sky are a good illustration. There are many
etc. Although the holding of rigid beliefs in the other examples, and Weriheimer and his
literal truth of the Bible might seem to be fre¬ colleagues in a famons series of experiments
quently contrary to modem scientific findings, made some effort to catalogue them and reduce
the fundamentalists at least do not have the them to a finite number of “ Laws of Fereeptual
problems of compromise and■ ainterpretation to today.
Organisation” which are still much qiioted
face, and among many simple-minded and
poorly educated people this is no doubt a great The rise of the Gestalt school came as an
attraction. inevitable balance to the behaviourist view¬
point. But despite its undoubted descriptive
merits and role in making psydhoiogy less
simple if more realistic. Gestalt psyeholc^y
nev«r succeeded in the explanatory role for
which much was hoped. Bart of the difficdlty,
perhaps, was that its original theoretical slant
Gestalt Psychology. In the latter lialf of the 19th seems to have been seriously off-key. Wolfgang
cent, it became evident to psychologists that in Kdhler, who was in fact a physldst as well as
principle there was a psychologist, saw much in common between
events should not nobegoodjustreason why “mentaland”
as measurable the forces of perceptual organisation in the
manageable as " phyrical ” ones. Intensive brain and the constraining forces experienced
studies of learning, memory, perception, and so in electromagnetic fields. It was known that
on were therefore undertaken and the h^ln- the brain was a source of electrical energy, so
<SNO-GOD *2 lOEAS
J. AND BELIEFS
399 B.O.) was primarily concerned with ethical
Why sho^d it not be eauipped with “fields”
artog ^ttos and conduct rather than the Sme
fitm the continuous basic neural
activity? The search for pennanent electrical of the universe. For him goodness and^w
fields in the brain continued unprofltably for come froru knwiedge. He obeyed an " inner
decades, until the devastating experimental voice ” and suffered death rather than gii^m
work of Lashley (1961) who Inserted gold leaf PWlOToply. He believed in the^rffinM
i parts of the rat brain and showed no ^ after death and was essentially
euMt on learning or the retention of maze
Today Gestalt psychology is of cerned with the^^27-347
nature ofB.O.) was cMey^con-
reality and thoSt
mstorical rather than immediate interest, m te^ of absolute truths which were m-
though its significance in the development of ânging, fagM. and mathematical (See
Pfodern psychology is undeniable. Mind ^d Matter.) Aristotle (884-322 bo)
-AJîong the many heresies of early took to view of matter not from Democritus
ChrMi^ty, especially during its first two (atonuc view) but from Empedocles (do^^
centuries, was a group which came under the of four elm^ts). a view which came to fit
hiding of Gnosticism. This was a system or m well, with orthodox mediaeval theology
^t of systeuM which attempted to combine mtter is conceived .of as potentially alive md
Chiistian beliefs with others derived from striving to âin its
Greek sources, especially those moved by divine spirit particular form, being
or mind (waits). lAn
wmch were of a mystical and metaphysical
^mre, such as the doctrines of Plato and the fom oak-tree towards which it strives.)
Whagoras. There were many Gnostic sects, ^ns there IS a whole series from the simptet
the most celebrated being the Alexandrian matter to the perfect living individual
school erf Valentins (fl. c. 13fl-c. 160). “ GnoSs" But there must be a supreme source of ail move-
was understood not as meaning “ knowledge ” mrat. upon which the whole of Nature depends,
a Being that Aristotle describes as the ‘‘IJn-
wor&,'a but rev^tion ” as. weAs imderstand these
in other mystical moved Mover, the ultimate cause of all be¬
ultunat© objeefc was individixal come m the universe. This Being fa pure
salvation; siicraments took the most varied mtelliMnce, a pMosopher’s God. not a personal
mrms. Many who professed themselves Chris- one. Dnhke Plato, Aristotle did not believe
tiaM accepted Gnostic doctrines and even
orthodox Christianity contains some elements that is
m ..^Burmval the immortal
. after, man, the
element inthat
death, holding is
ot Gnostic mysticism. It was left to the
bishops .and theologians to decide at Among the later Greek thinkers the Epi¬
Gnosticism ceased to be orthodox and what point
a difficult cureans were polytheists whose gods, however
task thm proved to be. Two of the greatest. were demed supernatural powers. The Stoics
Gfiênt of Alexandria and his pupil Origen, built up a materialist theory of the universe
umnttingly sfipped into heresy when they tried based on toe Aristotelian model To top.m God
to show that such men as Socrates and Plato was m all-pep-adlng force, related to toe world
who were m quest of truth, were Christian in as toe soul is related to the body, but they
intention, and by their iives and works had conceived of it as material They developed
prepared the way for Christ. Thus they con- the myrtical side of Plato’s idealism and were
tra^cted Church doctrine which specifically 1 attracted by tbe astrology coming tom
said J^xtm eedesiam nulla safws— outside the Babylonia. They
Chinch there is no salvation. tics were agnostics. were pantheists, êtep-
came before the
^ Prow Pagan to Christian Thought. Philo,
ia£» Of God and even earlier in tlie evolution of the Jew of Alexandria,” who was about 20
than Jesus, tried to’^th
showtoe that
best toe
in
e^ted belief in spirits
(sfic Anlmi^). It was only as a result of a long
penod of development that the notion of a uni¬ Gr^ tooii^t. He introduced the Iôs as a
versal God arose, a development paridoularlr bridge beWeen the two
well documented in the Old Testament. Here IS remote from toe world, systems, Philo’s God
above and beyond ail
we ^ concerned only with the views of phllo- thought md beto. and as His perfection does
sophers, the views of specific religious bodies not permft direct contact with matter toe divto
bemg given under the appropriate headings. Logos Mtam intermediary between God and
Pirat. however, some definitions. (204-70). a Homan, and toe
Auietem is the positive disbelief in the exist- founder of Nepplatonfam. was the last of toe
God. Agnostloism (a term coined by CTeat pagan phfioMphers. lake Philo, he be-
T. H. Huxley, the 19th cent, biologist and oon- created toe world in-
temporMy of Dpuin). signifies that one cannot cniaiiationB-— bein^ coming
know whether God exists or not. Deism is the Bf"*- The worid n^
accep toce of the existence of God, not through
revelation^ but as a hypothesis reauired by IB a fall from _6od. espeoiaUr the human soul
reîn Theim ateo accepts the existence of ^11 te the body and '^“Id.
toe world of toe
God, but, unlike Deism, does not reject man Cr^lm
has the
emdimce of revelation {e.a.. in the Bible or the abmty
saints). Pantheism fa the in md tomto^free hhêif
towaards Goi from sense domination
Neopiatemism was toe
id.entificatum of God with all that exists (i.e., drawing its inspira-
whole universe). Monotheism fa the
beUef m rae God, Polytheism the belief in m^y myst^
and its ethics from Side of Plato's idealism
Stoictem.
(see also Dualism). Christia^r The PaOms and the Schoolmen
Early êekVi^, Among the early Greek H was znnfa^ through St. Angmtine (S64H130).
phllMophers. Thales (c. 624-665 b.o.) of Miletus
in â Amor. Anaximander (611-547 b,c.), his 3ôp
°f '^ ^po in
the doefato^ of North Africa,
Neoplato nism toat
foundcertain
p^n, and Anaximenes (b. c. 570 B.o.), another toto:
Metan, were men of scientifto curiosity . hrfo,, t^hristtanity. Augustine also em¬
phasis^ the concept of God as all good, all
their speculations about the origin of and the vnse. afi knowing, transcendent, the Creator of
toe uMverse out of nothing. But. he added,
^ve^ w^ the
They founded ratouohed by rehglous thought.
scientific tradition of critical ^ce God knows everything, everything is de-
discussion. Heraclitus of Dphesus (c. 640-476 tfflmined by forever. This fa toe doctrine
mo.), was couched with the problem of change. of predMtinatlon and its subsequent history is
How d^ a tî^ change and yet remain itself?
processes. centuries of Christianity, as we
Jiverythiug is m flux, and nothing fa at rest ” discussed undersome Determinism, j ^
found it dfficolt to reconcile
Itapedocles of Agrigentum In SlcUy (c. 600-c. Gods pêcUon with BOs creation of PnrthCT,
introdu^d the idea of opposition and toe uni-
verae and mtûc^ the concept of the Logos
composed of theso-called
cir. and,fire— which
^ m opposition or alliance with each other. pem^ted j ??
toe held toat anamely
uifiverse. power of divine origin
AH th^ were materialist philosophers who tHeoiy hadtoeto Holy S^t
be worked
wught to explain the working of the universe relationships of these three
witoont recourse to the gods.
SocT<3;ie8i ctwd AHstoflB^ Socratos (470— Trinity. God is ^2®®
One; but conception of the
HA fa also Three:
<500 J23 IDEAS AND BEt-IEFS
Fatlier, Son (tlie Logos or Christ), and Holy thought of everyone to the worM, make up
Ghost. God’s tlMJughts.
jChis doctrine waa argued by the ApoIc«ists Bishop Berkeley (1685-1753) took the view
and the ModalMs. The foimrar maintained that thii® exist only when they are perceived,
that tlie Logos and the Holy Spirit -were emana¬ and this naturally implies that a tree, for
tions from God and that Jesna was the JU>go3 example, ccas® to exist when nobody is looking
in the form of a man. The Modalista held that at it. This problem was solved to his own
all three Persons of the Trinity were God in satiriaction by assuming that God. seeing every-
three forms or modes: the Logos is God creat¬ thtog, prevented objects from disappearing
ing, the Holy Spirit God reasoning, and God is when we were not present. The world ia a
God being. This led to a long dfeciMion as to creation of God but it is a spiritual or mental
whether the Logos was an emanation from God world, not a material one.
or God in another form; was the Logos of hie Hume (1711-703, who was a sceptic, held that
nature with God or of the same substance? This human reason cannot demonstrate the existence
was resolved at the Council of Nicaea (325) of God and all past arguments to show that it
when Athanasius formulated the orthodox could were fallacions. Yet we must beUeve in
doctrine against Arins {g.v.): that the one God since the basis of all hope, morality,
Godhead is a Trinity of the rame guhstance, and society is based upon the belief. Kant
three Peraons of the same nature— -Pather. Son, (1724-1804) held a theory simllax to that of
and Holy Ghost. Hume. We cannot know by reason that God
St. diomas Aauinas (1227-74), influenced exists, nor can we prove on the basis of argu¬
greatly by Aristotle’s doctrines, set the imttem ment anything about God. But we can form an
for all subsequent CW.holic beUef even to the idea of the whole of the universe, the one
present time. He produced rational arguments Absolute "ffhole,
for Gobi’s idea of God on and
whichpersonify
to Iwiît.
our Wemoral
need life,
the
that, since existence:
movement e.g., Aristotle’s
erists, argnmmit
there must be a aJthaugh this Mea of God is transcendent, i.e.,
prime mover, the Unmoved Mover or God: goes beyond experience.
further, we can see that things in the universe William James (1842-1910), the American
are related in a scale from the to the more philosopher (see Pragmatism), held much the
complex, from the less to the more perfect, and same view: God cannot be proved to exist, but
this leads us to suppose that at the peak there we have a will to beUeve which must be satisfied,
must be a Being with absolute perfection. God and the idea works in practice. Hegel (1770-
is the first and final cause of the universe, 1831) thought of God as a developing process,
absolutely perfect, the Creator of everything out begtontog with " the Absolute ” or First Cause
of nothing. He reveals Himself in his Creation
and rules the universe through His perfect wifi. and finding
mind, its highest
or reason. It is ia expression
man that God in man’s
most
How Aquinas dealt with, the ptoWran of pre¬ clearly becomes aware of Himself. Finally
destination is told under Determinism. Comte (1798-1857), the positivist, held that le-
Break with Mediaeml tTtmmM. Eenais- ligimr belongs to a more primitive state of
sance society and, like many modem philosophers,
doubtedthinkers, 'ftee to
the validity of think for themsrives,
the arguments of the turned the problem over to bdievffls as being
Schoolmen but most were nnwllling to grre up none of the Imsfara® of science.
the idea of God (nor would it have been safe to Good and Evil.
do so). Mystics (see a^sticimi) or near-mysrios Barlv PMlmovhen' Fiem. The early Greek
such as Niriiolas of Casa («. 1401-S4) and Jacob phikffl<mhms were chMy oencemed vrith the
Boeinne (1676-1624) tanght that God was not to laws of the universe, consequently it was
be found by reason but was a fact d the im¬ omnmon briief that knowledge of these laws,
mediate intuition of the mystical experience. and living according to them, constituted the
Giordano Bruno held that God was iminaneat to supreme good. H»OIitus, for example, who
the toflnite univeiae. He Is the unity of all tauidit that afl things carried vrith them
opp<Kites. a unity without opposiles. wMrii the their opporites, hdd that good and evil were
human mtod cannot gmsp. Bruno was burned like two notes fa a harmony, necessary to
at the stake to 18Q0> at the instigation of the each other. “ It is the opporite which is good
Inquislrion (a body which, so we are told, never for US.” Democritus, like Epicurus (q.v,), held
caused pain to anyone stoce it was the civil that the main goal of life is happiness, but
power, not the Inquisition, that carried out the happtoe^ in moderation. The good man fe not
unpleasant sentence) for his herray. mraely the one who does good but who always
Prands Bacon, who died to 1026, separated, wants to do so: “ You can teB the good man
as was the tendency of that time, ênoe from
religion. The latter he divided into the two not
Such bygoodne^
his deeds alonehappiness,
brings but by the
his desiies.”
nlilmaie
categories of natural and revealed theology. goal. On the other hand, many of the wander¬
The former, through the study of nature, may ing S(®hlst teatfiiers taught that good was
give convincing proof of the existence of a God merely social coavenMon, that thme are no
but nothing more. Of revealed theology he ahscdute principles of right and wicrng, that each
man should live according to his desirei and
reason "we
said: ... must
as wequit axe
the obliged
small veêl of human
to obey the mak» his own moral ctxte. To Soorato know¬
divine law, though our will murmurs a^tost It. ledge was tlm highest good becai:^ doing wrong
so we are obliged to bdieve to the word of God, is the iffiult of igntatmce; “ no man Is volnn-
thou^ our res^raa is shocked at it.” Hobbes taiily bad," Blato and Aristotle, differing to
(d. 1679) was a compfete materialist and one many other respects, drew attenticm, to the fact
feels that obdsanoe to the noMbn was poHtic that man iaocKnpt®ed of three parte: hisdesires
rather than ftom conviction. However, he does and apperitea. his wiU, and his reason. A man
mention God as starting the universe; fa motion wh(^ reason rules his will and apperites is not
tofexs that God is corpcueal, brtt denies that BDs oifly a good but a happy man: for happiness is
nature can be known. not an aim in iterif but a by-product of the good
Prom Bescmtes Onvxtrds. Descaito (1596- Me. Aristorie, however, emphasised toe goal
1660) separated mind and body as dlfiereait of srif-reaMsation, and toon^ that it toe goal
entities but believed that the exMence of God of life te (as Plato had said) a rational attitude
couM be deduced by the ikct that the Mea towards toe feeltogs and desires, it needs to be
Of hfax existed to the mtod. Whatever God futtoer defined. Aristotle defined it as toe
puts into man, including his ideas, must be reaL “Golden Mean”— toe good man te one who
Grod is self-caused, omniscient, omnipotent, does not go to extremes but balance one
eternal, all goodness and truth. But Descartes extrane agatost another. Thus courage is a
neglected to explain how mtod s^xiiate from mean between cowardice and foolhardiness.
body can influence body, or God separate fircHn The later phfiosophers PMlo and Ptothms held
the world can influence matter. that evil was in the very nature of the body and
Spinoza (1632-77) declared that aH existence its senses. Goodness could only be achieved by
is embraced in one substance — God, the all-in- givingup the life of the senses and. breed frcnn the
alL He was a pantheist and as such was domination of toe body, turning to God, the
rejected source of goodness.
God has byneither
his Jewish brethren.
personality But Spinoza’s
nor ccmacioasness, OMsHan Views. St. Augustine taught that
intelligence nor purpose, attbou^ aU things everything in the univmse is good. Even those
follow to strict law from His nature. Ail the things which appear evil are good to that
ItPEAS AND BELIEFS
GRA-HIN
they fit with the harmony of the universe like Grapholo ^, the rtudy
haudwTffmg. There ofarethetwo analysis of human
shadows in a painting. Man should turn his approach^
baclc on the pleasures of the world and turn to tffis topic Md it is important to separate them
J24. clearly, first
the love of God. Peter Abelard (1079-1142) involves the attempt on the
part of an expert to decide from lîng af «
^de the more sophisticated distinction when
he suggested that the wrongness of an act lies signat^ (a) to whom it belongs, and (6) whetLr
not in the act Itself, hut in the intention of the or not It IS forgery. This art Ls a legitSte
thoi^h
doer: ‘ God considers not what is done but in have beentnckycalled
area of study, and grapholoS
m asapproach
expert witnesses in coiuts
what spirit it is done; and the merit or praise second involves attempts
of the agent lies not in the deed but in the
to detect such tenuous variables as character
mtention.” If we do what we believe to be
right, we may err, but we do not sin. The only from a study of an individual’s handwrittag
sinful man is he who deliberately sets out to do and the facts here are altogether less cle-^’
what he knows to be wrong. St. Thomas Psycholog ists find it difficult enough to assS
Aquinas agreed with Aristotle in that he be- character or personality in a face-to-face inter¬
heved the highest good to be realisation of self view and even when they are equipped with
a
as God has ordained, and he also agreed with range of Special tests. The general opinion here
Abelard that intention is important. Even a wcpffid seem to be that some slight information
good act is not good unless the doer intended it might be revealed by a careful study of hand-
to have good consequences. Intention wiU not writmg, but that the overall effect would be too
imrehable for this kincl of grapholo gy to be of
make a bad act good, but it is the only thing
that win make a good act genuinely good. practical value.
In general. Christianity has had difficulties in Giffid Socialism, a Britiffi form of syndicalism
solvmg the problem of the existence of evO: for (^■i>.) created m 1906 by an architect, A J
even wh.en one accepts that the evil men do is that.
somehow tied up with the body, it is stiU
Penty,
S. who wasandsom
G. Hobson, G. joined by situation
D. H. Cole. A, The
R. Orage*
back-
ddflcult to answer the question: how could an
ffitliough at thau iime the Labour
all-good God create evil? This is answered in
one of two ways: (a) that Adam was given members m the House of Commons,Party had 29
a period of
free-will and chose to sin (an answer which still severe economic crisis had shown
Labourite the govem-
s unable to do
does not explain how sin could exist anywhere
m the universe of a God who created every¬ anjrihing about it; the workers were resorting
thing): (6) by denying the reality of evil as ^■^5 the
iv.*'°i^®®
some (Jtaistians have chosen to do (e.g., Chris¬ and *' ^®.l'ion
dôcrati c and toconstitut
secure ional
their demands
methods
tian Science g.r.). The Eastern religions, on to which the Eabians had partly persuaded them
the other hand (see Zoroastrianism), solved the seined to have failed. The guild socialists
problem in a more realistic way by a dualism advocate d a restoration of the mediaeval guild
rmch denied that their gods were the creators gntem as was being recommended by the
of the whole universe and allowed the existence Jivench aynoicahats whose programme involved
m at least two gods, one good and one evil. In a, retimn to toect economic action, a functional
Olmistianity there is. of course, a Devil, but it is mdustitel structure, return of craftsmanship,
not explained whence his evil nature came. ^d distrust of the state. Guild soclaUsts
Later PhUosojMc Views. Hobbes equated bffieved that value was created by society
good with pleasure, evil with pain. They are whole rather than by individuals singly, as and
a
relative to the individual man in the sense that that capitalist economists had recommended the
acquisition of wealth without emphasising the
one man's meat is another man’s poison."
Descartes beUeved that the power to distinguish swial rônsibillties which wealth should
between good and evil given by <^d to man bring. The trade imlonB were to be organised
IS not complete, so that man does evU through to take over and run their own industries after
Ignorance. We act with insufficient knowledge national mtion. Thus guild socialists were not
and on inadequate evidence. Locke, believing fSstost capitalism but also against state
that at birth the mind is a blank slate, held socially m which the state took over the
that men get their oploions of right and wrong coffirol of industry. Political authority was
ttom their parents. By and large, happiness held to he uncongenial to human freedom and
is good and pain is evil. But men do not “erefpre nothmg was to be gained by the
alway^gree over what is pleasurable and what substitutira of state bureaucracy for capitalist
not. Hence laws exist and these fall into three control. The National (luUds League, formed
^tegones; (1) the divine law; (2) civU laws; m 1915, affvocated the abolition of the wages
(8) matters of opinion or reputation which are self-government in industry, control by
enforced by the fact that men do not like to a smem of national guilds acting in conjunction
incur the disapproval of their friends. We with other functional democratlo organisations
learn by experience that evil brings pain and ™ ^®dy "was dissolved in
good Mts bnng pleasure, and, basically, one is 19..5, put theInfluenced
toeories of guild socialtan have
good because not to be so would bring dis¬ undoubtedly British socialism.
comfort.
Kant (sre God and Man) found moral beliefs
to be inherent in man whether or not they can
be proy^ by reason. There is a categorical
imperative which mak® us realise the validity
of two imiversal laws: (i) " always act in such Heresy, originally meant a sect or school of
a way that the maxim determining your conduct thou^t holding views different from others
might well become a universal law; act so that (e.g., Phansees and Saddncees within Judaism).
you can wUl that everybody shall follow the Later it cê to mean beliefs contrary to ortho¬
principle of your action; (2) “ always act so dox teaching (e.g.. Arianism. ApoUtnarlanism,
Nestonamsm ).
as to treat humanity, whether in thine own
person or in that of another, in every case as an Hinduim, the region and social institutions of the
end and never as a means.” great majority of the people of India. Hindu-
Schopenhaner (1788-1860) was Influenced by im has no toed scriptural canon but its doo-
Buddhism and saw the will as a blind inTnelUng- trinra are to he found in certain ancient works,
^vmg, and dMiire as the cause of all suffering. notably the Feda, the Brafenanos, the TJ'pam-
remedy is to regard sympathy and pity as snads, the ShaoawM-gitd. The dark-
the. DMis of all moraUtr and to deny one’s invaded India between
indmdual will. This is made easier if we
civUtotion?.25Q in
.andthe2760
IndusB.o.valley.
and established a
CTOryone is part of the Univei-sal They were
WiU and therefore the one against whom we are polytheists who worshipped a number of natiire-
str^ghng is part, of the same whole as ourselves. sohs: some elements of their beliefe persisted
John Stuart Mill and .Jeremy Bentham were into Hffidms^ flffiey were subdued by a llght-
both representatives of the UtUitarian school. sffinned Nordic people who invaded from Asia
helieving_ that good is the greatest good (happi¬ iunor and Iran about 1600 b.o. The language
ness) of the greatest number (see Utilitarianism) of these Aryan people was Vedic, parent of
LMtly, thCTe is the view held mostly by politleai feaMkrit m which their religious literature (the
thinkers that good is what is good for the state V^das) came to be written adter many centuries
01 oral transmission.
or society m general (see State and Man).
HUM-IMM J25 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
_ The Veda or Sacred tore has come down to us attacked by the popular press for immoral and
m the form of mantras or hymns of which there seditious te^hings.
are four great collections, the best-known being The British Humanist Association condemns
the Rig- Veda. These Vedic Aryans worshipped the religious clauses of the 1944 Education Act
nature-deitte, their favourites being Indra and wants compulsory religious instruction in
(rain), Agni (dre), and Surya (the sun). Their schools abolished.
rehgion contained no idolatry but became Ham^ty, Eeligion of. See Positivism.
contaminated by the more primitive beliefs Hussites, the followers of John Hus. the most
of the conauered Draviflians. Sacrifice and famous pupil of John Wyeiif. He was the
ritual became predominant in a ceremonial rector of Prague University and, although it is
religion. now by no means certain that Ms beliefs were
As a reaction a more philfjsophic form arose heretical, he was condemned to death for heresy
(f. .500 B.c.) with its scriptures in the Upani- and burnt at the stake in 1416 at Constance
madg. _At its highest level, known as Bralmian- whence he had come with a safe conduct issued
belief is in a subtle and sophisticated form by the Emperor Sigismund of Hungary. The
of monotheism (Brahma is an impersonal, all- latter based hia action on the doctrine that
embracing spirit), but there is a tolerant ac¬ no faith need be kept with heretics, but it is
ceptance of more primitive beliefs. Thus obvious that the main objection to Hus was his
Vishnu (a conservative principle) and Siva (a contempt for authority of any kind. Alter
destnictive principle) grew out of Vedic con¬ thar leader’s death, the Hussites became a for¬
ceptions. The two great doctrines of Hinduism ! midable body in Bohemia and Moravia. They
aie karma and transmigration. The universal took up arms on behalf of their faith, their
desire to be reunited with the absolute (the relWon being strcmglr Imbued with political
Atman or Brahma) can be satisfied by following feelmg (hc»tllity to Germanism and to the
the path of knowledge. Life is a cycle of lives supremacy of the Eoman tJhurchi. Their
(sajWMra) in which man’s destiny is determined religious strusatles for refomt led to the Hu'site
by his deeds (karma) from which he may seek wars during which the movement splintered
:rele^_ (maksai through asoetic practices or the into several groups.
diiKipIme of Vcâ (q.v.). Failiure to achieve
release means reincarnation — migration to a
higher or lower form of life after death— until
the ultimate goal of ateirption in the absolute
18 reached.
I
^ the great Sanskrit epic poems Eamamna
and Mahabharata the deity takes three forms, Iconoclast Heresy. In 726 th e Byzantine Emperor
represented by the divine personalities of Leo in forbade the use of images in worjifiip by
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. There are also Imperial decree — a decree which was continued
lower gods, demi-gods, supernatural beings, and intermittently until 843 when the heresy wns
members of the trinity may even become in- abandoned. This was the Iconoclast contro¬
ramate. as Vishnu became identified with versy in which Emperor and Papacy were
Kmhna, one of the heroes of the Mahabharata violently opposed. In the end the image-
and the well-known Bhamivd-aiia. ! worshippers triumphed and the sacred pictures
Tlie ritual and legalistic side of Brahmanism (icons) have remained to this day. TIds eccle-
is the caste system based on the elabonite codes slasHcal conflict between the Iconockusfe and
of the low o/ ikfonM, according to which Hod the Papacy over a matter of ritual was the first
created distinct orders of men as He creatM of the crises which over three centuries were
distinct species of animals and plants. Men are finally to bring about the schism between
bom to be Brahmans, soldiers, agrieultuiists, Orthodox Christendom and Western Christen¬
or servants, but since a Brahman may marry a dom. Though temporary, the supremacy of
woman from any of these castes, an endless the State over the Churdh was nevertheless of
niraber of sub-castes arises. supreme importance. Although the Iconoclast
Hlndulem has always Aown great tolerance heresy is often given as the reason for the
for varieties of befief and practice. Ideas absence of statues in the Eastern Churches
plea^t and unpleasant have been assimilated: there te no evidence that they existed to any
feticbism, demon-cults, animal-worship, sexual- extent even before the movement bâ.
^ts (such as the rite of Kali In Calcutta). IdealEm, in a philosopMeai sense, the belief that
Today, as would be expected in a country which there is no matter in the universe, that ail that
f? throes of vast social change. Hinduism exists fa mind or spirit. See Mind and Matter
itself is changing. Under the impact of modem and Realism.
conditions new ideas are destroying old beliefs Immaculate Conception, one of the important
and customs. See also Jainism, Sikhism. dogmas concerning the Bteraed Virgin Mary,
Humanism, the term applied to (1) a system of as taught by the Roman Catholic Church, is that
education based on the Greek and Latin aie was conceived and bom without or^nal sin
classics; and (2) the vigarous attitudes that (according to a bull of Pins IX. 1854). C’hris-
accompanied the end of the Middle Ages and tians in general believe in the immaculate con-
were represented at different periods by the ception of Jmis Ohiist.
Renaissance, the Eefonnation, the Indnstrial Iramnrtaa#. The bei^ in a life after death has
evolution, and the struggle for demiMsraoy, been widely held since the wtieat times. It
These include: release from ecderiastical has certainly not been universal, nor has it
authority, the liberation of the intefiect, faith in always taken a form which everyone would find
progress, the belief that man himself can improve satis&tng. In the early stages of human
his own conditions without supernatural help hMory Or prehistory everything contained a
and, indeed, has a duty to do so. " Man is the spirit (see Animism) and it is obrious from the
measure of all thin^ ” is the keynote of human¬ objects left in early graves that the dead were
ism. The humanist has faith in man’s inte- ejected to exist in some form after death.
lectual and spiritual resources not only to bring The experience of dreams, too. seemed to sug¬
knowledge and understanding of the world but gest to the unsophisticated that there was a part
to solve the moral problems of how to use that of man which could leave his body and wander
knowledge. That man should show resp«!t to elsewhere during sleep. In order to save space.
man irresiiective of class, race or creed is funda¬ It will be helpful to otateify the various types of
mental to the hrananist attitude to life. Among belief which have existed in philosophical
tbe ftmdamental moral principles he would thought regarding this problem: (1) There is the
count those of freedom, justic® and happiness. idea that, although someOiitw survives bodily
Today the idea that people can live an honest, death, it is not necessarily eternal. Thus most
meaningful life without following a formal primitive peoples were prepared to believe that
religious creed of some kind does not seem man's spirit
particularly shocking. It is an interesting and that foodhaunted the should
and drink place around his for
be set out grave
it,
gauge of the rapid change in social attitudes to but that this spirit did not go on forever and
reHgion that when. less than twenty years ago, gradually faded away. (2) The ancient Greeks
the psychologist Margaret Knight tentatively and Hebrews believed for the most part that the
advanced this thesis in a ehort B.B.O. talk, souls of the dead went to a place of shades there
public opinion seemed to be outraged and both to pine for the world of men. Tbeir whining
Mrs, Kjfight and the B.B.O. were openly ghosts spent eternity in a dark, iminvittng
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
the great monotheistic religions

and Gîanity) and may he regarded (JudS In^^
Mspeets as a hor^y, Mohammed accented thA
of the m^vldual
Me woMd be at a determining whether his next
higher or tower leve L
îrationas aofhMenv
resneets
to be a successo
SSto
the Old ** TestameM S dsMel
toes this process seems to have been thought oSr toOld Moses, and althougffi^d
mt
toêrecogms
a snccessorto
e Jesus as God. he did mcoliMe
M as simply going on and on. by others (e.g.. in not recoraS^Je^^
ffindulam and Buddhism) as terminating in TTimTheas sacred Mok (see
a prophet of Dooetianl
Islam is the Koran^cognls
either non-sentience or union with God but in mostThe influent the
sar^dialbookbook ThIb??^ fi,o next
ir ’^''^snis
a prophet
Him as Accordt
Bible. (see in the world
Dooet fam). Si thoe
og to Mamie MliWIwo^
were revealed to the prophet by God ttimnSh
the angel Gabriel at intervals oveilm^d of
20 spars, tot at his native Mec^
*ô,God, aîîng to his own rather 20 years, first at his native Mecra imfl ^d at
2
wmfused notioim of the deity. Ifitfafls to fires Me^.
Medina. The allbook to
1^
or chapters: la divided
but one divided intHll
begin with “ros
the wS-
conapletely from the body it will sink orIn the nê ailof b^
Stem: Allah,
one the Merciful, the
body to another.) « iMe ê of III^ Com-
similax vierra to Plato, and many pa^pmt e. It IS written in classical Intote
passionate.” It is written in ore]aRHien?^f
pd Moslems memorise
other rîgious sects m addition to those men- and Moslems memoriae much mneh
aBM it^w
of time^befS^d S ^TtoiR to emcÎw heioK^n^

so fhr®s one knows. inthe events of hfeday. He Ms five
had that indimduat souls so exist. (5) The mOnce
the in
OnceiahLs
hto Me
events he must
of hfa day. say
MfaMm^?<3f He Mswith five
absolute
duriS?^ m
. 1®®*con¬
theory that the soul does not exist at afl md viction: “(Hi^ to no God but
Mon^ “
Mohammed ê^
fa His fa^
Prophet.”
is mean^less: this was Mohammed
ceded by ablutionfa BOsôphS (2)
” times nw^
held by Angglrnen^ m early Greek times* by must be five daily _ on
ceded by
nsmg, at ablution
noon, in mtisf hA rnoon,
mid-afte Atta after sunset
Iûijyppns, Democntua, and the other Greek xisincr
^d beforeat noon in .mfii
retfatog The face of the todS^m
atomists; by the Epicureans from the Gre^ IB
andturned
b'efoTATptiHnw
to the direction of Mecca. (3) The
giving of alms generously, including provision
n
bS&VM® by 1m te tS"to ‘Ite^relonTf 1^® keeping of the S M
HMnadan, the holy month, during which
^ce: and Wpto IFf® .to^®'andS oto D*lsvey
““^^bly by fo?toe°p^ ^^^k4eS
Bamadan.
fevers to the good holy
healthmoirt^1?1hrjS
may duito eat
neithra °Sf Im
iudulge Ip worldly pleasures between
sunê ^d sunset. (6) Once to hfa life
Moslem, and
*br moral sunrise tf he smiset.îfi)
cm. must make
Mecca. In addition, drinking the pltorme toa
Oine^toîH
, gamhltog and
toe eatmg of pork are forblddM ^ SSSii^K
wactlsed. Polygamy fa permitted
although decreasing; sexual relations oufuirtB
Stooês®^^^^^th^ê*tapoSt
SM bTt&s-su-rsr rii
^^dfeapprovW: faltoy
the individnal soul in anything rSSîng iti T^f ^„?>sapproved of; marriage is only
earthly form (see SplrltualisimMychlcres^ch) inlt?aiS?of iBlam t™ bea,
Mvorce may itJ be
linperialfam. the practice
^
s^^dS.w*j^?““^'^^barkeduponoo3n£ffl SSfê^rûlS ^ ^ **®
.1 achievements were the
dffi^(^p
tribes n oneof idolatry,
communittoe
toto y, welding of warring
the progress ofa
aft® hfa’ deatff
which spread tS e?eat
throughou t
imperi^ powers of the ifith^M anTSer *?T.*be great
and ultimately to Spain. That itdldnofcsDTPad
flurt into nortoAftica. north India,
which either did notMve by Charles Martel at Tours to 732 ad.not spread
dnSng®Wa
hv Y®? ^“® Muslim êat
K^'S’S'SffifS'tg’SSS&ot^ l>r CtorteM»t,I.lT„L^°AIS" '^*
enough used as a term of abuse). Thereto
economic MperiaU^ exerted, not throug
h T
aês, hut through economic penetration.
.
^ ê Jains are a small Indian sect.
tMt led America (in
saue that (to the uginB
name of iS-free- ahniif“9 ifmuice. numbering
numnering
dqm) into acts of appalling InhumBnfiB^ in milhon.^ êlr movement founded by
Vietnam; the dogmatism that led toe Soviet to ^reathero).
PWon into the Invasion of Czechoslovakin cent. B.a. arose rather earlier toan
The Afirltoners to Soutl? Sto *be ritnalfem. aM
pamit the exploitation
peoples of the^ black
to their midstf iS. too* a^ and Htejectstoe
wMtever one may think of its erSon nri' many of toe Hindu deities whose
humardtarfan grounds, is surely a piece of land Jatafam’s twenty-four
têa from the Araffwho fomld WpS £ «®®Pfeee caste dfattokoni
of Its population, by a peê^wMiA H3ndn doctrines M
mtionM
ô olahnd fa years
tMt their toere M^ ?S* PMosophy fa
ô thousan
thousand ago. P®bis
Imperial
lmnpriaHsTn
It. ism in ao
is
we would uftlwiaj. toe saoredness of all Me.
word and, before using It. we wonld toe brethren of man-
well to remember the retort of a BriHsTi ^ even the smallest tosect,
state^ who, when lectortog to AnS r‘® *be Jansen (1686-
fito matron: todependence. was asked ■rfibo\ *. ■¥< A from wxiiejius
hfa work uansen iiooo-
Auau-sHnus
“ \Vhat are you e(^ by to do
m ^ P*Mes80r of theology at
Sf” " '"^®bIPdIans. madam nivvro^h^ aftCT hfa death. This book set out to
Fw ®A a stu^ of the works of St. Augusttoe
ficee-wlU (which, of course. Augustine
w2^ «A® TOid Mohammed
Pf which slgni^tag subrnte
(670-632)
rion to Jai^to Jesuit
Mstile OPPO^ teachin Al-
for forMdi ng g.them
enfa^
outrageta Lou
d and toTai1658
u the Jeanitn watp
:ôff Y ^
spread of religionB. "ite
JEH-JUO IDEAS AND BELIEFS
J27
demned five of Jansen ’s propositions as heretical. the exodus of the Israelites firom Egypt (1230
Thte produced one of the most famous contro- B.C.). Many critics deny the Mewie authorship
verses in history in which the scholars and of the first five books of the Bible and i)e!ieve
divines of the great convent, of Port Eoyal in them to be a compilation from four main soimces
Paris defended the for wliich they known as J (Jahvist). E (Elohisff). D (Deuterono-
were later expelled from their posts. Mean¬ mlst) and P (Priestly Code), distinguished from
while the great Pascal 11023-62) had taken each other by the name used for God, language,
up Ills pen in their defence and exposed Jesuit style, and internal evidence. Skom the historical
hsTJOorisy in his Leltrer, Provinciales, one of the point of view an important Influence on Jurhiism
masterpiece of world literature for its brilliant may have been the monothefem of Ikhnaton,
phrasing, deiic.ate irony, and deadly quotation the “ heretic ” Pharaoh (note, for example, the
from Jesuit wri tings. The Letters had great derivation of Psalm 104 from Ikhnaton’.s
influence, filled the Jestiits with rage, but even “ Hymn to the Sun ”),
Pascal cotild not stop the crael persecution The Talmud fa a book containing the civil and
which foUowed. Another Jsuisenist text-book canonical laws of the Jew.-', and inciiide.s the
was published late in the century. Qnesnel’s Miahna, a compilation from oral tradition written
Moral Reflections on the New Testament, which in Hebrew, and the Gemara, a coilection of
Pope Clement XI in his bull Unweniins con¬ comments and criticisms by the Jewish rabbb,
demned as heretical in 1713. The French written in Aramaic. There are in fact two
Cliurch was split from top to bottom, the aged Talmuds: the one made in Palestine (the
king Louis XIV supported the bull, and in 1720 Jerusalem Talmud), finished at the begiiming
it was made part, of French law. Most Jan- of the 6th cent., and the other made in Babylon,
senists fled the cormtry. Thus ended Jansenism completed at the end of the 6tb cent.
in France but a small sect still exists in Holland. Judaism at the beginning of the Christian era
Catholic in everything except acceptance of the had a number of sects: (1) the Pharisees (whose
Vnifienihm. views include the firet clear statement of the
Jehovah’s Witnesses, a religious body who consider resurrection of the just to eternal life and the
themselyes to be the present-day representatives future punishment of the wicked) who held to
of a religious movement which has existed since the Torch and the universality of God: (2) the
Abe!than
“ offered unto God hea obtained
more excellent Sadduoees, the upper class of priests and
fice Cain, by which witness sacri¬
that wealthy landowners, to whom God wa.9 essen¬
he was righteous.” Abel was the first “ wit¬ tially a national <3od and who placed the
ness," and amongst others W'ereandEnoch, interests of the state before the Torah; they
Abraham, Moses, Jeremiah, JohnNoah,the rejected ideas of reKurrection and eternal life;
Baptist. Pre-eminent among witnesses, of (3) the Essenes (g.it) who were regarded as a
course, was Jesus Christ who is described in the puritanical break-away movement by both
Book of EeveLation as “ the faithful and true parties. The views of the Pharisees prevailed.
witness.” Thus they see themselves as " the Jewish writing continued through tie years
Lord’s organisation.” in the long line of those and some books were added to the Torah, among
who through the ages have preserved on earth them the I’hiee Major Prophets and cert.am
the true and pure worship of God or. as the books of the Twelve Minor Prophets. There
Witnesses prefer to call Him, “ Jehovah-Glod.” were also the Ai)ocaIyptio writers who were
So far as other people are aware, the move¬ unorthodox in their preaching of a divinely
ment was founded by Charles Taze Eusseil planned catastrophic end to the world with a
(Pastor Eusseil) of Allegany, Pittsburgh, “ new Heaven and a new earth,” preceded by a
Pennsylvania, TJ.8.A, in 1881 under the name, divine Messiah, and a future life — all of which
adopted in 1896. of the Watch Tower Bible and bellefe influenced early Christianity. Judah
Tract Society, which has continued as the Halevi of Toledo (c. 1085-c. 1140) and Moses
controlling organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses. Maimonides of Cordova (1135-1204) were the
Its magazme. The WatA Tower Announcing great Jewish philosophers.
Modem movements in Judaism stem from the
Jehovah's Kingdom, arefirst
other publications published byinthe
distributed 1879, and
zealous Enlightenment, notably with Moses Mendel¬
members who carry out the house-to-house can¬ ssohn in the 18th cent, who accepted, as was the
vassing. The movement has a strong leadership. tendency of the perioônly that which could be
Their teaching centres upon the early estab- proved by reason. He translated the Penta¬
Itehment of God’s coming
new world on earth, Witnesses
preceded teuch into German thus encouraging Gennan
by the second of Christ. Jews to give up Yiddish and Hebrew for the
believe this has already happened, and that language of the land and thereby preparing them
Armageddon “ will come as soon as the Witness for their vast contribution to Western civilisa¬
is completed.” The chance
millennial tion. One of his disciples. David Friediander (d.
sinners a second of period will give
salvation and 1834) instituted “reform ’’Judaism behind which
” millions now pamphlets).
living will never die ” (the title lay the desire for assimilation. He wanted
of one of their to eliminate anything that would hamper the
The dead will progressively be raised to the relationshixffl of Jews with thdr neighbours or
new earth until aU the vacant places left after tend to in doubt their loyalty to their
Armageddon are flEed. There is. however, adopted state. A similar movement in
some doubt about the “goatish souls” who America (1885) called for the rejection of dietary
have made themselves unpleasant to the Wit- laws, the inauguration of Sunday services, and
ne®^, these who have accepted (or permttted the repudiation of Jewish naflonaliam. Be¬
to be accepted) a blood-transfusion contrary to tween “ reform ” and orthodoxy there arose the
the Scriptmes, and others who have committed conservative movement whleh. in England,
grave sins. includes prayeas in EngUsb in the service, does
Every belief held by the movement, it is not s^regate men and women in the synagogue,
claimed, can be upheld, chapter and veree, by and translates the Law in a more liberai way.
reference to the Scriptures. Wttnesses regard (The fact is that it would be ahuMt imiKissible
the doctrine of the Trinity as devised by Satan. for a strictly orthodox Jew to live in a modem
In both wars Witnesses have been in trouble for indnstriallsed community at all.)
their refusal to take part in war and it is only Judaism is essentially a social and family
fair to add that six thousand suffered for the religion which, more than almost any other,
same rôn in German concentration cami>s. concerns itself with the observances of every
Judaism, the religion of the Jews, the oldest of the aspect of dally life. As in Iriam (s.v.) details
great monotheist religions, parent of Gbrisiaia- are laid down in the most minute way for the
nlty and Islam, the development of which is behaviour of the orthodox.
presented in the Old Testament. The creed of The home is the main Jewish institution and
Judaism is based on the concent of a transcen¬ Jews, Hbe Catholics, cannot surrender their
dent and omnipotent One True God, the revela¬ religion. Circumcision takes place eight days
tion of BQs will in the Torah, and the special after birth, and a boy beemnes a man for
relation between God and BQs " Chosen People.” religious purposes at his Bar Mitzvah at the age
The idea of Incarnation is rejected, Jesus is not of thirte^ Women are spared most of this
recognised as the Messiah. The TordJi is the because their place in the home is considered
Hebrew name for the Law of Moses (the sufficiently sacred. Among festivals are
Pentateuch) which, Judaism holds, was divinely Passover, recalling the Exodus : E(»h Hashanah
revealed to Moses on Moimt Sima soon after (the Jewish New Year), the anniversary of the
IDEAS AND beliefs
KAR-1.UD
J28 Biitltlhism which was introduced into Tibet
Creatioa and the beginning of ten days of 749 A.D. Hie emphasis laid by its in
formder
P^tence ending with Tom Kippiir <the Day of the necessity for self-discipIJne and conversi on
Atonement), a day of fasting spent in the syna¬ toough meditation imd the study of phiShon
gogue; Porim, celebrating the deliverance of deteriorated mto formal monasticism anri v
the Jews from Haman; and Chanukah, cele¬
brating their victory against the Syrians under rituaji^. The Dalai Lama, as Srroinm
nated Buddha, was both king and high pri^ a
their leader Judas Maccabeus. A new and rort of pope and emperor
Ksmi-religions festival is the Tom Haatemaut. Under him was a hierarchy of roUed into one
oflicials in which
the anmversary of the birth of the new Jewish the lowest order was that of the monks who
state of Israel,
became as numerous as one man In every six
or
seven of the MPulation. The main
earned out by this vast church-state waswort
the
K collection of taxes to maintain the monair
^d^therjehgious offices. Second in power to
ie^
Karma. See Buddhisan, Hinduism.
Kn Kias Klan. After the American Givi] War
pother Buddha. TheTasTDalai Lama fledTo
(1861-85) southern conservatives and ex-
Comederate India m 1959 when the Chinese entered
leaders began to fear (as they had hk
every reason to do) both Negro and poor White countoy. For a brief period following hk
rule. Taxes were rising owing to radical legisla¬ departure, the Panchen Lama surprM the
tion and ine tax-burdened and disenfranchised Western world by pubhely welcoming the Com¬
planters finally took to illegal means to achieve munist invasion. How much of this
tneir by trying to effect an alliance with the coercion at the tune is not clear, butwashedue to
later
renounced the regime and the suppressio n of
poor vVTute and small farmer through appealing Lamaism in Tibet continued unchecked.
to his anti-Negro prejudice.
Hence the Ku Klux Klan was formed in 18G6 Latinidinanans, Anglican churchmen ot exceed-
as a secret society by a small group of Confeder¬ mgly broad views (e.g., bishops who would admit
ate veterans in Tennessee with the intention of dj^nters--i.c.. those rejecting the views or
frightening Negroes by dressing in ghostly white aufchonty of the BstabiJshe d Church). Althoiiah
robes m the guise of the spirits of dead soldiers. still used today, the term applies especially
But the movement spread like wild-fire through¬ such enment 17th cent, divines as Burnetto
out the South encouraged by small farmers and
planters alike. General Nath an Bedford Forrest LeveUers, an Engdrii
Hales, Tfilotson, military-Dontico-rel
and Ohillin i£riou.q
party present in the Parliamentary^
gwortli . °'''
was appointed “ Grand Wixard ” of the Klan ^
empire and In every community armed about 1647 which stood for the rightg of the
Klansmen ndmg at night horsewhipped people. See Diggers.
uppity Negroes, beat Union soldiers, and ^ liberal Party is the successor to
threatened carpet-bag politicians (Le., fortune- tlie T^higs (a mckname derived from uihigau~
iiunieis from the iforth). Soon several aimifar more used m the 17th cent, for Scottish
orgamsations arose, many of which did not stop senters) of the 18 th and 19th cent. Prior to 4- toe
at torture, burning property, and murder. In victprt of the Labour Party inpoUtical
mam British 1923. it vm one
parties.
fact, although churning to be a “ holy crusade ” Liberals are moderate
tne Wan was a vicious and contemptible ly progressive In the sense
organisation m which former Southern leaders that most appreciate the humanisti aspects
trying to regain control deliberately set poor socuihsm while strongly disapprocving of ite
of
^d middle-class Whites against the Negroes policies of state control, and they dMike any
by appeal to race-prejudice. Congress struck form of monôly. state-run or otherwise.
pack with laws and intervention of Federal general, the Party advocates co-ownerahip In
large number of convictions mdiistoy, electoral reform (proportional repre¬in
m South Carolina much of the violence stopped sentation), protection of individual liberte
if the feelings continued. governmental reform, tax reform, strict mea¬
After the 1914-18 war the movement, dor- sures agatost any form of monopoly, and sepa-
mimt since 1900. reived as a sadistic anti-Negro, _ rate parliaments for Scotland and Wales.
anti-Jewsh. anti-CathoIic society, spreading to Logi^ Positive, a school of philosoph
the north as well as the south. m Vienna in the 1920s by a group known y founded
By 1926, ^th as"
ite wmte-gowned hooligans and fiery crosses, Vlennacircle : their work was based on that toe of
tne KJaii began to subside once more. But it UrMt Mach, but dates m essentiate as far bMk
rose again after the second world war. After as Hume. Of the leaders of the group, Sohlick
was murdered by a student, Wittgenstdn came
loS
1964-5 i
President Johnson in Alabama K-K-K
“orders during to Britain, and Carnap went to America follow¬
terrorism and promised newdenounced criminal iegisla- ing toe entry of the Nazis. Briefly the philo¬
tion to deal with the Klan, sophy fMera toom all others in that, while most
» Chliê Nationalist party founded PMple have telieved that a statement might be
to 1891 by Sun Tat Sen. It took part in the (a) true, or (6) false, logical positivists consider
first Chmese rovolution of 1911 and led the toere to be a third category; a statement may
Beepnd the following year, dominating south te meanhiglMs. There are only two types of
Chma byMpo and, imder Chiang KaiSk, who statement which can be said to have meaning:
êeeited Sun_ Tat Sen on his death in 1926. are tautological, i.e.. those in
conducted (Jhlna s defence against Japanese which the statement is merely a definition of
tovasion ftom 1937-46. SuS^ ât Sei hid
attopted the subject, such as “ a trianê is a three-sided
to found a democratic republie based plane figure ("triangle” and “three-sided
on Western pariiam^tary democracy and in ptoeflguie are the same thing): and (2) those
Iiis fknious H luid dowii tli6 principles winch can m tested by sense experience. Thk
definition <rf meaningfulness excludes a great
be based. In 1946. Sun Fo, the son of Sun Tat Prevlousiy been thought to be
departure from the
welfare toe field
toe ^hdosophr: in particulax it excludes
possibihty of metaphysics. Thus the
of the people in which his father had beUeyed. question as to whether there Is a God or whether
Beginning ^ a movement largely inspired by lirM-wfil exists is strictly meaningless, for it Is
Kussia, the Kumnmtang under CMang Kai-shek nwihM a tautologioal statement nor can it be
2fA^®i'®’ted into a reactionary and corrupt tested by sense-experience,
LoUarto, a ^dy
Wyclifof who
reh'gious
rÎaced
wiiiiS ° by the Conmiiiiil collapsing in 1949, ,(^,8 lowers of were reformers
reviled andandperse-
fol-
followers to st rule party,
Formosaleaving
with cuted im toe reign of Biohard II. The un-mo
Lollard comes from the old F.ngUsii word
meanmg mutterer a term of contempt
i^d to describe the sect. Henry IV renewed
to tatoer s persecution of the group, even con-
aemnlng one of his own personal friends, the
Lamaism, the religion of Tibet. Its beliefs ati the scake. John Oldcastleb to be burnt
worship derive from the Mahayana form and Luddites,
of a group of peasants and working men
L.UT-MAG IDEAS AND BELIEFS
J29
wbo deliberately d^royed spiimteg and farm Like Calvin. Euther was a predesHnarian and
machinery in England in the early part of the determiiftst. but he was also a conservative and
19th cent., fearing that such devices would soon became alarmed about the position taken
destroy their livelihood. Their name was taken by many extremists emee the Beformation was
from the eccentric Ned End who bad done the under way. He had really wanted the Chuaxsh
same in a le® organised way two or three to reform Itself, but when he alienated Borne he
decadrai earlier. The Enddite’ worstputting
fears had perforce to rely more and more on the
were of conrse not refused, for far from secular ipowers which finally resulted In the
human beings out of work the industrial revo¬ state-ohurch fona which became pronounced in
lution crated Jobs for a vastly increased popu¬ Prussia and later elsewhere. Whereas Calvin
lation. Euddism, dormant for over a century, wished the Church to be at least the eaual of
is beginning to appear again, if in muted form. Hie State and in some respects its superior.
Public anxiety about the rapid growth in Luther’s rebellion resulted in the reverse, a
computer technology is manifesting itself in the state-controlled episoopaliaiiism. See Calvinism.
form of such groups as the Society for the Pr^byterianism.
Abolition of Data Processing Machines, which
while not of course dedicated to the physical
destruction of computers, urge for social and
even governmental checks on the development
of such things as “data banks.” Th^ are
M
vast computer memory stor^ Hsting compre¬
hensive records concerning all the people living McLuhanism. The name of Marshall McLuhan
in a city or country and able to cross-reference came into wide prominence in Britain about
them in a way that has never previously been 1967. WTiat Is McLuhanism? Or rather, what
possible. The arguments for and against such axe the aspects of the unusual explorations of
data hanks and other developments in computer this Canadian professor, whose three hooks
technology are beyond the scoire of this sectaon, appeared in this country at about the same
but the rise of this SOih cent. Euddism is of time to make such an effective impact? The
considerable historical and social significance, titles of the hooks are The Mechanical Bride
tiutheranism. The Beformation had a long (1951), The Guknberg Galaxy (1962), and
history before it became, under Luther and Utiderdandim Media (1964). McLuhan pours
Odvin. an accepted fact. Eie mediaeval out Ms ideas about the whole process of
Ohuroh had held (as the Catholio Church holds
communication as it has
horizons, and therefore extended
mankind mankind’s
himself, from
today) that the sacraments were the indispen¬
sable means of salvation. Since these were the invention of movable type up to and
exclusively administered by the clergy, any through the mechanical age. We are in the
movement which attacked clerical abuses was midst of a revolution tight now, with vast
forced by sheer socioiogical and technological changes; and we
exolnslTe controlnecessity
of the tomeans
deny d the salvation,
caiurch’a
have not yet attained a language to match our
before it could become free from dependence on need for ccmmunleation in the new electronic
a cmrupt pfitethood. Qmce the Albigenses age. It is the form of the new media— radio,
and the Waldenses iOQ.v.), the fbOow^ of John tHeviskm, films, and so <m— which affects our
Hus and Wydif (see Antidherlcaiism). were bound patterns of human assoMatiem rather than the
to deny tite authority of the Chordb and
emphadse that of the Bible. Euther began contenk. Hence the phrase "the medium is
his movement primarily in order to reform the the
purposemessage.” It is therefore
to undrastand Hw social MdDuhan’s
changes
Church from its scobb abuses and the fiamous tocooght about by all these media which, out¬
ninety-five theses nailed to the door of the side the body and outside the brain, are exten-
Church at Wittenberg in 1617 were not pri¬ I sions of oneself— the telephone, photography,
marily theole^cai hut moral complai^ deaUng I record pto'ers. radio, T.V.. compirters, and so
with the actual behaviour erf the deisy rather I on. Ail these are wielding a power over ns
than Church beilefis. But unlike ite earlier beyond our control and McLuhan turns Ms
reformers, Euther had arrived at the right I sardonic, witty, epigrammatic eye and pen on
moment in history when ecrainmic individualism i the new. crypHo, changing ^êctnmio Man.
andtheforceofnationaHBm were bound, sooner I McLuhan is a joker all ri^t, but a very carlgtnal
or later, to cause the authradties in Cermany to one: and underneath the compelling and allu¬
line up on his Mde. Thus he began with the sive wit are seams of sense stfll to be explored as
support of the peasants who were genuinely time goes on. The ideas of The Gidenherg
dKM&ed at the abuse of indulgences and other Odlaxv are in essraice that there have been two
matters, hut ended up by beiw supported by great turning points in human undecstanding
the noblemen who wanted to destroy the power since man learnt to read and write: the in¬
of the pope over Hie (Serman statra and looked vention of the printed hook and now the present
forward to conflscatlBg the lands and property electronic revolution. The old linear, logical
of the Church. When Hie peasants wanted the method of thought and ^preseion affected areas
reform of actual economic abu^ rdaHng to the of our activity beyond what are normally
feudal syrtem, Luther took the side of the nobles aôdated with printing or even language; now.
against them. The oontemporaxy movement in too. the present tramormation is changing
Switzerland led by Dhich Zwin^ had no such rivQlsation in a way still to he aêesed. with
seoniar supiport, and Zwin^ was Mlied in 153E profbund and unsnspected changes in attitudes
MarHn Euther (1488-1646) was Hie son of a and thinking. We are being tightened up Into
miner in EMehen in Saxony, mtered the order a " global villsee.” information flooding in to
of AusHn Briars in 1606. and later taught at the UB ftom evrarywhare In unmanageabM quantities,
newly founded university <rf Witterdierg. After time and space being annihilated. Thaeseems
the publicaHon of Hie thês the real imue noHftng which will not be affected: ourprason-
so fiir as the Church was concerned was whether alities, the relatiens between individuals and
he was willing or not to submit to Hie auHiority between commxmitleB, war, racime, race, re-
ofhissopaiorB: Euther refused to ctmipromise Idon. literature, evraything. like a boxer
with his conscience in the ftoious words: “ Here McLuhan jabs this way and that, with an
Istand; I can recommended
do no other.” theIn aformation
further state¬ aphorism here and an epigram there, and
ment Euther of a alluMoim aB the time. In a whirling attack on
Cerman naHonal Ghtuxb. the ahoUtion of so many things about wMoh we have grown
indulgences and oHier means whereby Borne comfortaWe and cranplacrait, we are drawn in
obtained money flrom Germany, and an end to to construe the exdting messages fixim the
the cehbacy of the clergy. Bor this he was ftontier (rf a new and exciting age.
naturally excommunicated. His teaching was i aiagi<^ a form of belief originating in vary ^ly
based on the German translation of the Bible,
but he was by no means a fundamentalist: e.0n days and based
dirilngaiHi on thedmOarity
between prinftHve’sandInability to
Identity.
he drafted that the Book of Hebrews was written I The simplest example would perbai» be the
by Paul, would have nothing to do with Hie fertility rites in which it is believed that a
Apocalypse, and regarded the letter of James as ceremony involving sexual iHations between
"an epistle of straw." The Scriptures were men and women wiB bring about frartiUty in the
open to aB and could be interpreted by private harvest. Or the idea that sticking pins in an
judgment enlightened by the Spirit of God. image of an individual will bring about barm
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
MAL-MAO
J30 become, human reproductive power will siItoo™
or even death to the real person. Ma«io is
regarded by some as a form of early science in adjust itself so that food will
that man in his efforts to control Nature had m relation to population; theaiwaylb only me^
e^S
recourse to magical practices when the only d^l with this is by "moral restrkiiff ’Mie
methods he knew had failed to bring the desired chastity or not marrymg), “ vice ” (i.e., birthl
results. It flUed a gap. By others magic is control methods), or misery He
regarded as an elementary stage in the evolution More speciflcaUy Malthus claimed tS wMe
of religion. It can be said to have served a food mcreases by arithmetical progresS
piiniose there too. Yet magic differs from poputotion
It is trueinches by geometrical
rehgion, however closely at times it may come that these proêS’
gloomy predictions difl
to be related with it, in this important respect : not take place m Malthus’s time largely owSe
rehgion depends upon a power outside and to the openmg up of new areas of land oiZmI
oeymid human beings, whereas magic depends Europe, the development of new techniques in
upon nothing but the casting of a spell or the agriculture, the growth of international tra^
partoniiance of a ceremony — the result follows to poorer areas, the Increased knowledge of
automatically. (We do well, as Dr. Margaret birth-contepl, and developments in mScS
science wM* reduced the misery he hadprt
Murray reminds us. to keep in mind “ that when dieted. Furthermore, we now know that ara
anything regarded as ont of the ordinary course
of nature is brought about by human means it pciety become mdustrialised its birth-rate
K called a miracle if the magician belongs to the tends to faU. Nevertheless there are very few
benolder s own religion, but it is magic— often scientists who are not perturbed by the growth
black magic— if the wizard belongs to another m the world s population which has inmewed
from about 465 rnillion m 1650 to over 3 000
rehgion. In Grimm’s words, ‘ Miracle is divine. million today.
Magic js devilish.’ ”) Mmichaeto. The early Christian apologists who
The idea that “ like produces like ” is at the had not yet acquired an adequate knowledge of
roots of Infftative magic, and it is interesting to
note that in some languages (e.g,, Hebrew and philosophy had httle inteUectual trouble ta
Arabic) there is no word for " resembles ” or deahng with the heathen: their trouble aro^
similar to.” Hence one says “ All thy gar¬ \riien confronted with religions which had a
philospphleai basis. Thus Gnosticism (g.v )
ments
It are myrrh
lollows that an” instead of “ are like myrrh.” caused them a good deal of concern, Neopla-
event can be compelled by
imitating it. One engages in swinging, not for tonism (see God and Man) rather less. sSce
pleasure, but to produce a wind as the swing it coitld never appeal to the masses,
does : ball games are played to get rainy weather Mamchaeisrn considerable anxiety, becauseandit
beciiuse the black ball represents dark rain- TOUld appeM both to the philosopher and the
clouds : other ball games, in which one attempts masses. Mithraism (g.v,), the only other
to catch the ball in a cup or hit it with a stick, senous contendant, was troublesome for a
mpresent the sexual act (as some gentlemen at Cerent reason m that it was the religion of the
Lords may be distressed to hear) and bring Soman a^y and bore a close resemblance to
about fertility: in medicine up till a few cen¬
turies ago herbs were chosen to cure a disease M^chaelsm was an Asiatic religion which
because In some respects their leaves or other developed
Chnstiamtyfrom its Zoroastria nism Ig.v.) w ku
the
elf
influence of Buddhism (q.D.) and. and shows
parts looked like the part of the body affected Gnosticim
\e.g., the common wUdflower still known as (a.®.) being founded by Mani, a Persian, who
eyebright was bom in Babylonia, c. 216 a.p. Mani ore-
because the ”flower
was used in bathing the eyes
looks like a tiny eye), sented hhnself to Shapur I as the founder ofa
^ to Babylonia what
^^•uces of these beliefs are still found today in
childr^ s games and the spells accompanying ^ddhi^ was to India or Christianity to the
theni have turned into nursery rhymes: dolls
are the images of deposed gods or idols: tug-of- W^t. ^ a®iration was attempt to convert
to the East
interfere
war was formerly a sex-conflict with men pulling directly with Christiamty although he reore-
one end and women the other to bring about sented hiêlf as the Paraclete (the Holy
fertility: skittles when knocked down by a ball Bk® Josus. Ghost
had twelve
produced the thunder-noise necessary to pro- disciples. His success m Persia aroused
duce rain. There is reason to believe that the foty of the Zoroastrian priests who objected the
oltet words known in English, relics of our pre- hte mformlng zeal towards their religion and to in
276 Mani was taken prisoner and crudfled.
nistpnc language,
of the nursery are “ Ena, mena, mina, mo ”
rhyme. Of Mam s complicated system little can be
Divination is another aspect of magic and no smd here, save that it is based on the struggle
genera! of the past would have gone to war with¬ of two etem^ conflicting principles. God^d
out consulting his diviners who referred to matter, or light and darkness. Like the
innate livers, how the sacred chickens ate, or ^bigeiês (who followed much of this heresy)
me way ceremonially shot arrows fell Even the faithful into two classes: the
Cicero wrote a book on divination discussing practise the most rigid
dreams, premonitions, and asceticism, and the Hearers *' whose discipline
the flight of birds, which revealed the purposes was mn<* less severe. After death the former
of the gods. If we find It difiBcult to make any went to teaven immediately, the latter reached
distmction between diviners, priests, medicine¬ It pniy through a kind of purgatory, and the
men. ram-makers, shamans, and witch-doctors mibeliever s were doomed to hell. Although its
of early societies, we could perhaps say that founder ^ no intention of interfering with the
they have; orystfUlised out into priests, scien¬ West, a^r his death his followers soon spread
tists, and humbugs of our own day. Eor it Mesopotamia to
would appear that magic, like witchcraft, still mma and China, (Mamchaeism flourished in
exMts today— not merely in the form of Chhia jmtll ilth cent.) It reached as far
children 8 stones and fears, or CTOwn-ups’ en¬ as Bpam and Gaul and influenced many of the
joyment of creepy tales, belief in fortune-telling, bishops m^.êxandria and in Carthage where
omens, and amulets— but as cults attracting for a ttae St, Augustine accepted Manlcbaelm.
many who ought to have more sense. See soon the toleration accorded it under Constan-
Witchoratt, Demonism. tme ended and it was treated as a heresy and
Malthusianism, the theory about population violently suppressed. Tet it later Influenced
by tbe Eev. Thomas heresies, moluding. as we have seen, the
™ Essoj/ on Population
^Jênses, and rt evenwhich had some
had aInfluence on
g^cuius for
(I) iropwaitioivis necessarilypropositio
^ three main ns were:
limited by means picking up eluents in other religions which had
of subsistence.” (2) “ Population Invariably oeen shown to appeal to woishippers provided
mcreases where means of subsistence increase,
unless prevented by some very powerful and
obvious oheoto.” (3) " These checks, and the the branch ofunduly
communism that reigns
with fundament al
cliecim which repress the superior power of (Dhma.s It conflict
mtelief has lieen shaped by one of the
population, and keep its effects on a level with most renoarkable statesmen of modern times,
the means of subsistence, are ail resolvable into Mao Tse-tung, who has set the pattern of revo¬
moral restraint, vice and misery.” In other lution for poor peasant, societies. The com¬
words, no matter how great the food supply may munist movement may be likened to a river
MAR-MET IDEAS AND BEUIEPS
with three principal streams; the left, repre¬ J3I hitherto looked upon as incurable or totaUy
sented toy China, the right, represented by mysterious in origin— the most typical of these
lugoslOTia, and the middle, represented by the being hysterical biindness, paralysis or deafness,
Soviet Union. In Russia the civil war deve¬ nervous skin conditions, and so on. Hypnosis,
loped o/fer the revolution: in China the com¬ which is a valid if very poorly imderstood
munists fought their civil war before they seized psychological phenomenon even today, would
power: the Yugoslav partisans won their own probably have been developed much further
guerrilla war against the fascist powers — differ¬ had not efficient general anaesthetics such as
ences which had important political conse¬ ether, nitrous oxide, etc., been discovered, thus
quences. Russia suffered three decades of greatly dlmmisMng its role as a pain reliever in
surgery.
isolationism and totalitarian suppression (“ tin
isolated and besieged fortress") before the Mesmer, who was three parts charlatan,
death of Stalin. Then came a marked, if never really troubled to think deeply about the
fflgzagging shift towards “ liberalisation.” Mao cause of his undoubted successes. The first
Tse-timg holds to the orthodox Leninfat view man to treat hysteria as a formal class of illness
about capitalism and communism, regards and who made a scientific attempt to treat it
detente as a dangerous illusion and compromise with hypnosis was Ambrose Lldbeault (1823-
and “revisionism” as a fatal error. The 1904). He and his colleague Hippolyto Bern-
ideological dispute between these two great heim (1840-1919) believed: (a) that hysteria
communist powers has developed since 1960 was produced by suggestion, and particularly
when Khrushchev ruthle®ly withdrew economic by autosuggestion on the part of the patient,
md and technical aîstance and forced China and (6) that suggestion was a normal trait found
mto isolationism. It has been likened to the in varying degrees in everyone. These con¬
East-Mest schism in the Christian church. The clusions are true, but as Freud showed later
solution is by no means predictable bnt having are far from being the whole truth. See Paris
come through the “ hundred flowers *’ cam¬ School of Psychotherapy.
paign, the " great leap forward,” and the Methodism, the religious movement founded by
“ cultural revolution,” China isolationism.
in foreign affairs John Wesley in 1738, at a time when the Angli¬
is now reacting against See can Church was in one of its periodic phages of
Section C, Part I. spiritual torpor, with the simple aim of spread¬
Maronites, a Roman (kitholie community of ing “scriptural holiness” throughout the land.
Christians living in the Mount Lebanon region. Up to that time Wesley had been a High Church¬
Their secular clergy marry as in the Greek man but on a visit to Georgia in the United
Chtuch, but their bishops are celibate. States he was much impressed by the group
Marxism. The sociological theories foundeii by known as Moravians (q.v.), and on his return to
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels on which this coimtry ivas introduced by bis brother
modem communist thought is based. Marx Charles, who had already become an adherent,
and Engels lived in a period of unrestrained to Peter Bdhler, a Moravian minister in Eng¬
capitalism when exploitation and misery were land. Passing through a period of spiritual
the lot of the industrial working classes, and it commotion following the meeting, he first saw
was their humanitarianism and concern for the light at a small service in Aldersgate in May
social justice which inspired their work. They 1738 “ where one was reading Lather’s preface
co-operated in 1848 in writing the Communist to the Epistle to the Romans " and from this
Manifesto, and in Ms great work. Das Kapital time forth all Wesley’s energies were devoted to
(1867), Marx worked out a new theory of society. the single object of saving souls. He did this
He showed that all social systems are economi¬ for fifty years and at the end of his life «)nfe®ed
cally motivated and change as a result of tech¬ that he had wasted fifteen minutes in that time
nical and economic changes in methods of pro¬ by reading a worthless hook. Even when he
duction. The driving force of social change was overlong.
all day dghty he still rose at 4 am. and tolled
Marx found to he in the struggle which the op¬
pressed classes wage to secure a better futme. Soon Whitefield. a follower with Calvinist
Thus in his celebrated theory of historical views, was preaching throughout the country and
materialism he interpreted Mstory in terms of Charles Wesley was composing his well-known
economics and explained the evolution of hymns; John’s abilities at this time were taken
society In terms of cla® struggle. (See Dialectical up in organising the moyement d^ribed as
Materialism.) “In the social production of “ People called Methodists.” They were to be
their arranged in “ societies ” which were united into
enter means of existence,”
into definite he wrote,
and unavoidable “men
relations “ eircults ” under a minister, the circuits into
which are independent of their will. These “ districts ” and all knit together into a single
productive relationships correspond to the body under a conference of ministers whleii has
particular stage in the development of their met annually since 1744. Local lay preachers
material productive forces.” IVRirx’s theory of were also employed and to maintain interest ttie
Mstorical materialism implies that history is ministers were moved from circuit to circuit
propelled by claas struggle with communism and each year. These chapel services were not
the classless society as the final stage when man originally meant to conflict with the Cliurch of
wiU have emancipated himself from the produc¬ England of which Wesley still considered him¬
tive process. Marx was the first to put sociallm self a member. They ware purely supplement¬
on a rational and sdentific basis, and he foretold ary. and it used to be the custom (bôre the
that socialism would inevitably replace capital- Methodists began to count themselvw as Non¬
ism and that tn the tianMtion period the revolu¬ conformists) for Methodists to attend Chnmfli in
tionary dlctatordilp of the proletariat would he the morning and Chapel in the evening.
neceâry. His prophecy, however, came to The class-meeting was the unit of the organi¬
realisation not in the advanced coxmtriM as he sation where members met regularly imder a
had envisaged but in backward Russia and chosen leader to teU their “ experimees ” upon
China. See aim) Communism. which they were often subjected to severe cross-
Mennonites. See Baptiste. examination. At the end of every quarts,
Mensheviks. Ree Bolshevism. provided their attendances were regular, they
Mesmerism, a rapidly vanishing name to denote recMved a ticket of manbeiaMp wMoh entitled
the practice of hypnosis, wMch owes Its popu¬ them to come to montMy sacrameaital services.
larity. though not its discovery, to the French¬ If attendance was inadequate the name was
man Anton M^mer (1783-1815). Mesmer’s removed from the list, without appearance on
contribution was the realisation that a large which nobody was deemed a member. The
number of what we would today call psycho¬ price of the ticket was. " a penny a week and a
somatic or hysterical conditions could te cured shilling a quarter ” but Wesley was not inter¬
(or at least temporarily alleviated) by one or ested in receiving money from anyone who was
another form of suggeîon. Mesmer himself not utterly devoted to the cause.
relied on the idea of what he called "animal John Wesley introduced four other innova¬
magnetism,” a supposedly potent therapeutic tions, some of wMch were regarded by Church¬
force emanating from the living body wMch men who had previously been willing to com¬
could he controlled by the trained individual. mend his efforts in bringing religion to the
Mesmer used wands and impressive gadgetry poorer Ma^^ as dangerous; (1) He started the
to dispense the marvellous force and he effected Sunday-school scheme and afterwards enthusi¬
a remarkable number of cures of complaints. astically guppoited that of John Salkes. often
ideas and beliefs
legarded m ilie founder of tJje idea; this was of He does not. however, think in terms of in/u
hmneiTO toportanee in the days before the vldiml minds but rather of a kSd
Education Acts. (2) He reintroduced the mmd throughout toe universe itoieh^^S^
or "love feasts ” of the early CSiurch us^ as an e^lanation of anything whlch^n
which were fellowship meetfaiga deepening the
sense ot brotherhood of the society. (3) He
tân to copy the open-air meetings of the
dOQirent Whitefield and soon unwittin^y pro-
Mced the most extraordinary results, finisinff . M^ people to practice are dualists since
ttot his sermons led to groans, tears, feintlng- rightly or wrongly, mmd and bodv are tTiSSSf;
nts, and all sorts of emotional expresaitm. Even nec^sarily the truelSt
ills open-air lay speakers produced like results
and these came to be associated with Methodism of as
of two êrent
view. a much ft
Plato to f^r is toe^^tooS*
more complex wrfr
and gave signiflcance to the proud Anglican
was a dualist although^ he
™ some
held sense
totênot
clMm that their services would be “without
enthusiasm.’ (4) After some hesitation he of ideas andf
ventmr^ to consecrate Dr. Thomas Coke, who toe tree we*'®alseeworld
realis thôrld
is not hri
being sent as a missionary to America, as a I simply matter upon which mtod or soul
impni^d the idea of a tree.
bi^p of work
religious his church. In addition to Wesley’s
he was a great educator of the erists has ite corresponding formEverythi ng that
to toerorl^f
conimori man. Thus he introduced the cheap ideas wd prints its Pattern ôn matte
hook and the church magazine, publishing books Mmd a^ys existed and. hatoig heS^
of any sort which he thought would edify and ente^led with matter, is constantly seeking
nOT harm even when the views expressed were itself and return to God. to
Plato’s pupil
different ftom his own— Thomas k Kempls’s
Irmtahon of Christ and works of history blo- ecientlflcputlook Aristot le had a much more
and held that, althon S itwS
graphy. , science, and medicine in some oases mtod which gave matter its form, mins is
written by himself. In this way the movement oidside matter, as Plato had thought
wito its cheap books and reading rooms It as its formative principle. Therefobut insidp
had an
membership . aie lowest re
cqtod he no_ mind without matter
there
and nofoS of
matter
Both the Anglican Church and the Evangelical
movei^t of Wilberforoe and others profited matter have some degree of mtod white
creases m qimntity and quality as we move to-
tom Wesley’s work. Some social historians, up
nptly or -v^ngly, have claimed that it was the scale to more complex thtogs. ®
Wêy s m&ence among the working classes Merent substances as matter and mtod
ttot ro^d England the revolutionary activity s iffiSi®?’ c»tod
wMch characterised most other European coun- mfluenee each otoer toexplained
any way,how two such
and this re.
toe® torhig the first quarter of the 10th cent. mains, m spite of attempts to be mentioned
, Methodism,
1791. êclally
began, like after Wesley’s death in
other movements, t™ late ideas,
rS; ®‘ problemoneto ofPhilosop
them hy.
ratora foohsh
to develop and the otoer sunplyreftiring to answer toe^^
schisms. There were the long-standing differ¬ ahe flirt
ences which the Baptist movement (g.c.) had
shown too between Aiminian and Cfelvinist secrion, ^ trolfled by topics
.between those who did and those matter e^ts and what we call mind is merely
who did not accept the doctrine of predestina¬ nmtter of a finer terture, a view which as
tion. In the case of the Methodists, this led to an
eÎanariqn to unlikely to satisfy anyone; the
a mmplete break in 1811. Then there were otote that of some Sceptics, images
is that weor can
thoughts
know
dfflerencM asspomted with the status of the
jaaty, or toe relationsiup of the movement with ttet fliteer throute our
toe AnghcM Church. The “Methodist New either mtod or matter we knowconsciou sness. Of
nothing.doctrines
Ghristto
•^nnecflon of 1797 differed only in giving the Mve already been dealt with (see God
^ty equal presentation with toe niiniHt,Ara but and
toe _ more toportant break of toe Priinitive ^1, Detemunlm and Eree-will). and the S
tethodirts In 1810 gave still more power to the
laity and reintroduced 1815 the toe
“ camp-meetoig Mmorteity, Nor n^ 8^ we Ismention
dealt with under
the Eenals-
Bryanites or’’ sance phfiosophe^ who were really mimh more
Bible ■Ctesiians were formed, and a fintoer
teEcêdûtliow
Wben ttiey to ^ consider
mtod than
Bcn^ much was even brought before toe law ^ture*
ttiey usually dealt with did theabout its
subieefc
courts was ratenslbly over toe foundation of a ' it. as did Praxis
M separating the sphere of science from thaTof
theol^^_ coIlege._ The real reason, of course,
becoming more
laity were becoming more iî^n and giv^ there WCTe
toe orthteox
rtOl good view
rôns of the
for
,^Ûj^™1832j_at a conference in the not vjshmg to annoy toe Ohurte.
Ijm-cent. Viem; Bdbbes.De scartes.Q
Thomas uelimse.to
Hês
BrMtive Methodists, and toe Hnited
mthodists becê one Churcii. toe Methodist cent, was reaUy one of toe first to
Including America, where Methodism attgnpt a modem explanation of mind and
toe original direction of Thomas Coke
spread Me wildfire, toe Methodist is one oftoe materialist he held, that all that exists is matter
and hence .f'?? ^ his attempt was omde. As a
^ largest our thou^ts, ideas, images, and
Mind and :^testant
Matter. Churches of today.
Greeh Views: IdeaMsm and Dualism. TOthta ^ the bram ®' aM ofnerves.
motion This
taking Isplace
the
Motive PMples could see that there is a matertolt
not; exist.et theory which states that mtod does
uisbnctaon betwe® those things which move
tto tmngs by themselves and others, such as
stones, which do not, , EoUowing the eariy state nature of9^®^f
nMd F® and body: idealism,
*^®briesdnabsm,
of the
erf Anhato which spirits were believed Mu materiabsm, and we may accept any one of
to Mve tow abode in everytoing. they began toe But, if we accept dualtom. we shall
to diftercntiMe between matter or substance
to move it and shape it teve to ^lato, prec^ly^the relationship be-
wgm body Md mtod. In some of his late
to toe Greek wnttogs Hobbes seoeis to suggest that mental
Bamimês (fl. c. 476 b.o.), who was a philo- prowsses are the effects of motion rather than
îbought or mind was toe morion its^; 4.e., they exist, but only as a
c^tor of wMt we obpve and in some way not result of physical processes just as a flame does
qmte clear to himself it seemed that mind te a candle. This theory of the irtatioiikhip is
toe cause of everything. Ibis is perhaps was known as emDhenomenaUsm,
nmt expression of the . movement known the as Descartes, the great Erente contemporary of
Idîsm which says, in effect, that the whole Htebes, was a dualist who believed that mtod
umveiae is mental — a creation either of our own ^c^h exist and are entirely different
minds or the mind of God. But from Anaxa- entitles; toerefore he had to ask kknaoif how,
for CTampte. the desire to walk leads to the
mwt
^ ttot piindB.C,) we have toe all movement
Mr sum pnyuic&l motion of Wftlktog. SOiBimssrtfsfactory
but IS distinct from toe causes
sidishuice it moves. answer WAS that^ Animus ai^ pure
MIT-MON J; 33 IDEAS AND BEX-tEFS
antomatons. man is different in that he has a in one fcmn c» another the belief that mind in
soul which resides in the pineal gland {a tiny some way creates matter and were, therefore,
structure in the brain which today we know to idealists, whereas Ctemte, the p(^tivist (g.c.),
be a relic of eyolntion with no prênt ftmction and the Americans William James and John
whatever). In this gland the mind comes in Dewey, hriid that mind fe a form of behaviour.
contact
and thus with
theretheis interaction
" vital spirits ” of the
betweaa the body
two. Certain they
acts are
(e.e.. reflexes) others
axe "mindless”
because deliberate; which are
This theory is known as inkradionUm, and intended may be described for the sake of con¬
since we do not accept its basis hi the ftmction venience as " minded ” (i.e., pnrposeflil). But
of the pineal gland, we are simply left with the like the maiority of modem psychologists —
notion of interaction but withont the explana¬ tosofiir as they take any interest in the subject —
tion of how It takes place. they regarded mind as a process going on in the
One of Descartes’s snocessors. Arnold living body. Is there any reasm. many now
Guelincs. produced the even more improbable ask, why we should think of mind as being
theory of pwhopSysfcui paraUelism, sometimes any different in nature from digestion? Both
known as the theory of the “two docks.” are procreses going on in the body, the one
Imagine you have two docks, each keeping per¬ in the brain, the other in the stomach and
fect time, then suppcKing yon kiw one and Intetin^. Why should we regard them as
heard the other, every time tme points to the " things ”?
hour the other will strike, giving the impre®ion Bffithraism, a sun-religion which originated in
that the first event cauro the second, although Persia with the worship of the mythical Mithra,
In fact they are quite unrelated. So it is with the god of light and of troth. It was for two
the body and mind in Guelincs’s view, each is centuries rivals,
one ofparticularly
early Christianity’s most since
for¬
" wound up ” by God In the bînning in such midable in the Weirt
a way as to ke^ time with the other so that the more philoscmhical Hellenlo Christianity of
when I have the desire to \ralk imrdy unrelated the East had little to fear from it. (Arnold
physical events in my tegs cause them to move Toynbee has described Mithraism as “a pre-
at the same time. A variety of this theory is Zoroastrian Iranian paganism — în a Heltenic
Mcasionism, which ots that whenever some¬ dress Maniohaeism as “ Zoroastrianism— In
thing happens in the phjrical world, God affects a Christian dress ”,) Mithraism was a mystery-
us so that we think we are being affected by the faith with secret rites known only to devotee.
happening. It appealed to the soldlera of the Eoman Army
The trouble about all these theories is (o) that which explains its spread to the farthest limits
they reaHy explain nothing, and (6) that they of the Eoman empire and its decline as the
give ns a very peculiar view of God as a celestial Eomans retreated. The religion re^mbied
showman treating ns as puppets when it would Zoroastrianism (q.v.) in that it laid stre^ on the
surely have been easter to create a worid In constant struggle between good and evil and
which mind and matter simply interacted by there are a number of parallelB with Christianity,
their very nature. Spinoza, too, believed in a e.ff., a miraculous birth, death, and a glorious
sort of psychophysical parallelism in that he did iwtrrection, a belief in heaven and hell and the
not think that mind and body interacted. But immortalitr of to son] , a last judgment. Both
since in his theory everything is Ood, mind religions held Sunday as the holy day of the
and matter are slmpiy two sides of the same week, celebrated 25 December (date of the
penny. pagan winter solstice festival) as to birthday
John Locke, another eontenporary. thought of the founder: both celebrated Easfter, and in
of the mind as a blank slate upon which the their cerraaonles made use of bell, holy water,
worid writes in the form ofsensations, for we have and the candle. Mithxato reached to height
no innate or inborn ideas and mind and matter about 275 A.P. and afterwards declined both for
do interact although he does not tell ns how. the reason given above and. perhaim. becanse it
AH we know are sensations — i.e., sense im¬ excluded women, was emotional rather than
pressions. Bishop Berkeley carried this idea to philcmphical, and had no general organisation
its logical coDclurion: if we know nothing but to direct to course. Yet even today, ftom the
sensations, we have no reason to suppose that Euphrates to the Tyne, traces of the religion
matter exists at aJL He was. therefore, an remain and antlcinarians are femiliar with the
idealist. image of the sun-god and the inscription JDeo
180i cent. Views: Ewne, Kcmt. David Soli MiOtme, Imido, Smtlmi (dedicated to the
Hume went furth^ stDl and iminted out that, sun-god of Mithra, the nnconanated). Miihra-
if all we know are sensations, we cannot prove fem enjoyed a brief reviyal of popular interest
the ejdstmice of matter but we cannot prove the in the mid-1960s when workers excavating
existence of mind either. Allwecanevrarknow the foundations of the skyscraper, Buckleisbnry
is that idîs. impresriom, thoughts, ftillow each House in the City of London, found the well-
other. We do not even expadence a sdf or preserved retnatas of a Eoman MthrMc temple.
personality becanse every time we look into our Despite a campaign to save the temple as a
" minds ” afi we really experience are thoughts national monmnent. the skyBcraper won and
and impressions. Hume was qpiok to point out the London house of Mithras retoned under¬
that this was not the same as saying that the ground one* nwwe.
self did not exist : it only proved tot we cannot Hohammedanfam. See Islam.
know that it does. Monasttefam. Whaj in the 4th cent. An. Oonstan-
Kant made It cteax fliat, alfeon^ there fe a ttae in effect united rtate and ehurrii tore were
worid outride ourselves, we can never know natoallr many who hastened to become Chrisi-
what It !a really like. The mind rec^ves im¬ turns to the worldly benefits they specked It
pressions and forms them into patterns which to bring in view <rf the new ritnatioa. Bat
conform not to the riiing-in-itsrif but to the there were others who, in their ^tots to escape
nature mind. Space and time^ for mmmple, from worldly InvolTHnent, went Into the deserts
are not realities but ojfiy the form into which onr of Horth Afilca and Syifa to five as hermits and
mind fits its sensarions. In other words om so in tb^ regions there grew up large com¬
mind shapes impresions which are no more like munities of monks whc«e lives of rentmefation
to thlng-in-itself than the map of a battlefield made a conriderable impression on to Ourfetian
with pins showing the position of various army worid. T3iey were men ofaE types but the two
groups at any given moment Is like the battle¬ main groups w«e those who preferred to five
field. Thfe, of course, fa true. From physics alone Mid those who prefrared a community life.
and physiology we know that the sounds we Among the first must be inclnded St. Anthony,
hear are “really” -waves In the air, the sights the earliest of the hamits. who was bom in
we see “ reaHy ” elecferamagnetic waves. What Egypt c. 250 and who lived alone in a hut near
guarantee do we havereceived
that thein source is " really his home for fifteen years, and then in the desert
like the impression onr brain? Bfant” for a further twenty. As his fame spread
was the leader of the grait German Idealist Anthony came forth to teach and advocate a life
movement of the I8th cent, which in effect of extreme austerity, until by the end of hte life
said; “ why bother about matter when ril we the Thebaid (the detot around Thebes) was ftiQ
can ever know fa mental? ” of hermits following bis example. (Not un-
and 200% cent. Views. The Buglfahman natorafiy. he was cemstantiy assailed by lustful
Bradley, and the Frenchman Henri Bergson visions which he thonghtftillr attributed to
in the 19th and early SOIh crat. both held Satan.) In the Sytfan des^ St. Simeon
IDEAS AND BECIEfs
MON-MOR
perfectly distinct and mseparably joined
Stylites and others were stimulated to evenJ34 in one
greater austerities and Simeon hnnself spent pei-son and partaking of the one XvMe
pillar in a space so stance . However., many continued to ^
Monophysite opinions, includ told
that it was only posslhle to sit or stand. ing the Coptk
With some of these men it is obvious that (anreh (g.n.) declaring the Council to be
ascetic discipline had become perverted into an oecume nical (».e.. not holding the views of un- the
PPPleasant form of exhibitionism. true and umversal Christian Church)
The flr^ monastery was founded by Pacho- Mpnop the syc^, the theory of the intellect held bv
Arab philosopher Averrofis (1126-98) M his
mius of Egypt e. 315 and here the monks bad a
conmon life with communal meals, worship, and
work mainly of an agricultural type. In the interprduM
indivi etation of Aristotl
intelli e. rna.ini-.s
gence has no Sfce iT.iT,n.
M &
Eastern part of the Empire St. Basil (c. 360) pvm right but is part of the divine mind (nous)
tned to check the growth of the extreme and from wMeh It emerges at birth and into wMch
It IS absortod at death. B[e thus denied persona
pieetacular practices of the hermits by organis- l
1^ fasting
monastenes in which the ascetic disciplines Hôrtality, a view which was opposed by
of meditation, and prayer, would be
balancedby useful and healthy activities. His Monothel ites,
Christian phi a Christia n oph
sect ofers
monasteries had orphanages and schools for
los the 7th . cent ^
TOth orttodpxy. They is reconcile MonophysS
boys— not only those who were intended for a admitted the ortoodM
monkish life. But the Eastern Church in êw of Chrwt s two natures as God and man
general continued to favour the hermit life and but declared that He operated
ascetic extremes. Originally a spontaneous Monothehtto was condemned aswith one^
heretical bv
moTênt. the monastic life was introduced to the Council of Constantinople In toto
680 wMch
ad X^
the West by St. Athanasius in 330 who obtained Montanisim a Phrygian form tenete
of primitive Pm-ltan.
Its recognition from the Church of Borne and St.
Augustine introduced it into North Africa ^rly Chrisfaan thrologian ^ 8^rem ist views
Tertullian (c. 160- that
beyond B^t. The movement was promoted the Ottistian should keep Mmseif aloof from the
by St. Jerome, St. Martin of Toura. who
introduced it into Prance, and St. Patrick into wprid and hold no social intercourse whatever
P*® monastery of Iona was founded TOth
tion of Pa^M . sThe sect had Immediate expecta¬
by St. Columha in 666. But it must be re¬ Christ second coming and indulged in
membered that the Celtic Church had a life of prophetic utterance wMch they held to be to
Its oym winch owed more to the Egyptian tradi¬ spired by the Holy Ghost but which thri?
tion than to Borne. Unlike the more elaborate enemies put down to prompting by the De^
monasteries of the continent those of the early in seeking persecution and marty suppre
rdomssed. thpv
Celtic Church were often little more than a
Cluster of stone bee-hive huts, an oratory, and Morel Re-Armament, a campaign laimched in 1938
a stone cross. It had its own religious cere- by an Amencan evangeli st of Lutheran barir.
monies and its own art (notably its beautifully ground. Prank N. D. Buchman (18^19
carved crosses and the illuminated manuscripts founder of the Oxford Group MovementTand6Dat
such M the lin^disfame Gospel (c. 700) and the first associated with the Pirst Century Churto
Irish Book of Kells datmg from about the same Pellpwship, a fundamentalist Protestant re-
tmm). The Scottish St. Nim'an played a major yiv^t Buchma
movement. On a visit to England in
part m introducing Egyptian texts and art to 1920 n preache
Britain where, mixed with Byzantine influences through Ilfe-ehanging tod undergra “world-changing
duates at
and the art of the Vikmgs, it produced a typical Oxford, hence the name Oxford Group. This
culture of Its own. Strangely enough, it was revivalmt movement was based on Buchman’s
the relatively pnmitive Celts who played almost conviction that world civilisation was breaking
m large a part in preserving civilisation in down and a change had to be effected in the
Europe durma the Dark Ages as did the Italians minds of men.
Columbanus (c. 640-616) who Two of the (Group’s most
founded the great monasteries of Annegray, were group confession of sins typical practices
openly and the
I/uxmul, Md Pontaine in the Vosges country, <imet time” set aside during the day to
bt. Gall m Switzerland, and Bobblo in the receive messages from the .Almigbt.y as to be-
Apeimtiies. So, too, it was the Anglo-Saxon haviop and current problems. In the eyes of
non-Groupers the confession (often of trivial
^01^ (c. 736-804)
W CharlemaOTe to setwhoup was called from York
a system SIM) appeared to he exhibitionist and there was
of education
throughout his empne; the most famous of the ielfc to be a certain snobbery about the move-
monastic schools he founded was at Tours ment which inade it strongly conscious of the
Among those influenced by Mm was the philo¬ social status of its converts.
sopher John Scotus Eiêna,
to Moral Be-
. lânwhile from the south, as the disintegrat¬ ;^mament,
M.B.A. men the
es Boman mpfre became increasingly corrupt. and third
womenphase of Buchmanlsm.
lay stress on the four
St. Benedict of Nnxsia (c. 480-c. 543) fled the w absolutes of honesty, purity, love, and
ptosures of Borne to lead a hermit’s life near unselfishness. They believe they have the
bimiaco. Here he founded some small monas¬ Ideas to set the pattern for the changing world
teries. but a. 620 made a new settlement, the and, mdeed, clMm to have aided in solving many
great monastery of Monte Cassino in southern internatimal disputes — ^political, industrial, and
Italy, where he established a “Buie ” for the recial. _ (Qieologians complained of the Groups
gpvemmmt of monks. This included both that their movement lacked doctrine and
study and work and emphasised that education intellectual content; M.B.A. is no different in
was neceâry for the continuance of Christianity. this respect,
As
i 1 Ms
As i
Ms influence
mfluenOR spread
RrirPatT his
Wa Buie
T?nl» was V* WUAIOUIUOJJ.IjA'.
xiraa
adopted by Morgan (anr^, a revival of the Church of the
other, monasteries, and schools became part of Bohemian Brethren wMch orlgfaiated (1457)
monastic Me. It is not possible to describe the mnong some of the foUowers of John Hns. It
many dfflerent orders of monks and nuns developed a kind of Quakerism that rejected the
fonned siMe, nor the mendicant orders of use of force, refused to take oaths, and Iiad no
wars (c.ff..Pranciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites,
have been sym-
A^stml ^), :ta many ways even those out¬ pathetic towards (Îvinism
side the Boman OathoUo Church owe M approaches to Luther, but made unsuccess-
the monastic movement. Monastiemuch ism of
to As a Protestant sect
it wtoruthlessly persecuted by Perdinand H and
course, IB not peculiar to Christianity and forms to survive. However, in the
a major aspect of Buddhism, especially in the 18th cent, the body was re-establltoed by Count
,, form of Lamaism in Tibet (ij.p.). Zinzendorf who offered it a place of safety in
Monophysiasm, a heresy of the 5th cent, which Saxony where a town called Herrnhut (God’s
CTOw out of a rerotion against Nestorianism protection) was built and this became the centre
majority of Egyptian Christians tr9m which Moravian doctrine was spread by
w^ Monophysites (MonoTphysite «= one missionanes all over the world. Their cMef
nature)— *.e., they declared Christ’s human and DeUef which had a fhndameiital influence on
divine nature to be one and the same. This
condemned at the Council of Chalcedon a« direct illuminationMethodism)
from God was
pronounced that Jesus Christ, whichthat faith usis
assures
beyond all possibility of doubt that we are
true God and true man. has two natures, at saved, and that no goodness of bâviouri piety.
once
MOR-NAT J35 IDEAS AND 6C1.IBFS
or orthodoxy is of any ose withonfc this *‘ aiffi- The Eeorganised Church of Jesus Cauist of
cient sovereign, saving grace.” Latter-day Sainte with its headquarters at
Mormons, or Intter-day Saints, one of the very Independence. Mjasonxi, has been separate and
numerous American religious sects; founded in distinct since 1852.
18S0 by Joseph Smith, the son of a Vermont Mnggletonlans, one of the many sects which arose
farmer, who, as a youth, had been Influenced by during the Commonwealth but. unlike most of
a loral religiorB wvival though confused by the others (Levellers (q.o.). Diggers (q.v., Fifth-
the confflcrtog beliefs of the various denomina¬ Monarchy Men, and the MiUenari^) which
tions. He said that while praidng for guidance tended to have a strongly political aspect, this
he had been confronted by two heavenly mes¬ was purely religions. Founded by two journey¬
sengers who forbade Mm to join any existing men tailors. Lodowick Muggleton and John
church but prepare to become the prophet of a
new one. Soon, in a sexto of visions, he was told
of a revelation written on golden plates con¬ xwjEJTc uxussras, iiiiu
cealed in a nearby hillside. he unearthed Aaron. They also believed tlmt the Father,
in 1827 and with the help of “ Urim and Thum- not the Son, had died on the crosa (an ancient
mlm ■* translated the ” reformed Egyptian ” heresy) but added the strange statement that
characters into Enîsh. Described as the He left Elijah in control during BQs period on
Book of Mormon, this was published in 1830 earth. Eejecting the doctrine of the Trinity,
and at the same time a little chxirch of those they also ara^rted that God has a human body.
few who accepted his testimony was founded Nevertheless, for a time, they had a large
in Fayette. N.Y. In addition the first of number of foEoweis.
Joseph Smith’s “miracles” — the casting out tsrsUcism, a reUgkras attitude which concerns
of a devil — was performed. The Book of Mor¬ Itself with direct relationship with God,
mon punrorts to be a record of «ixly American " reality ” as contrasted with appearance, or the
history and religion, the American Indiana “ ultimate ” in one form or another. All the
being identified as the ten Lost Tribes of Israel, higher religiona have had their mystics who have
whose fate has never failed to attract the not always been regarded without suspicion by
attention of those who prefer myth to fact (cf. their more orthodox members, and, as Bertrand
British Israelites). Jesi® Christ is alleged to En®eII iJOinte out, there has been a remarkable
have appeared in America after His ascension. unity of opinion among mystics wMch almost
Yet Smith’s eloauence was able to influence transcends their rehgkms differences. Thus,
auite educated people, including Sidney Eigdon characteristic of the mystical experience in
with whom he went into business for a time. general, have been the following features: (1)
Boclrine and Govenanis & the title of another a belief in insfeht as opposed to analytical
book dealing with the revelations Smith claimed knowledge which is accompanied in the actual
to have received. Soon the sect was in trouble experience by the sense of a mystery unveiled,
with the commxmity both becaxise its members a hidden wisdom become certain beyond the
insisted on describing thanselves as the Chosen possibility of doubt: thfe is often preceded by a
People and others as Qentil® and iKcause they period of ntter hojêssne® and isolation de-
took part in poliUts, voting as Smith ordered, scaibed as “ the dark night of the soul (2) a
them to. Smith was amstaatly in trouble with belief in unity and a refusal to admit opporfMon
the police. Therefore they were turned out from or dtvtelon anywhere; this somerimes appears
one city after another until they found ttem- to the form of what seem to be oonteadictory
selves a dwelling-place at Fauvoo, Illinois, on statmnents: “ the way up and the way down is
the Mississippi. one and the rame ” (Haaclitus). There is no
That woifld probably have been the end of distinction between subject and object, the act
the story had not Smith been murdered in 1844 of perception and the thing percdved; (S) a
and thereby made to appear a martST. and had denial of the reality of time, since if all is one
there not appeared Brigham Young, a guite the distinction of part and futrrre must be
extraordinary leader, who stamped out warring illusory; (4) a denial of the reality of evil (which
factions and drove out the recalcitrant. While does not maintain, e.g^ that cruelty is good but
persecutions continued Brigtiam Young an¬ that it does not exist to the world of reality as
nounced that it had been revealed that he mxist opposed to the worid cf phantoms from wMch
lead the fMthfal to Salt Lake, then outside the we are liberated by the insist of the vision).
area of the United Stat^. There folowed the Among the great mystics have been Meister
famous trek of more than a thousand miles Eckhart and Jakob Bortune, the German re¬
across desert country in which he led the way. ligious mystics of the 13th and 16th cent,
reaching his journey’s end in the forbidding respectively. Acharya Sankara of India, and St.
valley of the Great Salt Lake on 24 July 1847. Theresa and St. John of the CEross of Spain.
By 1851 80,000 Mormons had reached the Mystical movements within the great religions
Promised Land. Here they held their own in have been; the Zea, («.o.) movemmt wflhin
a hostile «mvironment and under the practical Buddhism: Taoism, to China; tteCabalistsand
genius of their leader cmxied through a vast Hasidlm to Judaism; the Sufis within Islam:
irrigation scheme and built Salt Lake City srane of the Quakers within Christianity,
wMch sOU serves as the headquarters of their
sect. In 1860 thefr pioneer rtittlement was
made Utah Territory, and to 1896 tacoiporated
to the Union. The church was sfcrleUy ruled
by its leadm* who rtso looked aft®r afeits of
state for thirty years until his death to 1877.
Polygamy, althougai opposed by smne Mor¬
mons, and only sanmtmed by Brigham Young Natural Law, the spedfleally Eoman Catholic
when Salt lake CSty had. been built, is the doctrine ttet there is a natural moral law. Jr-
best-known of Mormon doctrines. It brought respeclave of time and place, which man can
the sect into much disrepute md was renounced know through his own r^tson, OrigtoaUy a
to 1890. Mormons are millenarians, bdieving product of early xatkmal philosophy the
that some thne Christ will appear and role for Chrtetian form of the doctrine is bartcally due
a ihousand years. to St. Thomas Anutoas who defined natural tow
There are two orders of priests or leaders: to retotaon to eternal tow. holding that the
the MelchizedekB, or htoher order, include the eternal tew is God’s reason wMrtt gorons the
apmtto or rtiltog elders, and the hlrti priest; retoMons of all things to the universe to each
the Aaronio pxieslhood, or lower order, attrads oflito. The natural tow is that part of the
to the temporal aShiis of the church as the
Melchlzedete attend to rtxe spiritual Members eternal law
ttothoUc whidi tow
natural relates to man’s
assumes hriiaviour.
that ttra human
abstain from alcohol, tobacco, coffee, and tea. reasran is capable cff deriving ulttomte rules for
The church lays strera on the Importance of right behaviour rince there are in mam smd his
revelation through visionB, on education to meet icrtitutions certain stable structaies produced
m '
the social, mirltnal. and cuUmal needs rff its by God'scorrect
reason and
which mam’s reason
memb^, and on community xvelfifixe. Mem¬ to be true. Thus, the cam know
baste of
bers of ihe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day marriage, property, the state, amd the contmits
Saints now number over two milUcm in con-
gregatioDS throughout the world. t of justice
natural are held
reason. The toroto
be of
avaitolfie
p(«tive to man’s
morality
ideas and beliefs
NAZ-OBJ
J36
and cml law are held to be valid only insofar Roscelin was bom in Prance, accused
as they conform to the natural law, which man heresy but recanted and fled to Etoatirttwice nf
IS not only capable of toowing but also of he attacked the views of Anstoi
obeying,
Ihrotestrat theologians criticise this notion. were a Jlatm voa or breath of the voice
^
• Barth and many others hold that mo^ unp(3rtent nominalist was the Englfetoa?
smul Md falten man cannot have any direct Wilham of Occam to the I3th cent/^
mowleto of God or His reason or will without separated the two schools byo sa^^
TO
Niebuhr pointsrevelation. Another theologian nominalist view),,®®ft “®® “'bout things (thi
whereas logic, phfl^^y a^l
out that the principles of the
doctrines are too inflexible and that although religio
Platomcn traditi
are about terms
they are the product of a particular time and on). Both areorjustificoSts ro,®
ed but we
emctmânce, they are regarded as if they were must dfatmgnish between them, Tê n^®
portio
absolute and eternal. In fact, as most social n man isophy
a species
scientists would also agree, there is no law which
philos toit a” scientif
is not a proposifS
ic stfieS
we cannot say whether it is true or fakp
can be regarded as " natural ’’ for all men at all without knowing about man. If we toil
tunes. Nor does it seem sensible to suppose +n
that aU or even many men possess either the realise that words are conventiomil rigS* and
reason to discern natural law or the ability to p ^ important to decide whether or Mt
they have a mininmto g and logical
refer fallacie
to someth
s of to
man’s firee- the
wiU tod aU Protestant sects accept
do not), we know
^ a fact of science that people are not always type: Man is a
nulyan.responsible for their actions and some not
at T to » ojjcuica. XJJIS. in etfpnf
Nazi^, the term commonly used for the political logical M^sis which,
7®Jj^®i begtomng of thetomodem philosophy of
oversimWyfttete
that a stiênt is not m
and spci^
Socialist ideology of the German National
Party iuspired and led by Hitler. The may also he meaitogless.justTherefore,
tree or unt^ ^
pMosoptocal problems we have discussed to S the
term was ^ abbreviation of *^®^ ^ the third possibility that eS
Socialist. Those in the Federal EepubUcNational today tee
sympathetic to National Socialist alms are problem we are discussing has no meanin!?
known m neo-Nazis. See Fascism. because the words refer to nothing ^d weSf
Neoptet om^ Determinism and Free-wiU and ask ourselves More going any tether “ whSô
God and Man.
we Piean by God,” has the word " free-wfll "
Netorian heresy, ê 6th cent, of the Christian attitude of aU those Christian
Church saw a battle of personalities and eoPform to the doctrinS
opmioM waged with fanatical fury between St. any defimte meaning? ■ *
Cynl. the patriarch of Alexandria, and Nes- to 1662 they were called
torius, patnMch of Constantinople. Nestorius ft® ?bj“ft_ef. BPSlmid. Up to the passing of
mamtam^ that Mary should not be caUed the puntans or di^nters and were often
mother of God as she was only the mother of persecuted, flhe oldest bodie I“dependents. S
s of nonSm
the huiB^ and not of the divine nature of
Jesus, flflus view was contradicted by Cyril (to Engtod) the Presbytenans ; the Method
(one of the most unpleasant saints who ever although dating from 1788. did not ists
hvecD who held the orthodox view. In addition ceSa
to to ntter tetruction of Nestorius by stealthy Presbyt erians are, of eomse the
and iêmittmg animosity Cyril was also re- ft®ft
official®®te
ChOTChôoeo ofônni Btsd until
Scotlan where someit is tbe
ft® lynching of Hypatia, a dis- J^gbeans (toown as altbougb" Episcopanot
liansgenerally de¬
”) who are
tmguilsh^ imthematician and saintly woman,
head of the Neoplatonist school a,t Alevnndrjn.
from her chariot, stripped
and tom to pieces in the scribed as such. ue
church, and her remains burned. As if tto
anoi^h Cyril took pains to stir up
pogronw again^ the very large Jewish colony of 0
ftS aulokly of Ephesus (a.d. Objeotirism. a semi-political philosophy ex¬
wril. 1 Coimcilbiôps
(reinforced by the decided for
Council pounded to the American novelist. Ayn Hand.
clarifled orthodox Catholic in as mucli as it was first prona-
3Mtonophyritism). Nestorius be- gated tlûgh two of Objectiv her own
came a hMetic, was banished to Antioch where ism best-seUt
is the ag im
had a ôrt weatoess
reroite of and
peace,age,
but was
later,dragged
^d to ^lability of the competitive capitalist
*^® well-tong and advancement of
of Egyjit. We TO® to another on the borders believes, are to be found to the

are assured that his tongue was ?^® ®®®ds of man’s destruc-
punishment for the wicked creeping menace1 of socialism, which by its
tendency to encourage the individual to rely
m Syria and Persia under the on Ihe state rather than himself, undermines
protection of the rulers of Persia and missions of human hard work and
vr-Stfo ®oot to India and China. significant novel, X7ie JPomlainhead, she teUs
ft? name ^ commoifly
revolutionary given anarchism.
to the earUest It the story of an ^ unconventional andperhaps highly most
self-
motivated Mchitect, Howard Boark, who
H (181^81), the hberator of the serfs, Alexander
who fanie andauocess by a combina¬
IT tion of hard work, talent, and refusal to com¬
tional monarchy, was killed by a bomb. The promise. Her_ second major novel. Atlas
tern mhihst, however, was flx^ used in 1862 Sftnwff|d. whto is over 1100 pages long, pictures
novel Patters owd GMldren. a world to ■which the “ obieotivists ” (the hard-
working. self-moti vated, highly
. BaÎymetoeval thinkers were dlvi- mviduals m the human race) decidetalented to
to-
ded into two schools, those who regarded stoety and set up a secret nation pull out
of their
“lore
5“®? 1'° ““d “wn loafers
devices, the into
slides worldgreyof
^mes ^thout any corresponding realities
OTominaijgB), and those who held the opposite d^tructipn. Objectivism seems to have arisen
doctn^ that general concepte have as a kmd of counterblast to the growing tend¬
®f tadivlduaJ fhtoga ency withto some sections of theHnited States to
The relation between universale and particulars uMry capitalism as toaiiersonal profiteering, and
was “■ subject of philosophical dispute followers sport as their Insiâ a small badge
all
tooi/utodoo-mi aepicri^
ally of the the dollar
secret sign — the emblem incident¬
states
through the Middle t^bold Ajges. the nominalist in Allas Shrugged The
^^‘2®®®^ ®r Bosoeliinua to movement, wliich reUea heavily on the .talent
tJut very little is known of and peisontoty of its founder, has made little
i?®“.® ^ ft® works remains except for a headway into formal American politics, but MiBg
smgle letter to Peter Abelard who was his pupil. lianda books, wliich have sold literally by the
OCC-OHT J37 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
miilioiis, obyiouslj' touch a chord in many unpleasant asiiect of the cult was the tearing to
readers’ minds. pieces of wild animals whose fieah was eaten
Occam’s Bazor, the philosophical maxim by which raw. Although the cult was disapproved of by
William of Occam, the ISlth cent, nominalist the orthodox and. needless to say, by hrabands,
has become best-known. This states in it existed for a long time. This primitive and
the form which is most familiar; " Entities are savage religion in time was modified by that
not to be multiplied without nec^sity ” and as attributed to Orphe® whrae cult was more
such does not appear in his works. He did, spiritualised, ascetic, and suiwtituted mental
howeyer, say something much to the same for physical intoxication. Orphe® may have
effect : “ It is vain to do with more what can be been a real person or a legendary hero and ho.
done with fewer.” In other words, if every¬ too, is supposed to have come from Thrace, but
thing in some science can be interpreted without his name indicat® that he. or the movement
asstuning this or that hjlJothetical entity, there associated with him, came from Crete and
is no ground for assmning it. laiis is Bertrand originally from Egypt, which s®i® to have been
EusseU’e version, and he adds: “ I have myself the source of many of its doctrin®. Crete, it
found this a most fruitful principle in logical mu.st be remembered, was the island through
which Egypt influenced Greece in other respects.
analysis.” See Magic, Alchemy, Astrology, and
Occultism. Orphe® is said to have been a reformer who w®
Theosophy. tom to pieces by the Maemd worehippeiB of
Orangemen, membem of an Irish society formed in Dionys®. The Orphi® believed in the trans¬
Ulster in 1795 to uphold Protestantism. Their migration of souls and that the soul after death
might obtain either eternal bliss or temporary
name
Orange,is taken from King
who defeated 'William
James U at ni.
the Prince of
Battle of or permanent torment according to its way of
the Boyne (1690), hence the enormous banners life upon earth. They held ceremoni® of
depicting " King Billy on the Bojue ” carried pmification and the more orthodox abstained
in procession on 12 July each year. Since 1921 from animal food ex®pt on special o®asio®
the ruling political party of N. Ireland (the when it w® eat® ritually. Man is partly
Unirmist Party) has been largely maintained by earthly, partly heavenly, and a good life in-
the Orange Order. The Order has branches in creas® the heavenly part so that, in the end. he
many English-speaking countries but flourishes may become one with Bacch® and be ®Ued a
chiefly in Ulster. “ Bacch®.” The religion had an elaborate
Orgonomy, a pseudo-psychological theory ad¬ theology (see Section H, 117-188). As the
vanced by the Oerman psychiatrist "VVilhelin Bacchic rit® were refomied by Orpheus, so the
Beich (1897-1957), a pupil of I’reud. who was Orphic rites were reformed by Pythagor® (c.
espeiled from Germany for attacking the Nazis 582-<;. 507 b.c.) who introduced the mysti®!
and who started life afresh in the U.S.A. like so element into Greek philosophy which reached
many of his colleagues. Moving auickly away its heights in Plato. Other elements entered
from orthodox psychoanalrtic theories, Beich Greek life from Orphism. One of th®e w®
became increasingly oteessed with the view feminism which was notably lacking In 6r®k
that all living tilings were permeated with a civilisation outside the Mystery Keligio®. The
unitiue force or energy which he termed “ or- other was the drama which arose from the rites
gone ” and which he lielieved could be photo¬ of Dionys®. The mysteri® of Eleusis formed
graphed and measured with a geiger counter. the most sacred part of the Athenian state reli¬
The key to the successful flow of orgone through¬ gion, and it is clear that they Imd to do with
out the body was sexual intercourse and the fertility rites also, for they were In honour of
re.sulting orgasm (hence “ orgone”). Beich Demeter and Persephone and all the myths
achieved a sutetantial following for hte increas¬ speak of them ® being associated with the
ingly bizarre views and when he was sentenced supply of corn to the country (s« Section H,
to two-years’ tmprisoimient in 1956 for alleged 110-116). 'Without being provocative, it is
medical malpractice a “ civil rights ” con¬ acwpted by most anthropologiste and many
troversy developed which has not died down to theoiogia® that Christianity, j®t as it ac®pted
this date. There is a current strong revival of elements of Gnwticism and Mithraism. accepted
interest in Beich, orgonomy and some of his elements from the Mystery Eeligio® as they in
parallel ideas, particularly among the hippy turn m®t have done from earlier cults. The
and “underground” movements. His un¬ miiaculo® birth, the d®th and resurrection, the
fortunate and rather tragic death in prison has sacramental feMt of bread and wine, symbolis¬
fanned the emotional issues and granted him ing the eating of the fl®h and drinking of the
the important role of martyr to his cause. blood of the god, all th®e ate common dements
Origenists, a sect of early religionists led by the in early lellgio® and not just in one. None of
Christian Bather Origen in the 3rd cent., who this mea® that what we are told about J®® is
accepted in general the doctrines of Plotimis not true, but it sm-ely do® mean: (a) that Chris¬
(see Neoplatonism). They believed that men’s tianity WM not a sudden development : (6) that
souls are created before their bodies and are the early Church absorbed many of the elements
striving to enter bodies as they are bom. 'Wlxen of other religio®; (c) that perhaps Jesus
the soul leaves the body it enters another body Himself made use of ®rtaln symbols which He
if it has been staful since justice reanlres punish¬ knew had a timeless significant for man and
ment: but the punishment happens naturally invested them with ®w meaning.
through the driving power of the sinner’s own Ortoodox Eastern Chmch. There are two groups
errors. The celestial bodies are believed also to of Eastern church®: (1) those forming the
have souls, and it is asserted that Christ was the Orthodox Church dealt with here which include
Son of God only by adoption and grace. The the ancient Byzantine patriarchates of Con¬
Council of Constantinople in 653 condemned stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jem-
Origen’s doctrines. salem, and the ®tio®l church® of Snssia,
Orphism. The Greeks in gmieral thought very Greece, Y®®lavia, Bulgaria. Eumaaia. etc.
little of their gods, regarding them as similar to (although Orthodox communlti® exist all over
human beings with human fallings and rirtuas the world and are no longer confln^ to geo¬
although on a larger scale. But there was graphical areas): (2) the church® which re¬
another aspect of Greek religion which was jected Byzantine orthodoxy during vario®
paarionate, ecstatic, and secret, dealing with the controvari® from the 5th to the 7th cart.,
worship of various figures among whom were notably the Coptic church (g.v.) and the
Baech® or Dionysus. Orpheus, and Demeter Armenlaa churcL Althorsh all Orthodox
and Persephone of the Bieusinian Mysteries. churches share the same doctrine and traditio®
Dionys® (or Baoch®) wm orfeinally a eod firom they are arranged aa ®tional independent
Thrace where the people were primitive farmers bodi® each with its own hierarchy. They do
naturally interested in fertUity eulta Dionys® i not recognise the pope, and the primacy of the
was the god of ftrtUity who only later came, to patriarch of Consta.ntinopie is largely an honor¬
be associated with wine and the divine madness ary one. Although claiming to be the One
it produ®s. He assumed the form of a man or Holy, dathoUc. and Apostolic Ghurch its
a bun and his worship by the time it arrived in alleged infallibility r®ts on universal agreement
Gree® became associate witih women (® was rather than on any o® individ®!, and agree¬
the case in mMt of the Mystery Keligio®) who ment over the faith com® from ihe Scriptur®
spent nights on the hills dandng and possibly interpreted in the light of the Traditlcm. The
drinking wine in order to stimulate ecst®y: an latter includes dogmas relating to the Trinity.
8 IDEAS
OXF-PHR AND BELIEFS
J,
gmtology, lîology, and Holy Icons: the were colleague
very much " inMesmeris
s (see the air,”iând LMipniif
totimony of the Fathers (St. Athanasius, St. wmI
Chrysostom. St. Cyril of Alex- hyrtena as a condition which was proS
ancm^ etc.), the canons or rules as formulated autosuggestion, Charcot was iStehto ^
g thl
S’athers. The Ortho-
western controversies tê part in the great
about the Bible, nor of
Reformation. Attempts have
recently^been made to nnprove relations be- Charcot was a highly controversial
toeen Home Md Constantinople: the two his demonstmtions were famous, iffigure to
and
verging m the notorious: he aro^d a
Churchy agreed in 1966
mnnications cast on eachto other
retract the excom- among Eoman Catholics^ stetiM Sh
Great Schism.in a,d. 1054 cutm at Lourdes were actually
cases
of hysteito and not, therefore, miracul
gyoap. See Moral Be-Armament.
Oxford Movemen t. See Traotarianism. toey could equally well be cured byous sinnp
himself
His supposed words: “You wiU Sway
sex at t^ root of the trouble ” and his nmii jS
Janet s evidenc e that forgotten (or. as ire ahmfid
now say. repressed) traumatic goevente
when Hy e^t
toe ffld
was ôwed egression, had a potent tofluenS
Pantheism. See Bod and Man. on toe ymi^ Fmud^whounport
infallibility madeance
the of sex S
imew toe
13 (a) tiiat eve^ question of psychoanalysis
®'toout toe ph^cal
. Modem belief
of morals
Bible so it is and faith
necemiy
that there should be a sure court of hysteria, wrong about toe patholoS
anneal in but right on toe wS
etme of doubt, and this was provided by Christ
he established &e Church as His Teaching
giôo to the study of
nem4i^® importance of sexual problem^ &
psychical research {q.v,) as an academic
dis
eipllne,statim
posed and chose to denot
as a nbranc toe^p
of epsych
hdenote ie’s. sun'
theFoFe.wheS‘SiSô«®S^^^
faith or morals, is protected by God againef fhe impetus behinchosen to ^“Sn ology
toeaSS^d
topic’s The
au
possibility of error. The docê^^BB, d parap sycho logy came
a branch of psycholo^. from tthe
psych
claimed in July 1870. ® ^dedologi st TOUiam MacDohgall
t>?^|t,8?'^‘apsychoIogy
Duke Hnlverslty In North came who from wr®
ôtt^
t
doesInfallibility
not mean isthata toe
strictly
pope limited gift which ttrâ^
has extramS?? foimd Rhmc
sTiadBd^°îie^^f
£^9, “ . Maipougall
a depar tment
Throu who™
of parap
ghout
to North w'
sycho
CaroS
toe 198(1^
mteHig^ce, that God helps him to fiM^he °^Parapsycli
answer to every conceivable question nr fhaf produ E-S.Pscient
.. toe
^^to'onghout
ced atK evi-
ific198
Catholics have to atSSpHhe^p^f^ SSie ^®.tti6,wprk of Rhine and his colleagues
^ whn Sam
^tak^ or fenWsS scientifle ei
TOo^. henmyA^to books that ate foil of eriora!
tonited ®heres fa he infallible aS
m these only when he speaks oflJcially
as toe
thatlawgive
defining a doctnne “P? r of
must be theûrS!
accepted by all
Iên. after studying a proW^
or morals as carefully as possible and
expert consultants,
he ernerges with the Church’s answer — on these
*^® Roman Catholic

of toe ealy i9to cent, was at its lowest
ebb of ^wer. Pope Hus LX. in fear of Mm
nationalism, revealed his leaetionary
by toe feverish declaration of attitude
canontotion of new saints, toenew dogmas the
denunciation of
*^® of Errors, and
dtfence of hfa temporal power
ag^kthe thi^t of Garibaldi. It fa nS; too
portmt
nStBJ by ^ freedoeveryto
m-Ioviingag andregarde
democra to-
d as tic
®onaoy at that time.
^ a long and sordid struggie, tlie
Vafeican Council, convened by Pius "nr -nm
J?® ôtoiition ofandhis famous
iiJalli& ^ Dfib
historian of
tine Outsell, was excommunicated becansA ifirp
It IS difficult not to doubt tbat there Tvas
the pronouncement ofsomp the
^ sinudtaneous lo^ of
ôuncii (1962-5) toe Pope’s *^®

encyclica
Second Vatican
l H-ifmanq
^+1^
fiqfiv condemn
Com^ (19^),
Fttoe ing birth control camee
as a ât disappointment to toe many people
^^^cluto
who theologians, priests;
haftng^pected there would be a change in
the Church s teaching. The Church’s'ôral
gtodancei on
V“ tUs
™s controverslft hoirover i
id issue, however PhrAnniram - lyx"
fSStS'gSoWSSilA'.JSffi.Ki
(The t?*® doctrine
Som an of InfalllbMfev' i
Joh^
isqo byGamar
TnUoT.^, Spurzheim.
^ Germans.
v-wiuttuo. .jD.runz
’’ founded and
ooset
Gall GaU
Franz Josef in
tiaii and
^tormst who believed there to be soimwascor^ an
Paris School ol Psychotherapy. The
Paris school s^pe pi the head.
pifaons and mental He tested these ideas in
hospitals and began
lecture Sf
on hfa findings,men^ facidties andêto
arousing a great deal of
wnere his doctrines were widely accepte
hypnosis and toe neurosis known Phrenology became fashionable, d
as hyste^ and people
PHV-POS IDEAS AND BELIEFS
J39 The original views of Darby which were
would
men and go to “ have oftheir
women binni®
fashion havereadgone
” as tolater
be perpetuated
were somewhat by asthefollows:
“Exclusive” Brethren
Christianity has
psyelioanalyHcd. Eonghly speaMng. Gall di¬
vided the mind tnto thirty-seven faculties such faUen from New Testament purity and aU
as destmetlveness, suavity, self-eatsem, con¬ Christendom and every Church is comipt and
scientiousness, and so on. and daimed that each has mcurred God's displeasure, notably by
of these was located in a definite area of the Ktablishing ministerial oflices which hinder the
brain. He further claimed that the areas in the believer’s approach to God. Ministers should
brain corresponded to " btuni® ” on the stull not be officials but poêss special gifts (“ Charis¬
which could be read by the expert, thus giving a mata ”) granted from above and aligned by
complete acconnt of the character of the subject. the Holy Ghost according to his wEl; these
In fact, to) no such faailties are located in the Charismata have no connection whatever with
brain anywhere for this is simply not the way any official posts although in some cases they
the brain works: (6) the faculties described by may coincide with them. The whole doctrine of
Gall are not pure traits which cannot be further the Brethren is based on the need for dired at*ces3
analysed and are based on a long outdated psy¬ to God and the rejection of any intermecEate
chology; (c) the shape of the brain bears no agency such as priests, ministers or presbyters.
Bitecific relationship to the shape of the skull. The Exclusive Brethren adopted new harsh
Phrenology is a pseudo-science: there is no rules in 1906 designed to prevent “ Saints ”
truth in it whatever. But, even so, like astro¬ (members) from having any contact with “ Sin¬
logy, it Btm has its practitioners. ners ” (non-members). Members sharing homes
Physiocrats. A French school of economic with non-members were to be expeUed: mem¬
thought during the 18th cent., known at the bers must declare their bank balances: un¬
time as Les Eemomistes but in later years named married members, singie or widowed, must
phmocrats by Du Pont de Nemours, a member marry as soon as po^ble within the sect.
of the SchooL Other members were Quesaiay, Today, the ma jority of Brethren belong to the
Miiabeau. and the great financier Turgot. The " Open Brethren ” assembUes and, unlike the
physiocrats held the view, common to the ISth " Exclusives.” hold that the Lord’s Supper (a
cent., and deriving ultimately from Bousseau, commemorative act of is“ for
breaking the bread
of the goodness and bounty of nature and the observed once a week) aE Christians who”
goodneffl of man “ as he came from the bosom of care to join them. Baptism is reauired and
nature.” The aim of governments, therefore, Brethren beUeve in the personal premElenial
should be to conform to nature; and so long as second coming of Christ.
men do not interfere with each other’s liberty Poltergeist, aEegedly a noisy type of spirit which
specialises in throwing things about, makhig
and do not combine among themselves, govern¬
ments should leave them free to find their own loud thumpings and bangings, and occatdonaEy
salvation. Criminals, madmen, and monopo¬ bringing in “ apports,” i.e., objects from else¬
lists should be eliminated. Otherwise the duty where. Most so-caEed poltergeist activities are
of government is laissez-faire, laissez passer. plain frauds, but the others are almost in¬
From this follows the doctrine of free trade be¬ variably associated with the presence in the
tween nations on grounds of both justice and house of someone (often, but not always a chEd)
economy: for the greater the competition, the who is suffeiiiig from severe mental conflicts
more will each one strive to economise the cost usually of a sexual nature. The inference is
of his labour to the general advantage. Adam that those activities wMdi are not simply
Smith, although not siharing their confidence in fraudulent are etther due to some unknown
human natrue, learned much frotn the physio¬ ioflaence exuded by such mmitaUy abnormal
crats, eUminated their errors, and greatly de- people, or that they are actuaEy carried oat by
veloired their teaching. ordinary physical means by such people when
Physiognomy. See Cararaeterology. in a state of hysterical dlmoclation — un-
Piefctsm, a movement In the Iintheran Church at conaciously. The second hypothesis is much
the end of the 17th cent. — the reaction, after the more probable. See Psydhio Besearoh.
the sufferings
and humiliatedof the thirty
people years’ learning,
against pious Polytheism. See God and Mail.
war, of a pomp
Positivism, also known as the BeEgioa oi Human¬
and ceremony, and stresdng the Importance of ity, was founded by Auguste Comte (1798-1867).
man’s personal relationship with God. The a famous mathematician and philoeophei bom
writings of Johann Georg Hamann (1730-^) in MontpelBer, France. His views up to the end
who came frmn a Pietist family of Kdnigsberg of the century attracted many and it would have
tnfluKiced Kierkâaid. The Pietist move¬ been impossible throughout that time to read a
ment was the root of the great Eomantic move- book on phflosophy or sodiology that did not
mart of the 18th cent, mention them, but today his signiflcanoe is
Plymouth Brethren, a religions sect founded by purely of historical tnter^ In his Conrs de
John Nelson Darby, a minister of the Protestant PAStmphie FmUive (1830) he put forward the
CSrurch of Ireland, and Edward Cronio, afcomer theris that mankind had semi three great stag^
Eoman Catholic, in 1827, Both wete dis¬ in human thoa^t: [11 the tbecdogioal. during
satisfied with the lack of ÎritnaUty in thear which man seeks for supematmal causes to
own and other churches and joined t(%:ether in explain natme and invents gods and devils:
smali meetings in Dublin every Sunday for (2) ttm metaphyrical, throng which he thinks
“the breaking of bread.” Soon the movement in teams of phE<BC®hical and EMitt«»hyEical
bân to and spread abriiteicMons; (3) the last poritive or scdenrific
writings he through Darby’sin travels
finally settled and
Plymoutti, stage 'triimr he WiE proceed by expmdment and
giving the aspopular name to objective ote^vation to reach in time “ positive
Begtoihjg a movement opentheto “Brethren.”
an who fait
the need to " keep the unity of the îrlt,” it Broadly ^>eak!ng. there is Ettle to complain
soon exercteed the right to exclude all who had of in this analysis: for there dote seem to have
imorihodox views aM spEt up into smaller hem scHue sort of general direction along these
groups. Among these idle main ones were the truth.”Howevte, Orante was not satisfied wEh
Bnte.
“ BxduslveB,” the Kellyites, the Newtonites, having reached this point and felt that his
and “ Bethel ” whose main differ«ices were s-ston demanded a rriigion and. of couite. one
over protdems of churdi govranment or pro¬ that was “ sdentifio.” This leEglott was to be
phetical powers. Some of these are farther the wmridp of Humanity in place of the personal
spEt among themselvM. Headers of Father Deity of eariler times, and for it he supplied not
and Son by Sir Edmund Gotee, which describes cmly a Fteitlve Caterisism but a treatise on
life with his father, the eminent naturaBst Sodology in which he declared himself the High
Phflip Go®e, who bdonged to the Brethren, wiE Priest m the cult. Since, as it stood, the reE-
recaU how this basicaEy kind, honest, and glon was likely to cappear somewhat abstract to
learned man was led throng their teachings to many, Comte drew up a list of historical char¬
acts of unMndness tog,, in refusing to aEow his acters whom he regarded as worthy of the same
son and other members of his household to sort of adoration as OathoEcs accord to their
cdebtate Christmas and throwing out the smaU saints, Thenew Church attracted few members,
tok^ they had secretly bought), and intellec¬ even among those who had a high regard fbx
tual dishonesty in refdsing for religious Comtek sdenriflo work, and ite only signlfloant
reasons alone to acc^t Darwinism when aU his adherents were a smaU group of Oxford scholars
evidence pointed towards it). andsomBinhisowncountry. Frederic Harrison
PRA-PSY ■O IDEAS AND BECIEFS
was the best-inown EiiKlisli adherent ami to introduce the syst^ into Scotland.
In 1 5 w
throuKhout his life continued to preach Comtii-st tlie Lor^ of
uocti'iues in London to diminishhiK audience" Common Bmd the Congregation ” signed the
(i.e.. a bond or cov^n H in
Pragmatism, a tnucally jVnierican school of pbilo- mamtem “the blessed Word of
conCTegatoon against their enemies God and lfi«
giphy whi^ comes under the heading of what , and de
hiertrand Eussell describes as a. “ practical ” manded toe right to worship as they lad chosen'
S®., opposed to a “ theoretical ” phUosopiiy However, the real date of the Soottteh BefS?
VVhereas the latter, tion IS August 1500 when '
to which most of the great
philosoplucal systems belong, seelrs disinterested regent for Mary Queen of Mary of Guiseît
Scote wh? was not
ioiowledge for its own sake, the former (a) re¬ yet of ê) died ami the Estates met tTsertl
gards action as the supreme good, (6) considers their affairs without foreign pressure; e
the Sco/q
happiness an effect and knowledge a mere Confession was drawn up and sirnieri Uv Wnn-f
ip^rument of successful activity. andTheadopte
ideasd on
by wWch
the Estat ^ d Kh-k wih
. The originator of pragmatism is usually con- the es.
Beforme
mdered to have been the psychologist WiUiam based me found in the Scots Confess
dames (I8427IOIO) although he himself attri- Book of Biseiphne, and the Book of ion the
Common
puted its basic principles to his life-long friend Order, the so-called Knox’s liturgy! Knox’s
the Anierican philosopher, Charles Raiuievs liturgy the same as that used in (lenev! hnt
leirce (183fl-19lt). The other famous nrag- translated into English, was used until
niatist IS John Dewey, best-knovm LaiM’s
in Europe g,.teinpt to force an Anglican litm^ on the
lor his works on education (for although Kirk led to an abandonment of both
in fLom
American text-books on pliilosophv express
opinions to the contrary, few educated people in The .Bresbyterian tradition includes uneom
Europe have taken the slightest interest in prpnuam
of freeg pra
toned
stress upon
yer Word of Godlavuur
the s.” cm
pragmatism and generally regard it as an m the Scriptures of the Old
centricity peculiar to Americans). James ec¬ T&staments as the supreme rule of md nZ
in life, fmd upon the value of a highly toth md
his book The mu to Believe (1896) points out ttomd
that we are often compelled to take a decision ministry, wMch has given the ûSh of
where no adeauate theoretical grounds for a Scotland a high reputation for seholamM
has m tom mfluenced the standard p and
decision exist; for even to do nothing is to
decide. OJius in religion we have a right m Seotlanto The unity of the ofSucatfen
adopt a he heymg attitude although not in¬
to guaranteed by providing for democrarChurch
ie renrl!
is
tellectually luily convinced. We should believe sentafcion m a liierarchy of courts {imliice^h
failing of the -AaghcanOhurch, which is a hierarch fi
y
sceptical philosopher is that he adheres only sons). -Cbe local kh-k-sesslon consists of per¬
believe various minister and popularly elected of the
elders
cautious man will accept. aimisters, elected by their flocks, are (lamenf
otoSned
D behevmg truth and avoiding error are eimally
miportant, then it is a good idea when we Above the fark-session is the court
presented with an alternative to believe one are which has Jurisdiction over a ofspeci¬
the
of ALI’f already ordSd)
the poîbilities at will, since we then have an fied area, above that the court of synod
even chance of being right, whereas we have rules oyer many presbyteries; and flnSly which
^ suspend judgment. The function of General .Assembly which is the Suprem the
philosophy, aocordmg to James, is to find out of the Church with both judlSll Mdlê
what difference it makes to the individual powers, and over which the Modera glsS
if a General Assembly presides. The fimetio tor of the
particular philosophy or world-system is true-
believe it is n of
the elders is to help the minister in
the work
profitable to our hves."and. he adds, " the true ^d goyer^ ent VI
James of the
and kirk. The eSopS
is only the expedient in our way of thinking I, and maintained v by
■ ’ • “V on the whole of
“P-S.®- “ the hypothesis of God works
fo ^ ot the word, *^® Glasgow
is troe. _ Bertrand Bussell’s reply to thisit ^mlon
Bestorat
tetod
pacy. bi
Theby® wi
Charles
Olivm
Coven II re^tebhtoed tpiô®
anter s Sfed w^m
T®
c* ^ i^'^® s-lways found that the
a ““prisoned,
Pmiod of nearly thirty years
transported,^ or
hTiv,? ®®P^®
exists. IS true, satisfactor
‘ although
’• thereforeily
Santa ’‘''*® re-established (1690).
Claus .does not exist.” Bussell adds that Xoaay Piesbytenans
James s coTCept of truth simply omits as uni¬ anrf Orange do came
less tothan
the ttaone
other
mportant the Question whether God really is
He a useful hypottesis that in ity asD a^ comm
communities are looking at Christian-
on world religion in the
.-^chitect of the Cosmos is
“ remembered is belief in Ihnn principles which unite them are greSer
lôd, and its effects upon the creatures inhabit-
ini> nnr ■ -XT acoiiana, uaivinism. - -
tatPlM Mom of toe
Presbyterianism, a system of ecclesiastical aovem the ,'^®
intolerant
®®®®“'i decisions of the
Diet of Spey^
ment of the Wtestant chmS which S .®*f ^®r decisions “®‘ of toeSpeyafirst
took to John Cahdn as their Beformationikadpr ■U^t
'n&f of Speyer tolerat mg the Eeform ers flisf
of the in
^tryrank.consists certain cases. (1526).
^1 applied
of eaual Its of preXtms
doctrina whS me lii
l standard are Ih 5®
gmerM
to Eefprmeis
those to Tarn™
Churto sir
Westminster Confession ofBafth wMch *®-xv*^?.®®
®ie essenceChurches
of Pro-
(1647) which is. in general, accepted by English topV+^
toe of accepta ®®rne
toe
by essence at ual
individ the
Scottish, and Ainerican Presbrterians as the fT?P®°“*5?*’ ^®°nce with
The
respons
Borne
ibility to
toe
ofat Pro-
God
^*”^than to the Cbimch. x9ee Lutheranism,
^,gsb3i;wiaDisrii. Calvinism.
'"' ™ to
iKfela ^ Ml! kjvuuajiu was preceaea by i
theThe Befomation in Scotland was preceded by has re!i^;nop°rtrS;
make
™ momlu-iiKH !^F recortled
or one
e. xina history
Theseor anotherman
to
sort of
of awareness
tion of thePrtEoman
awarmess of the
Churchof asthe moral
moral corrup-
co^m ' malf e his
hfa life
imi™^ tolerabl °r have gener-
another to
had hapuenprl '
emotional reasons, which need not he dis- ^6., âlcohol, hashi^, etc* — ând their use in
hero, to majorityvarious poUtical^ and f system depressants—
pmnfmwT of toe Scottish people govenimeii’®®
Si™™®®*®* t control.
has beenMostbrought under
societies havecareful
also
*^® ^slish who had been satisfied with
toe mere exchange of Crown for Pope) ®*®®^. expmhnented with the use of
were de-
termined on a fundamental change of doctrine
^'tian a reform of having toe mentally tranauH-
ThPs^
h®*“ff characteristics small the
®^ anotherof Mass— hallucinogens,
doses
had learned of alcohol
Luther but fiom
Calvin and their leader John Knox had Fr^T®^«®*"^“,® changes in mental
with visionary alertne.ss.
or halluctna-
m Geneva with Calvin himself and was worked •^^® ®o“f“8ion and dis¬
resolved orientation which accompany such states' has
PSY IDEAS AN0 BEL.IEFS
led to social disapproval of their use in Western victions— is a cojntfietely trustworthy witness.
countries, and the favoured “ legal ” drug for A peiBOn may be utterly honest in ev«y other
centuries has been alcohol. In the 195Cfe the respect except that in which his convtotions are
novelist Aldous Huxlev in his e®ay The Doors involved. #
of Perception wrote of his experfenos with the ' (2) This do® not mean that a witne® is either
drag mesealin, a derivative of the South Ameri¬ teliing the whole teith or is Mmply lying; for
can peyotl and a iwwerM halluoinogen. the following po^bflities exist: (a) he may be
Huxley put forward the hypothesis that mes- telffng the tru^; (6) he may be consciously
calin had given him not only an entirely original lyirSformotivîMhisown; (c) his recollections
psychological experience but had bIot siCTifl- may bC.'mctoOTct in discussing something that
cantly "heightened” his rserceptnal ability — happened M the past: (d) he may leaHy believe
a development of the greatest po®ible Interest that he saw or heard what he he did and
to artists, writeis. and poets. Huxley’s book may be telling the truth as he experienced it—
had considerable impact, stimulating other e.g., seeing a ghost — without realising that what
creative tndivlduaJs into similar experiments, he experienced is a product of his own un¬
not always with such euphoric results. In conscious mind; (e) there are various degrees of
England the author Kichard Ward reported lying, for the mind has a natural tendency to
some frightening moments under the drug liiD add coherence and meaning to the only pcirtly
in his Al Drug-taker’s Notebook and Huxley coherent events of the day. and it is a normal
amplified the unpredictable nature of the drug- trait (consdonsly or unconsclonsly) to make a
experience In Heaven and Hell, published in “good story” out of what originally were
1956. Although such experiments were techni¬ isolated and unconnected happenings: (/) even
cally illegal, public interest had been consider¬ under the most favourable conditions the
ably aroused and in the 196{te, when it became evidence of scientiflcaJly-trained people is not as
easy to synthesise the most effective of the good as it might be (cf. the psychological ex¬
hallucmogens, ISD, its use began to be common periment in which a dass of students is sud¬
among certain sections of society. In 1964 a denly exposed to a deliberately contrived scene,
sensational scandal rocked the great American e.g., two men eccentrically dressed rush into the
university of Harvard when senior members of lecture-room, exchange words, and have a
the teaching staff, Incfludlng the psychologist auarrel — and the students axe afterwards re¬
Umothy Eeary, were dismissed for using ISD quired to write dovm what they saw and heard,
and encouraging students in its use. XJn- rarely 10 per cent, being even 70 per cent,
reirentant. Dr. Eeary set up a community near correct as to what really happened).
New York from whence the cult of psychedelism (3) There are many aspacta of " psychic ”
was propagated. phenomena which axe not “ psychic ” at all. but
Psychedelism — which is not really an organised based on well-known scientifle principles. How
system of belief, but rather an attitude of mind many people, for example, know: (a) that aerv
— ^preaches that through the controlled use of physidil Illness has ite psychological aspect, so
drugs, particularly of the hallnoinogenic variety, that a person with chronic arthritis, let us say,
an individual may be made aware for the first may get up and walk for the first time in years
time of the rich fields of experience which lie after injection with a new drug which is later
latent In the uncoMclous mind. The explora¬ proved to be worthless or no better than
tion of these territories will have both a aspirin (e.g,. cortisone), yet if a " spiritual
liberating and an enriching effect, the outcome healer” got the same results he would be
being to " turn on " the Individual to the total aedafaned for his isydiic powers: (6) that It is
reality of mind. So convinced do many of the posfiibla to be completely paraly»d. totally
proponents of i®ychedelia become of the signifi¬ bund or deaf, have total Ices of sensation in
cance of the experience of the so-called LSD some part of ibe body, have two or more por-
“trip,” that they are inclined to urge non¬ Bonalitte, wUhofd am phvsieai disease beim
trippers to experiment with the drug. Herein, present, in the neurods (cured daily by psy-
of course, lies one obvious danger, for the drug chlatrW® without mystery) known as hysteria.
LSD is potentially a toxic substance which needs (4) It is possible under hypnosis, or self-
to be administered in minute dc«es if it is not to hypncMis, to produce 8tlgmatrtAe.g., marks re¬
cause madness or even death. There is also sembling the nail-prints of the Crucifixion on
much uncertainty about the po^hte long-term bands and feet, to produce blisters at wUL
effects of “ tripping.” many psychologists and spontaneous bleeding, and many of the phe¬
scientists believing that it leads to a progressive nomena usually described as miraculous, in the
disorientation and destruction of the person¬ consulting room and by sdentifle means.
ality, a disintegration of which the individual (6) We all have more potent senses than we
drug-taker is sel dom aware. If there la a credit ordinarily realise. We may not consdonsly
Bide to psydiedellsm It may lie in the clear, if know the number of steps leading to our flat
limited, evolution in popular music, art, and but can be made under hypnosis to tell.
design and. to a lesser extent, Uteratmre which Eurthermor& these axe people who are hyper¬
has been inspired by these excursions. By the sensitive In bearing and vfaion (often without
beginning of 1970 there was some sign that Ihe being aware of it), so iliat in " thonght-trans-
wave of interest in IHD and shnllar drugs was ferenre ” experiments where they are saft to
beginning to slacken off, possildF because of an another room whilst others dedde on some
Increarfng awareness of the possible grievous object or idea, they may aibconsdoady hear
side-efleefe and of the largelr illusory nature of what is gdng on; or in card experfments in
the *• Inddifci ” whidh the “ trip ” is supposed tdepaftry they may be able to r®id the fime of
to provide. Dr Leary, the movement’s leading the card refieeted m the pupils of the “ sender ”
figure, is also rôrted to be turning his interest opposite, rar tdl in a farrdliar imek which card is
dsewhere, notably Into the more staid and which firom ahnost mvMble diSmences on ihe
traditional waters of Maoism to.e.). backs eff ttie cards.
Psychic Research, the scfen^c study of so-called (6) M<»t Of us have no idea of the mathe-
psychic phenomena as contrasted with Spirit¬ matfcal laws of probability and are therefore
ualism (g.e.) which la the cult of those who Hkdy to misinterpret the “ mysteriousne® ” of
already heHeve in their supernatural nature. It phenomena. (Qins. suppose I have a “pre-
is obviously Impossible here to summarise work monltfem “ that someone has died and later find
that has been carried out (in Britain notably by my feelfaigs wnfiimed by the event, then I may
the Society for I^yehioal Eesearch, founded in not rraiember or know (a) that on many
1882) on such snbjecte as mediumîip, appari¬ previous occasions L in common with most
tions. tetepaihy and clairToyanoe (dlscuffied other people, of
have had did“ prmronitkms ” the
here separately unda the headhig of Tmepathy), vast majority which not come true; {&)
poltergeists (also dtecussed separately), levita¬ that, on the last occasion I saw ihe person, or
tion, and precogniMcm- from things I may have heard, I may have un-
But the point at which we must begin is the coDsdousiy noted signs that all was not wdl and
human mind and tbs nature of sdsntifle
evidence and so fax as these are concerned the expected the event: (c) that the most “im¬
probable " things happen quite normally le,g.,
following points may be made. duriiig the last war a fiying bomb fefi throagh
(1) There is little use in discussing psydiic the roof of the British Museum and failed to
phenomena until we realise that almost no explode, and some ihne later a second fiying
human being— -least of all one wiai sfxong con¬ boinb feu Dvnyagh the same hole and likewise
PSY IDEAS AND BELlEirs
faikd fo explode) ; (d) tliat the chance of a packJ4.2 for so doing. It was within this framewnri-
of OMcIs being dealt so that each of four persons that Freud had his great insight, one ISich
many people beheve to be one of the nimi
fccelves a complete suit is exactly the same as important ideas given to mankind. This toss
the chance
may that any other combination of cards
come up. sunply the realisation that the human mind wis
not a simple entity controUIng the brain and
. (7) Ihat collective hallucinosis does occur body more or less at will, but a complex system
ht 'would be invidious to mention in detail made up of a number of'b’beintegrated
certain miraculous happenings " which might former parts with
at least two major subdivisions- the concern^
conscioua
hurt the reh’gioua susceptibilities of many, but
we are entitled to ask how it is possible for the
itself with the normal round of human beha-
sjm to stand still in the sky in the presence of yionr, including the larger part of rational
thousands of people collected in a particular
area when it is seen nowhere else in the world thought, conversation, etc., and large areas of
Md 1ms been noted by no astronomical memory. The latter was principally devoted
laboratory?) to the automatic control of bodily functions
(8) Slediuins have been proved to be prepared such as respiration, cardiac activity, various
to do the most extraordinary things in order to types of emotional behaviour not subject to
deceive a suggestible audience seated in semi¬ much conscious modification and a large store¬
darkness — e.g., the so-called “ ectoplasm ” (a house of relevant “memories” again not normal¬
supposedly psychic substance or materialisa¬ ly accessible to the conscious mind. Occasiou-
aUy, Freud propo.sed. an exceedingly
tion) which exudes from the medium’s body has
been found before the seance, as have emotional or othenvise painful event impleasant
might be
apports ” or objects apparently appearing so troublesome if held in the conscious mind’s
from nowhere, half-way down the medium’s store, that it would get shoved down into the
throat or in the stomach ready to be regurgi- unconscious or “repressed” where it would cease
tated_, and even in other bodily apertures. to trouble the individual in Ms normal life
It is not maintained that psychic phenomena
do not happen, but that we must be extremely The advantages of tMs mechanism are obvious'
hut they kinds
certain also brought with them
of memory, hazards, 'With
particularl
cautions in accepting the evidence of our own, y those
or even more, other people’s, senses, and much involving psychological rather than physical
less free m our interpretation of what has been pain— as for example a severe sexual conflict or
observed really means. See Poltergeist, Tele- marital problem— repression might be used as a
pathy. Spiritualism. device to save the individual from facing Ms
Psyohoan^ysis, an approach to the study of human problem m the "real” world, where he might be
jierson^ty involving the rigorous probing, with able ultimately to solve it. by merely hiding it
the asstst^ce of a specially trained practitioner, away in the unconscious and thus pretending it
of an individual’s did not exist. Unfortunately, Freud believed
goals and attitudes personal problems, motives,
to life in general. Often, and conflicts of tMs kind were not snuffed out when
qmte understandably, confused with psychology consigned to the basements of the mind, but
(of which it is merely a part), psychoanalysis rather tended to smoulder on, affecting the
has an interesting historical background and has individual in various ways which he could not
attracted the interest of philosophers, scientists understand. Repressed marital conflicts might
and medical experts since it emerged as a pve rise to Impotence, for example, or even to
radical and controversial form of mental therapy homosexual behaviour. Guilt at improper
at the turn of the century. The traditionaUy social actions similarly repressed might provoke
Mcepted foiinder is the great Austrian Sigmund nervous tics, local paralysis, etc. etc. Following
Freud, but he never failed to acknowledge the this line of reasoning. Freud argued that if the
impûs that had been given to his own ideas by imwisely repressed material could be dredged up
ms talented friend, the physiologist Joseph smd the individual forced to face the crisis
Brener,^ who for most of his worWiig life had UMtead of denying It. then dramatic alleviations
been interested in the eurious phenomena asso¬ of symptoms and full recovery should follow.
ciated wth hypnosis. Brener had successfully
cured the hysterical paralysis of a young woman ,of followers psychologist
band and Ms growing
the stage seemed to be set for
patient and had noticed that under hypnosis the a dramatic breakthrough not only In mental
girl seem^ to he recalling emotional experiences, therapy but also in a general tmderstanding of
mtherto forgotten, which bore some relation¬ the nature of human personality. To Ms
ship to the symptoms of her illness. Developing pleasure — ^for various reasons he was never too
ttes with other patients Brener then found that happy about hypnosis— Freud discovered that
the mere recalling and discussing of the emotion- ■«uth due patience, skill and guidance an indi¬
m evente under hypnosis seemed to produce a vidual could be led to resurrect the material
dramatic alleviation of the symptoms— a pheno¬ repressed in his unconscious mind In the normal
menon which came to be known as catharsis. as opposed to the hypnotic, state. TMs tech¬
Brener also noticed another curious side-effect, nique, mvolvmg long sessions consisting of
m&t his women patients feU embarrassingly and mtimate discussions between patient and thera-
violently in love with Mm, and he graduaHy pist became known as psychoanalysis, and it has
dropped feeling
the practice of “mental catharsis’’, steadily evolved _from its experimental begin¬
possibly that it was a bit too dangerous nings in the medical schools and universities of
to hanae. 'This left the field clear for Freud, Vienna to being a major system of psycho-
whose brilliant mind began to search beyond the
therapeutic aspects of the topic to see what Ught tant theoretical 'world-wide
i following
connotations. and Impor¬
Psychoanalysis,
“teat be thrown on the nature of human per¬ as practised today, consists of a number of
sonality and psychological mechanlsnis in meetings between doctor and patient in wMch
general. The most important anestlon con¬ the latter IS slowly taught to approach and enter
cerned the “forgotten” emotionalmaterialwMch the territory of Ms subconscious minti, and
turned up,^ apparently out of the blue, during examine the strange and “forgotten” material
the hypnotic session. Freud rightly saw that wltMn. A successful analysis, it Is claimed,
this posed problems for the current theories of gives the individual greater insight into Ms own
môry, for how could something once forgotten peponality aad_ a fuller understanding of the
(ajnontinne to have an effect on the Individual PPConscious forces wMoh are at work
without him being aware of it, and (b) ulti¬ wittun Mm and in part dictating Ms goals.
mately M brought back to conscious memory Freud’s Initial ideas were of course tentative,
âm. It must be remembered that at this Slid meant to be so. He was however a didactic
time memory was considered to he a fah-iy and forcMiil personality himself, unwilling to
simple process— information was stored in the compromise on many points wMoh became con¬
brain was gradually eroded or destroyed troversial as the technique and practice of
with the passage of time and the decay of brain psychoanalysis developed. The outcome was
cells. On(» lost, it was believed, memories that_TOme of Ms early followers, notably the
were gone for ever, or at best only partially and equally brilliant Carl Jung and Alfred Adler,
inaccurately reproducible. Furthermore, human broke away to found their own “schools” or
bein^ were supposed to he rational (if frequent- versions of psychoanalysis, with varying degiees
ly wilful) creatures who never did an^hlng with- ot success. Today, psychoanalysis is coming
out thii^ng about it (if only briefly ) beforehand under Increasingly critical scrutiny, and its
and without being* well aware of their reasons claims are being treated with a good deal of
PYR-RAT IDEAS AND BELIEFS
J43
reservation. Notable antagonists include the “ dowsing,” whereby an individual Is supposed
English psj-ehologist Profesor H. J. Eysenck to be abie to detect the presence of hidden
who points out that there is little if any solid underground water by following the movements
experimental data indicating that psj-choanaly- of a hazel twig held in his hands. Dowsers, or
sia is a valid method of treating or curing mental water diviners, as they are sometimes called,
iUness. Analysists respond by saying that their claim also to be able to detect the presence of
system is elcaer to an art than a craft and not minerals and, hard though it may seem to
amenable to routine scientific experiment. The believe, have actually been hired by major oil
controversy will no doubt continue for some time companies to prospect for desert wells — though
to come, but whatever Its validity as therapy, without any notable successes. The theory of
the basic ideas behind psychoanalysis— notably dowsing is that all things give off a unique
the reality and power of the unconscious mind — radiation signal which the trained individual
are beyond auestion and have given human (via his twig, pendulum, or whatever) can
beings definite and major insights into the " tune in ” to, a theory which, whUe not hacked
greatest enigma of all — the workirigs of the up by any data known to orthodox sciences, is
human mind. See also Section Q. at least not too fantastically far-fetched. It is
Pyramidology, a curious belief that the dimensions when radiestheaists claim to be able to detect
of the Great Pyramid at Giza, if studied care¬ the presence of oil, water, or precious metals by
fully, reveal principles of fundamental historical holding their penduliun omr a map of the terri¬
and religious signiflcance. The periietrator of tory and declare that it is not neceasary for
this was a Victorian publisher, John Taylor, them to visit the area in person to ftnd the
who discovered that If you divide the height of required spot that the topic moves from the
the pyramid into twice the side of its base you remotely possible to the absurdly improbable.
get a number very similar to pi — a number of Some practitioners of this art state that they are
considerable mathematical importance. Later able to i)erform even more marvellous feats
discoveries in the same vein include the finding such as determining the sex of chickens while
that the base of the pyramid (when divided by still in the egg, or diagnosing ilhiess by studying
the width of a single casing stone) equals exactly the movements of a penduliun held over a blood
365 — number of days in the year. M.my boolm sample from the sick Individual. Such claims
have been written on the interpretation of the when put to simple scientific test have almost
dimensions of the pyramid, none of which has invariably turned out as fiascos. Yet belief in
any seientifle or archaeological validity. dowsing, water-divining, and the like is Btill
Pyramidology is simply a classic example of the very widespread.
well-known fact that hunting through even a There is an important link between radj-
random array of numbers will turn up sequences esthesia and the pseudo-science of mdionics,
whdch appear to be “ significant always which holds thiit the twig or pendulum can be
provided that one carefully selects the numbers superseded by complicated equipment built
one wants and turns a blind eye to those that vaguely according to electronic principles. A
typical radionlc device consists of a box covered
one doesn'tla sceptical philosophy which doubts
Pyrrhonism, with knobs, dials, etc., by which the practitioner
everything. “ tunes in " to the “ vibration ” given off by an
object, such as a blood spot, a piece of hair, or
even a signature. By the proper interpietatlon
of the readings from the equipment the iUness,
or even the mental state, of the individual
Q whose blood, hair, or signature is being tested,
may be ascertained. The origiiator of radionics
Quakers. See Friends, The Society oh seems to have been a Dr. Albert Abrams who
Quartodecimani, an early Ohristiaii community engaged in medical practice using radionlc
who celebrated the Ea^r festival on the 14th devices in America in the 1920s and SOs. The
day of the month, when the Jews celebrated principal exponent in this country was the late
their Pa^ver. In consequence of the con¬ (Seorge de la Warr who manufactured radionic
fusion caused, the practice was condemned by boxes for diagnosis and treatment of illnesses,
the Council of Nicaea in 826. and even a camera “ which he believed to be
Quietian, a doctrine of extreme asceticism and capable of photographing thought. In a
contemplative devotion, embodied in the works sensational court case in 1960 a woman who
of Michael Molinos, a 17th cent. Spanish priest, had purchased one of the diagnmUc devices
and condemned by Eome. It tanght that the sued de la Warr for fraud. After a long trial
chief duty of man is to be occupied in the con- the case was dismised, the Judge commenting
tinnal contemplation of God. so as to become that while he had no good evidence that the
totally independent of outward circumstances device worked as claimed, he felt that de la
and the influence of the senses. Qnietists Warr sincerely believed in its validity and thus
taught that when this stage of perfection is was not guilty of fraud or misrepresentation.
reached the soul has no further need for prayer Some practitioners hold this as in some way
and other external devotional practices. Justifying or accrediting the science of radionics
Similar doctrines have been taught in the but most observers fed that the case was more
Moslem and BIndu religions. See Yoga. a triumph for Britidi justice and the ri^t of the
individual to promote his beliefs whatever they
may
do no be— pro'ridod
obvious sodal they
harm.are stomrelr held and
Kautem, a deririve term for the Primitive Metho¬
dists (see Methodism).
, ... 'E Eationalism is defined as “ tihe treating of reason
Eaoism, the doctrine that one race is inherently as the nhamate authority in religion and the re-
superior or Inferior to oOiejs, one of the basM
iectfon of doctrines not consonant with reason.*’
of racial prejudice. It has no connection what¬ In practice, rationalism has a double signi¬
ever with the study of race as a concept, or the ficance: (1) the doctrine as defined above, and
investigation of racial differences, which is a (2) a 19th cent, movement which iras given to
6<^ce practised by the physical anthropologist what was then known as “free-thought.”
(who studies physical differences), ox the soda) "secularism,” or agnosticism— i.e., it vras in
anthropologist (who stiidies cultural differences). tiic positive sense anti-religions and wa® repre¬
Bacism is simply a vulgar superstition believed sented by various bodies sudi as the Secular
in by the ignorant or mentally unbalanced, and Society, the National Secular Society, and the
it may be categorically stated as a scientific fiswst Eatlonatet Press Afflociatton (founded in 1899).
that racial suiôrity is a myth believed hi by In the first sense, which implies a particular
no scienrist of repute. See Sciences of Khm, philosophical attitude to the universe and life,
iteotion F, Part V. rarionaliam is not easy to pin down although, at
Badiesthesia, the detection, either by some first sight, it would apiiear that nothing could be
“ psychic ” faculty or with special equipment, simpler. Doesitmeantheuseofpurereasonand
of radiations alleged to be given off by aU living logic or does it mean, on the other hand, the use
things and natural substances such as water, oil, of what is generally called the "scientific
metM, etc. The word radiesthesia is in fact a method ” based on observation the
fancy modem name for the ancient practice of evidence of our senses) and experiment? If we
IDEAS AND beliefs
REA-REN J,
universalB me the only true realito, belonging
aie tMiiktog in terms of the use of pure reason to the world beyond matter and appearand
and logic then the l^man Catholic Church
throughout most of its history has maintained, the world
times mmd. In early
Thomas or Aquinas
St. ^God
not that the whole truth about religion can be was the chief bt
discovered by reason, but as St. Thomas ponent of this doctrine which was held hr §ih
scholastics as opposed to the Nominalists to ^
Aquinas held, the basis of religion — e.(7., tihe
existence of God — can be rationally demon¬ is
(2) the
In beUef that the
Its modem everyday tneH.ni'ng realism'"a
strated. Nobody could have made more use of universe isS MdZt
logic than the schoolmen of the Middle A^s, creation of mind, that although aU we realiy ex¬
yet not many people today would accept their perience is the evidence of our senses there is a
concinaions, nor would many non-totholics reality that causes the appearance, the “ thing-
m-ltself as Kant described it. Material th^s
accept St. Thomas’s proofs of the existence of may not really be what they appear to be (eXa
God even when they themselves are religious.
The arguments of a first Cause or Prime Mover noise is riot the “ bang ” we experience but a
or the argument from Design on the whole leave senes of shock-waves passing through the atmo¬
us unmoved, partly because they do not lead sphere), yet, for all that, we can be sure that
us to the idea of a versonal Ood, partly because mattCT exists and it is very possible (some miviif.
we rightly uAOMuebdistrust logic UdiU
and yuxopure reason auu; that miTin
add) EUab not.
does BOli.
mind aOeS
mvoTO^ from facts and know that, if we begin Refonnation, the great religious movement of
finm thft
fiwri the wlYini?
wrong aasmmnf.inTifi
assumptions nm-rAtYiioDo
or premises, yitd
we can 16to cent., which resulted in the establishment
arrive at some very strange answers. If the tfPrototmtism. Jbhn Wyclif (d.
existence of a Deity can be proved by reason, Hus (d. 1415) and others had sounded the warn¬
then one can also by the use of reason come to ing note, and when later on Luther took up the
the conclusions, or rather paradoxes, such as the ca^ m Germany, and Zwlngll in Switzerland
following; God Is by definition all good, all adherents soon became numerous. The whole¬
sale vending of indulgences by the papal agents
toowing, all powerful — ^yet evil exists (because had incensed the people, and when Luther de¬
if it does not exist then it cannot be wrong to
nounced these things he spoke to wilfing ears
say " there
It must do issonoeither
God ”). But of
because if evil
Godexists, then
(in which After much controversy, the reformers boldly
case He Is not all good) or In spite of God (in propounded the principles of the new doctrine
which case He is not all powerful). and the raruggle for religious supremacy grew
Arguments of this sort do not appeal to the hito. They claimed iuatifloatlon (salvation)
modem mind for two historical reasons: (l) by faith, and the use as well as the authority of
many of ns have been brought up in the Pro¬ the Scriptures, rejecting the doctrine of transub-
testant tradition which— at least in one of its stantiation, adorationof of
the headship
aroects— insists that we must believe in God by
Saints, and the the the "Vlrgm and
Pope. Luther
faith rather than by logio and in its extras was excommunicated. But the Eeformation
principles spread and ultimately a great part of
form insists on God as revealed by the “ inner Germany, m weU as Switzerland, the Low
li^t " ; (2) our increaEing trust in the soientiflc Countries, Scandinavia. England, and Scotland
method by direct otaervation and experiment.
Thus, no matter what Aristotle or St. Thomas were won over to the new faith. In urnpinT'i^
may say about a Prime Mover or a limt Cause, we Henry yHI readily espoused the cause of the
remain unconvinced since at least one scientific Eeformation, his own personal quarrel with the
theory suggests that the universe did not have a Pope acting as an incentive. Under Mary there
loginning and if scientific inv^tlgation proved a brief and sanguinaty reaction, but
tjm to be so. then we should he entirely in¬ Elizabeth gave completeness to the work which
different to what formal logio had to say. her father had initiated. See Lutheranism, Cal¬
The secularist and rationalist movements of vinism, Presbyterianism, Baptists, Methodism.
XI. ocuuxoxiau aui4 laiMuiautsii movemeniB or vixuam, irxesoyienanism, juapnsts, Methodism,
Hie ISth cent, were anti-religious — and quite Reincarnation, the transmigration of souls. See
rightly so — because at that time there were Immortality, Hinduism, Bnddhlam.
to Britain by Renaissance is defined in the Oxford English
the Established
the Established Chrireh
Church nnon sf.hplom
atheism or nmnno.
agnos¬ EicHonary
TidefA/vn.nr9i aai
na* “The
** revival of art and letters,
l.,xx -
ticism and fteedom of thongM. They airof tmder the influence of classical models, which
little significance now because very little is left, began in Italy in the 14th century." It is a
l^dy term which must be used with care for the
abilities. thanks to their efforts, of these dis¬ following reasons: (1) Although it was fitrst used
Plnally. although most people are likely to m the form rinascUa (re-birth) by Vasari in 1650
accept the scientific method as the main means and people living at that time certainly were
of discovering truth, there are other factors aware that something new was happening, the
which equally make us doubt the value of word had no wide currenoy until used by the
pure logic and reason unaided by obsarva- S^s historian Jacob Burchardt In his dassio
ttoiu The first ofthese is the influence of Skeud ^6 CiviUzation of ffie Renaissance in Italy
wMoh shows that much of our reasoning is mere {I860). (2) The term as used totoy rtfers not
rationalising — e.g., we are more Ittedy to become only to_art in ite widest sense but to a total
atheists because we hated om father than be¬ change m man’s outlook on life wMCh extended
cause we can prove that there is no God. The tatp philosophical, scientific, economic, and
second is the influence of a movement in philo¬ technical fields. (8) Spreading frrom Italy there
sophy which, in the form of logical positivism or were renaissance movements in Usance, Spain,
logical analysis, makes us doubt whether meta¬ Gwnaany. and northern Europe, all widely
physical systems have any meaning at aiu. To¬ êrent with varying ddays in time. As the
day, instead of asking ourselves whether Plato ffistorian Edith Siohel says: " Out of the Italian
vrw right or wrong, we are much more likely to Renaissance there issued a new-born art; out of
ask whether he did anything but luake for the the Northern Renaissance there came forth a
most part meaningless noises. Religion is in a new-hom religion. (Qiere came forth alM a
sense much safer today than it ever was in Oie ât school of poetry, and a drama the greatest
10th cent, whm It made foolish statements over toat the world had seen since toe days of
matters of science that could, be jtroved wrong; Greece. The religion was the oftoring of
now wo tend to see it as an emotional attitude i Germany and toe poetry that of England."
to the universe or God (a “ feeling of being at ^ ,The real cause of toe theBenaJssani®^ not toe
home in the universe,*’ as William James put it) M Of ConstanMnopIe, invention of printing,
which can no more be proved or disproved than toe discovery of America, toougdi these were
beinginlove. i phases in toe process; it was, quite simply,
Realism. is_ a word which has so many mean- 1 money. The rise of a new merchant Class gave
m®, and such contradictory ones, in various l rise to individualist attitudes in economic
spheres, that it is difficult to define. We abpTi : affairs which prepared toe way for individualism
Bmit ourselves to its significance in philosopliy. and humanism. The new w^toy tdass in time
Id pMosophy. “realism" has two different became patrons of toe arts whereas previously
meanings, diametrically oppo^. (1) The toe ChurCh bad been toe sole patron and con-
most rjsual meaning Is the one we should least ttoUer. Thus toe artist become more flee to
expect from the everyday sense of the word — express himsClf, more respected, and being more
i.e., it reteis to all those philosopMes from Plato well-to-do could afford to ignore toe Qhuroh
onwards which maintained that the world of and even, in time, the views of his patrma
appearance is illusory and that ideas, fnrmn, or It Is true that art continaed to serve to a con-
RIT-SAt, J45 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
siderable extent the purposes of faith, taut it was necess.ary first to take note of the climate of
judged from the standpoint of art. Mediaeva! thought preceding the great change; then to
art was meant to elevate and teach man; Re¬ accoimt for its beginning in Germany where it
naissance art to delight his seniKs and enrich h<Is did {see Pietism) during the latter part of the
life. From this free and questing spirit acauired 18th cent., and finally to appraise the writings
from economic individualism came the rise of of those men whose ideas fermented the new
modem science and technolwy; here Italy awakening. Briefly, the shift was away from
learned much &om the Arab scholars who had French classiciam and from belief in the aii-
translated and commented upon the philo¬ liervasive power of human reason (the En¬
sophical, medical, and mathematical texts of lightenment) towards the unfettered freedom
antiquity, while denying themselves any that the new consciousness was able to engender.
interest in Greek art and literature. Arabic- What mattered was to live a passionate and
Latin versions of Aristotle were in use well into vigorous life, to dedicate oneself to an ideal, no
the 16th cent. The Byzantine culture, though matter what the cost (e.g., Byron).
it had preserved the Greek tradition and gave ITie ideas of the Enlightenment (e.g., Fonte-
supremacy to Plato, had made no move nelle, Voltaire, Montesquieu) Imd been attacked
forward. But the Greek scholars who fled to by the Germans Hamami and Herder and by
Italy after the fall of Constantinople brought the ideas of the English philosopher Hume, but
with them an immense cargo of classical manu¬ Kant, ScMUer. and Picbte, Goethe’s nave!
scripts. The recovery of these Greek master¬ Wilhelm MeMer, and the French Revolution
pieces, their translation into the vernaculars, all had profoimd effects on the aesthetic, moral.
and the invention of printing, made possible a KXJiaJ, and political thought of the time.
completer understanding of the Greek spirit. Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829) said: "There
It was the bringing together of the two heri¬ is in man a terrible imsatisfled desire to sMr into
tages, Greek science, and Greek literature, that infinity; a feverish longing to break through the
gave birth to a new vision. Bnt it was not only narrow bonds of mdividuaiity.” Romanticism
Aristotle and Plato who were being studied but undeimmed the notion that in matters of value
Ovid. CatuUus, Horace, Pliny and Lucretius. there are objective criteria which operate be¬
What interested Eenaissance man was the tween men. Henceforth there was to be a re¬
humanism of the Latin writers, their attitude to surgence of the human spirit, deep and pro¬
science, their scepticism. found, that is still going on.
The period c. 1400-1500 is known as the Rotarianism.
American
The Rotary Club is primarily an
association but has many members in
Early Eenaissance. During this time such
painters as Masaccio, TJcceDo, Piero della Fran¬ Britain and presumably elsewhere since all
cesca. Botticelli, and Giovanni Bellini were lay¬ Rotary Clubs are united in an international
ing the foimdations of drawing and painting for organisation. It consists of groups of busineffi
all subsequent periods including our own. They and professional men formed with the purpose
concerned themselves with such problems as of serving their community and humanity in
anatomy, composition, perspective, and repre¬ general. The name is derived from the clubs
sentation of space, creating in effect a grammar entertaining in rotation.
or textbook of visual expression. The term
High Renaissance is reserved for a very brief
period when a pure, balanced, classical har¬
mony was achieved and artists were in complete
control of the technique learned earlier. The
High Renaissance lasted only from c. 1500 to
s
1527 (the date of the sack of Rome), yet that SabeUian heresy. During the 4th cent. gTKit
interval Included the earlier works of Michel¬ controversies raged within the Christian Church
angelo. over the divinity of Jesus Christ. Arins (see
works ofmost of Leonardo's, and all the Roman
Raphael. Arianism) denied Christ’s divinity and main¬
RltuaUsm, a tendency which, during the 19th cent., tained that the Father alone was truly divine.
developed in the High Church setdion of the This doctrine was condemned at the Council of
Church of England to make use of those vest¬ Nicaea (326). Arius being opposed by Athanasius
ments, candles, incense, etc. whirti are usually who held the now orthodox view of the Trinity
regarded as features of the Church of Rome. which was reaffirmed at the CouncE of Con¬
Since some opposition was aroused, a Ritual stantinople (381). The Sabellians. named after
Commission was appointed in 1904 to take their founder Sabellius {fl. 215), a Libyan priest
evidence and try to find some common basis on and theologian, held the view that God is
which High and Low Church could agree with Indivisible but with three roles, appearing suc¬
respect to ceremonial. The report of 1906 in cessively as the Father (the creator), as the
effect recommended the giving of greater powers Son (the redeemer), and as the Holy Spirit (the
to bishops to suppress objectionable practices. divine spirit within men). This view, which
Although they are often associated together, it Is makes the person of Jrans Christ ultimately an
worth while pointing out that there was no Ulnsion, was condemned.
special connection between the Oxford Move¬ Salvation Army. The religloas movement which
ment or Tractarians (q.p.) and Ettuahmi because in 1878 became known by this name arose from
Fusey disliked ritual and even Kewman, who the Christian Mission meetings whidi the Rev.
eventually went over to Rome, held extremely William Booth and his devoted wtfe had held In
simple services at his church of St. Mary’s. the Bast End of London for the previous
RomM Catholic Church, the CMstlan coganlsation thirteen yeans. Its primary aim was, and still
which acknowledges the Pope as the lawful is, to preach the gospel of Jesus CSnfet to men
succôr Of St. Peter, the apostle aiipomted by and women untouched by ordinary religious
Christ to be the head of His Church. The ôrts. The founder devoted his life to the
reforming Impulse at the Second Vatican Coundl salvation of the submerged, classes whose con¬
(1962-5) has set in train great movements to¬ ditions at that time were un8i)eakably dreadful
wards religious unity and the reform and Originally his aim had been to convart people
modernisation of the Roman Catholic Church. and then send them on to the ffirarches, but he
Romantic Movemrait or Romanticdsm is the name soon found that few religious bodies would
given not so much to an individual way of accept these “ low-dass ” men and womeo. So
thlnkliig but to the gradual but radical trans¬ it was that social work became pant of thidr
formation of baslo human values that occurred effort. Practical help, like the provision of
in the Western world round about the latter 80up-kit(fiiffiQs, accompanied spiritual ministra-
part of the 18th cent. It was a great break¬ ilon. Soon, in the interests of more effective
through In European consdousness and arc®e " warfare ’* against sorial eviis. a militaiy form
through the writings of certain men living of organisation, with uniforms, bras bands, and
during the half-oentury or more following, say, religious songs, was introduce. Its magazine
1760. It arose then because both time and IFor Ort/
place were propitious for the birth of these new of Christ and gave
the asFire
its aim “ toHoly
of the carry Ghost
the Blood
into
ideas. There was a revolution in basic values —
in art, morals, iroUtics, religion, etc. The new cutions: mobs, sometimes encouraged byperse¬
every part of the world." There were the
view was of a world transcending the old one, police, assaulted the Salvationists who. al¬
inflnitely larger and more varied. though not the aggressors, were often punished
To understand the Romantic movement it is by the magistrates. General Booth saw with
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
SA.N-SIK J46
blinding clarity that converôn must beaccom- 1 courses consist largely of specialised and com.
plex mental exerês based on Hubbard’s own
TCU.J.VU£) uuruJkO XlUVL ct&iucr UCasUrilLHSU variation of psychology and Imown as " proM^
the temble conditions of the slums, but in 1890 sing auditing.” One of the
he produced a monumental survey entitled In go^ ofanda Scientologist is the attainment of the
Darkest England and ffie Wav Out. From that state loiown as “ fUenr ” /i-oho-Wt.
time forward the Army was accepted and Its
facilities made use of by the authorities. To¬
day the Army’s spiritual and social activities liter^y
caisTwhenlt
lutelhgencesuperlOTirbehevTd“*to
being, equipped(Sê)with a
have spread to countries all over the world; and a greater command ov^he
every one no matter what class, colour, or creed pattern of his (her) own life.
Orthodox psychol^ts tend to view both the
he belongs to is a “ brother for whom Christ practice and theory of Scientology with considCT-
Sandemanians or Glassltes, an obscure religious able ndsgMngs and in the state of Victoria,
sect whose sole claim to fame is that one of its Australia, the practice of Scientology is bann^
members
died.” was the great Michael Faraday, following a parliamentary Inquiry under K V
founder of the science of eleotromagnetism, who ^derson, it as “a serious
never failed to attend its Sunday services. threat to theQ.O., who described
conunumty
the, Home
medically,
Office morally and
announced
Sceptics. From Thales of Miletus (c. 624-666
B.G.) to the Stoics in the 4th cent. b.o. philo¬ ttiat they would refuse Mr. Hubbard re-entry to
sophers had been trying to explain the nature oi Britain, that its centres would no longer be
the universe; each one produced a dlSerent recognised as. educational establishments, and
theory and each could, apparently, prove that foreiemers amvtag for its courses would not be
he was ri^t. This diversity of views con¬ granted student status.
vinced the Sceptic school foimded by Pyrrho Scientology has for some time been registered
(c. 360-270 B.o.) that man is unable to know the across the world as a Church, and its followers
real nature of the world or how it came into may attend religious services modelled on the
being. In place of Vi acu futile
iuuiic; search for
lui what
vyxiu<i> movement; philosophy.
movement's ft nhilofinnhv —
must be forever unknowable, the Seepti^ recom- Shakers, members of a r^valist
mended that men XAawAA should
{MiUVU-u. be
WO practical, follow
AUiAUW
themselves " The TTcitmi group atvipd
custom, and accept tbe evidence of tlieir saoses.
custom. and_accept the evidence of theh senses. Ctin^
Schoolmen. From the time of Augustine to the
SS
Quakensm in on
s Second 1747 though d
Appearing,” who seceded from“
adhering to many of
middle of the 9th cent, philosophy, like science, the Quêr tenets. The community was jomed
was dead or merely a repetition of what had m 1768 by Ann Lee, a young convert &om
gone before. But about that time there arose a Manchester, who had " revelations ” that she
new interest in the subject, although (since by was the female
then Western Europe was entirely under the accepted as their Christ: leader, "Mother Ann” S
Under toe influento
authority of the Catholic Church) the main of her prophetic visions she set out with nine
form it took was an attempt to justify Church foUowersfor ‘ Immanuel’s land” in America and
teaching in the light of Gredc philosophy, toe oommnmty settled nearwereAlbany,
knowncapitalas toeof
ôse who made this attempt to reconcile Shakers m ridicule because they were given
Christian beliefs with the best in Plato and
Aristotle were known as “ schoolmen ” and the to involuntary movements in moments of re¬
philosophies which they developed were known ligious ecstasy.
as “ scholasticism.” Among the most famous Central to their faith was the belief in the
schoolmen must be counted John Scotus toal role the^ God torou^ the male and female
Engem (c, 800-c. 877). bom in Ireland and Chnst; male principle came to earth in
probably the earliest: St. AnaftiTn, archbishop of the femaleequal principle, in “ Mother Ann.”
Cmterbury (1083-1109): the great Peter Ime sexes were and women preached as
;^laxd whose school was in Paris (1079-1142); pftra as men at their meetings which sometimes
Bernard of Chartres, his contemporary: and mcluded sacred dances— nevertheless toe two
toe best-known of all, St. Thomas Aquinas of sexes, even in dancing, kept apart. ThRir com¬
mples (1226-74), who was given the name of munistic way of Uvmg brought them economic
toe "Angelic Doctor.” prosperity , the Shakers becoming known as good
(Oie philc^phies of these men axe discussed agriculturists and craftsmen, noted for their
pdM various headings (God and Man, De¬ future and textUes. After 1860, however,
terminism ^d Ree-wUl), but being severely toe movement began to decline and few, if any,
kmted by toe Church their doctrines differed are active today.
znnir ^ v mv^waiaco umofcu are acwve today. to ah native
philosophical schools. However, one of the -societies
* V.*
who*•****'«used
» AVUiXU XU
their ma^cal U1:4U4JIW.Vd
arts to work
Kcat arguments was between toe orthodox pmtect toe group ftom evil influences.
Eeallsts Ca.e.) and the Hominaligts fg.u.) and The shdOTkin was a man apart and wore special
a second was between the Thomists (or fol- g^mts to show his authority. Shaiufluiam
lowera of St. ThomM Aquinas) and the Scotlsts wito its magical practices, iacantaMons, trances,
(follow^ of John Duns Scotus— not to be con- exhausting dances, and seif-tortme is practised
|u^ wito John Scotus Erigena). The two even today by tribes that have survived in a
latter schools were known as the AnRiAnto primitive state of culture.
sect inPersm.
Hominalist. were known as toe Terminalists. opp<»ea by tlie orthodox Smmites. The dis-
^ became reconciled in 1482 in face of the pute, wm<A cme almost immediately the
threat from humanism of which the great ex¬ Eld to bitter feuding,
ponent was Erasmus of Eotterdam (1466-
_ 1636) who hated scholasticism. t ? ~SP “R with matters
out witti the succession. After Mohammed's of doctrine as such,
Scientology, an unusual quasi-philosophlcal system âth, there were three possible daimants: Ali,
sta^d by the American sclence-flctlon writer the husband of his daughter I'athna,; and two
L. Iton Hubbard, which claims to be able to others, one of whom gaveup his claim in favour
effect dramatic improvement in the mental of the other, Omar. The orthodox selected Omar,
and p^sical weUîng of its adherents. who was shortly assassinated, and the same
Orlgmally developed in the United States as happened to his successor as ah “was passed over
Dlmetics, toe modern science of mental Shiites are those who m&itain that
health, it was hailed in Hubbard’s first book ^ was the true vicar of the Prophet, and that
to be a milestone for Man comparable to his
the pree orthodox predêssors were usurpers.
w M>> PAsiuuAAL/autf XMkl, b XU bUW iUSbOiy

a ^ levels or grades, most reached by of modmn India, came; into being during a
undertalding courses of training and tuition, rell|doua revival in India in the I6to
paynmiu fcMc which may amount to hundreds and I6th cent. It was originally founded as a
and. m total, even thousands of pounds. These religious sect by Guru (teacher) Nanak (1469-
IDEAS AND BEUIEFS
wise, appeared and she seems to have died of

something rather close to a broken heart. Her
tiny sect still survives to this day. Shortly

{1642-1606). Tims a gncce»ioii of Gtarus were before her death, incidentally, she handed to
able to live in peace after Nanak’s death: they followers a number of locked and sealed boxes
which she indicated contained, among other
compiled the sacred writings known as the Adi things, the secret of the nnireree. These were
Granth, and improved their organisation as a only to be opened 100 years after her death
sect. Bat the peace did not last long, for an and then In the presence of 12 bishops. In
emperor arose who was a fanatical Moslem, 1927 one of these boxes unexpectedly turned up
in face of whom the last Guru, Govind Singh and it was ceremoniously opened at the Caxton
(1666-1708), whose father was put to death for HaE before a public audience. The organisers
refusal to embrace Islani, had to make himsdf a had to make do with only one bishop as mwt
warrior and instil into the Sikhs a more aggres¬ of the country’s senior clerics pronounced
sive spirit. A number of ceremonies were themselves to be too busy to attend. Perhaps
instituted by Govind Slngb; admission to the it was just as well for Miss Southoott's marve¬
ffatemity was by special rite; caste dfeUnctions lous box was found to contain only a few rare
were abolMied; hair was worn long: the word coins, a horse pistol, a woman’s embroidered
Singh, meaning lion, was added to the original
name. They were able to organise themselves
into 12 mials or confederaci^ but divisicms
appeared with the disappearance of a common
enemy and it was not until the rise of Eanjit
Singh (1780-1830) that a single powmftd Sitt
kingdom was established, its infitMsnce ohiy
being checked by the English, with whom a
treaty of friendatilp was made. After the death
of Banjit Singh two Anglo-Sikh wars foBowed,
in 1845-46, and 1848-40, which resulted in
British annexation of the Punjab and tbe end of
Sikh Independoice. In the two world wars the
Sikhs proved among the most loyal of Britain’s
Indian subjects. The paitltioning of the con-
tioent of India in 1947 into two stat®, one pre¬
dominantly Hindu and: the other predominantty
Moslem, presented a ouQsiderahle problem: in the wmohi 1847 poldMied Nekm’s I>M»e Bewfo-
Punjab, which was divi^ in such a way as to Uom, a book whldh is still widrfy read. In this
leave 2 million Sikhs in Pakistan, and a con- I^vis states Oiat on tim deatii of the physical
sMerable number of Modems in the Indian body, the human spirit remainB alive and moves
Punjab. Although numbering le^ than 2 per on to one or another of a conriderable raiê of
cent, of the population (& S million) tbe ^khs worlds or " sphsrea ” where it commeia>Mi yet
are a contintiii^ factor in Indian ii^tical life.
In 1966 the Piinjab was divided on a Ungnlstic not died, but exists with full (and iK»ribly even
bads — Ihmiabi-speakiBg Punjab and Hindi¬ exifflnded) consciousness, there should, be no
speaking Haiiaim.
Socialism, a form of socfety in which men and
women are not divided into oppcming economic
classes but live together under conditions of
appxojdmate social and economic eauaJity, using
in common the means fbat lie to tndr hands of
luomoting social welfare. The brotberhood of
man inspims the alms of socialism in forMgn,
colonial, socM. and econoudo poBdes alike.
The word “ sodallsm ” first came into general
use in England about 1834 in ccmnection with
Bobert Owen’s About
New Lanark. “vfllagB
ibe <rf co-operation”
middle at
of the 19th
cent. Charles Elngsley and odiers established a
form of Christian socWism, and Wflliam Morris,
John Bums, and others founded a Socialist Lea¬
gue in 1886. TOth ttie deveiopment of trade
unions the socialist movement took a more prac¬
tical trend. Pahhudsm (a.v.V ascndated in Its
sefeffltwa. Among these were Sir Wiiiimn

teiigent pubHc opinion by eduoaMcm and legis¬ Crootoa, Sir Oliver Lodge, Protesor Charles
lation. The British labour Party believeB in Elehet, Alfted Eowli Wallace, to say nothing
peaceful and constitutional change to socialism of the brilliant and shrewd creator of Sherlock
sent- A demoemtic programme of planned peopie find it astonMfing that people of such
economy and imhlio owimrsldp of curtain vital briOiance should find the phenomena, of the
industries and serrices were features of socialist seance room of more titan pasting interest, but
government from 1945-61 together with a com¬ the ctsnmitment of the Yictorian soiantists is
prehensive system of sooU security. Purther undeistandahie if we realise that Spiritualists,
radical reforms in the intei^t of B0<rial justice after all, claim to do no more than demonstrate
and industrial efflriency were initiated by the K fact what all Christians are called on to be¬
socialist govemmmit during Its six years of lieve^— that tisB human personality survives
office, 1964-70. See alao Section C, Part I. bodily death. Purthermore. at the time of the
Southcottians, foBoweis of Joanna Soutbcott, who late 19th cent, peak of Spiritualism, mucih less
died in 1814 ffitortiy after announcing that was known shout human psychology and about
(Mthough over 60) she was about to give birth the great limitatiQns of smisory perception In
to a divine human b^g named Siloh.. Miss typical seance oonditiona, when, lights are
Soutbcott ceitamiy produced aU the symptoms dimmed or extinguished and an emotionally
of pregnancy, amd was even examined by the charged atmosphere generated. Today the
Boyal physician who pronounced hex un- most striking phenomena of the seance room —
Questiimshty ** with child.” Althou^ she even the alleged materialisation of spirit people and
went “ into lahom,” no child, divine or other- the moduction of such half-spiritual, half-
8 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
hook The cm of G^. Here it is held that the
physical substances as ectoplasm— are rarely if church, as the worldly mcamation of the npv
ever produced at Spiritualist meetings. Some
say that the most probable explanation for this of (^d, is to be suprê over the state, and the
head of the church is to be it lausfc iie recog¬
supreme ow?
is that too many fraudulent mediums have been
caught out and publicly exposed for the profes¬ nised that, whilst the secular ruler can m^m
sion to be worth the risks. The movement mistakes, the church does not. since it isfhp
today, which still has a large and often articu¬
late following, now concentrates on the less representative
TJie Secular of God’s During
State. kingdomtheon Eenaissanc
earth
e
controversial areas of "mental mediumship.” (q.v.) people began to think for themselvra
clairvoyance and the like, or on the very wide¬ and the results of their cogitations were no?
spread arepractice of "spirit deluded
healing.”by 'Where always pleasant: for it was during this time
I)eople not deliberately bogus that many rulers, petty and otherwise, were seek
mediums acting for monetary reward (a practice ing absolute authority. Two notable thinkers
which largely died out with the “ death ” of at this stage were Niccolo Machiavelli (I46a-
ectoplasm) Spiritualism probably has an im¬ 1527) in Italy and Thomas Hobbes (lass-lfiTO)
portant role to play in the life of many people in England, where, of course, the Eenaissance
whose happiness has been removed by the death arrived later m history. Both supported
of a much loved relative or spouse. It certainly absolute monarchy against the former domina
does not deserve the violent attacks that are tion of the church. The name of Machiavelli
often made on it by orthodox clergy who allege
that Spiritualists are communicating not with has become a by-word for any behaviour that
is cunning and unscrupulous, but he was not
the souls of the departed but with the devil or really as bad as he is usually painted. It is
his emissaries. To many people today belief in
the devU would be looked upon as somewhat indeed, true that in his book The Prince S
odder than belief in the survival of the indivi¬ showed in the greatest detail the methods bv
dual spirit after death. which a ruler could gain absolute control and
State and Man. Most of the early civilisations destroy civic fireedom, but this despotism was
such as those of Egypt and Babylonia were intended as merely a necessary intermediate
theocratic, that is to say, they were arranged in stage towards his real idea which was a free
a hierarchy with, at the peak, a king who was limited Italian nation whoUy independent of
also an incarnation of the god. Needless to say, the church. Hobbes was a materialist whose
in such circmnstances there was no room thesis was that man is naturally a ferocious
for phUosophising about the nature of the state animal whose basic impulse is war and piUage
and the relationship which ought to exist be¬ and the destruction of whatever stands in his
tween state and citizens. As usual, we have way to gain his desires. But if he allowed lilm-
to turn to ancient Greece for the beginnings of self to behave in this way his life would be
thotaght about this problem. We do so as “ nasty, brutish, and short ” so he creates a
briefly as possible since in general it is only the society in which he voluntarily gives up many
later philosophers whose work has much con¬ of his rights and hands them over to a powerful
temporary interest and. in any case, most ruler in his own Interest. But having done
people today realise that the political philosophy this he must obey: even when the ruler is un¬
of a particular time is bound to reflect the just, as he has no right to complain because
actual conditions prevailing then and as such anything is better than a return to his natural
is of mainly theoretical interest today. state. The religion of the king must be the
The Greek Approach. The early pre-Socratic religion of the people and the only things no
philosophers Democritus and the Pythagorean ruler has the right to do is to cause a ma.u to
school, for example, held that the individual i commit suicide or murder or to make him con¬
should subordinate himself to the whole: they fess to a crime.
had no doubt that the citizen’s first duty was Views of Locke; Live and Let Live. John
to the state. The Greeks until the time of Locke (1632-1704) disagreed with these views
Plato were not really thinking in terms of Indivi¬ Man is naturally peaceful and co-operative and
dual rights, nor had they given much thought therefore social life comes readily to him. He
to what form the state should take — tney sets up an authority in order to preserve the
simply accepted It. The first great attempt to group and that Is why laws are made: but the
describe the Ideal state is to be found In Plato’s function of the state is strictly limited to main¬
The JRepublio which is referred to elsewhere (see taining the public good and beyond this men
Education). His pupil Aristotle did not try to are to be left free. Therefore absolute iwwer
form a utopia hut made many comments on the and the doctrine of the Divine Eight of Einga
nature of government. Thus, while agreeing were wrong because power ultimately rests with
that the state was more important than any the people who have the right to make and
individual person, he distinguished between break governments. It is also wrong that those
good and bad states, and pointed out that to who make the laws should he able to execute
the extent that the state does not enable Its them. This is the important British doctrine
citizens to lead virtuous and useful lives it is of the separation of powers between the legisla¬
evil. A good constitution must recognise the ture and the executive which, in Britain and
ineauaUties between human beings and confer America,
democracy.is regarded as one of the bases of
on them rights according to their abilities:
among these inequalities are those of personal Smaseau’s Social Doctrine. The only other
ability, property, birth, and status, as freeman views we need consider here are those of
or slave. The best forms of rule were monarchy, Jean-Jacques Eousseau (1712-78) and Herbert
aristocracy, and democracy: the worst forms — Spencer (1820-1003), since the views of the two
tyranny, oligarchy (or rule of a powerful few), Important intervening figures. Hegel and Karl
and ochlocracy (or mob-rule). The later Greek mp.,are
thinkers of Hellenistic tim^ held two opposed Materialism)dealt
andwith
afterelsewhere
Spencer (see Dialectioal
we come to a
points of view. The Bplcnreans (a.v.) taught stage where political philosophy begins to
that all social life is based upon self-interest and merge with sociology and the social sciences.
we become members of a group for our own con¬ Eousseau Is a puzzling figure. Ou the one
venience: therefore there are no absolute rights hand he has been hailed as the prophet of
and laws — -what Is good is what members decide dom and on the other as the father of modem
at that time to be good, and when they change totalitarianiam. His book Social Contract (1762)
their nadnds the law must change too. Injustice begins with the words : " Man is bom free, and
is not an evil in any god-given sense: we hehave everywhere he is in chains.” He says that he
justly simply because if injustice became the IS in favour, not merely of democracy, but of
general rule, we ourselves should suffer. The direct democracy in which everyone has to give
Stoics (a.®.), on the other hand, held that the his assent to all measures as in the Greek city-
state must dominate the individual completely states and in Geneva, of which city he was a
and everyone must carry out. first and foremost, citizen. (This method is stiU in force in respect
his social duties and be willing to sacriflce every¬ of some measures in the Swiss cantons.)
thing for it; but the state of the Stoics was no
narrowly national one, but one that strove to Natural
or mutualsociety is based
agreement andon Eousseau
a“ social speaks
contractof ”a
become a universal brotherhood.
The Christian Approach. The orthodox “return to nature ” which would ensure the
sovereignty of the people at all times. Thus
Christian view is expressed in St. Augustine’s far, he seems to agree with Locke but soon we
STO-TAO IDEAS AND BELIEFS
J49
find that he is more akin to ECobhes, since system to the brain. A stone falls to the ground
(as we are learning in our own day) nothing ia because the earth’s gravity is pifiling it towards
more tyrannical than the absolute rule of all its centre, etc., etc. For aU practical purposes
the people. (Public opinion is more Hitlerian every event can be looked upon as being
than Hitler.) As it turns out, then, the “social " caused ” by some other prior event and this
contract " consiste in “ the total alienation of is obviously one of the most important principles
each asociate, together with all his rights, to of the operation of the universe. Jung, how¬
the whole community ” and " each of us puts ever. felt that there is a sufficiently large body
his person and all his power in common under of evidence to suggest that events may be
the supreme direction of the general will.” linked in a significant iix., non-chanee) way
Eonsseau admired direct democracy in the without there being any true causal relation¬
small city-state, hut if his doctrine is applied ship between them. The classic example he
to large states, held to be the supposed predictive power of
absolute. It isthen the sense
in this " general
that will
he is" regarded
liecomes
astrology by wlilch there appears to he a rela¬
as the forerunner of totalitarianism. Herbert tionship between the stellar configurations and
Spencer is q.uoted only as an example of the the personality and life-pattern of individuiib
inappropriate application of a biological theory on earth. Jung was scientist enough to realise
to social toies. Influenced by Darwin’s thesis that there could be no causal connection
of natural selection, he saw in society a struggle lietween the aspect of the stars and the lives of
in which the fittest survlTed and the Iras fit people billions of miles from them, yet felt the
perished. Each mdiyidual had the right to evidence for astrology was strong enough to
preserve himself, but in the ease of human demand an alternative non-causal explanation.
beings this depended upon group life in which, The trouble with synehronloity. which has not
to some extent, each individual is limited by the made much impact on the world of physics or of
rights of others. But this should not go too psychology, is that it Is not really an explanation
far, and he condemned the socialism of J. S. Mill at all but merely a convenient word to describe
which (a) would give over-much protection to some puzzling correspondences. The re.al
the imfit, and (b) would give the state powers question, Of course, is whether there really are
which it has no right to since the best govern¬ events occurring which are significantly but not
ment is the least government. In accordance caugally linked, and most scientists today would
with Darwinism ftee competition was essentiaL hold that there were probably not. Still it was
Stoics, the followers of Zeno, a Greet philosopher typical of the hold and imaginative mind of
in the 4th cent. b.o.. who ireceived their name Jung to tackle head-on one of the prineiiial
from the fact that they were taught in the Stoa mysteries of existence and come up with a
PoitUe or Painted Porch of Athens. They hjT)othesis to attempt to meet it.
believed that since the world is the creation i Syndicalism, a form of socialist doctrine which
of divine wisdom and Is governed by divine law. aims at the ownership and control of all indus¬
it is man’s duty to accept his fate. Zeno con¬ tries by the workers, contrasted with the more
ceived virtue to be the highest good and con¬ conventional type of socialism which advocates
demned the pafBions. (See God and Man, ownership and control by the state. Since
State and Man, Deteminism and Free-will for syndicalists have preferred to improve the con¬
a more detailed aocoimt of their beliefs.) ditions of the workers by direct action, e.g,
Subud, a cultish movement surrounding the strikes and working to rule, rather than through
Javanese mystic Pak Suhuli which established the usual parliamentary procedures, they have
its headauarters in England in 1958 and made been dcwly related to anarchists {g.v.} and are
newspaiwr headlines because of alleged “ mir¬ sometimes described as anarcho-syndicalists
acle ” cures of both psychological and physical tJnder syndicalism there would be no state:
ills. The basis of Subud (which is a contraction for the state would be replaced by a federation
of three Sanskrit words, Susila Budhi Dhamia, of units based on functional economic organisa¬
meaning “ the right living of the soul ”) is a tion rather than on gMgraphical representation.
single spiritual exercise, the kctiJmn, in which The movement had bodies in the Dnited King¬
the individual comes into contact with, or is dom, where guild socialism (t?.t’.) was strongly
overwhelmed by a metaphysical force of some influenced by its doctrines, in France, Germany,
kind which is supposed to produce great mental Italy, Spain, Argentina, and Mexico, but these
and physical changes. During the latihan gradually declined after the first world war
people may nfake strange movements, some losing many members to the communists.
violent, and utter imusual cries or chants. Now Fascism (a.n.) was also strongly influenced by
better known In America than in Britain, the revolutionary syndicalism of Georges Sorel
Subud did not live up to the expectations of its
early followers, many of whom were people of in making use of Ms concept of the “ myth of
considerable intelligence and professional the general strike ” as an emotional image or
ideal goal to spur on the workers; with Mussolini
standing. It is of particular interest because the " myth ” became that of toe state. Musso¬
it represents a uniaue incursion of a rather
obscure Eastern cult into Western life, and lini was also influenced by Sorel’s doctrine of
violence and the jnstification of fcuce. Syndi¬
suggests again that there is growing dissatis¬ calism had a certain influence in the Labour
faction In many auarfcens with orthodox Party in its early toys, but was crushed by men
religion and its contribution to the philosophy like Ernest Bevln who began to fear that by
of the modem world. involving the workers in direct responsibility
Sunnites, the orthodox sect of Islam as contrasted for toeix industries. It would put them at a
with the Shiites or Shia (g.i'.). disadvantage when bargaining fca wages.
Swedenborgianism. (tte Church of the New
Jerusalem, based on the writings of Emanuel
Swedenborg (1688-1772). was founded by his
foUowem eleven years after his death. The
New Church Is regarded by its members not as T
a sect but as a new dispensation bearing the
same relationship to Orristianity as Chriatianity Taoism, a religion wMch, alihou^ ina degenerate
dc»s to Judaism. state, is still one of the great Eastern creeds.
Syntfluxmlcity, an attempt by the psychologist. Its alleged founder, Lao-tze, is said to have
Carl Gnstay Jung, to explain the apparently been bom in Honan about 604 B.C.; he is also
significant relationship between certain events said to he the author of the bible of Taoism, the
in the physical universe which seem to have no Too-te-cbiw. or in EngUsh The Wm of Life.
obvious “ causal ’* link. This rather Involved and to have dteipproved of OnfuMua. This, if
concept is easily understood If one realises that trae, would hardly be surprising: for Taoten
almost aU scientific and philosophical beliefs is eiitinently a myrtical religion recommending
are based on the notion that the continuous doing nothing and resistoag nothing, whereas
process of change which Is taking place in Confucianism (s.n.) is eminently a practiral
ourselves and ia the universe around ns is code of living and its founder insiBted on inter¬
dependent upon a principle known as causality. vening in everything to do with somal life. But
We can express this another way by saying that the truth as revealed by modern scholarship is
an object moves because it has been pushed or rather different. We are told that the poems
pulled by another. We see because Ught of toe Tau-te-clww are anonymous and probably
strikes the retina and signate pass up the nervous originated among recluses in lonely valleys
IDEAS AND BEFIEFS
J50
TEL-UND
long before the time of Confucius: they were Eeform Act (1832) which meant that the state
collected and given form at some time late In was no longer m toe safe keeping of Tories and
the 3rd cent. n.o. and their authorship attributed Churchmen but that power was failing into
to Lao-t2ie. It is entirely possible that no such hands of Liberals and Dissenters. They
person ever existed (unlike Confucius, who advocated a higher degree of ceremonial in
certainly did), but if there were such a man he worship nearer the Eoman communion In
Tract 90 (the last) Newman showed how the
appears to have used a pseudonym since “ Lao ” Thirty-nine Articles themselves, which were
is not a surname but an adjective meaning
regarded as the bulwark of Protestantism, could
“ old ” and it was customary to attribute im¬ be made to sauare with Eoman doctrine. It
portant works to old men on account of their
was obvious which direction the movement was
supposed wisdom. Lao-tze simply means taking and the romanisdng tendency was widely
“ the old philosopher,” and although the Tao- resented. In 1846 Newman went over to Eome
te-rMns is one of the most remarkable and in¬
structive books ever written it is as anonymous Pusey and Keble persisted in their efiorts to
as the Border Ballads. secure recognition of Cathoilo liturgy and
It is apparent that the religion learned both doctrine in the Anglican Church. Catholicism
from the ancient Chinese mystics and from of the Anglican type (i.e., CathoUc in ritual
Brahmanism: Tao, the Way, is impalpable, ceremony, and everything save submission to
invisible, and incapable of being expressed in the Pope) is termed Anglo-Catholiclsm {q.v )
words. But it can be attained by virtue, by Tranantotion. of Souls. See Immortality,
compassion, humility, and non-violence. Out
of weakness comes true strength whereas violence Transnbsianti
Buddhism, ation, the conversion in the Eucharist ’
Hmdiusm.
is not only wrong but defeats its own ends. of the bread and wine into the body and blood
Ihere is no personal Clod and such gods as men of Christ — a doctrine of the Eoman Catholic
imagine are mere emanations of Tao which Church.
gives life to all things. Tao is Being. Works Trotsksdsm, a form of communism supporting the
are worthless and internal renunciation is far views of Leon Trotsky, the assumed name of
better than anything that follows from the Lev Bronstein (1879-1940) who, in 1924 was
use of force because passive resistance con- ousted from power by Stalin and later exiled
vmoes the other from within that he is in error, and assassinated in Mexico. Trotsky beW that
whereas violence only compels the external ap¬ excessive Eussian nationalism was incompatible
pearance of conviction whilst inwardly the in¬ with genuine international communism and that
dividual is as before. “ It is wealth to be con¬ Stalin was concentrating on the' economic
tent: it is wilful to force one’s way on others.” development of the Soviet Union to an extent
Later Lao-tze became a divinity and indeed i^ch could only lead to a bureaucratic state
one of a Trinity each worshipped in the form of with a purely nationalist outlook. After
idols (which the foimder had hated). Soon there tbe Hungarian uprising in 1956, which was
was worship of the forces of nature: the stars, ruthlessly suppressed by the Soviet Armed
the tides, the sun and moon, and a thousand Eoroes, a wave of resignations from Western
other deities among whom Confucius was one. Communist parties took place, many of the
die purest mysticism and wisdom had been dissident elements taking to Trotskyism in its
utterly corrupted by contact with the world.
Telepathy and (ilairvoyance. Telepathy is the place.
alleged communication between one mind and
another other than through the ordinary sense
channels. Clairvoyance is the supposed faculty
of " seeing ” objects or events which, by reason
of space and time or other causes, are not
u
discernible throng the ordinary sense of Underground, the name given to an increasingly
vision. Such claims have been made from time weU-organised group, mainly composed of
immemorial but it was not until this century young people, university students, etc., which
that the phenomena were investigated scien¬ propagates anti-establishment and often Ifighly
tifically. The first studies were imdertaken by controversial -yietre. Its history, and to some
the Society for Psychical Besearch, which was extent its alms, are obscure, but it is a force of
founded in 1882 with Professor Henry Sidgwiek Increasing power in Western society and its
as its first president. Since then it has carried evolution is worth watching -with care. The
out a scholarly programme of research without 19603 have been years of great metamorphosis
— -m accordance with its constitution — coming in Europe and America with rapid changes
to any corporate conclusions. In America the taldng place in our attitudes to war and peace,
centre of this research was the Parapsychology to sex and morals, to marriage and family, to
Laboratory at Duke University {see Para- church and state. Por large sections of the
psyohology)_ where at one time it was claimed population these changes have been too rapid and
clear scientiflo evidence for extra-sensory per¬ too radical by far. but for others they have been
ception (ESP) had been obtained. These too slow. In particular, the liberalisation of the
claims were treated with great reservation by law _ on the so-called “soft drugs,” notably
the majority of scientists, and today there is a marijuana, is advocated by a vocal and inoreas-
:SharpIy decreasing scientific interest in the field. u^ minority of young people. The expression
Theism. See Sod and Man. of their views has been finding outlet in maga¬
Theosophy (Sanskrit Brahma Vulva = divine zines and nerrapapers, privately published and
wisdom), a system of thought that draws on the printed, which reach a ■widenewsagente
circulation todespite
mystical teachings of those who assert the the disinclination of many stock
spiritual nature of the universe, and the divine them,_ These publications, while freauently
nature of man. It insists that man is capable containing material of an obscene and, to many
ofintuitive insight into the nature of God. The people, lilghly offensive nature, als® contain
way to wisdom, or self-knowledge. Is through articles, features, and poems by writers of re¬
the practice of Yoga (g.v.). Theosophy Ims pute, many of whom contribute regtdai'ly to
ôse eonneetlons with Indian thought tliongh more orthodox publications and yet are sym-
Vedio, Buddhist, and Brahmanist literature. pathetie to the “ undergroimd cause.” The
The modem Theosophlcal Society was founded word underground here, incidentally, refers
byMmcH. P. Blavatsky and others in 1876, iuid back to the “underground press” that pnb-
popularised by Mrs. Annie Besant. hshed revolutionary material at great risk In
Traotarlanlsm, a Ca,tholic reviv^ movement, Nazi occupied territories during the last 'war.
also known as the Oxford Movement (not to be With the exception of the rlsqu6 magaê
confused with the so-called Oxford Group), Private Mve, which is largely concerned 'wifli acid
which had its beginnings at Oxford in 1833. political satire, the first of the genuine ■under¬
Hde leaders included the Oxford high churchmen ground newsheets was the International Times
E. B. Pusey, J. Keble and J. H. Newman. (IT) which was followed in due course by Oz and
Through the TreuAs for (he Times (1833-41). a BalUttg Stone. All three papers are strongly
series of pamphlets which were sent to every anarchistic in flavour, uneven in literary merit,
parsonage in England, they sought to expose openly in favour of legalising marijuana
the dangers which they considered to be threat¬ {“ pot and generally quite scandalous to the
ening the church from secular authority. The middle-class and middle-aged. This is not the
immediate cause of the movement was the place to argu& the pros and cons of the under-
UNI-UTO JSI IDEAS AND BELIEFS
KrotuMi arguments, nor to decide whether our ideal of small co-operative communities in
“ permissive society ” has gone too far or not yet which class inter^ts and peraonal gain played
far enough. The important message that the a decreasing part, a society which would have
appearance of the whole underground move¬ the welfare of the people at heart both from the
ment tmplira is that young people, because of physical and intellectual points of view. His
greater financial independence, wider opportuni¬ utopia was one in which there was no private
ties for travel, better education, and easier property, because the desire for acquisitioa and
access to communication channels, such as private possessions lay at the root of human
printing presses, radio transmittere, etc., are misery. There was, therefore, only common
beginning to make their admittedly controver¬ ownership of land and resources. Each class
sial views more widely publicised. Further¬ of worker was eqnipi>ed to cany out its proper
more. this is a trend which will inevitably function in the economic scheme and each was
develop rather than diminish and in the absence fairly rewarded for its share in production so
of authoritarian repression, these forces will that there wm neither wealth nor poverty to
have an increasing Impact on our lives. See also inspire conflict. Nobody was allowed to he
Weathermen. idle, until the time came for him to retire when
tTnitarianism has no special doctrines, although he became free to enjoy whatever cultural
clearly, as the name indicates, belief is in the pleasures he wished, but. since the system was
single personality of God, ie., anti-trinitarian. devoid of the waste associated with comiiet ition ,
This general statement, however, can be inter¬ the working day would be only six hours.
preted with varying degrees of subtlety. Thus There was to be compulsory schooling and free
Unitarian belief may range from a sort of medical care for everybody, fuU rellgioHs
Aiianlsm which accepts that, although Christ toleration, complete equality of the sexes, and
was not of divine nature, divine powers had been a modem system of dealing with crime which
delegated to him by the Father, to the simple was free from vindictiveness and cruelty.
belief that Christ was a man like anyone else, Government was to be simple and direct by
and his goodness was of the same nature as that democratically-elected officials whose powers
of many other great and good men. Indeed, would be strictly limited and the public ex¬
today, many Unitarians deny belief in a personal penditure kept under close scrutiny. It will
God and interpret their religion in purely moral be seen that Blore was far in advance of his age,
terms, putting their faith in the value of love and to most democratically -minded people in ad¬
and the brotherhood of man. The Toleration
Act <1689) excluded Unitarians but from 1813 vance of an earlier
is described under utopia, Plato’s ofFeJEBucation.
the heading putKe, w hich
they were legally tolerated in England. Never¬ James Harrimton. James Harrington pub¬
theless attempts were made to turn them out of lished Ms book The Commonwealth, of Oeeana
their chapels on the ground that the preachem in 1656 and offered it to Oliver Cromwell for Ms
did not hold the views of the original founders consideration but without tangible restulte.
of the endowments. But this ended with the Better than any other man of his time Harring¬
Dissenting Chapels Act of 1845. In America ton understood the nature of the economic
no such difflcrdtles existed, and In the Boston revolution wMch was then taking place, and,
of the 19th cent, many of the great literary like More, saw the private ownership of land as
figures were openly Unitarian both in belief and the main catise of conflict. He put forward the
name: e.a., Emerson, Longfellow. Lowell, and theory that the control of property, particularly
Oliver Wendell Hohnes. to the shape of land, determines the character
trtUitarianism, a school of moral philosophy of of the iMJlitlcal structure of the state ; if property
which the main proponents were J. 8. Mill were universally distributed among the people
(1806-73) and Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). the sentiment for Its protection would naturally
Bentham based his ethical theoiy upon the result to a republican form of government.
utilitarian principle that the greatest happiness The Commonwealth of Oceana was a society
of the greatest number Is the criterion of “ of laws and not of men ” — i.e.. it was to be
morality. What is good is pleasure or happi¬ lâUy based and structured so aa to be inde¬
ness; what is bad is pain. If we act on this pendent of the good or ill-will of any individuals
basis of self-interest (pursuing what we believe controlling it. Thus there must be a written
to be our own happiness), then what we do wUl constitution, a two-house legislature, frequent
automaticallr be for ihe general good. The elections with a secret ballot, and separation of
serious failing of this thesis is (1) that it makes powers between legislature and executive — aU
no distinction between the quality of one today familiar features of pariiamentaiy
pleasure and another, and (2) that Bentham democracy. but unique to his thne.
failed to see that the law might not be framed Saint-Simon. The utopias of the late iSth
and administered by men as benevolent as him¬ and 19th cent, come, of course, into the period
self. J. S.butMill accepted Bentham’s position of the industrial revolution and of laissez-
in general seeing its failings emphasised (1) faire capitalism. Individual enterprise and
that self-interest was an inadequate basis for complete freedom of competition formed the
utilitarianism and suggested that we should outlook of the nfltog elaas. Naturally the
take as the real criterion of good the social con¬ utopias of this period tended to have a strongly
sequences of the act; (2) that some pleasures socialist Onge mce such theories are ohvioasiF
rank higher than others and held that those of laroduced by those who are not satisfied with
the intellect are supericxr to these of the senses.
Not only is the social feetor emphasised, but existtng (1825)
tianity conditions. Saint-Simon’s
is one such, Neio Oaude
and by many. Chris-
emphasis is also placed on the nature of the act. Henri, Comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) is
Utopias. The name “utopia” Is taken from a regarded aa the founder of French socialism.
Greek word naeaning “ nowhere " and was first His book urged a dedication of society to the
used in 1516 by Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) principle of human brotherhood and a com¬
as the title of his book rtf erring to a mythical munity wMoh would be led by men of science
island in the south Pacific where he sited his motivated by wholly spiritual aims. Procluc-
ideal society. Since then it has been used of
any Ideal or fanciful society, and here a few will tiou
ised property was to bethenationalised
as he describes proce^l and(oremployed
“ social¬
he mentioned. (The reader may recall that to serve the public good rather than private
Samuel Butler’s 19th cent, novel, descrihing an gain; the worker was to produce according to
imaginaxy society in New Zealand where his capacity and to be rewarded on the basis of
criminals were treated and the sick puniahed, individual merit; the principle of toheritance
was entitled Efewhm which is ike word " no¬ was to be aboMAed since it denied the principle
where ” in reverse.) It Aonld be noted that tf reward for accomplishment on which the
not all utopias were enrirtfy &ntfful— society was
Eohert proposals were to
not be founded,
directed Saint-Simon’s
towards the poorer
although Owen’s
found to andbe Francois Fourfer’s
impractical, beli^
werew in fact, claves alone, but to the conscience and intellect
tried out. of aU. He was deeply impressed with the
Sir Thomas More. More wrote at a time productive power of the new machtnes and his
when the rise of the wool-growing trade had scheme was, first and foremost, intended as a
resulted in fanning land being turned over to method of directing that power to the better¬
:îstuie and there was a great wave of unemploy¬ ment of humanity as a whole.
ment and a rise in crime among the dispossessed. Fourier. Francois Marie Cihaarles Fourier
More began to think in terms of the mediaeval 0772-1887). although by conviction a phUo-
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
VIT-WEA J52
sopMcal anareWst who held that hum a n beings may ari^ a new property which biologist
none sofNS them
are natnrally good if allowed to follow their say teat tt is tee arrangement of atoms
mtnral desires, was the origiiiator of what, on comts, ths?
the face of it, one wotdd suppose to be the moat different ariême nts exhibite^dS:
regimented of the utopias. It consisted of a ent properties, and teat biological orranff l™
system of “ phalanxes ” or co-operative com¬ topTe
munities each comptffled of a group of workers
and technicians assured of a minlmnin income
md sharing the surplus on an equitable basis.
Agriculture was to be the chief occupation of
each phalanx and industrial employment
planned and so carefully assigned that work
would become pleasant and creative rather
W
than burdensome. One of his ideas was that Wahabis, numbers
which originated mof tee an Arabian sect of THiam
necessary work should receive the highest pay, teaching of Muhan^^
useful worir the next, and pleasant work the Ibn ‘Abd-al-Wahah. bom
cent. He wa« deeply resentful of the of^th
least pay. The land was to be scientifically itoe which, m addition to its tyranny,
cultivated and natural resources carefully con¬ brought about innovations to the religion had
served. Most of the members’ property was Muhamruad regmded as a perversion w]toh
to be privately owned, but the ownersldp of of its
each phalanx was to be widely diffused among ongM form. He proceeded to reform Tgi»m
to its primitive conditions and
members by the sale of shares. Such “ parasitic hK behea on Mohammed Ibn Saud. imni^^ a sSh
and unproductive ” occupations as stockbroker, who spijrad teem with ^ the Sand
soldier, economist, middle-man and philosopher aid ofthehispower
swotoof
would be eliminated and the education of tee Wahabis spread over much of Arabto where
children carried out along vocational lines to
tram them for their future employment. it IS dorunant today
(toaracte^ ic to Saudiit Arabia.
is that retoses
mterpreta ItepS®
tionsto of acSthe
The strange thing was that Courier’s sugges-
hoM appealed to many both in Europe and the
U.S.A. and such men (admittedly no economic wor^ oyhe Prophet and accepts quite
tee teaohtog of tolam. It is, to fact, literaily
OT technical experts) as Emerson, Thoreau, Moslem ftodamentallsm. Although a crushed sort of
Jês Bussell Lowell, and Nathaniel Haw- by tee Tmks to 1811--16. the movement rSm
morne strongly supported them. An American
<30lony Imown as Brook Farm was an important element m Mohammedanism.
^tablished and carried on for eight years when Waldenses, a movement alsoby imown as " Theof Poor
Peter Waldo that
It was diîved after a serious fire had destroyed same time, and in the same parfe
most of its property.
Robert Owen. Eobert Owen (1771-1858). a of southern Prance, as the Albigenses {q.v.) with
wealthy textile manufacturer and phllanthro- nothing to common,
pist, establish^ communities founded on a kind
;ôm, main
itteir however, washada return
beliefteey to Apostolic
of iitopian socialism in Lanarkshire, Biunpshtre. snnpUcity, based on reading the Bible to their
and in America. OfhisNew Lanark community own language: them doctrines were somewhat
an American observer wrote: “ There is not amiiar to teose of the Mennonite s and the
I apprehend, to be found in any part of the Quakers. However, they did not wish to
world, a manufacturing community In which so senate themselves from the Church and were
much order, good government, tranquillity, and onâll^rprot^ted by several
rational happiness prevail." The workers in Lateran (iounc^ of 1216 excludedpopes until the
Lan^k were given better housing and education for the cmne of preac^g without teem mainly
ecclesiastical
for tneir chOdren, and it \7as administered as pemnôn. Prom this time they were sub-
a co-operative self-supporting community in maintained some con-
Scotland. Later in life Owen returned to Ohmch until the Eeformation
Issislation that would remove some wton they teose to take the side of tee Pro-
of the worst evils of industrial life in those days : t^nts. Sitoted mainly on the sides of tee
reduction of the working day to twelve hours, Alps, half to Piedmont and half to Prance, they
prohibition of labour for (fiiildren under the were persecuted or not according to tee oon-
age of ten, public sehoois for elementary educa¬ toporary political convenience of the Dukes of
tion. and BO OIL But he Eyed to see few of his majOT attempt to destroy them
reforms adopted. He also promoted the gJled forth. Oiiver Cromwell’s intervention and
creation of co-operative societies, the formation tee toonssonnet of Milton, In spite of torture.
of tradM muons, labour banks and exchanges, ev^ the Mdnapping
the workers educational movement, and even of their ohili^m to have them brought up to
Anglp-Ameriean federation. There can be the j^man Gateohc &ith, the
no doubt that, if he saw Uttle result himself, he and stUl exMs, having been sect survived,
granted foil
tea the imprmt of his convictions to bMieflt Homan Catholic
rame^ communities who may not even know his ^bjects by Charles Edward. of Piedmont to
Weateermm, the rather tocongruous name for tee
mo^ radical and volatile of the many groups
makb^ States
Unltte America."undergrou
ip, the ofso-called most to
XTnIlke nd’’ the
of tee
loosely-structured organisations involved to the
growing anti-establishment front, tee Weather¬
VlWi^ the philosophioal doctrine that the be- men apiwar to have direct rather than anarchis-
ha-riour of the Uv^ organism is, at least in tic political goals, taking a stand far to the left
part, due to a vital principle which cannot of traîonal politics. Their avowed flim is
po^ly be explain of tee current American
ohemistiT. TWs whohyin terms of physics
beUef was at one time political structure, with specific and
held strongly by the late Professor O. E. M. plamied of violence as the tools carefully of their
is inmliolt to Bfenri '^rgson’s (1858-1941) trade md tee cIvU police force as one of their
5hccry_ of creative evolution. It was mato- prime targete This has led to a Series of bomb
•têd by Bergson that evolution, like the work explosions, often cunntogly planned, and brutal
of artist, is creative and therefore unpre- murdere of police patrolmen which have deeply
dictable; that a vague need exists beforehand sho<*edtheaverageAmericancitizen. Apaitic-
wwhto.the animal or plant before the means of ularly sinister and ominous feature, to most
satisfying the need develops Thus we might people 8 eyes, is the fact that tee Weathermen
assume that sightless animals developed the toe. largely drawn from tee highly
need to become aware of objects before they intelligent and well-educated strata, many of
w^ to phyrical wntact with them and that them with_ well-to-do and/or acêmic back¬
^ origin of organs of grounds. Members of this group make no
Bight. Earlier this century a form of vitalism tolr contopfc for tee Intellect and
descnh^ as emergent evolution" was put poUtical attitedes of the American middle-class,
fârd. This theory matotatoa that when
two or more simple entities come together there and_ claim
Society to _ demonstrate' tee impotence of
by their ability to commit flagrant acts
WIT-YOG
JS3 IDEAS AND BELIEFS
of violence with such ease and the equal ease cated " Vote for Women.” the 1970s’ version
with which they subsequently escape detection seems to have less definite aims. The principal
and arrest. In 1970 one of tlw leaders of the argument hinges on the fact that with the
Weathermen, an attractive anti dynamic woman development of highly efficient methods of
university lecturer, was placed on the FBI’s contraception (the “piU”) women need no
notorious “most wanted criminals” list. Xhe longer be “slaves” to their famfiy commit¬
elusive nature of the organisation and its uncer¬ ments and the traditional dominant and
tain bachgronnd have led to a number of fan¬ decision-making role of the male in our society
tastic speculations about its true origins. One mnst go. At the same time there should te no
of the oddest of these is the notion, widely held more wage or job discrimination against women.
in America, that the Weathermen are in reality The movement is relatively strong In America
financed and backed by the country’s extreme and is acquiring some slight power in local and
right — as a means of discrediting in the public state politics.
ere the slow but steady move towards socialism World Congress of Faiths, an inter-religious move¬
that seems to be developing there. Such specu¬ ment which aims to break down barriers be¬
lations serve really to remind one that the politi¬ tween faiths. The first step towards It was
cal structure of the United States, remarkably token by the worid’s parliament of religions
stable for over a century, is entering a confused held in Chicago in 1893: and similar gatherings
and tortured revolutionary phase. were held subsequently at Intervals in Europe:
Witchcraft. Xhere are various interpretations but the actual organisation, was formed in 1936
and definitions of witchcraft from that of by Sir Francis Yonnghusband: and now an
Pennethome HughM who state that “ witch¬ annual conference is held and educational
craft, as it emerges into European history and activity carried on.
literature, represents the old paleolithic fertility World Council of Churches, a union rtf CSuistian
cult, plus the magical idea, plus various parodies Churches from all over the world (including the
of contemporary religions” to that of the Churches of the Protestant, Anglican, and
fanatical Father Montague Sommers who .says Orthodox traditions, bnt excluding the Roman
that Spiritualism and witchcraft are the same Catholic Church) , engaged in extending Christian
thing. A leading authority on witchcraft, mission and unity throughout the world. All
however, the late Dr. Margaret Murray, liis- Churches which “ accept our Lord Jesus Christ
tinguishes between(s.i?.))
Operative "Witchcraft (which as God and Saviom- ” are eligible. This modem
is really Magic and Kitual Witchcraft ecumenical movement stems from the great
which, she say^, " embraces the religions be- 1 World Missionary Conference held at Edinburgh
liefs and ritual of the i>eople known in late j m 1910. The World Council was founded in
mediaeval times as ‘ witches.’ ” That there i 1948 and meets for consultation from time to
were such people we know from history and we j time: the fourth assembly met at Uppsala in
know, too, that many of them — the great i 1968 to discuss the theme “All Things New."
majority of them women — ^were tortured or
executed or both. Many innocent people i
ijerished, especially after the promulgation of i
the bull Summis desideranies by Pope Innocent
vni in 1484. Himself “ a man of scandalous ' Y
life”, according to a Catholic historian, he
wrote to " his dear sons,” the German pro¬ y<«a, a Hindu discipline which teaches a technique
fessors of theology. Johann Sprenger and Hein¬ for freeing the mind from attadiment to the
rich Kraemer, “ witches are hhidering men senses, so that once freed the soul may beasne
from i>erforming the sexual act and women from ftised with the univer^ spirit {Atman or
conceiving ...” and delegated them as In¬ Brcdman), which is ite natural goal. Thte is the
quisitors “of these heretical pravities.” In sole fimetion of the psychological and phy^cal
1^4 they codified in the MaUem MukMarum exercises which the Yogi undertakes, although
(Hammer of Witches) the eeclâstical rules for few ever reach the final stage of SamadM or
detecting acts of witchcraft. Dr. Murray union with Brahman which is said to take place
points out that there have ordinarily been two in eight levels of attainment. These are: tl)
theories about witchcraft: (1) that there were Yama, which involves the extinction of desire
such beings as witches, that they iioss^sed and egotism and their replacement by charity
supernatural powers and that the evidence and umelfishnte; (2) Niymna during which
given at their trials was substantially correct: certain rules of conduct must be adopted, such
(2) that the witches were simply poor silly as cleanline®, the pursuit of devotional studies,
creatures who either deluded themselves into and the carrying out of rituals of purificatioii:
believing that they had certain iiowers or. more (3) Asarta, or the attainment of cone«ft posture
frequently, were tortured into admitting things and the reduction to a minimum of all bodily
that they did not do. She herself accepts a movement (the usual pcstuxe of the concentrat¬
tted theory: that there were such beings as ing Yogi is the “ lotus poslticm ’’ familiar fircon
witches, that they really did what they ad¬ pictures); (4)-{6) Pranavama, theriifrit control
mitted to doing, but that they did not pcssess of the life-force or breath in which tiiere are two
supernatural powers. They were in fact be¬ stages at whiefa the practilaoner hoi>«i to arrive,
lievers in the old rdlglon of pre-Christian times the first being complete absorption to the act
and the Church took centuries to root them out. of breathing which mnpties the mind of any
That there existed “covens” of wltdres who other thon^t, the second being the ability
carried out peculiar rites Dr. Murray has no almost to cease to far®.the which allêdly
doubt whatever. The first to show that witch¬ enabte him to achieve marvellous feats of
craft was a superstition and that the majority of endurance; (6) Praiyahara or abstraction
so-called witches were people suffering from which means the mind's complete withdrawal
mental illness was the physician Johann Weyer frmn the world of sense; (7) Bharama to which
of Oeves (1516^8). His views were dmoimced an attempt is made to think of one ttiing only
by the Catholic Church. Few people realise which finMly becomes a repetition (rf the sacred
how deeply the notion of witchcraft is implanted syllable OM. and perimpa by a kind of self-
in our minds and how seriously its power is hypnosis. leads (8) to Smiadhi the trance state
still not
taken. For inexample, the until
"Wltdicraft Act which
reality.Is a ^n of the complete unity of soul with
was repealed this country the 1950s.
Furthermore, as recently as 1944, when the Yoga is very old, and when the sage Fatanjali
allied armies were invading Europe, the Spiri¬ (c. 800 mo.) compel the book containing these
tualist medium Mrs. Helen Duncan was charged instructions, the Yoga Sutras, he was probably
with witchcraft and actually sent to prten — a oolleottog from many ancient tradiHons. Some
prosecution which brought forth cau^c com¬ of the claims
ments from the then prime minister. Winston Western mind, made
franklybyincaradlble;
"Yogis seem,but toto tiie
the
ChurchilL See also Demonism. West and tepedally in xeemt years Yoga
Women’s Xibeiation Movement, the name given methods have been used at the lower levela to
to a loosely organised collection of women order to gato improved self-control, better
drawn from aH ages and waUcs of life which
posture, and improved
achieves these health.
ends is another "Whether
matter, but the it
appears to be emerging as a latter-day “ super-
suffragette ” movement. Unlike the original genuine Yogi regards this as a perversion of the
suffragette movement, however, which, advo¬ nature and purpose of the discipline.
IDEAS AND BELIEFS
ZEN-ZOR
J54 such activities as
swordsmanship, archerv
z Japanese westhng and later Judo md
Kamiê dive-bombers. But much of JapM®
the
Zen Buddhism, a Buddhist sect which is believed ese art. especial ly landsca pe
to have arisen in 6th cent. China hut has flower- arrange gardeni
ment, was influenced sinSlariv ng “d
and Zen is even used to Japanes e psvESv
nourished chiefly in Japan: for some reason it very strict life of the Zen moXfaWd
has of recent years begun to attract attention
in the West thanks to the voluminous writings largely on domg thmgs, learning through^,
of Dr. D. T. Suzuki and the less numerous but perience: the periods of meditation to the &ndo
Mubtless much-read books of Mr. Christmas administered by thebyabbot ârp slaps on the
Humphreys. But the fact that these writings to those who are
unsatisfactory pupils. Dr. Suzuki denies tw
e^t does not explain their being read, nor why is nihllfatic, but it is probably its apSme
of all possible Eastern sects this particular one of nitohsm and Its appeal to the irrationalTnl
should be chosen in our times. What is Zen's spontaneous which attracts the Western
attraction and why should anyone take the world
trouble to read about something (the word at a time when to many the world seems vrith-
out meaning Md hfe over-regimented. How-
something ” is used for reasons that wlU ever, it has influenced such various asnerfH nf
become evident) that is not a religion, has no
doctoe, knows no God and no after-life, no Western life as philosophy (Heideg|er)?^cM^
good and no evO, and possesses no scriptures atiy. (Ench Fro^ and Hubert BeS
put has to be taught by parables which seem ;^tmg (Aldpus Huxley), and painttog mfa
to be purposely meaningless? One of the
heroes of Zen is the flerce-looking Tufiian monk Zion^, Zen Gruppe a belief to theman need to establish ' an“
autonomo us mJewish
Ger home to y).Palestine which
Bod^dharma (fl. c. 516-584) who brought
Buddhism to China, of whom it is recounted
that when the Emperor asked him how much (1860-1904). a Hungarian journalist working
merit he had acquired by supporting the new m Viemm. iUthough
n afto Herzi was Theodor a more orHerzi
assimilated Jew. he was forced by the Dreyfus
creed, the monk shouted at him: " None what¬
ever ! ’■ The Emperor then wished to know case and the pogroms to Eastern Europe to
what was the sacred doctrine of the creed, and conclude that there was no real safety for the
Jewish people until they had a state of theh
again the monk shouted: “ It is empty — there
is nothing sacred I ” Dr. Suzuki, having religious
01^ The Jews, of course, had always to a
sense thought of Palestine as a roiritual
affirmed that there is no God in Zen, goes on to
state that this does not mean that Zen denies homeland and prayed next year to Jeru-
salem. hut the religious had thought of this
the existence of God because “ neither denial m a philosophical way as afflrmtog old loyalti^
nor affirmation concerns Zen.” The most
cpncrele statement he is prepared to make is not as r^minendtog the formation of an actual
that the basic idea of Zen is to come in touch state. Therefore Herzi was opposed both by
^th the inner workings of our being, and to do m^y of the religious Jews and, at the other
this in the most direct way possible vrithout extreme by those who felt themselves to be
rôrting to anything external or superadded. asfflmUated and to nmny ^ses without religious
Therefore anything that has the semblance of after the Balfour Declaratton of
an external authority is rejected by Zen. 1917, there was not a considerable flow of Jews
Absolute faith is placed in a man’s own inner to Palestme, which at that time was a nre-
state. But the persecutions
being. Apparently the intention is that, so
far from indulging in inward meditations or of Hitler changed, all this and. after bitter
such practices as the Yogi uses, the student must Jewish state was proclaimed in
leam to act spontaneously, without thinking 1948. Today Zionism is supported by the vast
Md without self-consciousness or hesitation. majority of the J ewish communities everywhere
fa the main purpose of the koan, the (tothough stongly disapproved of to the Soviet
logically insoluble riddle which the pupil must Umon as Wêm imperialism ”) and Zionism
try to solve. One such fa the question put by is.now an aaive totemational force concerned
master to pupil: " A ghl fa wdOring down the ynth protecting the welfare and extending the
influence of Israel.
street, fa she the younger or the older sister? "
The correct answer, it seems, fa to say nothtog Zoroastrianism, at one (dme one of the great world
but put on a mincing gait, to become the girl, rehgions, competing to the 2nd cent. a.d. on
thus showing that what matters fa the ex- ^pst equal terms from its Persian home with
penence of being and not its verbal description, Hellenl^ and the Roman Imperial Govern-
ment. Under the Achaemenidae (c, 650-830
^ther 7coan: " What is the Buddha? ” B.O.). Zoroastrianism was the state religion of
^Three pounds of flax "fa attributed to T’ung- Persia. Alexander’s conquest to 331 b o
shan m the 9th cent, and a later authority’s
comment fa that ” none can excel it as regards brought ^mptipn hut the flourished
religion(a.d.
Its irrationaJity which cuts off all passages to Sassanian dynasty c. 226-
peculation. Zen, in effect, teaches the nse- 640). With the advance of the Mohammedan
lessness of trying to use words to discuss the Arabs m the 7th cent. Zoroastria nism
Absolute. gave way to Islam. A number of devoteesfinally fled
Zen came to Japan in the 13th cent., more to todla there to become the Parsees. In
than five centuries after Confucianism or the scattered societies remain.
orthodox forms of Buddhism, and immediately The name Zoroaster fa the Greek rendering of
gamed acceptance whilst becoming typically ^rathustra, the prophet who came to purify
Japanese m the process. One of the reasons of Persia. It fa thought
why it appealed^ must have been that its that he hved at the beginning of the 6th cent.
spontêity and insistence on action without B.o. He jaever claimed for himself followers.
divine
thought, its emphasis on the uselessness of
mere words, and such categories as logical The basis of Zoroastrlantan is the age-long war
opposites, had an inevitable attraction for a between good and evil. Ahura Mazda heading
people given to seriousness, formality, and the good spirits and Ahriman the evil ones.
mgie to a degree which was almost stlfliog. Morahty fa very important since by doing right
Zen must have been to the Japanese what the wprsMpper fa supporting Ahura Mazda
noMCnse rhymes and nonsense hooks, like those agatost Ahriman. and the evil-doers will be
of Edward Xw and Lewis Carroll, were to the punished mjhe last days when Ahura Mazda
English inteilectuafa. Lear’s limericks, like wins hfe inevitable victory.
f "P with a line which, H aroastriamsm has little authority today, it
just at Jhe time when one expects a point to be TV Of thfa religion fa the Avesfo.
ma(^ hM no particular potut at all. axid Alice had a ve^ considerable influence to the past.
in Wonderland fa the perfect example of a Its doctrines pmetated into Judaism iq.v.)
world, nofe wlôxtt log^c, but with a crazy logic and,, through Gn<fflticasm, Ghrirtianlty. The
of its own which has no relationship to that of woraiup of Slithra by the Romans was an Impure
everyday life. Therefore Zen began to im¬ Teraion of 2Ioroastriaiii8m.
pregnate ev&T aspect of life to Japan, and one vms a Zoroas trian heresy and the Albigensfanism
ot the rraults of its emphasis on spontaneous **“0® tke last reUc of a beUef
action rather th^ reason was its acceptance by
the Samurai, the ferocious waxdor class, in TOtohJ^d impressed itself deeply to the minds
ljrii.ZiJliX xHilliirCr
OF nPTTF
WORLD
A complete index to the maps with

up-to-date descriptive matter, to¬
gether with a list of Commonwealth
countries with their land areas and
recent estimates of population.
N
O
G
f
.
.
GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD

e
Mocte fo include all the more important places throughout the wofM
T-h,, n
'” »?-»■, r““”‘
d
tod doic-n bv the •‘ Pa^nent Ocmmittee wi Geographical Namm "of fl}A IRndinl
based been
«^tJe folloiced* Chinese entries are in T' '* - — --
on Chinese romanised alphabet adopted laoo, is in oracjcets. Ttiere
Z
the spelling shown on the map does not conform to that used in the gazetteer.
G
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE
.
QAZETTEEB
.
Geogeaphicap Names Pac. Oa= Paoiflc Ocean.

. Louisiana.
.
Ala. = Alabama. Pa. = Pasadena.

Mass. ■=Maine,
Massachusetts.
Ark. — Arkansas. = Maryland.
B.I.—
Penns. ^Pennsylvania.
Ehode Ikland.
= Soc Eep Mich. = Michigan.
S
AU. Oo. ial = Atlantic

ubl
ist ic. Ocean. Minn.
Md.= .= Minnesota.
=
S Federal Sociahst
P.nssian Soviet
Brit.= British. Me.= = Mississippi.
Miss. Eepublic.
S.O.
I'o 4= South Carolina.
Of Ireland,
. Oal.= California. La.—Missouri.
=
Col.= Colorado. Mont. = Montana, Scot.= Scotland.

= South Dakota.
R Gofin. = Connecticut, = New Brunswick.
.
Mo.= = North Carolina. SKM.f= Soviet Socialist Be.

. USSR = CzechosloTsik Socialist
Eepublic. N.B.= = North Dakota. TejiM.=« Tennessee.
N.O.= = Netherlands.
=
l>el.= Delaware. pnbhc.«Dnit^

Br England. N.B.= = New Hampshire, D.M.B, Arab Eepublic.
it
is Neth.= ' New Jersey. G.S.S.B.= tTruon of Soviet
h E.R.= East Elding. Socialist Eepublios.
= Col Fla.= Blorida. = New Mexico.
NM.‘ = North Biding. Fa.= Virginia.
Au uFr.~ Erench.
to mbi N,J.= = New York. F<.== Vermont.
nGa.=
o a. Georgia.
III.mo=us Illinois. ■ New Zealand. Wash.= Washington
N.E.=
N.Y.=
NM.-- = Orange Free State.
Jnd.= SovIndiana. TFX = West Indies.
' Oklahoma. IFis.= Wisconsin.
Kan.— iKansas. et
Oregon.
Ky.^ Kentucky. Wyo. = Wyoming.
Ol
da
.^ .—
Or
e
Abbreviations of names of Counties in Gi. Britain JrOSZ iJjJiCQ*

Rep. of Ireland are those recognised by the General
OtHE® ABBREVrATIONS
a. — area. F. = flrth, P.= population,
agr.— agriculture. par. = parish.
oM.= altitude. tish. pf.=» fishing port. parU.= parliament.
approx. = approximate, fortfd.= fortified. parly. parliamentary.
arcs. = archaeological. B.^feet. prod.*=3 products.
fed
proi.=j protectorate.
aut. rep. = autonomous republic.
era gdg.u=lgfen.
ass.= associated. prov. = province.

P<.==POlt.
l, . =
goo g
6di/.= boundary. B.= river.

d.ene
bldg.— building. I.— great,

island, group.
bar. — borough. rep.=> republic.
residtl. railway,
= residential.
r
0.= cape. mpf. == important. rl’/.=

al.
c.= city. me.— including,

can. — canton, iirdep. — independent. mra? dist.= rural district.
cap. = capital, inos,= industries. S. = south or southerly.
cos. = castle. tndustl.= industrial. shipblda.^
sm. = small.shlpbidldlng.
cath.= cathedral. Iff. = islands.
ch. = chief. L. = lake. spt.= seaport.
00. = county, fee. = large St.
m. “Saint.
m. » sduare uiUes.
oo. tor. = county borough. tost. = largest. st.= state.
cpL= colony. »i.=» miles.
coBv. = colliery. »waliiw.= machinery. sfa. = station.
eomm.= commercial. mStg.=s manufacturing. sub. =town.
t.= Buburb.
(wt.= coast, mkg.= making.
ctr. = centre. mJet.^ market. <err.“ territory.
clv.= country. nmfs. = manufactures. tr.= trade,
dep.= department. tr®. = tributary.
Jtst.= district. OTf.=
mng. =mount.mim'ng. imiv.= university.
div.= division. 5n{n.= mountain. urb. “ diet. = urban district.
B. = east or easterly. nmn. = mnnloipality. Bit. village,
elec.= electrical. niun. bor. = municipal borough. W. •= west or westerly.
enoin. => engineering, N. = north or northerly. Wat. pi. — watering place.
estd.’s’ estimated. nat. “=• near.
national. wks.’^ works.
6oaj.= exports. wkshps.= workshops.
Land -- administrative division of W. Germany

approx, corresponding to “ province ".
l
AAB-ACK K3 SAZETTEEH
,
Abergele, urb. dist.. Denbigh, Wales; small wat.

pi.; p. (1961) 7,982.
Aabenraa, spL, S.E. Jutland, Dennnrk; at head Aberlour, Charlestown oJ, burgh. Banff. Scot.;
of Aabenraa fjord: cara, traaers, clothing; p. on E. Spey, 12 m. S. of Elgin; p. (1961) SSS.
(1900) 14^19. Abemethy, bimh, Perth, Scot.; on B. Tay once
Aachen, f., N. Ehine-Westphalia, Germany; the cap. of the Pictish Kings; p. (1961) 601.
formerly Alx-Ia-Chapelte ; one of the oldest Abersythan, par., Monmouth, Wal^; coal, iron,
cities in Germany, cath., famous baths ; suffered and steel: p. 25,748.
badly from bombing in Second World War and AbertiUeiy, mb. dist., Monmouth.; coal, engin.,
was first large German town to be taken by the leather goods: p. (1961) 25,160.
Allied Forces in 1944; non-ferrous metal inds. Aberystwyth, rmm. her.. vxA. pi., on Cardigan Bay
6
textiles, needles, footwear, elec, goods; p. (1968) at the mouth of the E. Ystwyth, Cardigan,
178,726. Wales ; unlv. college ; Nat. Library of Wales ;
Aainn, cap.. Saguia el Hamxa region of Spanish p. (1961) 10,418.
Sahara. Abidjan, cap.. Ivory Coast, W. Africa; pahn oil,
.
Aalborg, c., svt Jutland, Denmark; shipbldg., cocoa, copra, hardwood, rubber; oil reftning at
cement, textiles, machin.; airport; p. (1965)
5
99.315. ■Vridi nearby; p. (1963) 213,000.

Abilene, t, Kansas. tT.SA..; univ.; food prod.,
Aalen, t.. Baden-Wtlrttemherg. Germany ; on E. oilseeds, oil-refining, cotton: p. (1960) 00,308.
Kocher; iron, textiles, lens mkg.; p. (1963) Abingdon, mun. bar., Berks, Eng., on E. Thames ;
33.700. cars, leather goods: p, (estd. 1967) 16.770.
Aalsi, gee Alost. Abingdon, f., Va., D.SA- ; liimbering, flour mlR-
1
Aar, B.. Switzerland, fiows through Btienz and tag : nma. condenseti milk, chemicals, tobacco ;
Thun lak^, and thence into the Khlne, 181 m. ; tourist rôrt: p. (1960) 4,758.
famous Aar gorges above Meiringen. Abtagtott, t. Mass., UB.A.. ; ôes, textile machin. ;
Aarau, t. cap. Aargau can,, Switzerland ; precision p. {I960) 10,449.
tools and instruments, shoes, textiles; hydro¬ Abitibi, M. and L,. E. flows into James Bay,
elec. plant; p. (estd.) 17.000. Ontario, Canada ; gold dist.
.
Aargau, can., N, Switzerland ; a. 542 so. m. ; Abo, see Turku, Finland.

extensive vlnerards, cereals, orchards, metal Abomey, old cap., Dahomey, W. Africa; former
prod., textiles, salt mining; p. (1961) ^0,940. slave mkt.; cotton: p. (estd. 1960) 18,900.
Aarhus, c., principal spt. on E. coast of Jutland. Abovyan, f.. Armenian S.S.B.; 10 m. from
Denmark: famous Gothic cath., univ.: iron, Yerevan: new model t. founded 1963: planned
;
metals, shiphldg. marine engin., textiles, paper, p. 50,000.

chemicals: p. (1965) 187.342. Aboyne and Glentanner, par., Aberdeen. Scot.;
Abaco, Gt., Bahama Is.. W. Indies ; p. (1953) 3.407. hoi. res. on E. Dee nr. Ballater: p. (1951)
Abadan, c., Iran; oil refineries; intern, alrpt.;
tech. coU.; p. (1967) 339,121.
Abakan, t., S.S.P.SJR., on B. Jenisei; eawmllling, Abraham, over FrenchPlainsunder
oi, nr. Quebec ;1769.
Montcalm, Wolfe’s victory
food inds.: p. (1959) 56^)00. Abram, mb. dist, Lancs, Eng.; coal, engin..
Abbaaia, sec Opatija. cotton mnfe,; p. (1961) 6,017.
Abbeyfile, mftg. c., on the R. Somme (N. France) ; Abrantes, t.. Portugal, on the Tagus B.; French
connected with Paris and Belgium by canals ;
sugar-milling, carpets, biscuits, beer; p. (1962) Abrozzi,won battle
reffimhere to Napoleonic
of Italy ‘Ware, Inc.
on the Adriatic, 1S07.provB.
26,899. of Aaiiila, <3hieti, Teramo; methane fields; p.
Abbeyleix, L, rural dist., Laoighis, Ireland; atiar- (1961) 1,584,777.
ries; p. (rural dtet. 1961) 11M3. Abu, mtn., Bâsthan. India, 5,653 ft.; Jain
AblKJtsbury, par., Dorset, Eng.; world-famous temples.
swannery. Abu Dhabi, I., emirate, Igst of Trueial sts.: S.E.
Abbots-Laagley, par., Herts. Eng., birthplace of Arabian p«i.; rich oil reserve: a. 80,000 sq,.
Nicholas Breakspeaie (Pope Adrian IV): p.
(1961) 18^57. Abukir or Abofikir. til. on Abukir Bay, tT-A.E.;
Abeokuta, f., Nigeria: N. of Lagos; palm oil, hard¬ site of ancient Canopus; Battle of the Nile
woods: p. (1958) 84m0. fought in the Bay. 1798: p. 7J}86.
Aberavon, L. Glamorgan, Wales; on B. Avon. 8 Abu Simbcl, NQe Valley. D.A.E,: famous anc.
m. E. of Svransea: harbour Port Talbot; temples carved out of solid sandstone, one to
Ige. coal and Iron inds.. metals, tinplate, cables : Earnest 11 and the other to his Queen: saved
p.
p. (1961) 31.226. from waters of Lake Nasser.

(es
Aberayron, mb. dist., Cardigan. S. Wales; p. Abydos, mined c.. Upper UJLE.; celebrated fbr
td.
19
(1961) 1J220. its temple of Oriris.

68
Abercain, urb. dist.. Mcannouth. Wales; coal and Abydos. ruined casOed Anatolia on the Dar¬
)50
danelles, whl(h resisted Philip of Atacedon;

,0
iron, tin-platfe knitting pins; p. (1961) 19jl21.

00
Absnmtcdm:, burah, Banff, Scot.: p. (1961) 765. famous for the story of Leander and Bfero.
.
Abercom par.. W. IjOthian, Scot, : on the Forth ; Ab?ss!Qi&a

Roman waR bnilt by Antoninus b^»3t here, Ac^nda, spt.. Salvador, Oaifecal America; exp.
and extended to Eakpabidt on the Cfiyde; coffee: cmnent,oflreflntag.fert3lfeers; pwllSfiO)
p. (1951) SOd. 15.47S.
AhOTCom, t, ZamMa; trading sta.; airfleld: Aomnbaio, Mexico: rly. junction; p. 27.643.
European p. (1959) Acapi^so, s^.. Pacific coast, MkHco; touifem:
Aberdare, mb. dist., Glamoigan. Wales, on Hie exp. hidm. cedar, fruit: p. (1960) 2S,5SS.
R. Cynon; wfre cables: p. (1961) 39,044. Accra, spt, cap. Ghana, W. Aflkra; univ; airport
Aberdeen, co.. Scot.: mtnons: agr., oats, barley, (renanted Kotoira); pharmaceutics: p* (1960)
turnips, cattle: fisheries; granite, brewing, 491,060 (toe. cap. dist, and rund a.).
distilling, paper; a, 1,970 sq. m.: p. (1961) Acetingtem, >»«». bor., mM. t, Lan<®. Eng, ; 20 m.
298.503. N. rf Manchester; cotton ctr., coal, textile
Aberdeen, c.. Aberdeenshire and Kincardine, Scot. ; machin., engin., M(to; p. (estd. 1967) 37,470.
at mouth of R. Dee. 100 m. N.B. of Edinhtngh; Acmra, f., S. Italy; destroyed by Hannibal 216
uniy.; sm, shipbldg., fishing, oats, whisky, B.C. ; restored 210 b.o. ; olive oH. wine, hemp ;
paper inkg- granite, tourism; p. (1961) 1<S5,3?'9 Achaia,p. 16,460.
of whom 23.254 S. of E. Dee are in Kincar¬ prm., Greece: a. 1.206 sa- m,; chief
dine co. (anrrant-producing dtet.; ^t., Patras; p. (1961)
Aberdeen, t., S.D., U.8.A.; chemicals, foundry; 236,770.
p. (1960) 28.073. Achalpnr, {., W. Madhya Pradesh, India; cotton.
Aberdeen, S2^., Wash-, TI.S.A.; lumbering, salmon Aohin, I., off the W. coast of Mtoyo, Ireland; agr..
fishing,
canning; p. (1960) 1S,741.
Aberdovey, wot. vl.- Merioneth, Wales, on estuary Adiill Head, Mpe, Mayo.
of R. Dover, Arhtos*, inMsBt t, E.S.FHJE.. on E. Chulyin;
Aberieldy, bitrah, Perth, Scot., in Strath Tay, 4 m. impt. rly. junction; manganese, cement: p.
below Loch Tay; mkt. : salmon and trout fish- (1956)42.400.
in resort; p. (1961) J.4dS. 1(1951)1435. Aoireale, spt. Sicily: sulphni baths; p, (1961)
Abertoyie, par., Perth. Scot.: tourist resort: p. 43,752.
Abergavenny, mun. bar., t., Monmouth., on E. Dsk: Acklin, island, Bahamas. W. Indies: timber,
light engin., concrete prods.; p. (1901) 9,625. sponges: p. (1953) 2,273.
ACO-AOR K4. gazetteer
AcoiKagBa, mfn., Andes. Argentine. S. America, Dtees on the S. ; a. 62,000 en. m lenffth
highest peah of New WorM, alt. 22,835 ft. 450 m. '*
Aconcagua, pm'., Chile; a. 3,939 so. m.; cap. Adullam or Aidelma, Judean c. of Canaanite
San Felipe; alfalfa and Mediterranean fruits; origin, S.W. Jerusalem, where David hid in cave
P. fl957) 154,075. from Saul.
Acananija, Sieixa de, jnf«. range N. Argentina, Adwick le Street, urb. disl, W.E. Yorks Enr» •
8 Amerioa: rises steeply from Chaco lowland to coal: p. (1901)
18,000 ft. , Adzhar, rep.. (Seorgian S.S.R.; tea, citrus fruits
Acaui,a»cie}iitraHedt.,N.ItaIy.prov.AJessandria; oil-refining, engin. ; ch. t. Batumi: a lioosn
famons
Acre cath,.
(AkksS, c. sulphur springs:
Bpt., Israel, famousp. 18,975. m.i p. group
for its sieges Aegades, {1959) of842,000.
roc^ Is. off W. coast ' of ' Sicilv
during tknaades and in 1799 withstanding oh. t. Favignana on I. of that name ’
Napoleon for 61 days: p. c. 18,000. Aegean Is., between Greece and Turkey called
Acre, sf,, Brazil; a. 59,139 SQ.m.. cap. Eio Branco; the Grecian Archipelago, inc. Crete cVclades
cattle, mbber, manioc: p. (eatd. 1968) 204,051. Sporades, and Dodecanese ; a. 1,606 so m- n
Acton, j’jT'mrr
ioT'Mer ihuh.
sum. oot.,tor.. imutiieseii,
MidiUeses, Eng.: iiuw now (1961)
uyoi;
inc. in Ealing outer bor.. Greater London. («.t’.). Aegean
TiniV.
C Oklaboma, tT.S.A.; p. (1960) 14,347.
wif.h To ■Kof.-MTOOTI n.r>a.Ane%.
with Sea,
nected
Is., branch
betweenof Greece
the Mediterranean
and Turkey; • studded
through the Dardanelles with Sea of
con- ^
Adaaiawa, region, W. Africa, divided between kfermara and thence through the Bosphorus
Nigeria and Cameroun: a. 70,000 sa.m.: ivory, Strait with the Black Sea. rflRUpWBR
greundmits.
jfTOu umiuw. Aegina, I., Greew: in G. of same name, sponge
aegina, i., ureece: in G. of same name,
Adams, mfis.t. Mass., O.S.A.: i»per wttons. Aero, I. intheBaltiooflDenmark:p. (1960)10sponge IM
woollens calcium .ana^ng; p. {19m 11.949. Aetolia and Acamania, prov.. N. (Greece- ’can
Ato^ Br:^, Cham of sandbanks, 22 rm long, Missolonghi; p. (1961)237.755.
ta Rilk Strait, tetween India and Ceylon. Afam. S. Nigeria: oUfield: pipe-line E. to Ft
Construction of rail causeway mooted. Harcourt
a i Kiiui., Q. vcjriuu, aiu. J-b. issas, French Territory of the. NE
Adana, t, Turkey: on E. Seihan: wool, cotton,
Aaana. f.. Turkey: on E. Seihan: wool, cotton. Afrinn rnmici., nvo.,,..!, fonnerly French Somaliland (renamed "-F;
grain, toteiceo: p. (1985) 290,515. \ 1967): extends inland from straits of Bab-el-
Adapazari, t. Tortoy ; rly. junction : agr. and tr. Mandeb; plain, mainly below 600 ft.; hot. dry
ctr., silk, linen; high grade concentrate from climate: shark and mother of pearl fisheries; salt,
low grade iron ore deposits in Camdagl a.; p. coffee, hides, oilseed; cap. Djibouti; a. 9,00{)
(1965) 85,579. sg.m.; p. (estd.) 110,000.
M Ti t « _ r. T
Adto, E.. N. Italy, flows through L. Como to Aflric. Glen, . sg.m.; p. estd.) jiO.OOO.
Inverness. Scot.; SO m. S.W. of
Aiwi. terminus of Jibuti Af|h^tan
T!v,.« Kabul: tovemsss, ;comm.
kingdom,ctrs.
hydro-elec, scheme,
Asia; opened ;
monarchy l’952.
rly.; p. (1960) 450,000. Kabul, Kandahar:cap.
Adelaide, c., tpt., cap., S. Australia ; on E. Torrens, mtnous.; ch. Es., Kabul and Helm: climate,
which flom into G. of 8t. Vincent: trans¬ mtense summer heat, severe winter cold, scanty
continental rly. coimeotlons: univ.: cars, steel rainfall: races. Afghans, aboriginal hill-tribes:
tubffi, electrical appliances, chemicals, sugar and languages, official Persian, spoken Pushtu;
oil refining; p. (with subs) (1966) 726,980. religion, Islam; cereals, fruit, sheep, horses
Adelboden, t., Bern can., Switzerland ; 19 m, S.W. camels: inds. carpets, woollens, silks: coal-
of Interlaken : health resort, mineral springs. mimng at _Dara-i-Suf: natural gas at Shi-
Adilie Land, Antarctica; French terr. and de¬ harghan: rich copper, lead, iron resources im-
pendency of Ednnion. cleveloped: a. 250,000 sg. m.: p. (est. 1968)
Adelsburg, t, Jugoslavia: 20 m. N.E. of Trieste:
extensive grotto and stalactite cavern. Afrôla, t., Napoli prov., S. Italy; 6 m. N.E. of
Aden, apt.. Southern Yemen (1967), S. Arabia, Naples: cereals, fruit, 0, hemp; p. . (1961)45,551.
V. vcao. J.aoo;
16,113,00
t. &na little Aden, excellent anchorage. See by Mediterranean, by Bed Sea and Indian
Yemen, Soiilhenu Ocean on E., by Atlantic Ocean on W. ; adjoins
Mm, GaU of, Arabian Sea: 48 m, L. 180 m. wide. â at Isthmus of Suez. Deserts in N.. forests
Memo. fc. Sicily. Italy; at base of Mt. Etna, to centre, and lofty plateaux and veldts in S.
ancient mins; p, 84,807. Highest mtn., Kilimanjaro. 19.824 ft. ; chief
Adfte, j®. in N. Italy ; enters Adriatic N, of Po,
tesg6h 240m. nv^
L. NUe. {^ngq,
Victoria. Niger.Valley
Great Sift Zambesi;
(Ke9) largest
in E.
; highest peak. Africa. Ealnfall heavy near eguator, almost
Mt. Marcy, 6,845 ft. ramless m Sahara and Kalahari, elsewhere
Adfrmaa, t, Turkey; p. (i960) 17,081. moderate. Apiculture: wine, olives, wheat,
AdHagtoa, vtp. mt, Lancs, Eng.; nr. Ghorley; esparto grass in N. ; cocoa, oil palm, ground¬
cotton, coal-mining: p. (1961) 4.881. nuts, coffee, ratton In centre: wheat maize,
Admiralty G., N.W . of Western Anstralia. wool m S, Minerals: gold, diamonds, copper.
Affirnh^ Compared with only 4 at end of last war, 41
U.S.A.; I., off Alaska
fishing, thnlwr. mainland; belongs to countries had achieved independence by 1970,
Admlrally Is,, S.W. Pac. Oo. N. of New Guinea, Those stlU to become fiiUy indep. are: the
comprise 40 sm. is.; Australian mandate; Spanish eol, of Sahara: the Portuguese cols,
coconuts, copra: a. 663 sg.m.; p. 13,134. of Angola, Port. Guinea, Mozambigue: Afers
one of Nusa Tenggara Is.. Indonesia:
p. (estd.)L, 25,«)C!<J.
Adon^, and Issas (French Terr.): Ehodesia, and S.W.
11,683,000 sg. m.: p. (estd.
Adoni, t, Andhra Pradesh, India: cotton market:
P. (1961) C9.S57. _1968) 335,005.003.
^Jâhisar t„ Turkey: opium: p.[38,392. (1960)
Mora. a.. S.W, France: rtei in Pyrenees, entem p- <1960)
Hay of H^Bcay below BayoDue* len^fh 907 m Morocco; wrecked by eartii-
of g^ter geological stability; p. (estd. 1966)
&uit and vee caiuiluft'' o (lflfi7> two dfists., Norway; (!Ej.) a.

Algeria; hjiH.
Adrar oobU, Sahara Desert. Alseria:
pain; p. (1960) 44 J15.
salt, dates.
®
from -.y*
A^nranit, .iTAs saT
Bordeaux;
mi..
— HjTw wu 'UIUU.V/XX4.1U,
Pas-de-Oala France
ou m.
; _ 86 m.
catb.; p. (1962) 35,120. •• "■
Aozm, mH, Koyigo, Italy; formerly on cst., is. ; famed
battle m 1416 between English, led by Henry for V.
"•sDJw 14 m. bilfuid, old Btruscan c.
78m.W.ofDetrolt: Md French under d’ Albert.
Agiraj i., Sicily, Italy; marble, cement, sulphur;
Adiiaaopie, zee FkUme. p. 16,172,
Fradesh, India ; on Jumna E..
Afeiatto 8ea. tam^ of ae Medltetwnean. 116 in. o.S,E, of Delhi; formerly cap. of Mogul
tween Italyimd Balkan Pentasnla; fonnsG. be¬ Mahal inauBoleum; tmiv.;
Piiief of
ptB.. Venice,
and AnooW (he“X 1A&r^«?a960) 10.750.
alt. over 6000 ft. ; 866ia,N.W. ofifexicoClty;
wide range of local inds. ; bot splint; p.
(1960) isesin.
AgnUar de la Erontera, t., S. SpaJn; wine, olives:
Moorish castle, p. (1957) 1SJZ24,
Aguilas, t. evt., Marcia, on E. cst. of Spain;
exp. espaito. lead ores; p. c. 15,000.
Agulhas, 0., 100 m. B. of O. of <3ood Hope, most
southerly point of Africa.
Ahaggar, mtm.. S. Algeria range 9,000-10,000 ft.
Ahlen, N. Ehlne-WestphaHa, Germany; on
E. Werse ; coal mhiing. metal and engdn. whs. ; tUisers. chemicals, rung.; a. 61,609 sq. m.; p.
p. (196S) 4SM0. (1970) 3,373,006.
Ahmedabad, temporary cap. Gujarat, India; Jain Alagdas, «ari(i»ie rt., Brazil: cap. Macelo; cattle,
temple, splendid mcmues. pottery, silt, gold, sugar, cacao, cotton, rice, tohaceo: a. 11,016
cotton: oUfleld at Nawagam OKirby: p. (1961) sq. m.; p. (estd. 1968) 1,400,258.
1M0M8. Alajnela, prov.. Costa Eica, Central America;
Ahmadnagar, c., Maharashtra, India: Ige. trade in cap. Alajuela; coffee, sugar; p. (1963) 237,588.
cotton and silk goods; p. (1961) 119,020. Alami^La, spt.. Cal.. U.SA.: airport: It. mnfs..
Ahmedi, ph. Yemen: nr. HodeUa; oflstora^ shlpbldg.. flsh-oanning, resort; p. (1960) 61 MIG.
Ahnaohapdn, dep., Salvador; cap. Ahnachapdn; Alamosa, t.. Col., U.8A.; flour-milling, meat¬
trade in coffee, sugar, toba<^. cereals; p. packing, stodfcyards; p. (1960) 6.205.
(1960) lS0,n0. [p. (1966) 21,401. Aland Is. (Ahvenanmaa), group belonging to
Ahvenanmaa (Aland), dep., Mnland. a. 672 sn. m. : Blnland at entrance of G. of Bothnia; a.
Ahwaz, c., Iran, cap. Ehuzestanprov.: airpt.; oil 572 sq. m.: p. (estd. 1968) 21MS7.
pipeline to Turkish pt. Iskenderun projected, p. Alasehix, t.. Turkey; ancient Philadelphia:
(1967) 322J}68. mineral sniings. wh^t. tobacco, raMns; p.
Aigion, t. Greece; curranta exported; p. lljOll. (1960) 13,923.
Aigues-Mortes, f., Gaxd, Branoe; on E. EhOne Ahffika, st., TJ.S.A.; in Arctic N. America:
delta; canal cmitre, once spt. now 3 m. from mtnons.: furs, timber, salmon flahtog. mng.,
Mediterranean: salt-woiks: p. (1962) 4,203. B J. oil exploration: earthquate. 1964; a.
Ailsa Otaig, rocky 1.. off Ayrshire m.. S<»t., alt. 586,400 sq. m,: p. (1970) 294,807.
1,114 ft.; gannetry. Alaska Hi^way, from Dawson Cre^, B.G. to
Ain, d«p„ Brance ; mainly agr.. vhM. grains, sheep, Babtanks, Alaska. 1,527 m. long; bnflt for
tobacco, silk: a. 2^48 sa- m*: P. (1968) 339^82. Second Worid War programme; msdn supply
Ain Selra, fern. 8. Algearia. imae and H.Q.. Edmonton, Alb^ta.
Alntab, t, Syria; military centre in the Middle Alatan. mtns., bdy. of W. Tufestan and SinMang.
Ages; hides, morocco leather; p. (1960) 72,743. China; group of 6 ranges, ontBers of OBen-
Alntree. vU., Lanra., Eng.; nr. Liverpool: nylon Shan: alt. up to 16,000 ft.: highest pedr
plant projected 1964. Khan Tengri. 22.800 ft.
Air, mtns., ISlger, W. Africa: ch. t. Agades. Alava, Basque prtw., Bf. Spain; oh. t. Yltoria;
Airdrie, m. burgh. mSUi. t, HJE. Lanark, Scot.; vitionlture; a. 1,176 sq. m.; p. (1969) 130,887.
12 m. E. of Glasgow; coal-nmg., iron inds.. Alba, i., N. Italy; in Tanaro valley: mkt. for
brick and comsete wks.. steel tubes, pharma¬ silk, cattle, grain, wbte; p. (1936) 11,072.
ceutics; p. (1961) 33.820. Alhac^ pros., S.E. Spain ; cereals, fruit, sheep ;
Aire, E., WJi. Yorks, Bug.; trib. Ouse; 1. 70 m. a. 6,739 sq. m.; p. (1969) 384M9.
Alrehoroi«ai. urb. diet.. W.E. Yorks.. Eng.; p, Albacete, cap., Allacete, Spain; agr. mkt.,
(estd. 1967) 29,370. fruit, saffron; p. (1959) 74,307.
Airolo, ciL, Switzerland: at S. end of St. Gotthard Alba-Iolia, t., Eomania: on B. Mnr^ fbrmcaiy
tunneh <3ailsburgh; union of Transylvania with
Aisne, dep.. Branoe ; agr„ timber, sugar, brewing, Eomania prodahnedhere 1918; p. (1966) 14,776.
textile; cap. Laon; a. 2,866 sq. m.; p. (1968) Alban Oils, vdkemie grot^, 10 m. 8.E. of Borne,
528,348. Italy; drcumfhrenceSSm. ; gimteâlkMonte
Aisne, M.. NJE. Branoe; trtb. E, Oise; L 150 m. Baete. 34.37 ft. ; vliicDltnre.
Alx, i, Bou<dies-du-Ehone, Brance; 18 m. N. of AlbMila, vf.-Tnew
rep„ S._ Europe; lyii® aim® Adrtotic,
Marseilles; old cap. of Brovenoe; thermal
springs: p. (1962) 72^98. cty., fîle Adiiatio littoral and Khrttea Basin;
Aix-la-Cbapelle,sceAa(men. [(1962)13,270. maize, wheat, oHve oil, <teese. tobaooo, wwfl,
Alx-les-Bafius, heoKh remt. Savoy, Brmuse; p. hides, heroes, bitumen; cap. TiranS: a. 10,629
Aizn-Wakamatsa, (•> BT. Japan; lacquer ware, sq, m.; p. (estd.l96S) 2,0154)00.
candles: p. (1966) 102M9. Albmiy, st tm>.. New York, U,SA- ; tm E. Hud¬
Ajaccio, spt.. cap. Corsica: amber, flour, oHve oil, son: river pt., iron, brass, dieniteals. tectiles.
tobacco; p, (1962) 42^2. [p. (1961) 281M0. paper, madita- tools, car equipment; p. (I960)
Ajka, L, Hungary; industL; aluminium, glass. 129,728.
Ajman, emirode, one of seven Trucial sts.: p. AflMny, ait., t„ W. AustoaBa ; on King George
(estd. 1968) 4M0. Sotmd; agr, and partmal; oil storage, wool,
Ajmer, Bajasthan. India; cotton, salt, oplmn; super-phosphates; p. (1966) 11,417.
Aksu (Aqsu), t.. Sinklang, China: walled town, Albay, t. Lnzem L.PhflippiDes. hemp, sugar, copra.
impt. trading ctr. on caravan route: texrtles. AHwmarle test, of Galapagos in Paa Oo. : alt.
carpets, jade carving, tanning, metal wkg.: summit, 6,020 ft. abOTO sea-leveL [60 m.
p. 50,000. Albemarte Sound, laid, N. Carolina cst, U.SAu
Akaioa, t., S. L Blew Zealand; on Akaroa Har¬ Albett, t, Somme, Brance; cm E. Ancre; almost
bour: scenic and historic intemst. d^tzoyed Bkst World War and damaged again
Akershns, co.. BTorway; a. 2.064 sq. m.; p. (1968) Second World War; aircraft* maefldn., hard¬
291.4721 Akerhus fortress (14th cent.) at Oslo. ware; p. (1962) 10.423.
Akhisar, t., Turkey; ancient Xbyatira: manganese, Albert L.J Africa; grcatreservoirofWldtaNite,ex-
tobacco, olives, cotton, grain; p. (1965) 47,422. tieme length 100 m., general tneadtia 20 nu. alt.
Akhmim, Upper C-A.E.: linen and cotton 2J.OOft.; greater part in Uganda.
goods; limestone quarries. Albert prm., W. Canada; Eockles, in W,:
Akhtadka-t.. Ukrainian S.S.E.; metal wks. wheat, livedncifc, feed crops: coal tees impt. wiEh
AkfmiskiX,. 1., James Bay, Ctmada. devdcm. ofrtdrtfllandgasresources: chexrdcals.
Akita, t., Japan: sUk. metals, tbse, oll-re&nlng; timb^: cap. Edmonton; a. 256,285 sq. m,:
p. (1964) 219.000. p. (686,1969)1,553.000.
alb-alm Kb gazetteer
Albertville, Congo; on W. of L. Tanganyika: Alfortville, t, Val-de-Marne France- S F 5n,n„ i
K P- Pf Paris, mbberf S?r!’ to hosted
Aim, cap., Tara, Fnrace:
« wks.; p.
cath. : industl, and Alfreton. Derhv v.nrr .
dist 5W55
Mr6(1954) • >. metaj
i.
r«
~ at. to a»I ml.tos ant.; p. 11962] hoJto. Jja*;?”;
''SM^X^ssa.ixa;
goods; ^.as;SE.Sf6Uf»a'i;g2s«".i
n. Algeria, indep. sov. st. (3 July 1962), N
Africa-
- - JX1UAJ2U wuiitirs.
not rirr
cBJoGtoMa; SS''S'J’
suinniers; Berbers, Kabyles. Arabs Taure-s-
cap Alters; products: ivtoe, fruit, olive
Albury, t, N.S.W., Australia:
B. on Murray
. -.
B.; oil
tunber, tobacco, minerals; oil, natural gas aurt
am
sheep nmwool
farming, jSctr.; p. (1960) 32,019 with
VVoiMjonga, Vic. iron ore in Saharan regions; a. 866,000 ?o
Aicatt de Benares, L, Spain: -20 m. E. of Madrid: m.; p. (estd. 1968) 12,343,000.
* . -V XU. ihi. .axauiiu, lu.; p. lestu. lyoS) 7^
ai!^2?'*b tethplaceof C^rvaBt^; p, (1957)
AlcalA to Beal. t. .Indahisia, Spain; p. (1957) AIs?iiero, spf. on western coast oldof t.Sard
surmo
ininunted
• râi-v,by
coral iisheries, fruit, wtof =
16th cent. Casbah (fortress): uniy.; exp. wiiie
Mcamo!}.. Sicily. Itely; 24 m. 8.W. of Palermo:
olnes. oranges, lemons, wines: ruins of anc. citnw fi-uit, iron ore: oil refining at Maison
begesta nearhy; p. a. 44,000. Carrde: airpt. at Jlalson Blanche, lo m E of
AMiar de San Joan, L, nr. Ciudad Beal. Spain :
gmxywder^wine; p. (1967) 25J39. '“
Keblr), v,t
mmr (M Kazral- xvcuu./, N.
Morocco. AS.
c., muxuwu, c.: p. (1963) 320,000.
iir • o. iiinca.
^ I*’Afrto “■
implements. maoh., Aihambra, c.. S* (3al USA - nil rcfinino. -
Al|n,^ttoe-iJ..
Aidetargh, Siberia.
mm, bor., m,, U.S.S.E.; length
E. Suffolk. ^
Eng. : 30 m. IZto^Vaio?
(1961)5® »- -^ce Springs, t N.Teiritory.Atistralia; ctr. rast
t.|| Anne; Mrpt.; a. l.962ês:* pf ttMl) ^ftf'hlei)

AldOThot, mm. bor., Hants. Eng - bricks- lire sulphur
919*3 to^rwittot^l ^^.“hSoic^toSn: f®!?. -^ârpment to the

hats, macaroni; p. (1961) 55 3Si '^-S-A.; joins the Ohio B.. Pitts-
Alesnnd (Aalestmdi, mvI., W. coast Norwnv- fioh • length 350 m.
mg: p. (1968) 33,544. orway , fish- Men. Bog oi, pmt TOomsa, Ireland : a. 372 sq. m.
Bernese Alps, Valais can Switzer- length 6 m., breadth
STriteerland: alt. 13,763 ft ' Alfen”2t.în °“®J°n^K5®-^ : on Lehigh E.. fiimi-

t., Pemis..U.S,A.
Alent^ IB. (U.S.A.). N. Pac. 0&, chain of la AUct V P. (1060) 105.5,51.
point of AJaska towarda ■Kamchafin* a n* ^ P*
Alsrander CHy, t, AJa.. U.SA. : foimerly Young aihm ^ *4?* coal: P. (1960) 23,362
, riUe; textiles: p. (I960) W ^ ^ F«iPce; coal- and iron-Îng
Alesantoa, eft. pt., UM..K.. N.E Africa- ffinn/i,,,! 386,033.
by Alexander the Great. 332 b.c -’ floating ^^pSonn ” ^ France; rises in
dock; exp.
1,513.000. cotton, wheat, riM g^-’ n fia«m of E- Loire.
nee, gum.
ocot. p.w.(I960)
bleaching,
; on Side Alloa, spt . imwh. Cflackmamiam Scot
Dunbartonshire, Scot. : on W. side bmfs eofiP-;
Al«Û^îstoa.U.S,A.: rice, foundries: pêiTihpf®^- tok^textiles.

S:-
Virto, U.B.A. ; on
mcjraaana. e., m.. N,E. Virginia. USA • on fâ^dril S.S.E.: engin., textUes
AteMdu^poBs, AS?!
t®®mex tr., out
AteaBdnmnoiia. many «apt-,
ant. Thrace. Greece
« _ - oak. Crusaders; n, (iflAai /?«ju uoyjingnBn
Alfe^ wh. dish.many ;imkquities: P. (1661) idrip^ AtoadAn. {.. Sierra Morena. Spain; ancient
£^^1, litMlser. Lincoln. Eng.; aa Alm^S“? 13M7S.
*ig. food-preserving; p. (i96i) p, CW57) ^99^* soap.
^Siii’ wtoe.
al,li brandy; - -= p- «^»«>
3,338 sa. m.; p. S-,(1959)

Spate SSr/sS,
:_ch.„> Atoeiia: a. Amad43:to/JK £ /r -S/A^rato
Almeria, , spL,
-x--*, /. S.E. Spain;
lonii-cath.; exp,
- - V., Kjirwxii, CJLIJ,
oranees. esparto
oranges, arasa lead;
esnartn grass, mokqi
n (1959) grapes,
aso AmadjikkXa
TzfrzirrStrke Baffin
"amii Ix., Cârtn
v^snMa.
p.
Aimondbnry, (.. W.fi, Yorks, Eng. ; joined to
83,653. Ama^sjdtl^.,^^ Japan; and
snb,jOf Osaka;
Itebi; chemicals.p.
oil reihiing;
Huddersfield. (1964) . si . [E. of Nagasaki.
Ain, jK., Northumberland, Eng. Amakusa Bay, twfetKraeflm. Japan; on W. tst.
Alnwlok, uTb. disi.. Northumberland, Eng. : eas.; Amaknan, z,
brewing, aar. msohin • n /ioru rr aso ' f" Italy ; on O. of Salerno ; tourist
irirrii spf.,
Amalfi,
brewing, agr. machin.; p. (1961) 7.482'.'
ôr, I., one of Nusa Xenggara Is., Indonesia. re^rt; fisheries. fp. I3,3ss.
Amapa, Fed. terr., Brazil ; a. 53.059 so. m. ; cap
- - - — * •--’-.‘OXW4XX*, ,4.^. yr . \Jt AJlUOSJtUts ; aiacapA; manganese ore; p. (estd. 196S)
rly.-junc.; weaying (linen, silk), brewing, rub- 109,078.
her goods; p. (1968) 45,881.
Alpena, c.. Thunder Bay, Mich., H.SA. ; cement, Am^ r. E. pt., Iraq ; on left bank of K. Tim-is
2p0 m. below Baghdad ; Arab t. and agr. mkt
paper, tanneries, sawmills; p. (1950) 14.S83. at E. crowing ; p. 18,000.
wa- a. 144aRfi m
a. 1,443 sq m. :*•’
• T» /lQnO\
p. (1902) 618,265'.
Hol!™d.
sail
/»7J?
Netherlands; on
r‘ _ ™»
Old Ehine, 10 m. S.E. of Leiden ; mkt. for
dairy produce; p. (1967) Sd,950.
g’ ^^nof tS^n^r^Si- the" A5te‘S^' Alto tolonV^d fl^si:900
M™' ilo'i' (iTin fU StohS (INfi g-? to wi* m. fS“mo®“(ê” onti

icaiy , ûrcs Or ORrrsjSi nia.rDi6. AnifizoiiiftS, irf Brazil’ mribpi* HTvi>v»r* *» aifti/ia
S/n.8a^ loS^ m.f96.

Zealand, highestWetland
pea* and
Mt. '^^S^poy
Amazonas, SV ^^Sjiuz^.
fed. krr.. jII. cap. Puerto
Veneznela;
ai. r A ■"*" 1 •
^s, T..., ... . Ayacucho on Orinoco E.; a. 70.000 sq m-
r.. r>enimirk. in the little Belt. a. 130 sq. m. p. (1961) IJjldO. [(1961) 2dS 507
Alsace-Lorratoe, prov :i^ce: industl.. agr.. Ambala, <.. E. Punjab. India; cotton
flow- p
TOm .^r^ce, in 1871, retroceded 1919; now Aml^hib, gold-mining; srt.. p,Yakut
20MO, rep., U.SAE.,- atoba*.'
- -- - «... , a,*. Vi V3£UJ.UV( tfU
and p. (1962) WO 770,150: Haut-Ehin (1,354 3 sq. Ambato.
slope ofc Mt.
, Ecuador. S. America
Chimborazo; ; S. ft.:
alt. 8.859 of Quito, on
textiles,
m. and p. (1962) 547,920; Moselle (2.403 sq. canned fruits, leather gds.; p. (1950) 33,908.
m. and p. (1962) 919,412. Amberg, L, Bavaria, Germany ; on E. Vils ; iron.
Alsager. urh. dm., mid. t., Cfiieshire, Eng.; motor mining, engin., textiles; p. (1963) 42,300.
vehicles; p. (1961) 7jo0 Ambes, Gironde. Prance; nr. Bordeaux: oil
AEdorf, (., N. Ehine-Westphalia, Germany ; refining. [p. (1962) 7.600.
n^lTsia^’f? 00. Eng., ’ tar-distiliation plant;' tobert,
Amble, urb. dist.. iNorthumberland.
t, Puy-de-D6me, Eng.: exp.
Prance :paperrchê.'
P.—(1963)
AEton, , t, — 31.9
... Cumberland. on S. Tyne
uu_M. o-jiic E. in !.■«.
xta. Ill N, coal; p. (1961) 4.889.
coai; p. usoi) «.ody.
S^^|®;„otonestone
(1961) 2.198. quarrying, hosiery; p. Amblecote. urb. dist. Staffs., Eng.; gla®, fireclay.
Kuucua; CiWJllu irom jjOj^ tvIsb.; p. (1961) 3008.
sources of Obi to Gobi Desert more than 2.600 m. _ L. Windermere; tourist centre, slates.
ft.flowing
alt. 13,644 U.S.A.; . wm. Amboma, I., Moluccas, Indonesia; a. 314 sq. m.:
spices: p. 66,821.
Bieluka Peak,
Altamaha, E., Georgia. into
Atlantic: length 160 m. Amboina, t, cap., resid&KV. Molucca Is.. Indonesia;
Altamira, eaves, N. Spain; prehistoric shelters, pt. on S. cst. of Amboina I.; shipyards; p.
paintings of animate \4IJLa-eu.a<
V*. c»xxuii«;iJ3 (Magdalenlan). iCAli£Ua,/, êStU.J (estd.) 17.334.
ifo^
Altoura, t. Apulia. Italy ; at foot of the Apen- Amboise, t, Indre-et-Loire, France; 15 m. B. of
Aôtr,
Aitoort ■ t., cop. Un can,, MT, Switzerland; on E. Ambiiz. apf.. Angola:3™°°® 'f®- and Prison: p. (1962) 8.192.
sugar-cane, coifee, copper.
Ee^s; rubber goods, wood workings; p. (1961) Ameland. I., W. Pristen Is.. NetherianS
1 -KT -DT,- ITT -T T, „ T, America, the tends of the Western hsmtephere,
Altena, f.. N. Ehm^Westphalia, Germany ; comprising the continaits of NoxHi and South
1 ^cient of Marck ; AmSica, sejKirated by narrow Isthmus of
me^, wii^; p.^ 24J0O. Panama. Mcmt N. point OTsr 9.009 zn. from C.
Alteûrg,i., Leipzig, E. Germany; ligmtemming, Horn, the extreme S. point; p. (estd. 1967)
engin., metallurgy, mnfs. playing cards, textiles;
p. (1963) 46M6. engin.;
warn.; p. (1961) 9,158.
uuQii y.xoer. Central America.
Lcnirai America.
479,000,000. See (Oso Neath. ' South, and
Alton, wb.dwb, Hants, Eng.: breweries, light Amersioort. c., Utrecht, Netherlands: onE.Eem
Alton, f., Hôte, U.S.A. ; machinery, glass, textiles. leather, tobacco, steam turbine; rlr
chemicals, flour: p. (1960) 43,047. juno.: p. (1967) 7SMB.
%.»**■ *x***fc*fc!, t \V«3UV4..

AUona, t.. S. Victoria, Australia, 8 m. S.W. Mel¬ (1961)56.535. [culture; p. (19601 37.093.
bourne;
uourne;oil refinery, ehemicate.
reauery, cuMmcais. Ames, t,I., Iowa,
lowa, U.S.A,;
U.Sto..; State Ooltee
COfiege of
Of Agri-
Altoona, c., Blair, Penns., U.S.A. ; coal, rly, wks. ; Amesbury, i, Ma®., UB~A.; 40 m. N. Boston:
p. (1960) 39,933. noe+Tm-
cotton; p.n fioani o/fss
(1960) 9.635.
Altrincham, rmn. bar.. T Cheshire, T,
TTT. ... Eng. : heavy Amesbury. (., nmil dist.. Wilt®, Eng. ; nr. ancient
engim: p, lestd. 1967) 41,017. megalithio monument® of Stonehenge; p. (rural
Altus, t.. Okla., U.8.A. ; cotton, livestock, grain dlst. 1961) 33.594.
mkt* p. (1960) 31.335. Amherst, {.. Mass.. U.S. A. ; maohin.: Univ. of
AltynTagh, part ofKunlunmtns.. Tibet, 14,000 ft. Mass.; p. (1960) 10M06. [p. (1961) 10,788.
Alva, bwroh, Clackmannan. Scot.; at S. foot of Amherst, sph. Nova Scotia, Canada: shipbldg.;
Oolul Efilte. 3 m. N. of AUoa : woollens, printing, Amiens, c., Somme. N. Prance ; on K. Somme ; fine
fruit and fish canning; p, (1961) 3,957. cath.; velvet, linen, woollens, silks: p. (1968)
Alvin, Texas. U.S.A.; grain mkt.. Oil wells; 117,888. [of SeyeheUes.
p. (1960) 5,643. Amiiante Is., British gionp, Indian Ocean; S.W.
OAZETTEER
K.Y., ; Long I. sab. of New , Andover, t. Mass, TJ.SA,. on E. Merriman

iuia,, jasjoiuc resort;
York; reswii,; V-
y. iji,»ou/
ilWO) a,ifj.a.
S,S18. I wooUens,
woolTpnn rubber:
mhlipr. p. n(estd. 1967)
ioaitn 21
<>■/ 880
000“™®°
Amh?^ mb. dUt. vxA. jO.. Wales: N. cst. of Andria, i.,S. Italy; wine.oUveoil.cottontevHlpa-
Anetwev: n. fisei) 2JJI0. n.
p. fisflii
(1961) 70,831. rV. «
AngliMey; p., 11961) 2isi0. Ij. vi'joij ■w.sai. [p. (1953) yn
Anuam, mp,. rtte of very ancient 0.: Andros,
An^ lamstL.
rwKfdrome: p.
rwrtfdrome; n. (19623
S19023 29S^SS.
29SJSS. gnL.Bahamas;
gm. spt.. ^dros
Aufimo I., tsponges, sisal heinn-
Cyclades, Gre&
AmnaoSord, «rt. dUt, Cteiarthen, Wales; an¬ Andujar, Ar^pelago; on E. cst.; p. (estd. 1960) 2,600
thracite, brick mkg.; p. (1961) 6,2S4. i., Spain: on Guadalquivir E.; mineral
Aiinaeaicsf, i, Saxcmy-AniMt, (Jennany; lignite springs, pottery, soap, textiles, farmipf,
mintof, chemicals ;; y.
oMiiuj#, yiKUiJWJs p. tesMi.
(estd. 1954) 20MOO. uramum plant;
niamum plant; p. 28,499.
(1967) 25,499
p, (1967)
Animw, B..GenaMF: Joins Neckar nr. Tfibingeii. Angara, B., Siberia, U.S.S.E.; trib. of Tenispi-
Amoreos. I.. Orecto AicWnelaco: n. 3.069. TTaviffnWA
navigable
flows throughnlmntri-. its
almost (fa entire
PT,*?nn __
Amorgos.
Army {Xsamen) I., Greeto kiohipelago:
c., former p. '3,069, E. BaUral length.1,300
; length ‘rises m.nr. and
HMmcr treaty-pt„
Mwj-yi,,, PuMen,
i'uûu, nows inrongn Jj. jEsaurai : length 1,300 m.
Ctaaa: rad h^ to Y^ng, Klansi; taa.frmt. Angarsk, t.. B. Siberia: on E. Angara 20 m
bricla; n.
bncla: p. (estd. 19533
1953) 224.99
224,000. 0. tst w Trtni-,,v- engm.,
^JÎftotsk; pr,o^T, saw nulling; p. (1967)
Aiararatf, e„ Maharashtra, India; textfles, timber ; AMd
p. (1«51) 137.m. Falls, waterfall, Venezuela, nr. (3iudad
Amritar.c., Punjab, India: holy Sikh city; iiniv.; Bolivar: 3,212-ft. drop. [Bothnia
shawls and carpets: P. (1961) 376,293. Angermanaiven. E.. Sweden: falls into G of
.t I T Of .aneermanaiven.
Armroha, t^ VttarjftuilMh, India; pilgrimage Angennanland, oZd dia., m., aweden: falls into G of
Sweden ; now mainlv in
ctr.: p. (1961) (?590d [W.cstjOf Schleswig. prov. of Vastemoorland. ow mainly in
iS^S.S;.!SSrgig^k,Sf lio'S'BS "»■
by SfW bridges, harbour can hold 1.000 ships: Mtoe; mkt. t. for local produce, fruit, vege¬
two iJBlm, Eoyai Palace, Bourse: extensive tables, Anjou wines. Cointreau: textiles: cath •
P. (196S) 128,533. ,
tr.; exp, dairy prod., sugar, tobacco; sMpbldg.,
.. - r,u„vo* o,5yaiia,tiv;u ironi
diamond poHsMng,
maiflfls., oil
maifliis,. reftnlne:aeronautical,
rettnlng; p. marine, elec. Anglesey,
n. (1967) 866,421.
5«e. Caernarvo
427. n by
I ’co Menai
’ N Wales
Straits; s®»arated
spnnrafpa p,„
cattle rearing
from
Amsterdam. I., N.Y., 11.8.^: wooDens; p. (1960) fanmng; a. 276 sq. m. : p. (1966) 56,000.
Anglefelr^WPyrfeSes, France; airport

A^^’f.. N. Venezuela. ParaguanA Ai|gleB^^0Kl mven, Pembroke foU pipeline
Oharente. France; on E.
Anahmc, ^^tim*Mtdco; ^SnigSiS wa®%' (1962fd^l2r®®“^

Mexico aty, a. approx. 1.500 sq. m.
i^r®y , Ptoeappi^TfS^ p: (ToeoTlK:
Anala^t„NeJ4i^l
Anala^ JSfeJd, Saudi Arabia-?
Arabia ; p, SSjOOO.
Aimm. dep.,. Peru; a. 14,700 sq. m.: ch. t.
HMa*: m (1961) 586M9. Doins the Humber
fe E°a industl.. fertilisers.
Andalnslaa Mtas. _(BaeHo’ JKns.). &f-°p
S d.?9o'.
And^n
tuted a and Nicobar
Union il^B^f&^^’canstl-
(torifeM. LidlaCimv 10m ■ ‘jl proF- China:P- onfl966) 992^5.
Yangtze E. ;
timber; a. 3.215 80 m.- n nofsti Asakv ' ' . ootton, wheat, tanning; p, (1963) 105 999
A,f!«nf^K|^?fe,>! S'giSS£w ^&k.%"!SSSiW?g- «•
A»&SfS
weaving, dyeing; p. '3feSS
(1902) 96 ^54 ’^ff°SSJ|- mtma p.0^.011:
iStaran and Barodl; (1961)
.■■5Sa?WÂ^« VMcotton.
lAtifS’.
Ininber; p.
P. (I960) 49j081
flows into
^9^^' ' tip* uranium
and mug.
S. Vlet-Na m: ; formerly
^'^th p.parallel
(1963)
66,973 sq. m. ch. t. Hn6.
teSte:
Ai^tzhan, t. Uzb&stan S^S-EI^ formerly leM ^mÂrbor fruit

sh^, ot B3ians (rf Khokan; cottSf^me^ U.SAl.; on the Huron;
petnOtan, csoghi.; p. (1967) 164 ooo * ®tala, ûvetsity of Michigan ; motor lorries, thim
J’yieDMa. undtt^^’suzer- ““^npln^tesE.: p. (1950)

ANS-ARB jCs GAZETTEBR
70-80 m, ; Wgheat part k in Gran
lurgF.mrnitnreincls.: rly.ctr.; p. {1003) 52.600. Sasso d'ltalia,
indu$tL 0., liaonin?, N. China; at foot Apia, $pt., Upolu. W. Samoa; p. c. lOjOOO.
of Ctengp^ ®0 m. S.W. of Mukden; ctr. Apkkigamisli, labrador,
ApoMa, i Erfirrt. E. Germany; textOas, engin.
non. steel engin.; p. (1953)540.000. chemicals; p. (1963) 20,315.
An^ng, I., Central Kor^; 40 m. S.E. of Seoul; Appalachian Mtns., parallel ranges between At.
rice, silk cocoons; p. (estd. 1950) 20.000. and Miffiissippi, stretching from MMne to Ala-
Ansonia, o.. Conn., U.S.A.; machin.. brass goods, bama. Highest peak. Mt. Mitchell, 6.684 ft.
cotton-braid inds.; p. {i960) 19,819. Appêll, can.. NJB. Switzerland; divided into
Antakya (Antioch), cmcient c., S. Turkey; on E. the half-cantons, Appenzeli Inaer-Rhoden, a.
Orontes: tobacco, olives, maize, soap, silk; p. 678a.m.. (ap.Appenzea: p, (1961)15,345; and
(1965) 57.554. Appenzeli Ansser-Ehoden, a. 94 so;, m.. cap.
Antalya, t., Turkey; p. (1965) 71,832. Herisan: p. (1961) 48^20.
AntaTcMo Appe^. c cap.. Apiwnzen, Switzerland;
circle; 7,000-10.000 ft. high; volcanoes and on E. Sitter; linen tr.; p. (1957) 5 501
overalls.; nroed chleBy by Britain, Australia. Appleby, mtm. bar., mkt 1, Westmorland, Eng.;
hfewZemand, France. Norway; penguins. See on E. Eden; cas.; p. (estd. 1967) i,560.
c = o. Appleton,c..Wis..IIB-A.; paper: p.(l960)4S,4il.
AntocHo Ocean, lies approx, S. of 60° 8.; con- Appomattox, M., Va. IJB.A.; iotas Jamra E.
rains Antarctica; whaling. Apsheron, peninsida on W. *ie of Hie Qispian;
Anteme^ i Spain; sugar, textiles; metallurgy. petroleum wells (nr. Baku) and mud volcanoes.
tiê in oUve oil. grain; p. (1967) 43.834. Apulia, S.E. region. I^y; pastoral plahi : grain.
Antibes, spt., France ; AJpes-JEiritimes: health fruliB, livestock; wine. oO; a. 7.470 8<i. m.:
resort; oranges, flowers for perfume mnfe.; p. P. (1961) 3M4.854.
(1962) 3S.97G. Apurimac, dep.. Pern, S. America : ch. t. Abancay ;
Aifllcosti, barren I., H. of E. St. Lawrence, ^ a. 8.1S7 so. m.: sugar; p. (1961) 275M0.
(rauada ; 140 m. by 28 m. ; game preserve. Apurimac, II.. Peru; joins the tJoayah; 1. 500 m.
Aiitigaa, aut, st, in association with Qt. Britain: Aqaba (Akaba), 35t.. Jordan; loading of phogjihates
Leeward group, W.I.; sugar, molasses, pine- and dlschar^ng of <fll: p. (1961)3,255.
appl^; yacht harbour; oil refinery under Aqaba, G.. between Sinai Peninsula and Saudi
construction; a. (inc. Barbuda and Eedonda) 170 Arabia. EE. arm of the Bed Sea.
St. Johns; p. (estd. 1970) 65,000. Aquila degli Abmzrt, t., cap., Abruasd prov.,
Anti-Lebmon, mtn. range, Syria ; E. of Lebanon ; Italy ; on E. terrace of E. Atemo ; mkt. and
ite^theOrm; alt. 6,000-8,000 ft. sm. Inds. aasociated with local farming: holiday
Anmes, Greater and Lesser, W. Indies, comprising resort: cath.: p. (1961) 56.514.
the Archipelago enclosing the (laxibbean Sea Aquitaine, Basin ot geooraphicdl reoion, 8.W.
Md G. of Mexlro. France ; to W. and S.W. of Central Maraif. toSJ
Antioquia, dep. Colombia, S. America; cap. of Pyrenees. Ixirdered on "W. by AH. Oc.;
MMellin; a. 25,402 sq. m. ; maize, coffee, siâr, warm, wet, oceanic climate; rich agrio.
fmd. jilTer, panama hats; p. (estd. 1962) lowland; me. Inndes, reclaim^ sandy are:*;
> {inhabited. ch. ts. ifordaux. Toulouse.
Antipodes, Is., New Zealand ; in 8. Pacific, un- Arab Emirates, FederatiauoS, comprises the 7 Tru-
Antisana, uoteno. Ecuador, S. America. dal States, Bahrain and Qatar (30 March 1968).
Antoiagasra, proo.. fkiile; exp. nitrates, copper: Arabia. S.W. padnsnla of Asia: maMy desert
a. 47.502 sq. m.; p. (1960) 240 £37. plateau; coffee, dates, gums, horses, camels:
Antofagasta, sph. Chilfi: cap. of prov.; nitrates, petroleum: divided between Saudi Arabia.
copper. It. inds.; p, (1960) 91,400. Yemen. Southern Yemen, Muscat and Oman,
Antony, L. Hauta-de-Seine, France; brick wks., Trucial States. Kuwait. Bahrain, and Qatar:
toys; p. (1962) 46£23. a, c. 1.000.000 sq. m.; p. c. SMOjOOO.
Antrim, co., extreme KE. of N. Ireland: co. t. Arabian Des^, E.A,E.. NJB. Africa: betwwn E.
Belfast: famous (Slant’s Causeway is on the N. Nile and Eed Sea; alt. approx. 1,200-6,000 ft.;
coast: a, 1,098 sq. m.; p. (1966) 313,684. a. c. 80,000 sq. m.
Antrim, L, N. Ireland: on Six-MEe Water; linen, Arabian Sira, N.W. part of Indian Ocean, between
nylon; p. (1966) 5,465. 118,460. Horn of Africa and India.
16 m. from mouth: <3hinese frontier sta. main I Arad, Israel; in Negev desert, B. of Beersheba:
rly. from China, into N. Korea; mkt. for agr. new t. inaudnated 21 Nov. 1962; tod. to be
produce; lumbering; p. (1968) 657.485. based on gaaflelds at Zohai and Kaiiaim; chani-
Antwerp, apt.. Belgium: on E. Schdde: famous caJs, f)srtilte&
Gotblo cath.; Ige. refinery; great petroleum | Arad, L. E<»nania; ou E. Maros. wine. com. to-
port; ahpbldg., textUM. to»a«x>. diriilTing,
dMUtog, bacco. textiles; p. (1968) 124£42. [E. of Timor.
diamond cutting, chemicala; p. tocL subi. subs. Arafura Sea, N. of Australia, S.W. of Papua,
(1968) 657.485. Aiagaa{a, E.. Brazil; frib. of Torattos: length
Antwerp, pTOc.. BeMum: grain, flax; a. a. 14.04
14.04 set.
sw. Azaish
1.000 m.
m.; p. (1968) 1,515.464. (Laraish. Lararixe), spi.. Morocco, N.
Sottontad.;
Anyang, c.. Honan prov., Chtoa; (wal. Cotton tod.; Africa: on Atkinticcst.. 46 m. S.W. of Tangier;
p. {196S> 25,000. tr. to grain and fSrnit, cork: p. (1960) 30.763.
Anjaxero-Suflafliensk, L. W. Siberia, lIFk8.E.: nr. Arak, Iran; carpets; p. (1956) 55.353.
Tomsk; coal-mng.. nmg. equiment. ifixatma- Aral S^ large salt I,., Kazakhstan Eep.
centios; p. (1967) I154W3. {tr.SJ8JB.); a. 26,166 sq. m.: receiving the
Anzto, t, Nord, Fiance ; chief coat-mtotog emtie Amu and Syr Darya Es. ; no outlet.
of France; p. (1964)15,655. Aran. J». group to Galway Bay, Ireland : fishing.
Aomori, spL Honshu, Japan: on Iray of same Araninea, f,. Spain; <m E. Ta^; mkt. gardens:
name: salmon; chemicals: p. (1966) 524,455. strawberrira, asparagus; p. (1967) 24.667.
Aosta, f.. cap.. Val d’Aosta. N. Italy ; to valley Ararat, mtn.. Turkey ; supptraed resting-place of
of Dora Baltea at node of trans-AIptoe routes; Noah’s Ark.
iron tods.; Mont Blanc road turmel links to Ararat, t, Vtotoria, Australia; cm Hoptetos E.,
Martigny, Switzerland, opened 19 Mar. 64; p. 131 m. from Melboume; p. (1961) 7,320.
(1951) 24,151. Aras B. (the andent Araxes), rising to Aimento,
Apalachee Bay, Fla., tIBJu : receives Apalachee E. flows ihiongh Transcaucada to the Kur, 500 m.
Apapa, spL, sub. of Lagos. Nigeria: on mainland Aranan, trading t., Sahara desert. N. Timbuktu,
opposite Lon which Lasos is situated; modern Aranco, proa., S. GhOe: a. 24!22 sq. m. ; cereals,
pt. equipment, termtaua of W. Nigerian rly. alflilfa,. fruit; p. (1961) 34,073.
system; rly. wkshps.; exp. palm oil and Aiavalli Mtns., BalasShan. India; Mt. Abu. 5.650 ft
kernels, hides and sktn& ground-nuts, cocoa, Araxes B., risra to Armenia, jfiows through Tians-
mbber: imports cotton piece goods. maCbto. caucasto to Caspian Sea; bdy. between Feisia
Apeldoom, c., Gelderland. Netheriands: favourite andIX.SB.E.
holiday resort; precision tostruments, metal- Arbroath, roved burgh, Angus cst.. Scot.; engin..
ware; p. (1967) I164>45. textiles (flax. jute, cotton, wooBens), fishing:
Apennines, mtn. “ backbone " of Italy ; length holiday resort: p, (1961) I9£83.
ARC- ART
1^,0
health resort: p. (1962) ^ ' ®oU^) ? n ?iotn ^ Slca-Ska
“SSii,n.,?95Sis?r^ »■’■ i
teurkeptppeninwlnterbFice-breakers; fishery ^ “••' P* (1968)
Arlma, fio'i- Trmldflf? wt- r,, p ^
s^s, f., cîz, bpain ; on R. Guadalefce ; famous afc moufch of Wndiî aSiok
.
r.. ! A
Gothic loraiications; cattle;
church, ancient fortifications; cattle: Arisoia st rt s a • »• (19/7) lO.m.
A cork
cPIî trees; p. p. (1957) 27.120
21J20.
root. L.trees;
Tnfiffl,* (1957)
(KK Tv% Tt? of Madras; taken
,_ by
A-.1 1 _’ stock- rharih
oLucji rearing* copper, silver, ffolfi^nnUnT^ aw.,
4 J®ve 1761; p. (1961) 25,025. polar area. X752.72i ’ 113.009 SQ. m.; p. (1070)
V?«®r : p. lOMO.
nSlf
S? St of Brieve v^ley S. of Paris; varied lumber flour 'inills* n nann\
fonS5,’SSrA.S¥"-,.K?“ mSo) Yiif-• cotton,
.> 53tfeja,yaa. na,r-
ISrf
“•'.““OAOU P.'aSiStSS.®'’'’”*- ““.wi™. tote. an;
^stSfifSSirisr" “■"• »'““'> i-t^>'i>fd-- [p”f&,’j'i»s'

ÛlS’^r^'SKv isiffc-
ArtoM. <„ J^ce: Pas de Calais: nr. site of brick and
,r;^td of the Cloth of Gold.” where Benry Arm^ m P- (1961) O.lOS
holiday resort. ’ ''’ hPyne, SS

Amyh, :
urb. dtst, ^-siasa-m.:
Armagh. IST. Troian/^- oath •
Snfn '
Ardrossan, burgh. An Soot • on Wirth ni„A„ . linen, whisky; p. (1966) 11,000. earn.,
36 m. S.W. of Glasgow: shipbldg oil storage’ Armenia, G.S.S.E •
ro^ bitumen, engin.; p, (1961) 2574 ®*tinct volcano Algaghoz-
Arecibo, c,. spt, n. coart of êrto Kico- W ArS:;®“®®r I*' S®.87) 134.000.
Inffira; coffee, sugar; p. (1960) 23 400 ’ " former area divided
Armdal, spi., Norway; on Skagerrak;" wood nuln Turkey, Russia. Iran; rich mineral
almnimum, shipping; p. (i960) 11,395 ' ^^r., cattle rearing, forestry: hydro-
wks’'taaK
tvks.; prelectedfi'SS
fiSSikSSSf ’:
*'• ¥p^* R:ance; base of ^
^ SLSf ca^ ^ mrf Cl?th?fc T (ml)' 27f54®''^* ™
pr.'-fett TaHey srsiSKhSS ASi"'
routes; nakt. forsSk
wine, olives: P. (1961) 74 245 '
Gclderland,iSS:
Netherlands; '
o\®- Ithme; Ige. tin smelter; light mds ii^ntJ
\19o2) 13^411, fiTj lace;
gloves, ^9 Ami
p "^*^®^^banQ,
. rsT, part of N. Xerritorv Anatmifn.* ^
. ’«îth C. Arnhem. j-erraory. Australia,
teentenil, t, Val-d’Oise Ifefv-
’boundedParaenav
Andes, and Parand, Uruguay. by Atlaîo’
nn/i p Mediterranean ; Val ^ d’Amo
Morenceis and
th«
Pilcomyo Es.; ino. l4m^ and ^ôn^ • a vaHey of the R.. ; length 76m.
: agr- and p^t^^TVo’ f ^tierwood Roresb. No^s., Eng. ;
S3,S17,000. “«• P. (estd. 1968)

Sîf iK,4" S; i Aii^dt, «., Erftirt,
, p”Jis?ff ™o
B. Germany
iry»”-'“ on R fin™
i^Jto leather goods.

^îac^?S2)-
)®&"°‘*"‘ = *1^® Mutiny;

ArlWar^c^ll- ^ Dorian prior
cityi8,
®««>bol theatr e! 't"î96’l
to tl"' 'S^/manf^^t^’-elSrteT'l
^hPw.rn‘ ■^S'* beadstream of Amur’ tIopb w ’ *, Eyeing, brewing; battle
“SSfT ss
Sp^3
iB.rrs.
12m.N,W.ofCaeb: ■
(Anatolia), Asiatic part of Turkey;
tÛe mnfe.; p, (igei) $.640,
&* Holtkaido. Japan: indusa, and Mediterranean Sea; off JSf.V?. coast
fcran^H^ <fe: p. (i^qs) s45Me,
AsansoU W, Bengaj, India: riy. Junction* ' Sradi
region brtween TemenArabis.
■ A^^^’ S. Arabia ; est
tbeancientEofHer^l!
and Heto (Ireland
resort; eIe«;prod.
seafood, tracks; p. (i960) 17,S66 As^^n, f., on estagy of B. Shannon, Limericlc'
I. of Brtt. eol St Helena, 760 m.
lOn, settlement (Seoirestown; nesting aSTj iRi^P
pL of
Brit, eartli satellite stn. (1966) Ce^. ■'^'Mch
'i
1958) connects Me«awa alt.andc.’
720,000.-^rlca;
• t, Hîa-de-Sdne, Ersmse; dyte i>er-
*V Bararia, Gcnnany; on B. ft P“’ Italy; Eoman reanains.

Greece; new indnstl. t,
Mm, cas., tads, paper, textfles. engin.- close te AndOdra Bay; alnminiTTm v?k3.
trankhlpment pt.; p, (1963) 55.000. Aspropotemte B.. Greece; long^t B. in the
Aseharslebm, t, Halle. E. Germany; pota&
UsMte mining. chemlcalB, texS^ eiS^Mwti- and
A«^ art. dirt., Bancs. m me
Ere.; nearm. Wigan:
cmlture; p, (1963) SSMS. COM. length
cotton;
country; 116 m.
p. (1961) 0.753.
AsMllJ>loono.caa. c..CentralItaly: A^b, (m !^d s^, Ethiopia: oil refinery.
of sameuMe; p. (1961) 49,070. cap. ofproy. AMnurt..Hidia; Brahmapatra B. flows throneh
tt* extensive tea plantations; rice, cotton, coal:
S^tH^to^ racecoOTse at
MimOîaioTie region. Central Ghana; formerly fti!-®^! ®tl* m*; p. (1961) 77272,772, *•
IKjwerM native state; timber, ©jooa, Nethadandte; p.
mm®; cap. Kmnasi; a. 24 379 so m gold- • np- ^m7)‘9^90*
P-
Derby, Eng.; ’
^ (1960) 7,109.549. i»ar Dovedale:
iMlk processing, corsetry; p. (1961) ^PÎIOTaS-
i? Hnte^
Pcragto Central Italy; 15 m. 8.K. of
; birthplace
A^bnrton, urb. dUt.. Devon, Eng. ; old mkt. t and old oas. ; p. 5253.of St. Erands; fine oathf
Assynt, disi.. L., Sutheiland. Scot„ 7 m.; asr
H P. Zeatend : etr. of
(1966) 72.079. ^ creameite: p. (1961) 937.
Agyria, of former emtpire. N. plain of Mraono-
rt” into Indian ! tai^ (Iraq): drained by E. Tigrirt^mw
Mcester. Eng,; mgdy pastoral fioming a.; mina of many
sclent cas.; cap. Nineveh.
noa^, open-cart mining, soap mftg. ; ra?^ A^rbaydzahn, XJ.S.S,E., on Caspian
at frontier with Iran; natural gas pipelte
l?loêdT'^l®..fr“ Leicester, Eng. ; coal "“■
fiom A^ Jari and Maram Adds nr. Perston
Gulf, under constr,
ft pottery; p, (1961) 9279. PA S JS. rtiore of Caspian
modem deep-mate pt.
AmetK^, “tt®« ? chemicals,
(ctos^ 1966). AsM, (’, Alessandka, Italy ; fine oath.; wln^;
1JH.A.; taSer . ^.,iAOtOT«!ycIfi8; p. (1961) 00277.
Carolina, tTHJu; Artipaiaia* I., Grecian Atohlpelago.
ft.SSif™®' hosiep-; p. (190O) 9.4497^
P- C060) S0JB2. Art^. *.. Spain, nr. Leon; eath.; p. (1967)
Astord. uTb. dm.. mM. L, Kent. Eng.: agr. tm-
aJniwS*®’ ^tgifbmidiM; p. (ted. 1967)^270.
-S* Soiislm* Jaimn; cultural cfar.; old N.Y.,
*772^'^ H.SJl.; indnstl.
D.SA.; and. xertdtl.;
salmon-ca nning:
ste-weaving_ôtr,: ano. school with Iflnary of ^^'^W6W
P»rt of Queen;h 6or.. New York City; settled in
olasSis; p. (1964) 750.000. ■ 17th cent, w Hallet’s Ctove; rmmned for J. J
Ashman, lirft, dwt„ Hoithmnberland. Enst •
’ **• • Astrakhan,
Astor. t., EB.E,S J8.,; on delta of B. Yolga; '
ft ?0®1** P- tortd. 1967) 26JS20. umv.; flax, caviare, astrakhan woM, firuits.
Ashio, (.. Japan; 65 m. N. of Tokyo; copper* ' wheat, elec, power, engin.; p. (1967) 307,000.
commerce; p. (1947) 90297. .
gazetteer
Ki2
AST-AUG
Atlas, great mtn. range, N.W Afrif.o. „•
Oviedo, on Bay 1.600 m. through Moroccos^’
Pilcomayo; cath.; tobacco,

^ Paraiua^^flrfA' P-
Paragnay;
(estd. 1S60)on 305,000.
junction of Ea AtWMit?r‘l?4«^^
ttnsaders’ pt. ’ “ ®<ê of
^^^nimstrative div.. Upper U.i^B NE
„te'p:-(Me6) lS7ir “ ”• “• « “*«.
at 1st cataract, p!îe66)£^. lomber mm.;
Se
timnw
ntS^yene; near P-famous ruins,
(1060) 43,000.
aswan Dam, Aswan, Upper U.A.E.' *0* DirW.'Sh27|-„-^'"“' «> 0.
to control Nile flood in UA..E.: built 1902
High Dam
under coiMtr. to provide cheap
. electric power
of 2 million acres in Lower UA.E
^^‘■; »• to,,
A^t (ût). prov.. UpperTA.E.TX!^^t-'

Asyut, (.. Upper U.A.R.. N.E. Africa’ A 15°?’ ^•. New York, U.S.A.: n (19am p^kb
potterv '
»■
^<1960)1.325,555.
‘‘toJ.'raS. : i(‘to'
Asl:,t /%“•=
CopiapoPottery.
“■ 4
fV^
Atacanm (1957)
proo..p. N.
ivory ,work: i^l.O
cap. Od.
S
CbUe; - rich
sSS aw.
^ coastal tract, rich in
^|&.tkarais«srir'“”" «
Aub^, t., Bouches-du-RhOne, Prance-
tUes, corks, meat processing; p (igaai p?hricts
vvo
Japan;Filflk'^
p^d.®m7) on Sagami Bay sea-
Atar, t. Mauritania, W. Africa;rlv terminna

..e^ffmlafdtown; p. (1954) Isoo. for agr
Nfle; rirwk*m.°§Smt? i-iiyergne. Prance.

pf (^d!w51)
P- (I960) 6,350.
Ata, t., Hainaut, Belgium ; sugar refininff

fnrni-
*|So|ta°l;ê«6 S““‘“
chemicals, silk; p. (1962) 70 57S ’
^24^!9.®‘' H-S-A.; footwear; p. (i960)
^vigable by steamers, ^‘*®<^tol‘si;ran,' Canada :
save at (Jrand Eanids
, oeOT mouth of Clearwater E. ; len^ 740 m
’
3®0M ®“<^^<^Jiewan. CanMa;
AutÎnle
^ wHy.” cfcpar., Ayr., Scot.; ® p. (1964)
coal: n (195iifi snn
AS7lr SS^t&eTS/S' Aut^terarder, frwh. Scot.of ;the
S. slopes 15 vale
m. Iw of Perih^'
of Strath eam*
IS.?
. .yopc and
Athen^ cap. Parret ; King Alfred’s Mdins-nlae?®'
c. GreeceTmc^^no^^ta nnti.
ancient ctr. of Greek art and learning- OM: p.a«5l.
many splendid temples ; woollen inds.; p. (1961) 3 426 owatneam,
oilreflneiySby
p. of greater Athens (Inc Piramiii âi\
7.330.00^ Of C. (laeimS.-^'^’^’ A.aar:^ki's 24..,: JT.

Aim^nd, spi. a- N-I-. New Zealan
N.Z., seat of government 1845-6d; Igst. c
4; extensivein
, ^ Warwick.,
hats, coalnmg,, footwearEng. ; N.
ffranffA sawt^VSlrm-
26m^S âH^w steelwks projected

S,’A H.
l&lfof mtunhabited group P- (1068)
in Southern
i”^Pts-dcTSeine, nr. Paris: p. (1954)
AtUone, Mr6. dist., military sia., Westmeath
??5- Shannon; p. (1966) 5 6ie Aude, maritime den., SB PranpA*
Athofl, dist., N.Perth, Scot. ; extensive deer forests
^ and grouse moors ; a. 450 sq m ^
âjmos (o,uuu tt.) at S. tip, known as
Atfe3®T6Wft?'^l^?/ Greece; HoTv
Mt.
Jt^rL-^l%W2rT3^^^
Kai^^**^’ home of monastic community; ch. L
P. (1966) 4055
Ontario, (hinada; on Canadian
Nations Ely , 110 m. W. of Pori Aiw, t., Karl-Marx-Stadt.
E. Germa ny ; nrp.
^S; (igfeW canneries
a M^ 1 (^^"Orc mines. ‘
<., Karl-Marx-Stadt. B. Germanv-
° ’ C“P-. Georgia. U.S.A.; univ •
( *-* confluence
Wertach; oath; theological
wnnany,
«ioth: textiles; p. (1968) 19,088.
^‘(WM)&^’Igst ocean
summer; resort;
a. (estdp.) 1* connected to
^ ““ to’.; pfam)®?S3f ^
Iceland to Antarc
« *ÂrP® tic, activity
yolcanlo some runs
tr.S.A. ; OB “
Keimebeo E.’
‘^=
îhigr
foêai.
it^riîll‘’r25:^7
o 4 A^+'V deeps : Idiwaukee Been aSK* cotton
F*- goods,
w.’ A^tralia.
paper; p. (i960)
Oolombia. S. America • can Augusta," c., Oa,. U.8.A.:
."“^ Nares Deep on Savannah v -
^|7:?72ftVnS«i"& chemicals, foondrie's!
B^qulUa; a. 1.840 sq. m.; p. {^®td. 1961) Angn^w, f.. Poland: on Suwalki canal.
GAZETTEER
'"as '■■ *'>f»7l7B™i*, A^’tJK’^rSrtp: =»,. I.B.: ^

oraters
Atires, wrin.dairrpr’oduc e: p. (1962)®. * ArTu • 1 cmauia ; oii-snaie rennerr.
Atirfes. ml».d. viasHf,
stronghol »!««*/. Algeria,
Algeria. N.
N. Africa;
Afri^: ’ Berber
Berher ww’a52}?.?° .^»?^■shate reflnerf.
1^155^’ <3y6s, fertilisers: p. (1S1621
cares, paleolithic remains: tannS.
t’SfefkShterenSftSS. the present
France; industl.: Atweô Mtas., mins., (3entTal France; in
p.*^(1962)
Araora, SJ'SIff"
f.. Col. N.W.
[J.S3.A : residtl. .sab. 6 m. B. of
p. (i960) 48.548 . ^ ^ ^ » ISS Plateau : highest peak, Mfc. Dore.
Denrer:
fiuStmef asr*
'i’^Sm'AS:' ““»■ '“«««; ''■S-g«f:A.».^YonDe.FBim»; ortl..;

00.1.0. wa<uu,y AB.i ivruier
^’‘ ^-S-A.. emptying into L.cap., many pagodas, now ruins,
AvaUon. Yonne, France: on Cousin E.:
Aussig, see TTsti. ancient ctoch; tourist ctr.: p. (1962) 0,372.
Austin, t.. Minn., U S A • food nrorta • n f1Qnrt^ to>ttist .ctr. : p. (1962) fl.3?l.
Sr,S08.
27 908 - “oa prods.,
yiTuua.; p.
y. (i960) Avebury
u»ou^ (Abnry),
boroi^li,
remauis- Eng.; par.,
famousnil., for
Wilts.,
its near Marl-
MegaJithic
fif. V VH
0“ Colorado; ;
'^^craao remauis.
p. umui idrff.045.
p.mmise^^ „ flORsii oft * kmuiucb,
sardines, irure;
fririt;
aS, of
Australia, Commonw^thrf', largest 1 in world- i' of Caserta: wine.

Cook took possession for Briteto 1770 • Com- S' 40.838.
monwealth proclaimed 1901 federaHnn nf i .sroup m the Caribbean W.
N.S.W.. VictoS, O^nsland g a ^®®x’ housing to Venezuela.
W. Australte md Lluto^'
feder^ ^p. teir.. N. ^ »• «1»6W
ffiftte“SSftaUor“bto?-jnS^
r2»%rni.;TK\&Sg^= Aar4.S^4.^|:f^Franee; residence

Austr^’Souttu St anti-Po^ 137^1417;
weal^ tte “Itoert State”; maMy^&i (S^S leather; p,
SttoS" frw S'tW ."«?.»&»
AB.-gnv&g°IS.fff
P.07.. SMB: ,mr..cm.-.
Sp. m
SfeilSfe “• “■™ - - ■ ”2i- Ag|î&i,S:«?=SS^, „.
Perth, on the Swan B.; woS. frStt! 'wh^t; almonds; p. afi36)
northern regions; a. 975,920^. ®^®wci

1968) 930,800 ' ’ leiigtb95m.
Austtallan Alps, aee Alps, Australian. ^^shnrrl^fc^wSStp^kf®’
^^^^ÔhannelatCShristchurch;
bSwS
pig^reeVI^VwiItei.a^d.to^K “f
MzabethSd.^l^bertso^^df^^ ttS “d
. Wilkm; a. (estd.) 2,472.000 Bo!^ vis. and 5^^.”^*, *• d^h^ in cider and dairy
^ A^îfs^^^ftetwel^
C. Arid idT8
(860 i£r £) ^ (Sf^pheaSd
Catastrophe ana ^ sg.
^‘'«*6ropne and hlghert
Û. ^ Sea. Japan:i.998
Y^bayama. a. 219
«:
C.:S
Austrî 60'i
an Capital Territory, area surrounding boriered by Ben W. ;8S:w.TOv&y
Cruaohan (16 sa. mu) ; salnum
C^berra. seat of Fed. (3ovt, of Australia: pre- and trout Milw; hydro-eleo. sta. at OunAhan
_ under constmotion.
Axar.jtod, N. ic^nd.
^^7 ^^^^Somerset. Eng.; p. (1961)

Ptoo^ brewing; hydroelec. Axholme, I. ofhf.W. Eh^ • formed hv pq
ai^nnH (eld“&)T337jir®‘ -nd IdiTkSf'iinfS'â

GAZETTEE
R
axm-bah
K14
Annlnster, rttraJ dist., Devon, Eng.;
brusbes; Baoir in N'.\v« Terr Canrif^n • a»ii • x
tool
boliday resort. Bacolod
Ocean, ;1.length 360 in.
cap. Negros’ ’
I.. Phillnn inpo. ArcUc
Baoup. mwra.p. tor..
sugar; mjito,t
Manch ester(estd.) 147,00
: cotton.,sji).
, iron. Lancs 0 Eng • !>n™ctr.,
Avarai^ Ayê; p. mm
t- ^,0™ - founded by Pizarro in 1639 ;6.806.
“^^ncho dOTt.; p. (1961) 22.000.
P. (estd. 1967) of16,420.
Uagos, Nigeria "W AfWA» f°°fwear:
the Bight of Benin, formerly a ereflf’tS^'
"‘I- Bâjoz, prov., Spain; gre^
^T’A)42îI: to progress: a. 8.349 Iqrm reclS^HiSflS?*^
• p^lm
Badajoz, Jortfd. t.. Ba&sS p?i)v
t-. Turkey; ancient Tralles ; rly.; cotton.
Spani
1^-ZlOf !-• sb-Port™
Titlcamf^ p:
Avd S^yTaiûiJl
P* ilyoo) ^’oP0'*®
S^^’K?^= 40^389, 0®te. lignite and arsenic;
Aylesbnry, mun. bar., co. t. Bucks, Eng,; mbt. t
dairying; p. (estd. 1967) 55J90. !.. B™.to pro,.. Sp'klS^T.S.I
Britons and?oOt, Eng. ; scene of battle between
Saxons 445, death of Horsa ; mkt. Baden, former Land, W Gfermnn-n- ™
AJ^S^^^t.paperr^; p. (1961) of Dover;
3.644.on Kent
^ withBaden-Wiirtteiêrg ™®sed
®oofc.; on Krtb of
of Glasgow; Bums bom near
™1 “UoTOT ®oot. ; dairy

f- “■
produce, early «“»='■ w.
potatoes, coal, iron, woollens, cottons; civil
ofjnorthemmost point. Me of Man. Baden-Wiêmberg, Land, S.W

®0. m. : p. (1957) Ominn^.
^■’ ^ttar Pradesh. India; p. (1961) sKs”Ma

Azbest, t.. Sverdlovsk dist., D.S.S,E. ; asbestos ôAV&Si'
BaMnaitomiJj. and f..ITttar Pradesh India
• „!i
A^b^m isoescoa ' " b”™.of
arês; (E^),
p. 60.0
mm prov.. N. 00.
linn, »•
bordering
(1997) BûUa, : tea;soil.'
Cteyloneroded
êrtfle<.. badly p. 18.387
shrtoe
_ tolm r, saK of Vish nu. “dia , pfl.
B^vrate pool, Californ
lo^resfc ia,to IJ'sJl
point NTêr * te
280 fi
A^b^M ■(We^).'!»>-o».. N.W. Iran, bordering
constituent rep. of
p-^taucaaa,industry;
constituent rep. of
S'® E-S-8-®:! miPfc. od oil industry; chemi^.
cheml^ln.
farming, cattle, fishing; cap. Baku; a. A^’ Oana^; W. of (Greenland, Joined to
33 460
sq. m.: p. (1970) ojn.ooo. • Sl®ÔaPMo by Davis Strait^ to ^ctto
Banin I-j Canada; a. 236,000 so. m • inhahifpr
; straw Roo^ opou 4 months a year i
Azor
S?p^ ^(l ese S®™
Port^Ô) of «or
group^•• islanda in mid-
abt. 0OOm.W.ofIMtoT v“ca“c;
Bagh^,
Syrian ôv. or Uwa, Iraq ; between Persia and
Desert; toe. some of thn
^^^600 fl'^sJdes; p.
sia strait; fisheries
j , caviare. Seaby Kerohen-
Bagdad, cap., Ifaa: on E. Tieria; nimnW- fo..™
t\^‘i • nr. birthplace of St. Ig-
K'
f^lfwL3
3^? Loyola, mhieial springs; p. (1967)
Azraq Desert Nat. Park, first Jordani
an nst
Azi^; s,
iSMi. !;^sy iii,(
*•• 1*^-
Chad: cap. Messenya.
S»^,,
Eayenn a, Italy;’ aofL.
p. 3 078
Ecnador, S. America- can
tewa™ •• »-wiri.rE
cftois fruit; p. Switzerland.
. B ”^7^di Mqoa,
Bagnl *" ®^’^*®"^®*Setoe, Prance; p. (1964)
t., Italy; 13 m. N. of Lucca-
Bagto do San Guillauo, f., Italy, nr Pisa- warm
®‘’ ®-^V. Asia; old Heliopolis; Lucoa,
warm springs; p. 14.000.
BôleM lôe; aub. of Paris; femous
connecting Ked Sea anri l2L.n P"®*®! of Paris ” from local gypsum-
Bon. Alazand
^ aran prov.; 2?6.W^
[(1967)aimt.! n
BaôW teîlea; p. (1964) 28.779. KTPanm,
BabMhkin. i, H.8.8.E.; residtl. and intott Baôt, rural diisl.,
'sub “TSij!"Surrey, “aly Eng.,: adjoinin
sulphur g spring;
heath
rf Moscow; p. (1969) 112.000. suD. p- (1961) 13.744.
Empire in
“
&Dpto4f™'‘® 26 lyrically old'rSf torn
EwMatea Valley about 60 m. S. of :iighda Baham^ la., setf-gov. Br. col.. W Indies- first
“
tenqing p,”S
780 m.So®.from ^. ™"“ '“ M*"-
^’^dSts!" hemp, copper ^sssau. Plorlda to Turks
New Providen Is.; col-
ce: s^t.
Bacau, i , E. Eomania; on E. Moldava - nil tendi^ TP^rn^
craw^ f î^ted by Columbus, ex-
sawmlUmg. textiles; p. (1963) y^ld. ‘ sq.m.: p.aCT. prod.,
(estd. 19C8)timber;
173,003.tourism: a. 4.404
OAXETTEEW
Bahaw^pur, div.. Pimiab. West Pakistan; a. i BaJdwinsFille l NV

15,918 sq m.: p.
„pM8m.m.; (1961) 3^05.000.
v.mei) 3,803.000 TTS a •
F£-f*= »» t
agr.. Urestook
BaMa, sjrf.. Ecuador. S. America; p. 10.S20. Is.. Spain; include BlaJorca, flsh. a
pigg;
Minorc
Bahia, st, Brazil; cap. Salvador; a. 216,270 t' ^ “’'ewo ck
sq. m.; cattle, caeap, sugar, coffee, tobacco; Mturalg^; p.mmS.Bs
: . P- 441.842.
’ *
Baliia BlSica, spL, Argentina- industl rh* BaHvranges to Bay of Bengal.
aCT.
a,r, .■
famous native dancers : a. (inc.
principle
^ TOin, wool,shipping
hides; p.point
{i960)of 150,000
S.; “wits Sf I 3,937 so. m.; p. IQOI j
1,782.329.
emgagea
Lombokiin
Balirejn Is., shsithdom erotip in Peraian G.; (mii^ 70ff Iniionesia: on: p.
■” O' “ P»V. 7.78.®.:

iîOTope, oetw^n
PP ansi tha
and the jSgean Sea
Bate, hutfric «T.. Campanto, Italy; beautifiiUy on the E.. with an area of. roughly. 200,000 sq.
situated on Bay of Naples: celebrated, Eoman
pleasure resort.
Bate-Mara, t. Komania; on Somes E.; Balton; oh. rivers:“‘’S” ._Khodope,
Danube. Pindna,
Maritza, Vardar;
gold, _ oh; lakes: Scutari. Okhrida.
oo GJi^^*** Chemicals, uranium; p. (1963)
Biria, dwf., Afghanistan ; between the Kteba! and
Baie-St. Patd, i.. Queiieo, Canadii ; summer resort • the Oxus; comsponding to the ancient
hunting. flsMDg: p. (1961) 4,eT4. _ riyal of Nineveh and Eabyion.
Ban, t, on oil pipe-line, Iraq. = ^sooteted with Zoroaster,
¥-S-S.%; fresh-water; 6th railed tlm Mother of aties ” ; destroyed by
INOT.-May ; skirted by sEk: 0.12.465.
a. 13.700 so. m.
wide; ilafoo^l- ’ ’ « m -.r* TTT eroiDOl* iiT. injIiCier
of W. Mongolia ; receives the Bl R.. but has no
^de!‘ ■■ BaWjffu B.._|s^s'e:
outlet length 450 m..^width
fSh 30-50
w|tK?frontier
m.
Bmkhash. t.. Kazakhstan S.S.E. ; on N. shore of
Baile Atha Cllath. see Dublin. L.; copper, molybdenum; vermicuUte dls-
^ W.129._
D
=.S«f P- <1959) 68,000.
iS,SS -^s. i..™ OIL.
Oil*’ D* 7 g//) *' '°*^’* ^ cotton, 3?07„ Ayr., Scot.; fishing: p, <1951) ggg
«.«u- ii 1. • :
„ agr., ttolter. tpunsm;
miwjucu
tourism: p. (1966) 7,785.
7.783.
it.: iSS)’ niSS
Melbourne
afoiS.™!. '-iS
, fonner gold-field Jt^KW
dist.; mlrt. ctr.;
Bator, pi . Jugoslavia; S. of Rijeka; new pt. and hriok and tte; p, (1966) 66,804.
oil harbour.
BatoMsar^, f.. Crimea. U.S.S.B.; m cap. of 37 ^ S.W. of Aberdeen ; tourist r<^rt, mhaerai
wells; m. the royal Highland
I. OP
reddenceDee.
of
Baker x.. âns:
'torte.r p. (1956) lOjOOO.
Pacific Ocran. Balmoral; p. (1961) 1.132.
Baker, £., N.W. Terr., Canada. Ballenas Bay, W. Coast, Lower CaHfomla, Mexico.
mmc™ Balling «r5. did.. tpt„ Mayo, Ireland; agr,-*®
springs: p. {I960) 9,986. ' at
Bakêld.
refining; p.c. (1980)
8 Cal.. U.S.A.; ofa. of ofl-weEs.
56.848. ^hin., flom mUIs; p. (1966) 6,187.
^.n™» {.. N.S.W.. Aratralia; at mouth of
BêweR w6. diet., Derby. Eng. ; tourist centre. T> "““Poad E-: resort, fishing; p. {1966) 4.9S4.
-seed ^5’
oU, flour; p. (1960). ,5,043.
faxcuiJA, AÔilfWlO. UWr6UU«
. ' " '
Bakony mtm., 800
: p. 10.
copperWald, forested, Hungary. Btainrebe, rural did., Mayo. Ireland; B. of L.
Bata. cap. Azerbaydzhan. S.S.E.: pt. of Caspian
x,. w xi.
Mask; p. (1961) 13,492.
Hghtengin.; p. (1961) 1,603. P ngftnfTpM ’
Baikov (..Saratov area. E.S.P.8.E.;

plant: on Khoper
P. (1969) 64,000. nf Mmad^ )ahtor ’ aM
^^T(i966 sIfS
Batore, spt., Orissa, India; p. (1961) 33831, 4^ asDestos-eemeat laod., p. (1966)

ûtopit’:’roim\m“^ iSde™- I^5®Pd.
® of Balayan ; p. (1948) 13,305. ^ „Ballymoaey,
onR^M;mU'^nSdreing;
t.urb. did., Antrim. N. Ireland;
Balboa, d^., S.B. Canal ^ne. Central America;
p. (1960) 30.623: t, Paciflo end of Panama
Canal: p. «>?
BaTbriÂTi 3,139.
(1960) TinhUr.'
•‘‘muuo. BaByness Bay.'Donegal.
aoW^
ganyp^ Bay, Jo
uonegai, linen, dairying; p.
* Ireland.
Ireland.
Ireland, hosiem P, Bal&gianaon, spf,. Donâl. Ireland; at mouth
^ Ijront Range, OoL, tr,8.A,; Balm^ Cas., Aberdeen. dhemi ; royalglass

Scot.calB. raaid sMp-
. enos,
BnMnpfr TTorf^ T? . -kt bft
OH E.eli
, Balotra, Di^
f.. Raiasth^W. 'OfIndia;
8 m.e?^
imt Ballater.
p. (1961) 12,110.
fisheries; p. (1960) 30,204, thicm^ impt, sugar-cane growing Taller of

Baldwin, Penns*, U.S.A.: p. (1960) 24,489. Morelc^; length approx. 500 m.
GAZETTEER
BAL.-BAR K16
Balta Lt Shetland Is.. Scot. B^gew, pt, Maine, U.SA.; on Penobscot E«
Baltic Is. (Pyn, Lolland, Nykohlne, etc.) ; farming
div. of Denmark; a. 6.123 sa. m. ; p. 1, 281,772. Ban^r,
Baltic Sea, an arm of the Atkintic, opens into N. Sf ■ bor., B. Penns., U.SJl.;
Pa-Per;slate
p. (196W
asr
Sea by narrow channels between Denmark and
Sweden; Joined to White Sea and Arctic by Ba^,
clothes:cap.P.of(1960) 5.76
man^-Sha ri terr..6. ’
Central African
Eep; on E. Uhangi: p. (1966) 237,972.
White Sea Canal; snrrounded by Sweden,
Denmark, Germany, Dinland and the Baltic Bangwepln, L.. Zambia; 160 m. long, 80 m. wide
Eeps. of the DJS.S.iL ; 900 m. long, greatest contains 3 is^ds Dr. Livingstone died at
width 200 m., a. 160,000 sa. m. ; partly firozen Blala, spt.,
on S.Syria
shore; terminus
of this L..ofin 1873. *
in winter. Baâs, oil pipe-line from
Kirkuk, opened 1962.
Baltic-White Sea Canal, gee Volga Baltic Waterway. BanjMuka, i„ Bosnia and Hercegov -•'I*") aw.
ina, Jngo-
Baltimore, c., apt.. Maryland, U.S.A ; nr. head of
Chesapeake Bay; fine harbour; sugar refining,
steel, radios, aircraft, clothing, machin., ship-
bldg., food canning; world’s Ist nudear-
powered lighthouse; p. (1970) 595,222; Greater
B. 2,044.000. Ba^
New %. CTOup of sm. Is. in S. Pacific ; K Ji. of
Hebrides.
Baluchistan, vrm. (revived 1970), West PaMstan: Banks Pentamla, on E. coast of S.I.. New Zealand
S, of Afghanistan; largely desert, rugged barren
mtns.: cap, Quetta; a 62,900 sa. m.; cereals, B^s Strait, separating Eumeanx Is. from
Tasmama.
potatoes, fruits, dates: p. (estd. 1951) 622,000.
Baluchistan States, Kalat. Las Bela, Kharan and Eankura, t.. W. Bengal, India: on Hooghly E •
Mekran, incorporated in W. Pakistan, 1966. Bann,
Bamako, c., Mali; p. (1968) 135,000. shellac, sflk;andp. Lower
Upper 62,8
(1961) E.. 83.rises in’
N. Ireland;
Bamangwato, tr. dist., Botswana, S. Africa. CO. Down, and flOTO through Lough Neagh to
Bamberg, c. Bavaria, Germany; oath.; phUoso- Atlantic nr. Colerame ; length 90 m
phioal and theological institute: textiles, elec., Bagmookburn, vU.. Stirling. Scot.; 3 m. S. of
leather and engin. inds.; p. (1968) 73.700. Btuhng; Bmees victory over Edward H.
Bamberg, f„ 8,0., D.S.A.; agr., lumbering, pine June 24th, 1314; coal; confectionery.
timber; p. (1960) 3,081. [and Iron dist. Bamu, f., W. P^d^n; onKurramE.; military
Bambuk or Bambonk, Mali; W. Africa: gold sta.; sugar refining; p. 38,504.
Bamburgh, t., Northmnberland. Eng. ; birth¬ Banska Bystrica, region, Slovakia, CSSE ; cop¬
place of Grace Darling, cas. per and silver mng., metal wks. ; a. 8,664 sa. m •
P. (1961) 229.290. ,
Bamlau, t.. Afghanistan, N.W. of Kabul; rock- Banska Stlavnica. t., CSSE.; tr. ctr., gold silver
cut caves, colossal Buddhist statues.
Banam, f.. Cambodia; on Mekong E.; boat bldg,, lead, copper, zinc; p. (1947) (inc. Banska
rice distilling; p. 28,000. Bela) 11,870. m ggQ
Banana I., Brazil ; length 220 m., width 50 m. Banstead, mb. dist., Surrey, suffered
Eng.; p,aeve^y
(estd. 1967).'
Banana Is., am. group nr. Sierra Leone. Bantam, dist,, W. Java; from
Banat, dist., Bomanla; N. of E. Danube and B. fever and volc^c eruption.
of E. lisza; p. (1963) 1M1M2. Ban^, rural dwt and spf.. Cork, Ireland ; at head
Baahridge, t. urb. dist.. Down, N. Ireland ; on Bann of Bantry Bay; fishmg, farming; crude oil
E.; linen; p. (1966) 6,551. tenmnal on Whiddy Is.; p. (1961) 7,814.
Banbury, mun, bor., mM. L, Oxford, Eng. ; 80 m. Banwy, R., Montgomery, Wales.
from London : aluminium ind., furniture, print¬ Banzyvllle, t., Congo; on E. Uele; p. 1,000.
ing, ladies wear: p. (estd. 1987) 26,540. Balquba, t„ Iraq; on Dlyala E.. 32 mu N.E. of
Banchory, burgh, KEncardine. Scot. ; on E. Dee, Baghdad: agr., rly. ; p. 20,000.
17 m. S.W. of Aberdeen: P. (1961) 1,918. Bar, sp{.. Dalmat^ cst. Jugoslavia; p. 5,500.
Banda, i.. Uttar Pradesh, India; cotton; p. Bar lÛDor, f., 8.E. Me., U.S.A ; holiday resort ;
(1981) 37,744. p. (1960) 2,444, 16,726.
Banda Is., group in Moluccas, in Banda Sea, Barahop. Wis., U.SA.; agr. tr. ctr.; p. (1960)
Indonesia; nutmegs and mace. Baraoaldo,f., Biscay, Spain; Ironwks.; p,36J66.
Bandar. spL, Andhra Pradesh, India, on Coro¬ Baracoa, spt,, Cuba; bananas, coconuts; p,
mandel cst.; cottonnaftg.,rice:p. (1961) 101,417. 10tS95,
Bandar Abbas, spt, S. Iran; airpt.; Import and Barada, E., Syria; in plain of Damascus.
export ctr. p. (1967) 163,133. Barajas, vil,. Madrid, Spain: airport; p, 1,800.
Bandax-e-Bushehr (Bushire), spt., S.W. Iran, on Baranovichi, {.. Byelorussian S.SIE.; 80 m. S.W.
Persian G., Iran’s major pt.; p. c. 30,000. of Minsk; p. (1959) 58,000.
Bandar-e-Pahlevl, «j5{., ET. Iran, on Caspian Sea. Baraunl, t, N. Central Bihar, India; oil refining;
P. (1967) 69,737. od pipelines to Gauhatl, to Kanpur and from
Bandar-e-Shab, spL, N. Lean, on Caspian Sea. on Haldla; p. (1961) 40,322.
rly. from Tehran. Barbaoena, t., E. Brazil: creameries; ceramics,
Bandar-e-Shahpur. apt, Iran, on Persian 6., term, glass; p. (1960) 42.932.
of rly. from Tehran: petrochemical plant being
built. Barbados, I., indep, so®. sL, within Brit, Common-
w^lth (1966): WJ.; sugar, molasses, rum,
Bandawe, mission sta. on L. Malawi, Africa. cotton; cap. Bridgetown; a. 166 sq. m.; p.
Bandjarmasin, Kalimantan, Indonesia; rubber:
p. (1961) 214,096. Barhary, region, N. Africa; includes Morocco,
Bandoeng or Bandung, t„ W. Java: quinine, .êria, Tunis, Tripoli, Barka andou m., p.
Eezzan.
rubber, chemicals; radiosta.; p. (1981) 973,900. Barhary Coast, 253.533.
(estd. 1969) general name applied to Mediter¬
Bann, burgh, cap,. Banfi, Scot.; on Moray Birth ranean cst. of N. Africa between Strait of
at mouth of E. Deveron; fisheries; tourism; Gibraltar and C. Bon.
P. (1961) 3,329. Barbastro. t., Huesca, Spain: on E. Cinca; p.
Banff, CO., Scot. ; oats, barley, fisheries, distilling, (1957) 9,332.
woollen nmfi.: a. 630 sq. na.; p. (1961) 46,400. Barberton, t, Transvaal. S. Africa ; citrus fruits,
Bangalore, c., Mysore st., India: former Brit, gold, asbestos, magnesite, talc, cotton; p. (I960)
military sta. and administrative H.Q. : rfnna,
cottons, carpets, aircraft, machine tools: p. Barberton,
22,025 inc.t,2.705
Ohio,whites.
U.SA., 8.8.W. of . Akron;
(1961) 905 J3A tyremftg.: p. (1980) 33,305.
Bangka (Banka), 2., between Sumatra and KaU- Barbizon, nil., nr- forest of Eontainebleau; haunt
mantan, Indonesia; tin; a. 4,611 sq. m.; p.
(1930) 205i363. of painters.
Barbuda and Eedonda, Js., Leeward Is., W.L;
BamTaxik (Enmg Thep), apt., cap., Thailand; on dependencies of Antigua; sea-island cotton;
Menam E.; 20 m. from the sea: royal palace, a. 63 sq.m.: P. 2,000. [2.730)
umv.; rice, tea, teak; p. (1963) 1,608,000. Baroaldine, t.. Queensland, Australia; p. (1966.
Bangor, c., mun. bor., Caernarvon, Wales; on Baroellona, f., Sicily, Italy; sillcs; p. 26,580.
S. shore of Menal Strait; oath., univ. coll,; Barcelona, jHWi, N,E. Spain; cap, Barc^na;
slate, li^t engin.; p. (1961) 13,977. a; 2.942 sq. m. ; p. (1967) 3,495 J021.
Bangor, pi., mun. bor.. Down., N. Ireland: Bmelona, o., spt,, cap., Barcdona proT„ Spain;
on S. shore of Belfast Lough. 10 m. N.E. of Manchester of Spain ” ; cottons, paper,
Bel£^: It inds: carpets, hosiery; seaside leather, glass, soap; exp. olives, win^ cork;
resort; p. (1966) 23.335. p. (1963) 1.656 flOO.
GAtl^^^TEEH
,
sPJ^^ÊiSs; p. W.'F^'
fl961) BaTO,c.. Vt.!^^; Ste; p.a&)J0,3S7
Barren L* Totono in Bay of BcimI.
t, Sâlia; head of navigaacm on Juba Barren E., Ky. TLS^f; fe^h mte?-.
!£., p, IfOw» BaiThfiad.. mff/j. humh T?ian<Vc»w wt c? tit
!!.«j.f,|"l4U3«a; o«co.«ofWUo ra. N. of TufipM A
»f!gT?«’Sa&“5SS: p^bo,.
B^ssOTsroo^pK ofs*.
“ Brt*f;|& “•■ ”• ^ “•« »'
B%'i.l'ISS;^: „.T.Wadt™.th dblfp
B^ktag, outer bor., E. Ifondon. ^ Eng.; on E. Barr(Wfoi^/«r6.

4S81. d«.. fin™ tef- i^., D ». Tiseis
uvoij
Eo(mg: me. Itegenham: mefal refining and Barrow, E., Leinster Ireland' rise? fn Riteff-a
melt^, ûiation, celiifiê; Ige, power ata. Bloom Mtns., and flows to Waterford Harbour
171,000. i Z — PaPSA
w,.,., vw. shjpbldg.,
uxj,., ill. engin.; p.
jifiiy.;
iPf
Barkly TaMeland, N. Terr., Australia. (estd. 1S67) 64,eS0.spi. oo. 6w., N. LanS^:^g.;
easwks. in Europe; p. {1068} Bmrow-ln-Pnm^.
5^^ i ’/f Ai" (eswi. mt.7) bi.tluU.
*■■ BroTince. S. Aftfesa; dia- Bmrow-on-^, rural Sist. and «.. Leicester.
bS& Is. America. in A]a2ka.

Barlad, f.. Itomania, Moldavia; soap, textiles:
p. (1963) 48,191.
Barry, mm bor., Glamorgan,
tin-plate, Wales ; “ outport
chemicals, piaatics;”
Bm-!6~Buo, t, cap., Meuse. France; cotton.
hosiery; p. (1982) 80,168. P. (1961) 42,089.
Barlee, L., W. Australia.
Barletta. t, apt, Italy; wine; p. (1961) 68,035. ^(ponde, France ; Sautome wina;
“melt'f p.1i9?4)tl^“‘^' “tton.minine

on cst. Barstow, t., C^lj.SA.: early sHver oil-seedi:
and
of Cardigan ^y; oh^c^; p. (1981) 2.348. ftontier town; p. (mb)
B^naok, rî dwt., Huntingdon and i’eter- Bap-sur-Aube, t., ûbe. France* wine, bran lx"
borough. Ito.; p. (1961) 4.420. furniture; p. (1954) ^ ’
“'M,'sa;”Sbtiis-SjSfr<!s isar;^'&i”£'&i:‘’iS.'Sf-
sa^dlmg; p. (1987) 395,000. BarHn, t. N. Turkey; p. {i960) lljSSS
BarUesviUe. (.. OmL. oil refining aina
Biraeîlle, {.. 6a., TJ.S.A.; cotton miUs; p. {I960) smelting, metal prod., leather goods;
p. (1900)
tr.S.A.; coal, nat^ g^. Bareon-upon-Htimlser, urb, di$t„ Lindsey. Llne^.
^bsr, eva^raMe nritt; p. (1960) 4,425. Eng.; cycles, rope-msifaig, bricto, tiles
®®rts. _ais.: now eshemical manure; p. (1981) S,5S4,
outer 1»r., Grater ILmdon; cornprising former Bartow, t., Fla.. tr.SA..; pfiosphates. citnis
bora, of and Hendon, and urb.dlsts. of canneries, clgar-infcg.; p. (I960) 19,549.
®' Barvas. par.. Lewis. Soot. ; p. 5,575. '
5 „
i j ix. , f. 127,800. Basel, ca«., Switzerland: divided into the1. 27 half-
cantons, Ba^-Stadt, a. 14 sq. m., cap. Basel:
Bîffl!’£."f"okla.. HSA.; oil. X'Z\ Eiw-5 ^>1?^

BaseL c., cap.. ‘ Basel. Switzaland; head of barge
^’z, former coalmng. otr.; p. navigation on Ehine; ohemiA. ribbons:
(estd. 1967) 75.910. p. (1961) 905 AOO ^
i;*
fishoTiM s p, summer resort; Ba%o E.. Cbpe Frbvinoe. S. AM®.
(1950) 10fdS0» Bftslii X** In Bbo* Oc. ■ IT Liizosi in fK#>
B^teple, mM. t.. mm. bor., Devon. Eng.; on PhlHppfe ^ ck Luzon in the
«®°retAgJovBinkg.; Bashto, Mep. E.S.F.&B.. HBB.E.; farming.
cotto. mm. toh^. opium; a. 2,961 C tox. Eng. ; in lower Thamesvalfey.

™
BModa,!, Gntoat, India, jmiy.: palsusas, Hindu 8 m.8JB. of Brentwood; one of" KewTowns”
designate 1949 to refieve pe^latlon coiiigcsfcion
t^pra; natural gas pfoellneficomAnMeshwar: in London: incorporated S. part of Bfltericav
nearby at Jawaharnagai; p, (1961) urb. dist. and N. part of Thunm* urb. dist;
~ n- X., . gan and ^fio. en^. cars, dothtog. tolHKSoo,
Bfflseland, prov., ambia; sayannah gra^lands; photographic appamtus; p, («td. 1966) 66,486,
7lWolvF?ort7>« * ®"
'*• 88.000
“U.uov set.
ou, m.;
Iii., p.
IZ.Bffi3flio8ta,^3J..
uoi/., Italy;
AUMjr i trtieat.
WUCttli, maize,
UBUae, vims, olive.
VUK^ Oilve,
^®*i6zue]a;
TsugM. coffee, I.cacao. ' Basingstoke,
OO; a. SB65mno.eq. <md.
m.: md:t., mtm.e09,®5L^
p. (1961) bor., ®f, Hants
câK cattle, copper, textfles: p. (1961) Eng.; 60 m. W. London: vuhtetes, fiirm imple-
jjo™ T» ,1. j . ments, plmrmaoentics; p. (ertd. 1967) 35.950.
BMa Is., southerly groups. Outer Hebrides. Basle, see Basd.
bSfbthouse on Barra B^que Prov., Spain; comprfeing three provs.,
Lead; p. 9^5p._ ■ CN, of Cairo. Alava, Gulpuzcoa, Vizcaya, where Basque Im-
BajTOge, iMi., U.A.E., NH. Africa; onNlle, 86m. guageb'spokeuandalKiH.o fPyTeneesinFranca,
*•’ ûuibia, S. America; oil- Basra, pro». or liwa on Euphrates, Iraq; 60 m.
PiJiB'. Petro-chemiinls; ftom the sea; p. (1968) 404,308.
p. (estd. 19o9) 55,000. Basi^ <., riser ;d., Iraq; dates: p. (1958) 159.355.
Bmranqueras, t., Chaco tear., N, Argentina: on Bass Bock, in Firth of Forth, oppofite Tantdlbn
Parana H; exp. hardwoods, cotton. Castle, E. Lothian, Scot.; gannetry,
rimranqnula, pt., Colombia, S. America, on left Bass Strait, between Vôrla and Tasanmla:
bank nr. month of K. Magdalena; textiles, per- oflaiore oilfields.
gazetteer
BAS-BEA K18
Bauohl, t, central Nigeria; ctr, of
Bassano, Italy; on R. Brenia: vines, olives, tamt Hn
majolica ; p. 20,-527 .
Bassein, t, Burma ; on moutt of Irrawaddy E., Baud, t, Orissa, India ;' on E. MahanarUunps. tin-
umv.; exp rice; airfield. immng a. ; p. 10,000.
Bassein, E., Burma.
Bassenthwcute, L., Cumberland, Eng. ; length Banres, E K BolMa; flowing from
N\ AiSS-ic“‘*'™°®‘ of^wfoundland. L. Gnara
4 m., breadth 1 m. ; fishing. mirc to R^ Guapore; length 300 m.
Basses-AIpes, frontier den., S.E. Eranoe; olives, Bnara, 1., Sao Panlo st., Brazil; comm, ctr fons
o4%8S5, Dfene; a. 2.697 aq. m.; p. (1964)
inds: p. t,,
B^tzen, (estd. 1968) 110,961.
Dresden, ’
E, Germany* on p
Basses-PyrSnaes, see Pyr6nees-Atlantiaue.
Basse-Terre, ch. t, Guadeloupe Er. W. Indies; Spreej textiles, engin., iron inds.f’p. (i963)
P. (estd. 1965) 12,000. Bauya, L, Sierra Leone. W. Africa; riy lunotinn
Basseterre, cop. St. Batts I. Leeward group; W.!.; Bavaria, Land, Germany;
new tourist development at nearby Erigate Bay ; rivers; Danube. Main. Whilly.Inn^
fore^tM- nu’
ch ind^
P. (1957) 33,878. agr., daimng. rye, oats, hops, sugar-lS’
BAstad, summer resort, Sweden; international ^ 27.112 sq. m.: jeweU-rv
brewing, gtes. sugar, toys, chemicals. p. (1968)*'
tennis; p. 2,300.
Bastia^^t.. spt., Corsica, Erance; p. (1962) Bavarian Alps, mfns., Germany.
Basteop, {., IT. La., TT.S.A.; on Colorado R. ^^1^^’ lead, zinc, silver,
nuns; p. (1960) 15.193.
Bastrop, Texas, TJ.S.A.; on Colorado E.;
hgnite; p. (1960) 3,001.
Basontoland, see Lesotho. Bayôn, t., Puerto Eico, W. Indies- fnitt
ta‘Pt.comm.
Bata, clt.t. Equatorial Guinea, W. Africa; s. 5,000
Batam, t., Philippine Is; plywoods and veneer,
pulp, paper: oil refining nearby; refining; p.
P.-
BaybOTtt Gtekey, p. (1960) 72.134: •
Bataband, t., Cuba; sponges; p. (1953) 5,075. 11.968.
Bay City, mftg. t, Mich.. D.S.A.; on Saginaw
E.. 108 m. N.W. of Detroit ; flsMng, ohe“k
Batavia, see Djakarta.
^ beet-sugar; p. (i960) 53,604. ‘-aeimeaia

Bataysk,
^^^(^960^1 t.. 5Rostov
21^ ’region, R.S.E.S.R.: riy. ents;
farm implem junc P-
taon:g^ and cattle, engin-.p. (1969) 52.000. TlofoULdd Central*
Honduras.l®^ America:
Batesar, t,
comm. otr. Agra dist., India; on the R. Jumna: Euatan ; coconut
tapX?®p. al6?io.d4f
s, bananas;•• p. (I96i)
Batesvffle, f.. Ark., 17.S.A.; marble, manganese: O|O0{7»
p. (1960) 6,109. Say ol Iriands, inlet and harbour on N.L. New
8u68J3iI1<1.
Batîlle, t., Ind., TT.S.A.; furniture; p. (1960) Bayombong. t. Philippine Is. ; p. (1948) 14.079
Bath, t, Maine. U.8.A.: on E. Kennebec: p Bayome, Jortfd.t. Basaes-PyrAnfes, S.W. Eran^;
cath. : noted for fine hams, invention of bayo-
(1960) 10,717. p net; aircraft: P. (1968) 42,748
Bath, c.. CO. bar., Somerset, Eng. ; Roman baths,
hot sprmgs, medicinal waters; fine Eegencv BaTOnne, N.J., TT.S.A. ; 6 in from New York-
architecture: univ.; elect, engin., metals and
limestone; p. (estd. 1967) 85,870. Bayport, i.. Minn,, U.S.A. ; on St. Croix E. ; state
Bathgate, burgh. West Lothian, Scot. ; 6 m. S. of
Linlithgow; ooal-mng,, quairying, metal, elec., Baroeuth, c.. Bavaria, S. Germany; home of
hosiery, cars; p. (1961) 12,688. Wagner ; famous for musical festivals^ In wane
-a.,magni-
flcmt 3.205textflea.
p. (1960) theatre;
prison; natioml .
Bathm'St, I., off coast of N. Terr..? Australia : porcelain,
30 m. long; Aborigines reserve: cypress pine
milling. e^.: p. (1968) 61,700.
Baytown, (., b.E. Texas, D.S.A. ; oil-wells, toluene
Bathurst, t„ IT.S.W., Australia; ctr. of pastoral, factory; p. (i960) 28,159.
a^., fruit district; brewing, hoots and shoes. Baza, f., S. Spain; W. of Lorca; lead, iron,
It. engm.. cement pipes; p. (1966) 17,220. _ merciOT, sugar: p. (1957) 23.450.
Bathmst, 8p., cap., Gambia, W. Africa; at month BsMhy Heaim 57yt.
headland S. Eng. high, on Sussex cst., loftiest
of Gambia E.; airport: groundnuts; p. (1963)
Beaconsfleld. t. Tasmania. Australia: on W. of
Batina, fertile coastal plain, Oman, Arabia; estuary of Tamar E. ; tin mining.
Beaconsfleld. urb. disk, Bucks., Eng.; residtl. -
^ produces early-ripening dates famous for flavour.
Batley, industl. t., mun. bor., W.R. Yorks, Eng •
heavy wooUens, shoddy; p. (estd. 1967) 41,160. Beaooiêia, t, C&pe Province, S. Africa; dia¬
Batoa, commune. Algeria; N. Africa; rly. to 10,019. wMux*.,
Biskra: p. 10,622. (1961)
p. L,
Bear Arctic Ocean ; 130 m. S. of Spltzhergen
Bear
monL., on hordCT ds. .
Baton Rouge, cap., Louisiana, tr.S.A. ; on Missis- of Idaho and Dtah, U.S..^
aippi R.; cotton seed, oll-reflnlng; p. (1960) N.W. Terr., Canada: outlet to
15St4di, ^kenzie E. through Great Bear E.; a
Battambang, prov., Cambodia; 180 m. IT.E. of 14.000 sq.m.
Beam. oW prov. now Basses-Pyr6n6es, Erance.
Pnom-P^; cotton mill; p. (1962) 551.860. HeMSdMi, barffh, Dunbarton. Soot.; p. (1961)
Battam I., Malay Arch. ; 20 m. S. of Singapore.
Battersea, see Wandsworth.
Batticaloa, t., cap.. E. Prov., Ceylon; p. 12,984. Boas’ (Bto), E,. Punjab. India; trib. of Sutlej E.;
Battle, f., rural dist.. Sussex, Eng.; battle of the " five
one deof Segura,
Hastings fought here 1066; p. (rural dist. 1961) Beas t, rivers.”
Spain; wine, oil. ftuits, flax;
p. 14,953.
Battle Qceek, c., Michigan, TT.S.A. ; oh Kalamazoo B^trice, health resort on Big Blue
30,558. '
t,
Battlelortt, «., t., Canada; P-
at (I960)
junctionddJdS.
of Battle Beattoch^ pass, 8. Uplands, Scot. ; gives access
from vaUey of R. Clyde to E. Annan; used by
R.(TOth S^tatchewan E, ; mixed farming; S®*- route from ft.
Carlisle to Glasgow
and Edinburgh; alt. 1,014
Battle
dor. Harbo’ur, ‘nr. Strait of Belle I.. Labra¬ k. Gard, Erance; noted fair; p. (1962)
Battle Mountain, t., Nev., TT.S.A. ; copper-mines
Batu Gajah, t., Malaya ; in valley Kinta E. ; tin- Bteuce,
mines; residtl.; p. (1947) 7,450. hranoe; noMtral division (“ pays ”), Central
low. level, plateau of limestone S.W.
Batu, L, E. Indies. Indonesia. o/Baris and E- Seine; arid, few surface streams;
Batumi, t.. spt., Georgian S.S.R.; oil. engin., tmn layer of loam (Ihuon) permits agr. ; impt.
mtrus fruits, tea: oil pipeline connects with wheat-growing area ; population mainly
Baku: p. (1969) 82.000. grouped in tee. -riis.
EEA-BEt. K19 GAZETTEER
Beauiort, L, S.C.. U.S.A.; S.W. of Charleston; Beerfliy Point, G., N.E. cst. Alaska. TT.S.A.
canning and shipping point for farming and Beemaning Mta., highest peak Blue Mtna,, N.S.W.,
fishing region; tourist ctr.; p. (1960) Australia; alt. 4,100 ft.
Beaufort West, Gipe Iôvince, S. Africa; Beenleigh,
Brisbane. t., Queensland. Australia; 24 m. S.
sheep, karatad; p. (i960) 16,323 inc. 5.2S7
whites.
Beerberg,
alt. 3.266highest
ft. mtn., TMringer 'Wald, Germany :
Beanjolais, France ; wine-growing dist.
BeauUen, par., Hants. Eng.: on Beaulieu E. ; Becrnem, t, W. Flanders. Belgium: P. (1962)
abbey; carnniseum; p. 1,201.
Beauly, B., Inverness, Scot.; flows to Beauly Beershoba, {., Israel ; ctr. for development of the
Loch. Eegev; p. (1953) over 20.000.
Beauly, 1., Invem^, Scot.; on Beauly E.: p. Bceskow, t, Germany ; on B. Spree.
S90. Beaton and Stapleford, urb. dist., Nottingham.
Beaumaris, mun. hor., wal. pi, cap. Anglesey, N. Eng.; engin., drugs, telephones; p. (estd.
Wales : on Menni Strait; cas., ruins; light 1967) 62,070.
engm.; p. (1961) 1,960. Beevills, c., Texas. TJ.S.A, ; mnfs. oilfield equlp-
Beaumont, e., E. Teraa, IJ..S.A.; lumbering, ment; oil-wells: p. (1960) 13,811.
petroleum; p. (1960) 119,175. Beg, L., Antrim. N. Ireland.
Beaune, t., Cote d’(3r, Erance; wines, casks, Bm, R., S. Hungary; canalised trib. to E.
farm implements; p. (1962) 15,882. X iSZ8i
BeausoleU, t., AJpes-lflaritime. France; p. (1962) B4g!es, 23.176.f,. Gironde, France; mftg.; p. (1954)
12,833.
Beauvais, t., cap., Oise. France; cath.; Gobelin, Briieira, prov.. Lower XJ.A.E., N.E. Africa; in
tapestry; p. (1962) 36,533. delta of Nile E.; cotton: a. 1,639 sq. m.; p.
Beaver, Jt„ Penns., Ohio, U.S.A- ; rises in Alleg¬ (1960) 1,685,679.
heny Plateau, flows N. towards L. Erie, turns Behistun,i.,lraq; in ruins; monuments of Darias
S.E. into E. Ohio just below Pittsburgh : valley the Great.
provides easiest route from Pittsburgh to L. Boilan, t. mtn. pass. Syria-S.W. Asia; E. of G. of
Erie pts.. contains many steel-mkg. ts., Youngs¬ Iskenderun; ancient Amanus of “Syrian
town, Newcastle, Warren ; length ISO m.
Beaver Dam, c., Wisconsin, 1J.S.A.; summer Beflngries, canal. t., Bavaria, Germany; on Ludwig’s
resort onL.; p. (1960) 13,118.
Beaver Falls, i., Penns.. tl.S.A. ; machin., pottery, Beilstein,
Gates.” t„ Germany; on E. Moseiie.
coal, natural gas; p. (1980) 16,240. Beira, spl., cap., prov. Manica and Sofala, Mozam¬
Boavar Meadows, bor., E. Penns., U.S.A. ; anthra¬ bique; airport; riy. runs inland to Salisbury
cite. textiles; p. (1960) 1,392. (Ehodesla) and Blantyre (Malawi); exp. sugar,
Beawar, t., Eajasthan. India; cotton; p. (1961) maize, cotton; oil pipeline to TJmtali; p. (1960)
53,931. 64,600 inc. 16,000 Europeans.
Beblngton, mun. bor., Chrahiie. Ena.: soap, Beirut, cap. Lebanon, S.W. Asia ; most Impt. spl
chemicals, engin.; p. (estd. 1967) 55,520. Syria and Lebanon; ancient historic t., now
Beoanoourt, L, Quebec, Canada; on S. bank of busy shipping and mercantile ctr, ; silk, wool
St. Lawrence; integrated steel mill projected. fruits; p. (estd 1964) 700,000.
Becoles, mtin. bor., Suffolk, Eng. ; printing, engin.. Beisan. (., Israel, in Jordan valley, c. 300 ft. below
malting; p. (estd. 1967) 7,850. sea level: archaeological finds date from c.
Bechar (CoIom-B6char). t., N.W. Algeria; ter¬ 1500 B.O.: rebuilt since 1948 by Iffaelis.
minus of rly. throu^ Oran dep.; p. (1960) Beit elFaki, f., Yemen, Arabia; coffee.
45,539. Beit Jala. 1, Jordan.
Bechnanaland, see Botswana. Beit Jibrin, L, Israel, in Judsean Hills.
Beckenham, former mun. bor., Kent, Eng., now ino. Beja, dut.. Portugal; pig-breeding dist.; cflive
oil, pottery; cath.; airfield under construc¬
in Bromley outer London bor. {q.v.'i; p. (1961)
77.265. tion for training of German pilots; p. (1960)
Beckley, c.. S.W. Va., XJ.S.A.; coal; p. (1960) 283,152.
18,642. Bejaia (Bougie), spL, Algeria; impt. tr. ctr.; exp.
Beofcnm, L, N. Ehine-Westphalia. Germany; wood, hides: oil pipe-line connection to Hassi-
cement, chatt. engin. wks.; p. (196S) 21,200. Messoud; p. (1954) 43,934.
Bedale, mkt. L, rural dist., N.E. Yorks. Eng.; at Bejar, 1, Spain; cloth; p. c. 13,000.
N. end of Vale of York; tent mkg.; p. (rural Bekes, t, Hungary: wheat: p. (1962) 24.100.
dist. 1961) S.215. B4k§scsaba, t., Hungary; mflliag: rly. junction;
Beddgelert, par., Caernarvon, Wales; resort; poultry proce®ing plant: p. (1962) 50,664.
slate. Belem Tsetkov, t. N. Dkrainian S.S.E, ; agr.
Bedflington and Wallington, mm. hor., Surrey, and comm. ctr. ; p. (1959) 71,000.
Eng. nr. Ckoydon; p. (1961) 32,588. Belbeis, L, dJlJB., N.E. AMca: agr. ctr. on W.
Bedford, mm. bor., Beds, Eng. ; on R. Ouse. 60 m. edge of cultivated Nile delta.
N. of London ; general ensdn. inc. marine and Belcher Is., two sm, groups in Hudson Bay.
dect., bricks, ironfounding, aero research: N.W. Terr., Canada.
p. (estd. 1967) 67,300. Belî%. 0., Mch., TIB A.; rilk millB; p. (1960)
Bedfordshire, S. Midland co., Eng.; eo. t. Bedford 4.887.
(g.v.); agr.. mkt. gardening, brittoikg., Belem, sub. of lisbou. Portugal: fine chunfli,
monastery.
cement, vehicles, engin.: a. 473 sq. m.: p,
(1966) 428,000. Bel&n, si^;.. cap. FarA st.. Brazil; comm. ctr.. eh.
Bedford, f., Indiana, ILSJl; p. (1960) 13,024. pt. of Amazon basin (rubber. Brazil nuts, cacao,
Bedford, t, Ohio. U.SA..; p. (1960) 15,223. timber); unlv.: p. (estd. 1968) 563,996.
Bedford Level, once over 400,000 acres of peat Helen* t.* ns.hn,Tnftrf*fl.. Aiêntina.
marsh in S. Fenland; first successful draining BSlep Arch., about 7 m. N.B. of New Oaledonia.
initiated by Earl of Bedford in 1634. Belfast, spl, co. bor., cap. N. Ireland: Antrim (and
Bedilngton, wrb. dist., Northumberland, Eng.; partlr Down), at head of Belfast Lough:
iron, coal; P- (estd. 1967) 30,S10. Britain’s test single shipyard; linen mnf., rope,
Bedloe’s L, or Liberty L, N.Y. harbour, TJ.S.A.; tobacco. dUstflling. aircraft, fertilisers, com-
on whidi statue of Liberty stands. puton: oil refinery on E. side of harbour:
Bedminster, 1. Somerset, Eng. ; sub. of BristoL univ.; Houses of Parliament, Stormont Cas.;
Bedonrie, f., Queensland, Australia. p. (estd. 1968) 391,000.
BediaSbem, t., TJ~A.!^. N.B. Africa; on E. Nile. Belfast, t.. Maine, D.S.A.; p. (1960) 6.140.
Bedwas and Machen, w6.cifef.. Mon.. Wales; gas, Beifodlo, f,, Ethiopia : nr. border with Sudan.
coal and coke by-prods.; p. (1961) 10,231;. Belford, "mwd disS.. Northumberland. Eng. ; agr.,
Bedw^tytUrh. dist., Mon., Wales; coaL iron, elec. whinstone quanying; p. (1961) 4,994.
Mods, oar upholstery; p. (1961) 27^86. Belfort, fortress t., Belfort, France; between Jura
Bedworth, wb. dM-. Warwick.. Eng.: coal-nmg., and the Vosges; heavy lads., rly. wks., am.
limestone quarrying, engin., textiles; p. (estd. eottan tad- ; p. (1962) 51,230.
1967) S9JG0. Belfort, dep., France; ch. t.. Belfort; a. 235 sq,
Bedzin, t.. S. Poland: coal, zinc, metals, ohmmcals m.; p. (1968) 118.450.
bricks, sugar-beet; p. (1965) 42,000. Brigaum, t., Mysore, India: cotton: p. (196D
Beeriworth, f„ Victoria. Australia ; gold, pastoral 126,727.
and agr. Belgian Congo. See Congo.
gazetteer
BEX.-BEN
cltoate temperate;
Meuse: races: Hemkh,
„ P. (1961) 205.700.
• T> langu^ Catholic ; ch. inds. E-reS
; Hemlsh. : agr..
sugar-beet, potatoes, cattle, pigs,
coal; nmfis. : Iroa and steel TSefeS/a.'''®-'*-' “sort. saiM!
metals, sMpbldg., teitfles. ctr, of^. coalMd; p, (1969)9.678.
brCTung, distill^; exp. nmf.
mmiiattons : rafl, road, canal; cap. goods: com-
BrusselsLi^ge.
; ch.
Brussels. Ghent. Belmont, <., Mass., Province.
tt^riey?’^® ir.S.A.; S.
p. Africa;
(i960) 2366776
m. S. of
Jjouvain. a. 11.766 sa. m.; p. (1968)5,660,000.
Belo Hqitont N,0.. IT.SA.;
e, f.. p. (I960) sfoo” Brazil-
cap. Mnas
Belgor^, Kursk, E.SJ'.SJB.; S.
P* <1969) 71,000. jmpt. inland a; ctr. rich agr. andGerais,
mm
Belgorod-Dnôvski, t.. Ukraine. TJ.S.S.E.: st^l mills, food inds., textiles, diamond cuttini?"
P- Beloit, c.. Wisconsin. TT.S.A.; on Book

(195^ 2J^6w
® {Beograd), mp. c.. Jugoslavia; at&uit!
'^^*^ iunc. of E.. diesel
bave and_ Danube: univ.: nmfs. tobacco, lIloAoH^® Cuanabara; p. (mw!i96^|
-woollens, aircraft; p. (1964) 678.000. BelMt, c., Eto.,impleme p. (i960) 32346*
XJ.SAl.; on Solomon fe • *^*
nts; tr
?‘S'' P- <1960)on 2.S88.
Pamlico Sound; qtr. for agr. region; p. (1960) 3.837 ‘
B^tnng or BilUton* I. Between Sumatra and
« jLUiStOiO^
P* Indonesia; tin; a. 1.866 sa. m.: S'tomic power sta. in
Central America; 160
F, N-B. atGuatemala
A. into G. of Honduras B. and flows ^®zto!’engi^'
Helper, ttrS. P.ÎOOT) E'5,iMi'o.‘®‘*
Derby. Eng.; hosiery textiles
t., cap., British Honduras. Central America ; ctrait, Denmark; separates Ejn i
i^cwany, dyewoods. bananas; almost de¬
Jff®‘’*''uter channel too wind¬
voted by hurriê 81 Oct. 1961; cap. to be ing for easy navigation; crossed by train fS
at its narrowest point (16 m.) between NyS
“■ Maud; p.
(196W sl sll^
^®bo£'’ <?®ada ; in Conception
F" Johns: impt. Wabana
irompre deposits outcrop on N.W. cst.. HTT»»i(-.sd o uPProx. length 37 m. ®
OP Bictou coalfielA Nova Scotia: a. 12 sa. m.:
_ P- of Wabana (1966) 7,873. Bay. BeWerra, dM.
Pard, st.. N.E. Brazil; on E
^n’
Belt t.. Cal,. H.S.A.: Canada: flows N. into James (tepaioz, 30 m. S. of influence with E. Amazon
realdtl. c. 6 m. S. of Los
Aêa: p. (1960) wm.
■“®B W, pt.. Tasmania. Australia; on right bank Îgitarem; a. 950 sa. m.; known as Pord-
of Tamar E. ; modem pt. and site of aluminium
refinery.
Bell Eo^ Scot.; famous rock and lighthouse 12
Eme; r(196
distflhng; ^yan.
p. (1961)
^1SÎ Ireland;
1.152.
:®-®- on E.
' Of Dniester
^ S.E. of ArbroatA ®E^*|
Bembrid ge. »«. I of Wight. Eng.; resort.
Bellapo, (., Italy; on L. Como; resort.
Boto^ mfio. t. Ohio. U.8.A. on Ohio E.; coal,
êstone, glass, enamelware; p. (1960) 12.502, yachting;
Bemflc^ p. 2,975
Angola. (par.).
W, Africa; oflflelds. •
of^’/°’^*^*®-ôre.India; cotton: p.(1961)
^5%o73,i Ji-S.A. ; lumber, cement,
bricta, woollen goods; resort; p. (i960) 9.958
Bmmanagh, N. Ireland; ^“.. Grampian Eange, Scot.; m.
on Bme B. ; china; p. 1.300.
BeUefontatoe Ohio. U.SJL; agr. ctr.. light
P- (1960) 11,484. nOn., Boss and Inverness. Scot. ur.
wu.,; alt.
Loch Erich; ait. 3.767 ft.
BellefMte. bar.. Perms., U.SJl.; HnnPflftft-n». Ben Avon, nOa.. Aberdeen. Scot. ; alt. 8.834 ft,
Befle Pouroho, fc. SJl.. 6,0 ; on Befle nmeBu
U.SA. 33. me (Suuuhan, mU., Argyll. Scot.; alt, 8.689 ft.
auagrtes; p, {I960) Fourohe
w hricks, dairy produce ; p.
Ben Hope, mtn., Sutherland. Scot. ; alt. 8.040 ft.
^ tSt^°628 ft’^ Doireann. min., Argyll, Soot.:
P“ si^Plne route to B®u

Canada from Europe. Anstraiin alt* 2,875 lu Perth. Scot. ; N.W. of Callander;
Ben Lomond, mtn., Stirling. Scot. ; E. side of L.
BellevUl^ c Queens'S;
Ontano. Canada; dairying, _ Lomond: alt. 8,192 ft.
fruit: Ben Lomond, mt«.. New England range, N.S.W..
3^63* Of white marble nearby; p. (1961) _ Australia; alt. 6,000 ft.
Belleville, t., HI., II.S.A. ; brewing, iron founding Bra Lomond, Tasmania, Australia; alt,
flour; p. (I960) 37,;»d. ,
wolft^mlned on 8.B. slopes.
Belleville, t..dSr.J., D'.SA-; p. (1960) 35,005. Ben Macdhul, rata.. S.W. Aberdera. Scot.;
Bellevue, t,. Ohi^ HB.A. ; limestone, farm imple- eecond highest peak In Brit. Is.;
ments, car parts: p. (1960) 3,232, alt. 4,296 ft.
P- (I960) 11.418. Ben More, n^, S.W. Perth. Scot. ; 10 m. W.
BeUevne. f. Qu^nsland, Australia; goldflelds. of Loch E^; aft. 8.848 ft.; also mtns.
BeUay, i.. Ain, Pran^; p. (1962) 6.442, in Sutherland, Hebrides and L of MnU.
Beimower. L. Cal., HBA..; p. (1960) 44,848. Bra Nevis, mtn., Invemesa. Scot. ; at Loohiel;
Bemn|hM, rural dist., Hexham, No^^ber- _ hlgtot peak In Brit. Mes. alt. 4,406 ft.
_ tod. Eng,; coal; p. (1961) A255. Ben Nevis, !»(»., Otago. New ZSatod: alt.
Bemnghann t. pd.. Wash,, lf.S.A.; saw-mills. 9,126 ft.
paper-miUs. salmon canning; p, (i960) 34.688. Benalt.Nevis,
BOTun^ha TMen, 8.910 mtn,,
ft. Cornwall. Tasmania, Australia:
V~rtyinfl,TTH Xi&lld. seo, S. Antarctic; lying w. of
Braalt.Venue,
2.303 nOn.,
ft. nr. Loch Kattlne. Perth, Soot. ;
BeUmaopa, «.. Switzerland ; on B. Ticino ; 14 m
N. of Lugano; three castles bnilt on hUls Bra Vorlich. nOn., Perth, Soot. ; alt. 3.224 ft.
- domtoa^t.: P. (1967) 12,060. Bra Wyvls, mtn.. Boss. Scot.; nr- Dingwall; aft.
Bellot Sfralt.ânnel on Arctio coast. H. Amanov. . 8,429 ft.
^*Mparates
P™196 Boothia and N. Somerset. * BenaUa, t,, diet, Victoria, Australia ; pastoral and
BsUpws 1)
BÛSf Vt„ U.S.A., on CoDoeotlcut. agr^ : p. (1961) 3,433.
_ paper, fiurm Implementa; p, (i960) 3,882. E. • Benares, sea TaianasL
Brabeonla
a,86sa.m. L, Outer Hebrides, ItiTerneas. Scot.:
GAZETTEER
^*1961?(t3 p. {eatd. jBemî fOsaipCTakb '_.. Ubrai'iii^ S.S.E.; ctr. of

Benito, c.. Victoria, AiMtmlia; former gold- Bercib-pfi^fOTT’Vi.’ France^’ onÊn/'^C^Siael-
mining dist„ emim., brickwks., wool, proces
encalmtus p. (19S2) (Osipenko),
sing; IS 543 '
apf,. TJkrainian S.S.E.; on
Benevento, pwi.. Italy; a. S19 sq. m.. containing ISi?!
many Homan remains: P. (1961) 297,133. p. (1959) 65 WO ou renntng.
leather: p. (1961) Berea. N bhio. tr.S.A.; sandstone anarriaa,
Benfleet, «ih. dist., Essex, Eng.: sawmills. Joinery Bare Re^,
wks.. I^ht mds.; p. (estd. 1967) «,S90. Berezina, B.. U.S.S.B.T trib Dnieper-Moetow: French
iSgth
(1961) 34,926,279; nce, oilseeds, sugar cane, 350 m.
tobacco, jute, silk, tea, coal, mesta, potatoes: BerezniM, (.. R.a.p.s.'R Rnit. oPf-micoio nanaf
rlys. ; Ganges alluvial plains and p. imh istow. cEemieais. Paper,
sewed ch. 3c,st.Calcutta
delta; by which adjoins jnte manuf. Berga, t, Spain; medieval caa.: p. (1957) S 023
(Bôrmer prov. of Bengal spUt Bergama: („ Tilrkey: aSt PergamS, ratas-
Pakistan).
1947— W. Bengal to India, E. Bengal to Bergamo, p. (i960)c..21,7 97. ruins. ;
Lombardy, Italy ; 34 m. H-E. mpati
Bsâl, Bay oi, part of Indian Ocean washing B. line cath. and arademy; silk industry: p.
*qres of **^,**4.
India and W. shores oiiWica ofKfl the
tiilK Indo-
XJJIUU-
(1961)115,512.
KJ.V01)
Uiinese Peninsula; receive waters of Es. Bergedorf, U Q^mimy: sub. of Hamburg*
on
n Bratopntra, Irrawaddy. E. Bll^ ; rfass. leathw : p. IS.sfl
® iripoU: former starting- comm.pt. m kingdom: shipping, .nniv.:
fishing: mftg.
mostimpt.
point for caravans to Egypt and the interior; mds.: p. (1968) 116,794.
cereals: p. (estd. 1954) 71,000. Bergenfleld, t. N. J.. O.S.A. ; clothing. light mn&.,
Bongore Head, O.. Antrim, N. coast Mand; E. pianos: P. (1960) 27.203.
of Giant’s Causeway. Bergen op 2!oom, c.. N. Brabant, Netherlands:
’ ’ k*-.? ’P; " rijf . riuia nuajiu. sugar-oeec: p. (19B7J .Jff.Iijd.
Benguela, c., Angola, 8.W. Africa; rly. runs inland sugar-beet: p. (1967) 3S.IS5.
Dordotme, Prance; on E. Dordogne
sugar: P. (1960) 52.800 ine. lljibo whites. grain, wine: ancient Huguenot stronghold; ik
Beima, t., U.A.E.; impt. mtt. t.. rail and road (1962) 25,971
ctr. to heart of cultivated a. of Nile delta. Bereiach-Gladbaoh, (., N. Bhine-Westphalia,
Benholm, par., Klinoardine, Scot. : ancient cas. ; Germany: E. of Cologne; paper, metaJlnrgy,
p. (1951) 1,028. textile; p. (1963) 44,500.
non) c . . p. (looat 44,500.
^ g^»Kl-.mostW.oftheAleutianIs..N.America.
BeniSr^’ibjS’ ®
Benlcarlo, spt., Valencia,, Spain: on Mediter- part Of N. Pac. Oo. between Aleutian
Is. and Bering Sb^t, upwards of 1,600 sq:. m.
fishing.
ranean cst.: wes: nuicD, p.u. (1957) 9,385.
tf.fjoo. nsmng.
Bering Strait, ncarrow sea which separates Asia
„ fromN. America; S6m. wide at narrowest part.
cprpprated in Nigeria; palm prod, and food¬ ocean current, N. Pac. Oo.; flows through
stuffs;
Benm. famous A&lcan bronze ctr.; ch. t. Bering Strait from Arctic, along E. cat. of
Kairtchatka and Jatâuese Ib. Hokkaido, Hon*
Bento, t.. Nigeria: W. Africa: cap. md-West shu; relatively cold: moderate summer tem¬
retoqn; palm oil. mahogany; p. (1953) peratures along cst. causes fo^
Kdnnn - — ^ vai.a*/uico aauiuf ust. causes lo^
Be^. Bight of. part of G. of Guto^"w: A, Almeria, Spain; wine and fruit; p. (1957)
carpets, cotton; p. (i960) 79,000.
f?onm®yo ^ - 2rt 6to»cester.
m. S. ofUSlmrpness; Eng.;
WWWWOOUUA, JUJ.A6.,
civil m. H.
XU. JtlP.
nuclear Severn.
oovom*
power-sta.
Benknien, wt, Sumatra. Indonesia ; p. 13,418. Berkeley, c..CaL,U.S. A.: univ.; p. (1960) 111,265.
' ■ ’ Sharpness on S. side Severn ûarr ^th
alt. 686 ft .
Bennettsville, i., S.O., TT-SA. ; yam, tyre Itotogs, Gloucester; navigable only for small coast^
lumber: p. (1960) 6,983. vessels; opened 1827; length 16 m., depth
Bennington, t., Vt.. D.S.A.; _p. (1960) 8.023.
Berkhampstead (Beikhamsted). urb. did.. Herts.
B. ,1. aid f J
mdustl. A: êrto^machto.; v. 25,929. (1960)25,275. B-
Bemherg,
10 m. &Oin Golosme:Eê-Westphali
Cologne; iron-mminsr. a, foundries;
Gerr^y ; Beikshire.
fAnnfIrJftfl* Ttaae*nv% rv^n-o. ji _tocludtog
*— ^ by ri^_ .iT--
iron-mtoi^ Beacon, co., Eng.Horse
White ; downland
Hills, drained Thames
Inkpen
p. (1963) 33,400. and tiibB., Kennet, Cole, Pmig : wooded; agr. ;
Bensheim, A. Hessen, Germany; cfr. of fruit and oats, dairying; biscuits: cat Heading ; a. 725
textiles, paper, metallurgy: p. sq. m.; p. (1966) 5861)00.
(1963) 84.800. Berlto, c., former cap. of Germany; on B. Spree;
Bentang (Btotang). A. Kalimantan, Indonesia. fourth o. on continent of Bur(®e for population:
Bentley with Arksey, mb. dist., WJA yorks. enclave withto Bast (Germany; divided 1045
Eng.; p. (estd. 1967) 23 MO. into 4 occupation zones: Soriet Berlto.
Benton, A. ^k.. H.S-A.; p. (i960) I0M9. p. 1,082,349), British. Amêan and French
Bmiton, A, Hh. UB-A.; p. (1960) 7,023. (West Berlto. p. 24^1,441): total a. 890 sq.km.;
Benton Bfarbor, A, Iffioh.. XJ.S-A.; midway along tods, include elec, goods, optical and chamical
E. cst. L. Michl^; p. (I960) 19J3S. prod., ftffniture, paper, foodstuffs, textile*,
Benue, B.. W. Africa ; chief trib. of Ni^. maohto., publishing and printing; gr. nkitecto.
(each occupying force has an airfield).
BOTvreto^, Northumberland, Eng. ; sub. of Beorfin, A, New HanawMre. HSto..; p. (i960)
Ben-y-CHoe, XT,821»
8.671 ft. mtn,, Glen Tilt, Perth, ScoA ; alt. Beimejo. A, Tarija dep., Bolivia; oiL
Beograd, see Belgrade _ Beitoejo
ooimejo B., irw,
W6. E. Parana, Aigenttoa.
H. Parana, Ar^ttoa.
(19o5} 118^38.
(1966) 118M8. /lAJSiyii TO ITT-Tf
resort: p. Beimeo, spA. Spain; nr. Bilbao, Bay of BJsoay;
fishing: p. (1957) 12B17. *
Berat.c..
oo™, c.. Albania:
,Mi»ma;p.p. (1946)
(1946) 11.572.
11,572. f BemKHiasw, see Sontoratk. iiiinriiMjja Ul
BetDera, pA.Sfanalia, N.E. Africa: onG. of Aden: I Bermuda, BriA group coral islands (860 to
fOFdCP winter Cftn. nf Tlr ‘prrkf. • 1 nnmber
rknmKawof -nT'K«#i.lt
which OA 20 Ama.
are inhabited) V N.
XT Atfimtic;
A Al _ XJ _
former winter
exporte cap. from
livestock of*Br.pastoral
Smoalilaiid Prot.l
hinterland: about 600 miles B. of S.0araUna,IlB.A.; total
^ new deep-sea pt. complete 1969; airpt. area 21 sq. m.; Hamilton, on Long Island is
BOTolce, CO., Guyana, S. America; bauxite; p. the ch. t.: British and XTB. air and naval
(1946) 96,623. stations; favourite winter resort for Americans;
GAZETTEE
R
BER-BIA
Betws-y-Coed, urb. dist., Caemanr
toff nn
Tumi
-nr 1,
tounst and artists’ resort: ^
Bermudez
a. 2 sq., m.asphalt lake, Venezuela, S. America;
vaials, Switzerland°5® S- of
; highest point 11,116 ft. ; "’feâ
height of mta, pass between Italy and Switzer¬ eo'’ “™*'' “»• of J™. to;
land, 8,120 ft.; famous hospice for travellers in
monastery ot mtn. Great St. Bernard road Beuthen, see Bytom.
tunnel, see K146.
St., one of Graian Alps, Savoy S. P. (1963) 33.000.
“'’.“ofurmtare;
ûemicais “» "w
Hannibal 218 n.o.
tL !v. in??®’ pass traversed by
^S'hoe; horse fair; dairying,
clqthmg mftg., soap; p. (1962) 10,113.
Bembmg, t., Halle, 35. Germany; oas. ; chemicals,
machin.; p. (1963)44,735.
Berne, c., cap can. Beme and fed. cap. Switzer
i)io
lmwatches: li fertfle^-
Switzerland; M. - dairy®
vaDeys. ^®3ofil7.™®’ *■' U.S.A.; p. (iggo)
Ing, tourist district; a. 2,657 sq.m
„ P. (1961) SS9.SSS.
Bernese Cfterl^d, Switzerland ; Alpine region
: eh.
Jungfrau ; resorts: Inta- XSVllOCT «S“' =*■
imfdS*'
“»•
EugJ P. (estd.
®™KfelwaId : summer and winter ctrs.
® G^t^^'roU^
* ?«»»Bohemia,
®»J®J*«-J,witesrland ; alt. 13,300 ft : fngfî
Berom, CSSR.; textiles, sugar ref.,
Ra^/^h Pp®*’,
Bern, t., S. Austria:ôo* !?“0®fone: p, (1961) 13,597.
a., on Murray E. ctr, of irrigated fruit-growing
Beral, oilfleU. Saudi Arabia: 46 m. H.W a966fiV
of Eas if-S-A.: p.Cra
l3;o°00*^ ®^-^°^
yforda
(I960) ndErEh: p
14M9.
famous wines. Be^ln,

1960) dj« of Istanbul
quarto of European°“®°®P0ras Strait: p.resMH
, Turkey*
s ; p (1945) 234
(estd.
Berôk, manhme oo.. 8.E. of Scot. ; oo. t. Duns Tuxke^65S.To fAlSa; rice
hWy; agr.: sheep, cattle; woollens, fishing,;
»• (1961) 22.441. Beysfflhlr,cotton
B.. Turkey: 25m.3.3
: P. (I960) 33.
long* ’
alt vnastt
iaSA" = fPsed with Bnsrnki^.)

H-S-A.; p. (1960) 34,324.
^ Si
mid-Wal es; alt. of highest ch^C^*s:^^^’962)
Bezwade, see Vijyavada. 7^^.* ^™®6y;
B^Mcon, t., Doubs, Erance; observatory* ®S;T(l®|-.&‘^= onSeineE.: light
imv. : fam Implements, textiles ; watch-
and
P; (1968) 113.314. Irrawaddy;
Be^ti^, now Besiktas, dist. and sub., Istanbul
»
Poland. 'Ozechoslo-
P* (1950) S3,Sn. of Carpathian
mtn. system, seldom exceeds alt 4 OOO
ft
manypaêa; forested; length 200m
o-
Eaiasthan. India; cloth; p. (1961)
‘^* Newry S'! p®(T96D37^ff®=
Slfl;.^196^Sk^- ^^“
®1S®P. (i9aTf>i|[““' coal-mining, steel.
^
P* ^ a. 4,652Hooghly:
® P^fe) 14lba“^"^’ onE. sq. m.;
cotton, silkand
Bemikl, mmnta%nous prop. E. Jam Indones
ia ^J(a; steel plant;
Betom^, t., Siiam; wine: p. (1957) lo 824 ’
Rwfi? (1961) 173.473.
®®Sm missiom
Betow, • now “ "f “Of”
ry xhodern
sta., S.W. Africa; p o
344 m.
Beitin ? MnfT
”' '“«> of mm. i.
Bhr^
«il?^.rS-ag»i?V
dM„ Maharashtra, Inifia; a. 4,268 so, m."
Betoeh^t. (>^ |fro^TO.S.AWai; rich farming
^ = P- > 4.001,433,
®P®a*^’ cap. Bhir, 190^!
R«?h=.ô‘ ^ 11.952 me. 4.003 P-whites.
(1960)33,537. PCttons; p. (1961) 33,134.
Bethowla, w6. di^, Oaemarvon, Wales:
Sate
h^tengin.;
"CJhlMMn, 4.131.
p. (1961) 6i * im£t’ P®®” .Ôiya Pradesh. India;
A, Jordan; m. S.W, Jeniaalpm-
li®61) yas;
Himala 133,374.
f- cap, Thimphn;
“^Christ:U-Sui.;
m (1961)60 15.777?
m. N, of Phila-
^ ’
PP??*
forests; a, .) lao.
“illet.
(approx lice.sq.dW;
is.OOO m.;
first motor road link with India consti. 1960-2 ;
p. scattoad and nomadic , c. 730,000,
Beth^da, ancient vll. on W. side of Sea
Galilee. Israel. S.W. Asia. of
Be^hemesh. t.. Israel. 8.W. AMa; 24 m. W of Africa; bay lying E. of the G.
"uhiôlosical^ ^ BiaIa.^rakowi^
ri«£,^?p£?
tod; agr.. between the
eovmime,
tr. ctr.. BTigerKrakow
cattle, and Capedep;.
Xopez.
^-
textiles.
2^54 OK- salt, coal; c., N.W. Poland; formerly In Germany;
iiMt- «“ ‘»™“: prov,.transport

.indnsU. and ctr
B. Poland; cap. . ,
9.021 sq. m.; p. (1965) 1.160,000. Bialystok; a.
BIA-BIS
Tn7Sf99nfKfffi
Eiba-E^ûbra, t., XJ.A.E., N.B. Africa; on Nfle;

®®*^®P“Wartteinbei^, Gennany; on
P.’ (1M3)mb.Mj6o7°
Bicester, ’
dist.. Oxford. Enjr • rlr limctirm- k" Y-Ashing, VT«W.
tourist otr.. r.S.
lace; p. (isei) S.m. P. (10501 44,033.
TO5f e5“-"^- ““<”»"■• »

°»Sffeai
Biddulph , urb. dist., Stafford. Eng.; nr. LeeE; i
1 TirioJ-’
iu,44b. Befel*™: iace. ciothing; p. rcattip
(19«2)
p. (1961) ei.2m. (•>„2f.S.W., Austmlia; wool, 'êat
(At i3^0^'^ -' ^°*“***

Biefeya-
tn^p.- perkOT, Utaine. O.S.S.R.; on tiib.
P ^ser. grain;
BielefeSa, t, Ehine-Westphalia. Qenaany;
ch.
{1968Ti&3™‘^“*’^^' Hiachin.. bloyeles; p.
Italy; textiles; p. (1961) 50,209.
cleisKo-Biala, t, Katowice prov.. Poland; wool
Rf™ “1*^* 'Âem.; p. (loes) 82.000.
!ô tto”m^°* ” refln

fngL..
Bieime, N.E. Nendhatel, Switzerland.
rm,m}
between N, 04 ■Si‘^ • , tjaujLxias,
i^®tAerlanda ; sngBr refining. n" fenrtfisoom.
^ Andes, flows K.W.
„,aa|pdng ; a. 56 w. m. CMe; cap. Lra Abides; a.
is Of MMppi, IT.S.A. 4,342 sa. m.; p. (i960} 179.984.
w, depcHit
Onio R, iocahtv N. Ky.. 11.8. A.; B. of
of fojsil mammotlt
Scot.; in S. Upb-nds.
10 m. 8.B. of Lanark; p. (1961) 1J03.
Biggarsbei^^fMi^., S. A&ica; of
iPlgfj^feoosbeig. highest point. Indmneni.
BMâde, tir6. d«., Beds. Eng.; In yalley of
^ ® S.B, of Bedford ; etr. of flmit-
gardening dist.; hydianUc
® : Rockies ;
hêst alt., 12,000 ft.
Bi^Hom, R., Wyo., IJ.S.A.; trib. of YeBow-etone
Bihar, stee, jtodian Ûnion;

?• P- (1059) M.OOO.
a. 67.196 sa. m.:
e^. Itona_ (a.tj.) : ch. E., Glaiiges; agr,: rice
wheat, maize, angar-cane, tobacco, oil-«6«!s
iron and:
^^5 0% Baraimi; p. (1961)

|(J6» dfej.. Angola (Port. W. Afiica).
Bihor Mtas., Eomania.
Blisk, c.. Siber^ U.S.S.B.; p. (1967) 170.000.
qm’i 78,854.
(1961) h cotton; ruins; ■ p.
Biieljina. JugoMayia; p. (1959) 18,000.
f- (1961) S3,ffl0.
„ wood,fa^; p. (1969) 41j000.
Biklm, ed<^ JPaciho ()oean; scene of atomic- Bto, mM. R wb. mt, Offaly. Ireland ; on Little
,bomb tests. Broma E.; farming; observatory; p. (1966)
BiMgrar, t., Madhya Pradesh, India; giOra cot¬ O,i}Q0»
P.J1961) 86,706.
tons; «pt., • ’- oimeJos. libya, Africa; 120 m, S.W. Prfpcdi;
Bimo, N. Spain: cap. Basane prov. of
Vlseaya; formerly famous for rapier making; Blsbee, t., Ariaina, U.S.A. ; very rich copper
raaelting; pipeline from Ayolnengo deposits, gold, silver, lead; p. (1960) 9,850.
constnmtton; p. (1965) 356,000. Blscaro^ Landes. Prance; 45 m-S-W, Bordeaux:
Bhaoik. «., p, 11960) 7,535. testing range projected;
BilinE^ c., Bohemia, CSSE.; wat. pL, mineral P« (1962} 0^336,
spimgs: p. (1961) 20.394. Biscay^ Vissca^Ta.
Biông, fi.. NB.W-, Australia. Blscw. Bay oL stormy a. of the AtL W. of I^nee
BlfiOTMy, mm. bar., Essex. Eng.; lost land and and IN. of Spain, from Ushant to a Ort^;
tadlviduallty to Basildon, the Eoman Sinus Aatdtanicus; heavy seas.
Bliimge and Winstanley, vsrh. dist., Tanna. Eng.: *P(* • -^Pclia. Italy; on E. ost. 23 m.
coal bricks; p. (1961) 6,941. ^ H.W. of Bari; fishing; p. (1901) 41,451.
BlA-BiS K23 gazetteer
Bialystok, L, Poland: cap. of Bialystok proT., i BUUngbam, t., wb. dUt, Durham. Eng.; on N.
nr. Grodno; engin., textiles, chemicals, saw- ! of Tees estuary; chemicals, shipbldg. and re¬
raUUng; p. (1065) 188,000. pairing. iron and steel, plastics, fertillsara:
Biancaxllla, t, Sicily. Italy; oranges. oil refinery; p. (1961) 32,130.
Biarritz, t , Basses-PyrSnS^ Pran(»; on Bay of Billings, t., Montana, D.8.A. ; cattle-ratefng.
Biscay: seaside resort: p. (1002) SS,514. wool; p. {I960) 5S.S51.
Eiba-El-Knbra, t., XT.A.E.. N.E. Africa: on Nfle; Billingsgate, London, Eng,; old river-gate and
p. 1,000. wharf, now chief fish mkt. of England.
Biheraoh, t, Baden-Wftrttemberg, Germany; on Billiton (Beiituttgi I., Indonesia ; tin.
E. Eiss ; spa : wood, metal and engin. inds. ; BUma, oasis, Niger, W. Africa: p. 1,000.
p. (1903) 23,100. Biloxi, t., Dliss.. U.S.A.; fishing, tourist ctr.. D.S.
Bicester, urb. dist.. Oxford. Eng.; rly. ianction; Air Force base; p. {I960) 44,053.
lace: p. (1961) 5,513. Bilsen, (., Belgium: mkt. ctr. for fruit growing
Bida, I., N. Nigeria, W. Afirica ; p. 10,000. area: p. (1962) 6,517.
Bidassoa, B., on Spanish-French frontier. Bilston, former mmi. bor., Stafford, Eng. : ateorbed
Biddeford, c., Maine, U.S.A.; cotton mnf.; re¬ in Wolverhampton co. bor. (1968); mkt.: p.
sort; p. (1960) 19.255. (1981) 33.077.
Biddulph, urb. dist.. Stafford, Eng.; nr. Leek; Bima, t., Sumbawa, Indonesia.
coal mng., machln., textiles, fiirmtnre; p. Binah, t., Azerbaijan. Perala ; nr. L. Urmia.
(1061) 14.060. Binalbagan. t., Negros L, Philippine Is.; sugar.
BideJord, mun. bor., N. Devon, Eng.: on E. Blnan, t., Luzon, Philippine Is.
Torridge; ropes, sails, boat bldg., glove mkg.; Binatônan, I, Luzon, Philippine Is.
p. (estd. 1907) 10,850. Binche, t., Belgium: lace, clotliing; p. (1962)
Blebrlch, t. Germany ; on EMne ; dyes ; p. 19,504. 10,426. [cattle.
Biel (Bienne), t.. Berne, Switzerland; watches; Bingara, t., N.S.W.. Australia; wool, wheat,
p. (1961) 61.200. Bingen, t, Bhineland Palatinate, Germany; on
Bielawa, t. Wroclaw prov., S.W. Poland; tex¬ Ehine E. ; at S. entrance to Bhlne gorge;
tiles: p. (1965) 31,000. wine; beautiful scenery; p. (1963) 20,500.
Blelaya-Tserkov, t, tJkralne. 1J.S.S.E.; on trib. Blngervllis, spt.. Ivory Coast, W. Africa.
of Dnieper E. : fairs, tr. in cattle, beer, grain : Bingham, rural dist.; Notts., agr.; p. (1961)
p. 54,000. 25,145.
Bielefeld, t. Ehine-Westphalia, Germany; ch, Bingham Camon, f„ N. Utah. U.SA„; copper.
ctr. of linen indnstry; machin., bicycle; p. silver, gold, lead; p. (1960) 1,575.
(1968) 168,783. Binghamton, N.Y., U.S.A. ; on Sasduehanna R. :
BleUa.(., Novara, Italy; textiles: p, (1961) 50,209, boot factories; p. (1960) 75,941.
Bielsko-Eiala, t, Katowice prov.. Poland: wool¬ Bingley, «r&. diai., mM. t.. W.B. Yorks, Eng. ; on
lens. linen, metal, chem.: p. (1965) 82,000. E, Aire. 16 m. N.W. of Leeds; textiles, engin.,
Bien-hos, i., nr. Saigon, S. Viat-Nam ; sugar refin¬ agr.; p. Cestd. 1987) 24.590.
ing; cotton mills. BIngol-dag, mtm., Tarkey; S. of Erzomm;
Bienne, L., N.E. Neuchatel, Switzerland. highest peak 12,810 ft.
Bierley, par., W. Biding, Yorks, Bag.; coal, Bintang L, largest laiaaid <rf the Etouw Archi¬
iron : p. 16J000. pelago, Indonesia: bauxite.
Biss-Bosob, reclaimed fenland area between N. Bio-Bio, B., Chile ; rises in Andes, flows N.W.
Brabant and S.W. Netherlands ; sugar refining, to Pac. Oc. at TMcrdiuano: length 800 m.
dairying ; a. 55 sa. m. Bio-Bio, prov.. Chile; <»p. Los Angete; a.
Big Black, B., trib. of Missfesippi, TJB A.. 4.842 so. m.; P. (1960) 179,984.
Big Bona Udr, Uxxditv, N. Ky., irB.A.; B. of Birata£«ar. t., 8.E. Nepal, in the fiterai; iute,
Ohio E. ; deposit of fossil mammoth. sugar, cotton milling, stainless sted; p. (1961)
Biggar, burah, Lanark. Scot.; in S. Dplands. 33.293.
10 m. S.B. of Lanark; p. (1961) 1,403. Birbhum, dial., W. Bengal. India; <»p. Sari:
Blggarsberg, mtns., Natai, S. Africa; branch of healthy cUmate: ri<», sugar: mnfs. silk, cotton;
the Drakensbe^, hjgh^ point, Indiimmii. a. 1,757 sa. m.: p. (1981) 1,446.138.
7.200 ft. Birolrmgton, t., K®at. Bng.
Btegdeswade, nrb. dist, Beds, Eng. ; in valley of Blrdsboro. bor.. Penns.. U.S JL. ; on Schuylkffl B. ;
E. Ouse, 9 m. 8.B. of Bedford ; ctr. of firait- coal, stel; p. (1960) 3,025.
growing and mkt. gardening dist.: hydraulic Birfcid, t.. Dam; p. 25,000.
machin. tools, hosiery, caravans; p. (1961) 8.047. Birkenhead, to. bor., Cheditre, Eng.; on B.
Big Horn Mtns, Wyo. and Mont., D.S-A. ; BocSies ; Mersey, opp. Liverpool; docks, shipbldg.,
higdrest alt., 12,000 ft. engin., clothing, metal, wood, gla^; p. (estd.
BigB.Eforn, JR., Wyo., D.SA..: trib. of Ydlow-stone 1967) 143MO.
Birikot la Qamn, •’ lAke of the ffiims." Fayum,
BihaS, L, Jugoslavia: onE.Dna; p, (1959) lii.OOd. Egypt. NB Africa.
Bihar, state, Indian Union ; a. 67.196 sa. m. ; Bfcmtogbam. c., co. bm,. Warwick, Eng.; indiKti.
cap. Patna (a.t?.); ch. B., Ganges; agr.: rice, cap. Midlands, second Igst. 0. <3t. Briftin;
wheat, maize, snogar-cane, tobacco, oil-seeds; motor vAicte, components and aceeôrfea:
minerals: coal, iron, mica; Ind.: iron and univ., oath., town hall: p. (estd. 1869)
st^, oil refining at Baramd; p. (1961) 1M6.409.
46,455,610. Birmingham, t„ cap., Ala.. U.S.A.; coal, ircm,
Blhd, dist„ Angola (Port. W. Africa). limestone, steel, afceraft, chemicals, textiles;
Bihor Mtos^, Eomania. P. (1960), 340.993.
Blisk, c., Siberia. U.S.S.B.: p. (1967) 176.000. BJrmlngbiam, t„ Mich., U.8A..; p. (1960) 25.535.
BUaimr, t. Mysore. In&: cotton; mins: p. Bimam, vit, Perth. Soot.: location of Bfrnam
(1961)79,554. Wood — ^Macbeth; fiHmer royal forest,
Bijeljina, t. Jugoslavia; p. (1959) 19.000. Binoi. L, Dahomey. W. Africa: p. 1,000.
BQnme, t, Uttar Pcadedh, India; p. (1961) 93.910. BlrobMihaii, i. U.8.S.E.; admin, ctr.; It. and
Bikaner, t, Bajaathan, India; p. (1961) 160JB34, wood inds.: p. (1W9) 41j)30.
Bikini, otoH, Patfiflo Ocean; scene of atomlo- Bfrr, «kl. f., MTh, Mst., OSaiy. Ireland; on Little
bomb tests. Brcena B.; farming; obseryatory; p. (1966)
Bilaspar, t., MMhya Pradesh. India: sfiks, cot¬ 3^66.
tons; P. (1961) 96,709. Bir (Hamta, I4b^ AfMoa; 120 m. S.W. (EripoH:
Bfibao, N. Spaia; cap. Basane prov. of (^tfled(te.
Viscaya; fimnerly famous fbr rapier making; Bisbee, f.. Arizona. U.S.A.; very rich copper
iron ore. smelting; pipeline from Ayobiengo derx^ts, gold, diver, lead; p. (1900) 9,850.
oEfleld under constraoUon; p. (1965) 356,000 Biscarosse, Landes. France : 45 m. S.W. Bordeaux;
BHadk. i., (Turkey; p. (I960) 7,635. rocket and mi®le testing range projected;
Billna, c.. Bohemia, CSSB.; wat. pL, mineral p. (1962) 3.336.
smfcgsip. (1961) 10,334. Biscay, Vizcaya.
BiEabong, B., N.S.W.. Austria. Biscay, Bay oL stormy a. of the Atl. W. of EraaKce
Billericay, mun. bor., Essex, Eng,; lost land and and N. of Spain, from Ushant to O. Ort^^jd;
individuality to BasQdon. the Boman Sinns Aqnitanicns; heavy seas.
BilUnge and Winstanley, urb. dist., Lancs, Bng.; BIsceglie, t.. apt. : ApulJa. Italy ; on B. cst. SS-nx.
coal bricks; p. (1961) 6,341. N.W. of Bari; fiaidng; p. (1961) 41,451.
gazetteer
— — — « «
Blschhelm. t. Bas-Bhin. France; N.W. sub. i Black BeaulyMe,Firths. peninsula,

Boss andbetween Cromartv and
Of Strasbonre, furniture, porcelain; p. (1964) Cromarty, Scot. : agr
lijm. fisheries, auarrylng; a. 240 sq.m.
Blfchofl, Mt., t, Tasmanift, Australia : tin. 81&(^ 2A3i£d« S« Qt161}6C| C&I18(dft J 8iSt)€®tOR
Biscliois?reraa, t., L, Dresden, x:/,
E. vitcijjuiKiij'
Germany; , auarry- iLLLUtiS; p, ÎVOJL/ ■S',iot/,
irw. glMB and iron tods.; rly. ctr.; p. (1963) Blackley, t. S.W. Lancs, Eng.; N. snb of Man.
suesios
1 mines; p.uyu
K:utstiwr, WK8« 4,180.
(1961)
«*^P.
(1960) t„ &!,. E.SX. ; cattle, tungsten : p. Black
2,S7;J, Chester;
Mountain,dye wks
t, N.C.. D.S A., ; resort, '
Black Mtas., range of AppaiMhians.' D.SA.-
Bishop _AnckIaaa, uiM. urb. dist., x/iuiiaui,
Durham, Eng.; » mt. iHiiicneii, aic. 0*004 It.
eoEtams pate of Bishop of Durham: coal. Black Mt. Mtns.,
Mitchell, alt. 6.684 ft. '
ranyc, Brecknock. S. Wales • hteheat
rsi i. " if* iMjaic, j^recjmocir van, ait. z 631 ft
1^’ IwhOmuie, Sciily Is.. _ peak.
Blackpool, Brecknock
co. bor., Van.
Lancs. 2.631onft.
alt.Eng., ’ highest
niS E: cst. of Eylde
36 m. b.%
36^m. S.W. . of Land’s
Land’s End,
End, Cornwall ;; recoCTised
recognised
Intemationafly as E. endCornwall
of trans-Atlantic dlst. : Britain’s most popular holiday rôrt • n
ocean crosBing. as E. end of trans-AtlanticBlack
Intemationady (astd.Prairie,
1967) 151region,
510 Texas. TJ.S.A.:resort, extpndsp.
350 m. S.W. from Ouochita MtnTto Stta-
Bisht®’s Startlord, mid. L, urb. did., Herts.. Eng.;
(Ml Htort E.; grain; p. festd. 1967) 21,010. ^tains very fertile Black Waxy and Grande
Prairie sub-regions devoted almost entirely
Bishop’s WaitlKim, par... Hants, Eng. ; bricks.
Bishop We.'amooth, t, pt. of Sunderland. Co. cotton growing; ch. ts., Dallas. Fort Worthto
Dnrbaia. Austin ; a. 30,000 sq. m.
. , . . . . _ ; a. au.uuu sq. m.
Biskra c„ AteTia, Africa; admm rlaixw- Ctr., -wmier
njHort; o.lfiia
oftsis npnrh^-
nearby produces
nrflfpjwa dates; p.
n c. Black
/• flour, Elver
^ying,
A..! _ !_ Falls, t.._ Wis.,
poultry;
-l-ik J p.
_ D.8.A.*
(1980) i. lombor
3.195.
Blaekrock, t., Ireland ; sub. 4 m. from Dublin
Bisiey, L. Gloucester, Eng.; nr. Stroud. Blaokrod, urb. dint., Lancs, Eng.; nr. Chorlev
Bismarefc, cap. c., N. Dakota. U.S.A.: on Mis- waving; p. (1961) 3.609.
SOOli E.: p. (1950) 27.670. BlMk Sea, iatoid sea between Eussia and Turkey;
Bismêk Ansh., 3 large and several small islands vAO rn. long, 390 m. broad ; receives watoa of
off New Guinea, formerly German, now Austral¬ Danube, Dnieper, Dniester, Don, Bug and
ian Tm.«t Terr.; total native p. (estd. 1962) other rivers; communica tes with Medlter-
174415. raneM by Strait of Bosporus, Sea of Marmara
Bissagos Is., off W. Africa, Port Guinea: ch. t. and Dardanelles.
Bolaina. Blaoksod Bay, coast of Mayo. Ireland.
Bissao, (.. spt.. Port Guinea; p, 5,000. ®<h^tone, t.. Mass., U.S.A,. ; textiles : p. (1950)
IlfWta, t, Eomania; p. (1963) 23,346.
Bit«o, Italy ; bn E. cst. Blackstbne, t. 4 Va. ,.r„ .
.r IT.S.A 1(1060) 3.659.
• tobacco
^ Jallon ’ ^2^®^ Voita
Plateau, and E.,
flows Qliana:
S. andrisesE
Turltey- p "(l^ffj Volta; length, over 800 m.Ghana: rises
S'*
coalfields; navigable; U.S*A. : flows through
waterpower.
mosqu^ mihtary H.Q., great tr. in com, gram, Blaokwater, E Hants and Ehhpt
^ Blaotorater. E.'i Mand; ttoee of t^ name.
slEnKSaS: op E. , .n, H.W. o, “» “
Bittm, t, Gioucester, Eng. ; minfap P' p, (1956)^1*55^^*

cedonia; E.S.F.S.E. on E.
Scot.;
Bism, L., Japan; a 180 sq. TTsSO
SKkT ^ ^
ft. above usfdo ®*' ’»■' <W67)
Canadian
on coasUands of Mte'and Ala., ^"ts-<le-Seine. nr. Paris; p.

b«£-co|..p.sa.= ,at.l4.a.n«
Bl^ Country, Eng.. MldlMd^ foAnerly impt Britain,
tonôrking
.tto Birminghamandarea.coat-mining district^ round ^nom o Eabanl,
textiles, pumps:
Blackdown
Black HSlIa, Dev^ Brut
Forest th®' <1960) 2,9^
(asiiwarzwjffil mfew., Germanv
resort, fot^ a. 1^44 stp m.; hlgSâl: ^ fo:^. mkt i.. mun. bor..
FaMl^
Black Gang alt, 4.606 nfeturaan™
China ft • hignesi peak
o „.P- <estd. E^.;
1967) hme
3.ff40.and stone, agr. implements
HiBhIandei linked
2® GAZETTEER
Blaydon, urb. dist., Durham, Ens.; coal-miniuK: W. of Dortmund: ctr. of iron and steel
p. (estd. 1967) S1,8S0. chemicals, foodstuffs: p. (1968) 345,320. ind.;
Blekinge, co., Sweden: a. 1.173 sa. m.: p. (1961) (..N. Ehme;-Westphalia, Germany;
144,468. N.W. Of Hamm; coal-mimiig; p. (1963) 24 mo
1., S.I., New Zealand: fruit; p. (1966) Bodm^. t. R.S.F.S.B.; N.E. of L. BaM; gold
13,242,
BletcMey, urb. dist., Buclis, Eng.; riy. junction, engin.:Bay,
Bcêga p. (19563 TJ.S.A.;
14,6 00. ’
bricks, brushes: p. (estd. 1967) 24,980. Eosa; nnolear power sta. 20 m. W, of Santa
Buda, t, Ateeria. N. Africa : flour, citrus fruits ; Bezels, area, Chad,
forage grasses. W. Africa; cotton, tobacco,
p. (19S4) 67,000.
Bloemfontein, t., cap., O.F.S., S. Africa; cattle Boden, t, Sweden: on Lnlea E.; mil. ctr.;
ctr.; engin., glass, bricks, meat canning; p. mmm. otr.: p. (1961) 1,8,719.
(1960) 140,924 inc. 61,213 Whites. Bodensee, see Constance, L.
Iîre-ei-Oher, France; onLoine; 30 m. Bodmin, mm. bor.. co. t. Corawafl. Eng. ; on S.W
S.W. of Orleans: chateau; uines: p. (1962) flank of Bodmin Moor: china clay. It engin -
36,426. p. (estd. 1967) 7,370.
Blood B., Natal. S. Africa. Bodmin Moor, upland, N.E. Cornwall. Eng.;
Bloody-Foreland. 0.. Donegal. N.W. Ireland. granite auarries, kaolin ; lower slopes culti¬
Bloomfield, L, Ind.. U.8.A.; p. (1960) 2,224. vated, higher slopes used for sheep pastuiM;
Bloomfield, L. N.J.. D.S.A.: p. (i960) 51.867. average alt. 1,000 ft., high^t point. Brown
Bloomington, t., HL, D.S.A.; coal, motor ears: Willy, alt. 1,875 ft.
p. (1960) 36,271. Bodo, spt., Norway; within Arctic Circle at
BlooKtogton, Ind.. D.S.A.; wheat, com, entrance to Salten Fjord, fishing. wooBen goods:
alfalfa; furniture, structural glass, radios: p. P. (1968) 27.542.
(I960} 31,357. Boeleleng, s t, Bali, Indonesia; rice; harbour
Bloomsburg, t., Penns., TJ.S.A.; iron; p. (1960) un-safe during monsoon. 1114,474.
10,655. Boeotia, prov., Greece; a. 1221 sq m.; p. (1961)
Bloroa, t., Java. Indonesia: teak; p. 18,451. Bogates, t.. La.. TJ.S.A.; p. (I960) 21,423.
t., Austria; cotton, watches: p. (1961) Bognor Regis, t, urb. dist., Snsex, Eng. : seaside
resort: p. (estd. 1967) 30,840.
Bluefield, t„ W. Va„ D.SA.. ; coal, iron, lime¬ Bogor. f., Java, Indonesia; p. (1901) 154,092.
stone, steel foundries, silica, lumber; p. (1960) Bogota, cap., Colombia, S. America in B. Cordil¬
19,256. leras. 9,000 ft. above sea level; cath., museum,
B. In Nicaragua. Central America. univ.; textiles, cement and brick mkg., leather,
Biueflelds, L, Nicaragua; on E. cat.; bananas, glasware, tyres, oil refining; p. (estd. 1965)
timber; p. {i960) 11,376. 1,488.000.
Blue Grass, dist., Ky., TJ.S.A., area where blue Bogovodsk, see Noginsk.
grass abundant : horse breeding. Bolmmia, former W. prov. of Czechoslovakia:
Blue Mountains, chain in N.S.W.. Australia; abolished 1948 : plateau girdled by mountains;
highest peak, 4,100 ft. drained by R, Elbe ; agr. : wheat, rye. bops,
Blue Mountains, t., N.S.W., Australia; tourist flax, sugar-beet; minerals; lignite, graphite;
^ centre: p. (1961) 28M70. mnfe. textiles, sugar, pottery, macMn., boots;
Blue Mountains, Jamaica, W. Indies. p. inc. Moravia (1962) 9,566,753.
Blue Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek), IS., rising In tablelands BShmerwaM (Bohemian Forest) Mtns., forested
range between Czechoslovakia and Bavaria:
of
Its Ethiopia, joins the provides
seasonal flooding 'White Nile
the atbulk
Khartoum
of water ; 150 m. long; highest points; Aber, alt. 4,848
for irrigation in Sudan and TJ.A.E. ft., Eachelberg, alt. 4,743 ft.
Blue Nile, proti., Sudan ; a, 54,577 sa. m. ; cap. Bohol, I., Philippines: 1,492 sa. m.: p. (1060)
529,200.
Medani {q.v,\ ; p. (estd. 1951) 1,840,600.
Blue Jîui,, Long I.. D.S.A. ; oysters. Boiro, commune. La Coruna, Swln; cattle.
Blue Ridge Mtas., D.S.A.: most E. ridge of Ashing, sardine canning ; p. 11,668.
Appalachian Mtns. in Vlrgliiia and North Bois-Colombes, i., Seine. France; p. (1954) 27.399.
Carolina. Boise City, 1, cap., Idaho, tr.8.A-; iver. hot
Blufi Harbour, S.I., New Zealand: 18 m. from springs; p. (1960) 34,481.
Invercargill: apt. for Southland prov. Boise. R., Idaho, TJ.S.A.
Biuffton, f., Ind., II.S.A. ; fenn implements, Bojador, G.. Eio de C)ro, Africa.
lumber; p. {I960) 6,238. Bokaro, t, Bihar. India: 160 m. N.W. of CWcutta;
Blumenau, t., Santa Catarina st., Brazil; butter, steel plant.
sugar; p. (estd. 1968) 84,139. Bokn Fjord, Norway, N. of Stavanger, 86 m. long,
Blyth, spt. mun, bar., Northumberkind. Eng.; 10-16 m. wide.
exp. coal; shlpbldg.: p. (estd. Xmi) 36.120. Bofcsburg, t., Transvaal, S. Africa: gold, coal:
Blytheville, t., Aik., tJ.S.A.; tr. ctr. for agr. p. (1960) 70,933 ino. 27M0e whites.
region; p. (1960) 20,797. Bolama, spt.. Rirt. Guinea: p. 4,000.
Blythswood, t. Cape Province, S. Africa. Boldn Pass, Baluchistan, Pakistan: from
Kkistan to Afehanlstan ; snmmit 6,9(» ft.
Bo.anarters.:
i.. Sierra Leone,
p. (1963)'W. ofAfrica; gold: adm. head-
dist. 209,000. Bolbeo, t, Seine-Maritime. France; 12 m. B. of Le
Boa Vista, t., S,. pL, cap. Borabna st.. Brazil; p, 'BoMon,
Havre;mb.p. cUst.,
(1962)Dturharn,
12,492.
(estd. 1967) 34,659. Eng.; p. (estd.182,780.
1967)
Bobadilla, t., S. Spain; N. of Mdlaga. Boieslawleo (Bunzlau), t. Lower Sile^ Poland,
Bobbin, t, Andlira Pradesh. India; tr. ctr. in agr. <3erman before 1946; on the Bobrarra E.,
a.; p. iimi) 26M92. pottery: p. (1965) 27M00.
Bobblo, EmIlla-Eogmagna, Italy, in northern Bolarad, i, Ukrainian S.SJE.; com; p. 10,000.
Apennines; ctr, European culturallife,9tth-12th Bolivar, L. Argentina; p. (1947) 13,773.
cent.; St. Columban founded monastoy, 612. Bolivar, dep., CdomWa, S. America, cap. Car¬
BoWgny, {.. Seine, France: p. (1964) 18,581. tagena;} a. 22,981 sa. m.; p. (estd. 1969) 780,650.
Bobia^, B,, Lower Sileda; W. Poland: trib. of BoEvar, i»»»„ Ecuadesr. S. America; cap. Guar-
E. Oder; length 168 m. ando; a. 1,160 sa. m.; p. (1950) 109M5.
Bobtek B:arb, t, SUesia. Poland: German before Bolivar, st, Veneznela ; tflu t.. Culdad Bolivar; a.
1946 ; coal. coke, steel, ammonia. 91.868 sa.m.; p. (1961) 213.543.
BobrinefSjt., Ukrainian S.S.E.; tobacco foctoiieB: Bolivia, ■Wowi rep., S. America, bounded by Brandi,
p.lO,OQO. Pm^nay, Argentina, CShite and Pfflm ; cap,
Bobruisk, fortress, t., Byelorussian SB JL. on nominally Snore, actual admhristratiTe
E. Berezina; raigin., sawmilling; p, (1967) La Paz; plateau, mountains; Boliv. Andes;
117JOOO, volcanos; L. Titkmca, Poopo. drained by
Booas del Toro, turn., Panama; ow. B. del T.; tcibs. of Amazon; climate varies wiidrGevation;
P. (1960) 32,600. monkeys, jaguars: forests: savannahs: agr.
Boobetia, la, pass, Ugnija, Italy; need by main in backward condition: rubber, auinlne. cattle,
routes across Ligurian Apennines from Genoa hides; ch. exp. tin: petroleum; lead; and
to Lombardy Plain. zinc at Matilde; language, Spanish; a.
Booholt, 416.000 sa. m.: p. (estd. 1970) 4,858,000.
machln.,t. textiles,
N. Ehine-'Westphalia,
elect, goods; Germany:
p. (1968) Bolkhov, t, Ukrainian S.SJ2. monastery; impt.
40.100. inds.; p. lOjOOO.
Bochum, t., N. Ehine-Westphslia, (Setmany; Um. BoIUngion, L, mb. disl.. Cheahire, Eirg.; nr.
»Oi--BOS K.26 GAZETTTeER
MacclesMa, wttmi, calico printing and dya Bonnyrigg and Lasswade, huwh, Midlothian
wtoi.1 p. 11861) 5,542. Scot.: 7 m. S.E. of Edinburgh; paper, camata-
BoW», t.. Omgo. Africa, on E. Congo. p. (1961) 6,331. ’
Bok«nk, owfeRf c.. Emilia, N. Italy ; on N, flanb Bontlie, (., Sierra Leone, W. A&ica; rutile urn
of Apeaato; impt. route ctr. commanding duction; p. (1003) of diet. 50,000.
n»a (OTer Futa Pa®) and riy. (through Boom, f., Antwerp. Belgium; bricte tannine
Apenaine
mnfs. Tunnel)
OTgar, aertw Apennines
macaroni: to Elorenoe:
nuclear research brewing;
ctr.; Boone, p. (1062)
L, Iowa. ’
TT.8.A.; coal: p. (1060) '
p.ammiSlfm. Booneville, c., W. Ark., U.S.A.; lumber md
Bote|a^j5roi-., Italy; a, 1.405 sg. m.; p. (1961) tuberculosis sanatorium; p. (i960)
oa She Leningrad and Moscow
Bc3«o?e,t.,B.S.P.S.E.: depot andKly. ; p. 10,000.Boothia,
impt.innctioB p. (1960)peninsula
Boo’nfcom t. 7.051.
N.J., U.S.A.;
(a. 13,100agr. and industl dr ■
BoIonMien, t., Campeche, Mexico. sg. m.) and G on
BiAjiondron, mm. (., Matanzas, W. {3nba; p. Bootle, Arctic coast; ErankUn dist. Canada.
CO. bar., Lancs, Eng. ; on
(estd.) fof mun.) n.SS3 (oft.) 3,710. to Mersey estuary; shipping,E. engin., side of entrance
timber
Boi« Maad, {&!„ E.SA.: nuclear power and
(iesaliBatta projeet
titisainjaaoa projeci mtaprogre®.
progre®. uour; p. lesza. iW(j ai,49(J.
flour; p. (estd. 1967) 81,2 ’
Boisena, L., latfum region, Italy; occupies ige. Boppard, t., Bhineland BaJatlnate. 90. <3ennanv* „
extinct voicanio crater in S. of Tuscan mils; (1948) 7,189. Germany, p.
a. (approx.) 50 sq. m. , Bords, t. S. Sweden ; on U. Wiske. nr. GOteborE-
Boishoya ¥olga, L, E.S.F.S.E,; 80 m. K. of Moa- cotton spinning and weaving textiles hosie^‘
cow, St jnnet. of Voto and Moscow Volga tyres; p, (1981) 67,069. '
Canal; Soviet Institute of Nudear Studies. Bordeaux, apt, Gironde, France : nr mouth nf t?
Bobover, «?*. dist., Derby. Eng.; limestone, coal. Garonne: cath., univ.; exp. wines. liauenS’
tetto; P. a981) 11,770. sugar, potatoes, pit props: oil r^SSg S?:
BotaroA, c., EWeslaud,
Hnwd. tefcte; Nethertonds;
p. (1947) 7,389. dairying, p. (1968) 270,996. ntjiroy,
Bordentown, c., N.J., D.S.A.; on Delaware E •
Bolt Hd., fteadlffiid, Devon, ling. : .alt. 430 ft. formerIyimpt.pt.; p. (1960)
Bolton, m. tor., Lancs, Eng.: cotton and man- Bordeyri. t.. Iceland: on Eumaflot inlet
made iron, caal, chemicals; p. (^. Bordighera, L, Italy; Eiviera winter resort
»67) [abbey. Boreham Wood, i., Herts, Eng.; light engin
Bolton, Abbey, W.E.lorks.
in ancientEng.:
state famous ruined Borger,
of Bithynia; oomputors. film Texas,
c., N.W. studios.^ engin.,
I7.S.A.; gas and netrol.
at Hi|». 8. of the t., are warm medicinal Borgerhoutearn; p.. (1960)
sub. of Antwerp. Belgium; petrol
20^1. candle
B^m Head, 0,, Kepy.Jteland. _ « r, tobacco feetoiles: p. (1968) 50,012,
Bcteio, f., Venelia Tridmtina. Italy; on m Botso. Borgo, San
San Lorenzo,
Donnino, i..L. Italy;
Italy ; oUves
cath.- ahd
p 17254
wine
p. (1061) ®.(575 Boiôsesla, commans. N.W. Italy; on Sesla E •
Bona, f„ Cow, Africa, on Congo estuary; textiles: p. 13 716 ^ ™ ‘
55®^ bananas; Borgo Val di Taro, commune. N, Italy; lignite-
p, C. 25,t209
Is.. Gulf of Bo^g0,(Krf. round Mons. Belgium: coaL
BemSW ri.. India: divided into sts. of

MaharaMitra and Gujarat 1 Mhy 1960. Borisoglebsk L e ueue • Sfis
iinEm 50^=
BotIw, mp. Maharashtra, India; Borisokov^., Kn^f D.Ra.i?*-
Bendy, cownww. France; France: N,E.

N.E. sub,
suh. of
of Baris;
PuHo- length 880 m., breadth 600 nj.; a. 286,000
Kufl.
brewing, ohenflcals; p. (1964) fl2.422. bû Sange, alt* 13,700 ft, ; fbrests, fnnfirle
Bdne, see Annsla.
dbfMed into
ra^ps; rice. sago, spices, coconuts, rubber,’Indonesian
Bo’c^ 6wgft. W. Lothian, Scot.: on Krth Borneo (Kalimantan) and Sab^
of Fp^. timber
foundries, 4 m. R of Grangemouth:
yds.; p. (1961) 10,194.
.■^^^5^,^^^'^blaysia, see Sabah.
L. Texas. mkA: cotton; ‘ p. ’(1960) bSSi^’ K I„
Bojahill, par., Dunbarton, Scot.; dyeing; p
BoaMll, var„ Dunbarton. Scot.; dTOing; u ® porcelain,
Nteria, clay;
Africa; aw.cap.Lake
Ronne;Chad;p*.
Bcfflihwlo,
{1951) 25,spt., fori., 535
Ooraca, France; y. loimerly a Nô
. opposite (1960)4^3: - kingdom, 61.000xvuuuB, so. m.:p.
bardtnla, on Strait of BonlfiK to; cork, oUve-ofl.
oyster tr.; p. (1954) 2^57. Boroboed oer, Java. Indonesia; gr. Buddhist
15 islands, volcanic; 5,00
p. (estd.) once 0,00 restored ^ *
600 m. S. of Tokyo. temple,
government care.ruined, now 0. nuagf
Soanswaie Bam. 0re„ Wash.. DJ1.A. ! .»• festi) 28.500.

v^ irrtotfeffi to valtejB In OohmWa-Bn^p “Jb- MasMore; inol.
GAZETTEER
BOS-BHA ^
seaade resort: p.
BcSfl' ‘=ttfaB^Vnr?G?i frontier,
tob^, cereaK BoOTef I„ ’ uSnhabited island in S. Atlantia
bridge, flrrt tnUnk Europe and S.W. Asia due industl.: properly
BoSie“®%.u:8^:p. (1960)^^^ »ow, ^.,

liiK^. l.ng. . Ba““rtl: . N.W. Canada; head of
Boston. <„ »ii«n. 6or., spL, HolJand.
toe harbour; 2nd Atlantic pt.; conm. ^r- Queensland; on Port Denison,
ies; metal. leathM. rubber and elec r(^_. of^Stne; meat wks.; cote
SSB“=2.7ld.^|; f- Eng.; on E. Greta.
BothweiC par-. Lanar£ Scot.; coal, iron; p. ,

(1951.} 6*5 ISS
Bot<»ani, koMarto.
f..’N.miUing._ tomania; rteh
cty.; flour tanning; »•
Botswana, Bop. of, w*». sob.
Commonwealth (Sept. 196b), S.w._ ^nca,
stretches from Orange E. to
merges W. into Kalahari desert; !tomangvrato
ch tribe; cap. Gaberones; cattle-reanng,
Ige. potential
222 000 sa. Til.; p. (esfcd.) _
Botfer (.. N. KM«K-Westpba to Gerro
chemical s, p. (1968)
lOS 703of Essen: coal, cote,
N.W.
Botacata, "L, Brazil; p. (1960)^^75. . «p. Mar¬

BQnohes-da-Eh6ne, dfp^ S. Prance silk. a.
seilles; cereals, olives, vines; pottery,
2 035 sa. m.; p. (1968) 1,470^71.
Borfeainv ilie Pac. Oo.; a. 4,100
I., Solomon Is., 30.
SCI. m.; P (1959) 55*1 c w
BotoEtov illA 0., Sotting into Itaor Sea, W.
Anstralia.
Bougie, sec Bejaia. _ /.nnov vnry
Bouillon, t, °Kll2Mrte
Boulder, t.. West Austraha; taoL in Eaigoorue
xxLtniu; P- {1966) 13,^3 P*)* „ ««ino‘
ining
Bitoder: b. Col., O.S.A.; told- and diver-m
Bo^Br ’Sty^’ fc,’^NeTO<^’^D.S-A.; nr. G^t
°BoulderI>am. engin, project :p. (lOfl^.OW. .
Bouiogne-Bmancorirt, 8.W. sub. of Parts, Prance
B<mi^ne-SQr-kfir, spt., Pas-de-Calais,^
GAZETTEER
BRA-8RI
n. Srot. : N.W. SufloDc, Eng. ; chalk, overlain by sand,
Braemar, par., in ttie Grampians. Aijerdw with gives' <lry soils; much heathland; sm. fertile
^.at Balmoral ,
aW1.291.
Crathiel estate;_ p. - (1951
Ai,orfi<»ench ts. Brandon.
valleys Lakenheath
cultivated, a. 200sugar-beet;
wheat, ; rye. sq. m.
Bra8rteiBh,wi»., Scot.; Invemes and Aberdeen, g ’VVales ; mountainous; rs. Wye,
IJsk: cereals, dairy produce; timber; coal,
iraga.’^^prw'.fN. Portugal: fruit growing, cattle. iron; a. 744 sq. m.; P. (1966) 55,000.
Bis«aM3, d*st,_|Ta3-«5-i»ioui&. roiuua.M. . Brecon; highest peak. 2.910 ft.; National
(1960! Sjm. TsauLS to Ki m‘ Brela^c., N. soap,

linen caroete. Brabant. Netherlands;
brewing; rayon.
P- (1967) 119,839.
Brateiapiitia, 11. Inim, l^ngpo m • R-gjjiju-, and Romiiey, Mrt. dist. Cheîre. Eng. ;
Braich-y-Pwll. S.W. point of Gaemarvon, Wges. êr: p. (estd. 1967) 37,830.
Braila.
grain t.
rtr,;Koinaaia
p. : on Danube, nr. Galat . gj^°gn^^^j,_J^Vorarlberg.
L. Constance; the EomanAustria ; at E.; resort;
Brigantnun end of
Braintree, f.. Mass., u.b.A.. _ cinni^ or 42X
Braintree and Booking, ®**kfj“*-* „^^.^Vnwa’ Bieid^ Fjord,' large inlet, W. coast. Iceland,
on Blackwafer:
engin.; P- 196i) metel wmdowa. many; on B. Weser^^p. of40 Land Brem^,
m. from te-
N. Sea;
Brakpaa^, Transvaal. S. Afrjoa. p. d ou) trans-shipment pb.; un-
#0, ... t -Sn * flftwer Errowtog ports cotton, cereals, tobacco, tods. . cars,
Brampton, t. <>ntmo. flower growing jjjachin.. textiles, tobacco, shtobldg., oil re-
Ctr.. i ^cel mill; P. (1968) 604,997. .
Branco, C.. Brazil, Ptms^bPCOK. Bremen, Jkmd. W. Germany; cattle rearmg. mkt.
IStaS’ 1“ pS^sS^^rmany; ontiles, B. gardening; a. 166 sq. m.; p, (1968) 754,(^.

Havei: steel.en^.
BOTd trMtora wcycies. lexi Bremerhaven,
Bremen at mouth svt.. of
Germany; “outport” of
Waser B. ; docks : unpt.
(1961) 83,168.
ftoi'da- PbrntomfEng.; fish, pt., shiphldg.;
Bremersdorp, see ManztaL p. (1968) 149,196. „ ,
531 ^ Bremerton, t.. Wash., U.S.A. ; on Puget Somd;
machln.;
BrSffitoek: i M"t's.A.; Americans naval dockmd; elec, equipment,
light mnfa. fishing. 'Te^. DB.A.; oil. cotton, dairy
arazu. w jg^gji-o.Brent,
rt.:. toausmiated formerGreater
the bor..
prisingouter Ismdon,
mnn. bors. Eng.; com-
of Wembley and
BrStoS’Jw OTP
fm MU ^P^^ Brentford and p.
Willesden; (1966) 295.000.
CJhiswlck, former mun. bor., Middx.,
BrSv Romania; Transylvanian Bng.nowtoa
at foot of225,2,99. toHouMlow (g.«.);
Ah«* oioni leather* o (1963) coal gas. light engln.; p. (1961) 54,532.
r™s ’r Niijria W 4frte* at mouth of Brentwood, urb. dist., mkt. f. Essex. Eng.;
®SJ'B.fSng^tUênt: * ^ flto w toplements. steel-tubing; p. (estd.
^St”vimm^mdV.;°"2 rly..c™i BreatoMdjS^. ofSt.LouiB.Mo..D.S.A.; residtl;
K&T“lR.®^‘"MlnlS^^<5il%e- Breccia, e.’iteiy; 'cath;^; silks, woollens.

BK'i^^SlS
Angara R- at mouthbhlaat. m. N.N.E.
R.B.E.S^.
of Oka E., 115 on Bressmone, t.. N.E. Baly •
rf%iliffi; ship repair yards, lumber, iron-ore, by Austrta; ^th.. health rraort . ^p. 9,S03.
wood processiU chemicals; large hydro-elec- Btessay I.. Shetland fc.. Scotland-
tricsta* p (1969) 52.000. Brest, t.. spf., EtaistSre dep.. N.W. Erance.
BrstaeijOTO, i. Vt.. U.S.A.; p. {I960) 9,325. naval ste.. arsâl; m^l tads. ; fishing, ropes.
Brara, «P(.. Somalia : p.4i)00. soap; oil refining nearby; p. (1968) 259,557.
Bray. diet.. Wtektow, Ireland; on Wah Sea Brest (Brest latovsk), t., Byelorussian S.b.E... on
11 m S of DabHn; popular wat. pi.; Polish frontier; Treaty of Brest Litovsk, March.
Tj 0966)22.5 57. {Dublin. 1918; route ctr. and agr. mkt.; textiles; p.
Br^ Head, point on E. cst. of Ireland, S. of (1959)^,000. ^ u e
Brazil, Dnlt^ States of, rep., S. America; a. Bretton Woods, N.H., D.S.A-; resort; site of
3.28»,000 sq. m. ; 4th 1^ cty to world, exceeded D.S. monetary and financial conference. 1944.
to sire only by D.S.S.E,. China and (kinada: Brer^ t, pt, Norway; p. (1961) 12,338.
covers variety of land and dhnate; In S., great Brewer, t.. Me.. U.S.A. : on Penobscot E. ; wood
Brazfifam plateau, in N., Amazon E. barin ptdp, paper, bricks; p. {I960) 9,009,
(tbiekly forested); leading industl. nation of Brlaneon, t., France; p. (1962) 20,205.
Larin Arnica; agr.: coffee, cotton, sugar. Bridgend, w6. dist., mid. i. Glamorgan, S. Wales;
cocoa, rubber, fruits, hardwoods: cattle- industl. trading estate: Iron, coal, stone, pai>er:
Kiiiing; manganese, iron, gold, diamonds; p. (1961) 15,136.
adm. through 22 sts., 4 terrs., and Fed. Dist.; Bridge of Allan, burgh. Stirling, Scot.; 2 m. N.
cap. Brasilia: Igst indinstl. ctr. SaLo Paulo; pop. of Stirling; mineral springs; glass; p. (1961)
mainly White, Negro. Indian, Mestizo: Por- 3.322.
tuguese officiM langur; p. (estd. 1968) Bridgeport, t. Conn., U.SA.: sewing machines,
59,574,572. typewriters, valves, hardware, machln., rubber
Braxil, t. Ind.. T7.S.A. ; coal, day. bricks, duna ; and elec, goods, chemicals, plastics; p. (1960)
p. (1960) 5,563. 156,748.
firardl (Sintent, ocean, ewrenf ; flows S. along E. Bridgeport, t. Oliio, U.S.A.: on Ohio B.; glass,
cst. of Brazil; relatively warm. tin, sheet metal, boat bldg.; p, (I960) 3,824,
'Btassos, R., Texas. UBA.: length 960 m. Bridgeport, bor., Penns., UB.A.; iron and sted,
Brazzaville, cap., Congo (ex French), Bquat. woollens, quarrying; p (1960) 5,306.
Africa; coimected by rly. with the Atiantic at Bridgeton, t, N.J.. U.S.A. ; founded by Quakers;
Pointe-Noire; B. pt. under construction: air- glasswks., fruit: p. (1960) 20,968.
peart: p. (1962) 235,632. Bridgetown, t. t, Barbados.
Barilos. W.I.; deep water
Bieadalbano, moanfotootts dirt.. W. Perth, Scot. harbour; p. (1966) 95,000.
Bredfin, ro^ burgh. Angus, Scot.; on S. Esk: Bridgewater, mSUi. t. Mass.. 17.8. A.; nr. Boston;
cath.: p. (1961) 7,114. p. (1960) 10.268.
Biedceuiidge, L. N. Texas, IT.S.A.: oil, gas Bridgewater Canal. Manchester-Bunoom-Leigh ;
wefia; exp. cattle, grain; p. {I960) 6,273. dosses ship canal by means of Barton swing
Bcedcluid, geegraphiaa regbm, S.W. Norfolk, t bridge, length 88 m.
p. a960) w^m „
aastol, t. Term., XJ.SJL.; layott, paper. teathM
cfar.. espeoJally for cattle: p. U960) 17,5^.
Briko! Channel, arm of the AtlanMo li^tweearS.
cat. of Waira and Bamfirset and Devon; noted
tidal lioies. i „
RriWsh Anterotio Terraory, JBrit. col., created S
March 1062: consists of all land Md Is-^S. of
lat. 60“ S. and between 20° and 80“ W. longitude;
comprMng Graham Land peitoma^ E. wet¬S.
lands, 8. Orkneys and amaEer l8..^chiding
Georgia and S. Sandwich Is. Bee EWO.
British Ooliunhia, prov., Canada: diverslned top^ in world);
(long^mftg. mainly residU. with nume¬
Kranhr and landscape: rich mineral and forest rous
2jB27 and comm, , interests;
.319. ^ p. (1960)
.H.
resource: principal Bs.: Columbia, Eirarer,
Kootenay. Peace: lumbering, farming, dating Scot hch on N.W. csL of Boss and CrcunartT,
Broom,
and livestock: fruit growing, canning, salmon
fisheriea: coal, copper, gold. lo^. silver, iron Brora, 'i.. Sutherland. Scot,;ctr.on of B.sm.ret, 12 nu
eoalaeld;
NJS, Dornoch
Harris ofTweed Firth;
ind. ~
ore, molybdenmn, gas. oil te NjEji tw. Vic¬
toria: a. 866.255 BO. m. ; p. (estd. 1968) BMOMO.
British Bast Atrioa, formerly comprised Kenya. N.E. mfte.
Iron andt., steel
a»tton, _ Gui^XKOugh;
Yorks, Eng., nr.
Tanganyika, Uganda. tc«ether with the islands
of y.»» nrfha,T and Pemba. Bee under thrir le- apugh, mJW. t. Westmorl^. Eng.; te upper
Vale of Bden. 4 m. N. Of KMrixy-StepiKta.
Brirish Guiana, tee Guyana. Brooghshane, viL, Antrim, H. Ireland.
BRO-BUR Kao GA2ETTEEB
BrownWils, nrb. dkt. Staffs, (soal-mlniiig; p. i Budleigh Salterton, mj*. dist., E. Devon ; resort:
(1961) 26M92. p. (1981) ssn.
BrownsTflle, t.. Texas. D.S.A.: livMtock. sugar- Buena Park, U, Cal., D.S.A.: citrus fruits, truck
<ane; p. (1960) 48.040. „ farms, oaflelds; p. mm 46. -Wl.
Brown Willy. »?«., Comw.all. Eng.: alt. 1.375 ft. Buenaventura, spf.. Colombia; lumber yards.
Brownwood, t., Texas, D.8.A. ; exp. cotton, grain, tanmng, fish cannmg; p. (estd. 1982) 60.220.
wool, poultry, dairy profl.: p. (I960) 16.974. Buenos Aires, c.. cap. Argentina; on Bio de la
Broxlxxinie, f.. Hertford. Eng.: on gravel terrace Plata, fine buildings, fet. c. in S. hemisphere:
to W. of E. Lea about 20 m. N.E. of London: univ.; tr. ctr.; carpets, cloth, cigars, boots and
ctr. of verv intensivelr cultivated district, mkt.- shoes, iron-ore: p. (estd. 1966) 3.876.000.
garden and glasshouse crops: light tods. ; Buenos Airw, pros.. Argentina ; a. 118.467 sq. m.
treeless plain : sheep and cattle ; cereals, fruit,
donnitory ” t. linked with London: p. (1961) tobacco: p. (1960) 6.735,000.
3,839.
Bmay-en-Artois, l„ Pas de Calais, ISrance: p. Bifiaio, c., pt.,oilN.Y.._U.S.A.:
iron, steel, im L.carErie;
refining, aircraft, parts,univ.;
elec,
11063) 28.628.
goods, textiles, meat packing, brewing; p.
Brnchaai. s.. Baden-Wttrttemberg, Germany ;
tobacco, paper, machin.; p. (1963) 23,600. (1060) 532,759.
Bruc^ t, An.stria: p. (1961) 1870S7. Bug, R,. to Ukraine, flows into Black Sea ; length
Brae, M., Somerset, Eng. 848 m.
Btugsa (Brugge), C, inkiM pt.. Belgium: mkt.- Bug, B., Poland; trib. of Vistula B. ; since 1939
hall with ISth-oentury belfry; univ.; impt. frontier between Poland and Ukraine S.S.B.
Eikt. for grain, cattle, horses, engto.. elec, goods: Buga, c., Colombia. S. America ; tr. ctr. for sugar,
gla», textile, lace; p. tad. subs. (1968) 70o,775. coffee, cacao, rice, cotton; p. (estd. 1969)
Br8hl, f., N. Bhtoe-Westphalia, Germany ; 8 m. _ 75,220. __ _ _ . _ _
S. of Ojl<«ne: CBS.: lignite, iron, sugar re- Buganda, pma., Uganda. E. Africa: located W. of
fining; p. (1963) 37,200. L. Victoria largely at alt. between 4,500 and
Bruoed, Br. fifot. it., K. Borneo: oilfields; eutoh, 6.000 ft.; intensive cultivation, cotton (ch.
rubfc, sago, pepfter. timber: a. 2,326 sq. m.: comm, crop), plantains, miUets: cap. Kampala,
p. (est. 19(10) 130fi00. Bugisu, dM., Uganda: coffee.
Erffan, $et Brno. Buguhna, t., Tatar A.S.S.E.. E.S.E.S.B.; oil ctr.;
BnmshiitteOcoog, t, mouth of Elbe, canal opposite p. (1959) 61,000.
Cuxbaven. (3ermany; p. (estd. 1954) 70,100. Builth Wells, uri). disf., N. Brecknock, Wales : on
Brunswick (Braunschweig), c.. Lower Saxony, upper course, E. Wye ; medicinal springs; p.
Gemany; on E. Oker; medieval bldgs.; (1961) 7.002.
canning, tinplate mftg.. optics, pianos, drugs, Buitenzorg, see Bogor. [72,700,
vehides; p. (1968) 226,305. Bujalance, c., Spain: E. of Cordova: p. (1967)
Brunswick, i.. Me.. U.S,A.: p. (1960) 9,444. Bujumbura, cap. Burundi; p. (estd. 1966) 70,000.
Brussels, c., cm, Belgium: town hall, palace. Bukhara (Bokhara), L. Uzbek S.S.R., U.8.S.E,;
narfiament houses, univ., museum; mnfs., in Amu Darya valley at W. foot of Tien Shan :
lace, carpets, silk, cottons, rayon: p. (1988) mkt. for cotton, sunflower seed, wheat grown to
1J079,181 (inc. subs.) irrigated Bukhara Oasis; impt. tr. ctr. at W,
Bryan, t., Texas, U.S.A. ; mkt. ctr. ; cotton gins, temunus of ancient caravan route from China ;
compresses: oil mills; p. (1960) 27,542. linked by Trans-Caspian rly. to Krasnovodsk.
Bryansk, t. E,S.F.S.E.: sawmllltog. engto. tex¬ by Turk-Sib. rly to Novo Sibivsk: natural gas
tiles, chemicals, phosphates, steel: oil pipeline nearby;
69,000. pipeline to Urals; textiles: p. (1969)
from Kuybyshev; p. (1967) 276.000.
Brynnmwr, ttrb. dUL, Brecon. Wales; iron, coal, Bnkittto^, t., Sumatra, Indonesia; p. (1967)
steel, rubber goods; p. (1961) 6,471. 53,700.
Bmg, (Brieg), t, Silesia, Boland; German before Butoha, t., pt., Tanzania, E. Africa; located mid-
1945; on E. Oder: chemicals; p. (1965) 28,000. way along W. shore oft. Wctoria; exp. coffee.
Bua, L, Fiji Mauds, Patoflc. rice, plantains and other foodstuffs to L. pts. to
Bacaiamanga, 7., cap. Sanlander. Colombia; Kenya and Uganda,
coffee; togar and cigarette mkg. ; p. (estd. 1062) Bukovtaa, Northern, fonnerly Eomania, ceded to
^ ™ . . F-S.S.R.Inl940: now part of Ukraine; a.about
Bucman Ness, 0„ nr. ^terh^d, E. Soot. 6.000 sq. km.; ch. t. cSiemovitsy; Carparthlm
am., Eomania: catb.; palace, Mtns., forested; farming, cere^: cattle,
univ.; textfles, grain, chemicals, pharmaceutics. Bulawayo. L, Ehodesia; impt. rly. and Indus, ctr.;
<19®3) 1,366,794. alrpt,; agr. mnfe.; p, (1966) 237,000.
Bmkfast, S. Devon. Eng. : famous Abbey. Buldan, f., Turkey; p. (1960) 10,431.
BucMastMito. Ml*. disL. 8. Devon. Ei®. ; wool, Bulgaria, mp.. Eastern Europe; mountainous;
quwhw;
quwhw; f.mm2.m.p.(1961)2,^. ■ Balkan
Balkan Mtns..
Mtns.. E.E, Danube
Danube N.N. boundary;
boundary; oll-oll-
“^Manupu, i., W, Va„ UB.A.; agr. and pas- mate: hot summer, cold winter, milder to
“Âanupn,
lM,ther; p, S.; heavy summer ratafaU; 6 Ige. dams:
(18OT)5,333.
(i8OT)5,SSff. „ hydro-eleotricstas.: rdigion: Greek Orthodox;
MethiL Scot.; on cpmmimications: main rail from Central
EuropepassesthroughtoMtanhul; grain, wines,
c»l, oUsil^
oflsil^ brickmkg. tads; p. (1961) 21,104. rose-oil, pigs, iron, mangan^, copper, lead.
Biê, tmtgh, Kinff. Scot.; boat- and yattot- zinc, pyrites, salt, chemicals, oU. oil, tobacco.
IS'
IS' 7,666. _ ôthtog;
dpthtog; a. 42,796 sq.sq.m.;
m.; p. (1967)5.334,000.
(1967) 8.334,000.
Buekta^haim co., England; wooded, beeches; Bultfontein. t.. Cape Provtooe. S. Africa: dia-
tocludes Vale of Aylesbury; farming, dairy monds; p. (i960) 3.491 toe. 7.330 whites,
produce, dirnks. sheep; mnfe.. chairs, lace, Bunbnry, L. «pf.. W. Australia : on oat. 112 m. 8.
pa^r: a. 749sq. m.; v. mm 542.000. of Eremantle; pt. and comm. ctr. of Ige.
oa Ouse pastoral, agr., fruit growing and timber diat..
■o 4M0. wool, phosphates, oU; p. (1966) 15.453.
Wales; smaU castings: Buncrana, wrb. dUt., Donegal Ireland: salmon;
(1961)7,653. p. (1966) 33(20.
H-S.A.; machtoe-mnfe.; p. Brmdaberg. t, aueensMnd. Australia; on Burnett
TaJiseSi iJptj ./I TT .
BafcSoo, «tt6. of Budajp^, Hungary; wme cellars. P. (1966) suâr factories, timber, butter, irem;
25.404.
Bungay ttrb.disL, Suffolk. Eng.: on E.Waveney:
bank and PcOT on left bank of Danube; parlt., prmttog, malttog; p. (1961) 3,537,
Sill’ steel, textiles, chemicals, engto., motor- Bunker Hill, Charlestown, now part of Boston.
oU refining; mineral springs; p. (1685) Maas,, IJ.S.A. ; battle between Americans and
l,93ofi00. British. 1776.
sugar-cane. Bunttogtord, per.. Herts. Eng.; on E. Anglian
Of Bishop’s Stortford; p.
Cornwall. (1961) 7.659.
'êt, porcelain. Bundaa, see Boleslawieo,
dmncsac woodware; p. (wei) Bnraida, f,. Nejd. Saudi Arabia; p. (estd.)
Bengal, India; hanp. rice; Bnrbank,’

P. aSBD 39,3 24. p. (iggo) c„90JL65.
Cal,. U.B.A,; airport, aeroplanes;
Burdur, {., Turkey; p. (1965) 23,960. Buskerud, eo., Norway: a. 5,738s*i. m.; p. (10685
Bure, B., Norfolk, Eng, 192,752.
Burg, t., Magdeburg, E. Germany; on jOile Canal; Busto Arsizio, Varese prov., N. Italy; 19 m.
leather goods, iron, furniture, machin. ; p. (1663) N.W. of Milan; cotton milling etr., iron, steel,
80,026. rayon, textile machin.; p. (1961) G4M7.
Burgas spt, Bulgaria: on Black Sea; copper, Bute, 1., CO., Firth of Clyde, Scotland ; 16 m. long
engin., chemicals, textiles: oil reSining; pt. for and S-5 m. broad; ch. t.. Eothe-say; a. 218
oil tankers under constniction; p. (1050). sa. m.; p. (1961) 15.129. [Antyll.
72.798
Burgenland, prov., Austria ; a. 1.620 so. in. ; p.
(1961) 271,001. [tiles; p. (1961) 13.990.
Burgess Hill, urb. dist., Sussex, Eng.; bricks,
Burghausen, L, W. Germany; oil refmmg: p. (1960) 27.S77.
pipeline to Munich. Bnttermere, L.. Ciimberiand, Eng.
Burgos, c., Spain: oath.; hosiery, leather cloth, Buxton, mtin. bor.. Derby, Eng. ; wat. p . nr. High
tyres; p. (1959) S7,520. Peak dist.: spa t.; lime ouarrying nearby: p.
Burgos, prov.. Old Castile, Spain; ch. t., Burgos: (estd. 1907) 19.730.
oil; a. 6,425 sa. m.: p. (1959) 401,391.
Burgstadt, (., Karl-Marx-Stadt. E. Germany:
textiles, machin.; p. (1963) 17J67.
Burgundy, old rywv., N.E. Prance: composed
largely of upper yaHey of E. SaSne; famous
vineyards ; strategic petition on route leading
from Ehone valley to EMne valley. Bydgoszcz, prot)., Poland: cap. , _
Burhanpur, t, Madhya Pradesh. India ; ancient Es. Vistula, Brda and Notec; a. 8,031 sa. m. :
walled Mogul city: textiles, brocades: p. (1961) p. c. l,704BO0.
82,000. Byelorussia (White Bussm), constdve'al rep.,
Burlinôn, t., 8. Ont., Canada, on E. Ontario, U.S.S.K,; cap. Minsk: oil at Beelut?!--; fslt at
N.E. of Hamilton: In fruit-growing a.: indus- Mozyr; a. 81,090 sa. m.; p. (1970) S.OOS.OOS.
tl. development; tourism; p. (istd.) 47,000. Byron C., mo^ easterly point of Australhi, Pacifla
Burlington, c., Iowa, IJ.S.A, : on Wufls of Missis- coast of N-S-Wk _ , v, , ,
sippi E.; machin., fumiture: p. (1900) SS.'iSO. Bytom (Beuthen), i.. Upper Silesia, Poland;
Builington,
plain: statept.,univ.;
Vt.. ’U.S.A.:
timber: E.p.side of L.35,531.
{I960) Cham- mining;
German before 1945 :p. coal.
ironinds.; (1065)zinc, lead and iron
133,d£W.
Burma (Union of), rep. 1948 ; ch. mtns. : Arakan
Yoina, Pegu Yoma; chief rivers: Irrawaddy,
Salween ; forested ; agr. : rice, fruit, tobacco ; , ^ .
timber, teak; mlnerais; petroleum, precious Cabinda, Port, endare, AtL cst., w. Africa,
stones, rubies, sapphires: textUe, sugar and separated froin Angola by t..ongo K. est.;
Jute mills projected : cap. Eaneoon; a. 261,789 hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, palm oil pro®.,
sa. m.. p. (estd. 1969) 27,000,000. recent oil tod: a. 2,794 m. m. : p. c. 50££0.
Burnham-on-sea, urb. disk. Somerset, Eng.; on Cabot Strait, entrance ot GuH of SI. Iswience
Bridgwater Bay. 10 m. S. of Weston-super- between C. Breton I. ^ Newfoundland.
aiaie: resort: p. (1961) 9,SS0. Cabra, (.. Spain
p. (1957) ; SO m, _
32.174.^ 8.E. of ^ Odrdova ; college ;
Buraham-on-Crouch, urb. dist. , Essex, Eng. ; yacht
sailing, oysters, boat bldg.; p. (1901) 4,167. Gdoeres, prov-.W. Spain; pastoral; a. 7,705 w.
Bumie, spi., Tasmania, Australia; pastoral and m.; p. (1969) .756,202. . „ .
agr.,’ paiier
minal; pulp 18,028.
p. (1966) mftg ; chemicals; oil ter- 1 Cdcer®, ancient (., Spain;
Castra largestp. bun-r^
Caeoiiia; in
(1957) 52,000.
Burnley, indusU. t., co. bor., Lancs, Eto.: cotton. 1 Cachar. Seine. France:, p. (1954) 16,965.
•weaving, coal; p. (estd. 1987) 78.060. Cachar, dist. Assam. Intlla: tea-growing otr.: a.
Burntisland, royal puwh. East Fife, Scot.; on F. 2.6S8 sq. m.: p. (1961) 1.378,476.
of Forth.*
inds.; nr. Kirkcaldy:
p. (1961) 6,038. shlpbldg., aluminium Cachoeira, {., BaWa, Brazil; historic„ ,
1968) 32,432. o.; p. (estd.
„
Burra, E. and W.. two Shetland Is.. Scot, Cachoeira do Sul, (., Elo Grade do Sul. Brazil; p.
Hurray, one of the Orkney Is., Scot. (estd. 1968) 98.927. ,
Burria^ t, $pt,. Spain; oranges, wine; p. Ciadarache, t., S. France; nr, Aix-en-Brovenoe:
(1957) 17,697. nudear research centre. .
Purrinlunir,* k. 'n.S.W. Angf,raliH.; on Marram- Caa6riaiis,t„ !nt«.,Môneth, Mich., U.S.A,; Wales;
rubber alb. 2,929
tyres, ft.
wood
hldgee E., N. of Cianberra; siiie of impt. dam Cadillac,
pro'riding irrigation in Eiverina dfet, and metm prod.; p. (1960) 10J12,
Burry Port, «r6. tUsi., Carmarthen, Wales ; p. 1 Cadiz, marUitae prov., S. Spain ; cap. CMiz: a.
(1961) 5,671. 2,827 sq.m.; p. (1969) 311,531.
Bursa, c., Turkey; 60 m. S. Istanbul ; fruits, Cadiz, fortress t, sjpf.. Andalusia, S. Spain; aberry,
carpets, tapestry; Kip. of Bithynfe prior to the coric. fruit. oUve oil tunny flah: naval base;
Christian Bra. and later of the Ottoman Bm- univ.; one of mewt ancient ts. in Europe, built
pire: P. (1965) 312,513. „ „ by Kfoenidans, c. 1100 B.O,; p. (1959) 113,S2o.
Burslffln. t., part of Stoke-mi-Trent. Stafra. Caen, c. cap., Calvados, France; church and
Burton Latimer, Mri). dist.. Northants., Eng.; p. aiffjey, tomb of William the Conqueror; jmiv,;
(1961) 4,401. . ^ ^ ^ iron ore, lane, gloves exported; severely dam-
Burton-on-®cent, indusu. t., co. oor.. Staffs, ag«i in Second World War; p. (IMS) 110,762
Eng.;^ brewing, malting. robbCT go^, ewto.:
steel, footwear, chemicals: p. (estd. 1967) 50,220. 8 m, N.E. of Newport; Eoman remams; agr,
Bum, J.. Indonesia; W. ofSerang. machin, twls. bricks; p, (1961) 4jiS4. ^
BurSiiC t. Iran; ’ cotton, oarp^; p. (1956) CaeiaiaxTOn, royal 6(w-.. mp. Camiônshire. N.
4^^ I • Wales: on S. shore of Menai Strait; cas. where
1962).
Julyterr. tet Prin<»
formerly _ tened; (M^d p. n)
Wes plastira,^
^te, ofbncta, w-M oto
Urundi, indep.
Burundi,’ of U.N. (1
part Umdom trust of Euanda- (1961)
UranS'untor Belgian’adm.; cap.' Buiumbura; Caemarvonshl^ mtmus.marit
slate and stone Quai^, ifiad-ntom; oa^
TOffhe; a. 10,747 sq.m.: P,(^ta. 1967)3,340.0(50.
on E. Irwell barley, dieep, (SÊtle;
Bury, t., CO. bof., S.E. Lancs. :
to S. of Eossendale Fells; cotton, textflea. _ <3.^ ifc)v a. W9 M. ^^. (196^1-0,000.
migin., paper makg.; p. (estd. 1967) e4J40. GlamorgM, S. ^ cas..
Bury St. Edmunds, mm. bor.. W. Suffolk; mon- coal. to. h^tinto.
at
astic remains; torn implements, bre-wing. Caesar Mazat^ a nc. c.. Asia Minor, resadence
toe_^Ppadoc,.an
p. (estd- 1967) 24,200. _ ■'tto CappadSctoi Kings; the Kayeri,
modem Kayeri.
the modem
rep., processing;
sugar-beet
Buryat, E.S.F.SkB.. U.S.SJK,.: Ige. deposit ^ Turkey. _ „ « -iw+
of graphite : ch. t. Ulan Ude : a. 136.500 sq. m. ; Ca®a«a PalestmaA old c.. 1®^ 20 m. S. Mt.
Carmel; cap. of Herod the Creak
P. IM 1967) I
Bushiie, see Bandar-e-Busiiehr. Igs* iron and steel wks.

GAZETTEESS
(toM. iwm.. FhilimiM is.,

Tnrrm iiiiiippme
mmm- Lnzoa. P. (1960) Caldas, dep.,
Is : v. Colombia, S. America; cap. Man!-
^ ^ ^ 1.399.590.
Italian vrm., oompriaing S. half of Sar- Caidar, t.. S.W. MidlotMan ; shale mines, oilwto. ;
CmS! OT a cSf «tL and CaWeff Lancs. Eng. ; Joins theEiM)le.

Si (196«“m.«». calder. B.. W.B. Yorks. Eng. ; fcrib. of AJre E.
f AlS-MaSradep^rance: Gaidar HaU, Cumberland; first fnU-scale nuclear
11954) 22 OSS. power sta. in world (1960) owned and operated
Ca^f«f«rOT‘ iStmdOT of Cork and Kerry, by U.K. Atomic Energy Authority; electricity
• "ns • hfehesfc Botot 2.249 ft. and plutonium prod.
Cflbl f fiSCrflSdU onB.Suir: ancient Caldwell, t. Idaho, U.S A.; p.aooo) 22.23d.
and aSeyTlMlic® 2?74ft Caldy Pembroke coast.
Pembroke coast. Wales; lighthouse:
Wales; lighthouse:
and abbey- p (1966)’ 2,743.
CaSiSi,(. Kerry. Ireland: p. (1966) 2.342. dtappist Caldy I., offinonastery. .. ,
cap.. Lot; Fmaee; cath.; distilleries. Caledon^n Ca^, from Moray Pirth to Loch
f^n^sS- n (1954) 25.334 Linnhe, Scot., connecting North Sea with
(^ba* OT»r pt.f p. (1953) 22.357. Atlantic; 62 J m. long; opened In 1822.
k# & Sal^s U. Call o! Man. sm. I.. S.W. L of Man, Eng. ; a. 620
Cairusorm. min., Invemes and Banff Scot.; ês. , , . _ , . - ,,
rit 4 0^4 ft * natJoxuil nature rêrrc. Calgary, ch. t.. Alherta. Canada, ctr. of ranching
d'oeensiaiul, Australia; on Trinity country: lumber-mills, tanueries, oil refining;
Bay; bSfc Eugar pt; tourist ctr.; p. (1966) _ P- (1996) 330,575. i i,- n,
PS 555 [alt. 4.241 ft. Cali, t., cap., Valle del Cauca, Colombia; on Cauca
fiiUm’tnaii'ca».
Calro.c, »&»C.A.B.;
lavameiis
on E.and
bankAberdeen,
of Nile atSoot.:
head by; E.; comm, ctr.;
textiles, inrichagr.a.;
tyres, coal mined
paper, plastics; near-
p. (estd.
of Nife delta; nniy.; tourist ctr.; mnfs. 1962) 053,220. fspices: p. (1961) 202.522.
cotton, paper, sflk; p. (1960) 3,340,000. Gallont, spt.. mfta. U Kerala, Inc^; wffee.
Cairo, in.. 0.S A, ; Mnfiuence of Mississippi and California, most unpt. of Pacific States,
OMo- extensiye trafflUi: p. (1960) 9.348. E.SA. ; mountainons and forested bub fertile
(S.istsr, N of Yarmouth. Norfolk. Eng.; valleys: Balubrious climate; rich in minerals.
rained ca* ; IjoMay rwrt. oU, natural gas, gold, silver, copper, steel: oil
Csltlmw. CO.. Scot.: mist N. part of mainland: refining: films: fruit; cap. Sacramento: ch.
flat with much moorland; herring fishery; poor pt. San Erancisco, test. c. Los Angeles; has
a«r.; ouarrying: ch. ts. Wick, Thurso: a. 686 279 inoorporeted cities ; a. 158.693 sq. m. ; p.
aj. m.: p. (1961) S7J345. (1970) 19,690,840.
(Mvaao. indmS. L, Italy; NJ5. of Naples. California Current, E, Oo^ flows N. to S.
CaMco Eeservoir, S. Cal., TT.S.A. : hfli-top along cst. of Ora., and Cal.. U.8.A. ; relatively
kwation nr. Eiveralde. 55 m. S.B. of Los cold water: reduces summer temp, and causes
Angeles : stores water brought 242 m. by fog in cst. a. especially nr. San Erancisco.
aqmlact from Parker Bes. on E. Colorado, for Califomia, O. of, Mexico: 700 m.l.; Mat of Pac. Oc.
diatrilmtion throughout Los Angeles plain. California, Lower, fair., Mexico; between Gulf of
Cajanmrca, N. Peru; mining and agr.; gold O. and Pacific: cap. La Paa; chiefly a sterile
and silver deposits found 1965; a. 12.538 sq.m.: region; some mineral wealth; a. 65,654 sq. m. ;
p. C1961) S4S.090. P. (1950) 287,360. [Coast, India.
Cajamarca, f.. cap. Cajamarca prov., Peru: mng. Gallmsre Point, most S. point of Coromandel
ctr.. dairjdng, cloth, leather, straw hats: Calistoga, t.. Cal., IJ.S.A.; tr. ctr., wine, grapes;
thermal spriais: p. (1961) 37,000. hot springs: p. {I960) 1,514.
CsStar, m., S.E. Nteria, W. Afrioa; exp. ^ Callan, rural Mst.. mM. KUkenny, Ireland; on
palm
47JOOO. oil. kemals. rubber. Ivory, cement; p. c. the King’sinM.
Callander, E.; t.p. burgh,
(1961) 5,963.
Perth, Scot.; on E.
(Mabow, t, N. Veneatâ, S. Ammica; cattle, Teith. 15 m. N.W. of Stirling; " the gate of the
agr., far. iot.; p. 7,223. Highlands,” tourist resort; p. (1961) 1,054.
eaJfira, sxteJM S.W. Italy; moun- Callao, dep., Peru; cap. O.; a. 14 sq. m.; p.
WnoM am ftarfcile; htehesfc point Mt. PoIIlno H961) 223,200.
7,825 ft. ; ch. E. Oatl; cmeate, wine, oHves, Callao, i., spt.. cap. Callao dep., Peru; linked by
mdt; copper, marble: tunny fish; a. 6,830 riy. toLima: exp. sugar, cotton; oil refining:
sq.m.:t., p.<l»61)2J45,225.
Ctaliffiit, Eonanla; on Buteanan■ p. (estd.
frontier, opp. Caine, mkJ.1983)224.230. , , _Eng.; on Maiden
i»«n. 6or., Wilts,
VMn: p. (1966) 3^002. E,; bacon factory; p. (estd. 1967) 9,290.
Mahotta, t., Logrono, ^paln: cato.; pimmtoes, Calonne-Eioouart, commune. Pas-de-Calaia dep.,
wIm; «i E. Ebro: p. (1957) 23,524. Prance; coal; p. (1954) 20.397.
Oidai*, Rb da OaWs, NJS. Stance; cross- Calota, gold-flMd diet.. Colombia, S. America,
chamnel feory pt, oppertte to and 21 m. dfetant Calstook, {.. E. Ctomwail, Eng.; on Tamar Kituary.
froanBovOT: lace, fidtiing; p. (1962) 70,707, (Mtagdrone, c.. Oatanla, Sicily; oath.; local
Ckdmia, oasi$, AntdOagasta. prov.. N. Chile; in mkt.; p. (1961) 44,212,
Apt/mm, teert at fbofc of Antein CordlDei^ Caltanissetta, f„ cap., Caltanlssette prov.. Sicily,
ISO m. K.E. of Antofagasta on main rly. to Italy; catti.: suIMnr; p. (1961) 02,115.
La Paz; water from E. Loa supplies Anto- Calulre-at-Clare, t, EhOne, Prance, on SaOne E ;
fagasta and used for irrigation locally. coal: p. (1954) 19,880.
Catomar, t. Bohvar dep., Colombia; on E. Calumet, t., MlCh., tJ.SA..; on peninsula In L.
Magdalena 60 m. from mouth, connectied by mil Superior; copper-mining; p. (1960) 1,139.
to Cartagena; handles ttaffio between Cartagena Calvados, dep., N.W. Prance; cap. Caen; live-
wad Magdalena valley; p. (estd. 1969) 21,000. stock, dairying, fisheries, textiles, liqueur
Calntnianes Is., Fhiliimtae Is. ; between Mindoro brandy: a. 2.197 sq. m.; p. (1968) 519JS95.
aaxd Palawan Is. [p. 11J285. Calvtala, 4^ CJape Province. S. Africa; p. 3,627.
Catanas, eommme, S. Spain; pyrit^ olives: Cam, E., Cambridge, Eng. ; trib. of Case ; length
Catexaaf. t. SJ8. Eomanla: on the Danube: 40 m. [m.; p. (1953) 323.253.
comm, ester.; p, (1963) 29,474. Oamagttoy, prov., Cuba. W. Indies; a, 10,169 sq.
Ca&aiao. U Lnaon, Philippines: liats; p. (1948) Camagfioy, cap.. Camagttey, Central Cuba: p.
23.269. (1968) 110.388.
tîataftml, eomimme, Sicily; Garibaldi defeated Camôre,!, Central Italy; footof ApuanAlps. in
Neapofitans, Biay 1860; p. 11,484. prov. of Lucca; old church.
CaMa9T*il,t„8pMn; 66 m.S.W. Saragossa; cas. ; Cainargue, cJelta disf,. Bouches-du-EhOno, Prance ;
weapons; ûxmiH^; p. (1967) 18.702. atmoutiiofE.Eh6ne;£amou3col.offlamingoe3;
(teBsayof, („ Samar. Philippine Is.; hemp trade, a. 800 sq, m.
Mseries: p. {I960) 77,4^. (kunaiihos Norte, prov,, Luzon, Philippine Is,;
Qam, L, mssaabaigf E. Germany; on E. Saale; mtna. and fertile land; agr., minerals; cap.
*^,^**^,?**®^ chemicals; Daet; a„ 829 sq. m.; p. (1960) 233,032.
p. U998) 26j«59. Camas, t. Wash., n.8.A- ; agr., pulp, paper,
BengaLIniRt; onE.Hooghll; fruit canning; p. (1960) 5,066.
vast ft. from Gtengra plain; mriv. ; Jute-mllls; Cambay, Q., separates ^thlawar peninsula from
eatp. Juto cotton. sugarMane. rice, tea, rilk. Qulerat st., India,
cot^ p. (1961) anpoiation a. 2,927,289 1 Camberwell, see Southwark,
metropolitan, a. SMQ0J8S. Cambodia, kingdom (until 1969), prodalmed Kher
plywood, isaper, tyres, cement: oil refinery nr
Kompons Som. a. 70,000 sa- m.: p. (estd. 1969
7M0J000.
Camborne, t, Cornwall, Eng.; 11 m. S.W. Traro health resort, known as the Switzerland of
old tin- and copper-mines; engin,, radio-tele Brazil; p. (estd. 1968) 19.676.
vision assembly, textiles and chemicals: p. (Cam-
bome-Bedruth urb. dist.) {estd. 1967) ^,600.
'ITiTTrrfriilli
Cambral, t., fiord dep.. Prance ; on Schelde B. ; ... — - - N.W. of Bttsfliar-
linen, brewing, soap; p. (1984) 29M7. est.; summer rffiort; p. (1963) 22,696,
Cambridge and Isle of Ely, co., Eng. ; Es. Onse, Ken, mda, DtHuinlraa of, N. America; dominion
Cam; wheat, oats, potatoes, fmit, dairying, founded 1867, toe. twelve provinces: Nova
light engin., light IMua.; p. (1966) S94J)Q0. &»tia. New Brunswick. PrioM Edward I.,
Cambridge, «j«w. hor.. Main, c., co. i., Cambridge, Quebec. Ontario, Maaitote, Saskatchewan,
Eng.: on (tom E.; famous nniv. with residtL .Mberte, Brit. Columbia, Newfoundland with
colleges; leading ctr. of research-based ind.: Labradm*, Yukon and Northwest T®rritoiries
p. (estd 1969) 100^00. _ , (Franklin, Eieewatin, Mackenzie) ; cap. Ottawa;
Great Mbjs; Eocky Mtns.; Gr^ Plains; St.
Lawrence, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie Eb.:
ctr.; p. (I960) 107.716. Trans-Canada Highway 4860 m. long runs from
Cambnslang, par., Lanark, Scot.; turkey red dye- St. John’s (NeômiBand) to Victoria (b.C.)
works, hostery, engin, plate mill: on Clyde B,; cmenedl962; extreme cUmate, IMflc sealxwd
p. (1961) S6,S61. mild: coimiferons forest belt except for Central
Camden, inner 6or., 17. London, Eng.; incorporat¬ grass-lands, tundra to N.; agr.: wheat, oats,
ing former bora, of Hampstead, Holbom and dairying; pulp, paper: coal, gold, copper,
St. Pancras; p. (1966) 240.000, nickel, zinc, lead, radimn. uranium; oil, natural
Camden, ntj%7. and restdM. c. iT.J„ IJ.SJi. ; on gas: fisheries; furs: hydro-electric power:
Delaware E., snbnrban and opposite Phila¬ impt. mnfs.: a. 3,851,809 sq.m.; p. tostd. 1969)
delphia ; iron foundries, chemicals, glass, 21,007.000.
wir&ess sets, shipbldg.; p. (1960) 117,159. Canada Dam, Bihar, Indian Union; on E.
Camden Town, indusU. and resifiKl. d%st„ London, Jitoyorakshl, 160 m. from CMcutta,
Canadian Coast Bangs, mtns.. B.O., W. Canada;
Eng. ;E..NJB.
Camel, of Eegent’sEng.
B. Cornwall, Park.
; length 30 m. extend N.W. to 8JE. along cst. ; penetrated by
Camerino, c., SJaoerata, CentraJ Italy, in Apenninra; deep inlets (fjords) with very Httte cst. plain;
the anaent Camerinm annexed to Papal States drained by short, swift Es., cro«d only by B.
in 16th century; nniv. oath. Skeena to N.. B. Fraser in 8.. whMi give acorn
Cameron, c., Tejtas, TIB.A-; p. (1960) to Interior; marked climatio barrieir. to W.
Cameron B^, 1., N.W. Terr„ Canada; by Gr. equable climate wltii heavy afl-year rain, to B.
BeaxLake; radium. . more extreme semd-arld climate, espedaHy m
CkmMroffloa, British (BTorth and South), former TaDey fiooaB.
trust terrs. under British adm. (Northern part Canadian B., trib. (flowing &om New Mexico) of
achieved independence as part of Nigeria Arkansas TJ.8.A. ; length 900 m.
dauna prov.), and Southern part as part of Canal du Centre, canal, SaOne-et-Loire dep.,
Cameroun CWeatem prov.) (1961): a. 34,031 France; links BMne-Saane valley at Chatoi-
sq. m.; p. (estd 1960) 1,621,000. snrBadne with E. Lobe at Dfeoto; serves Le
Cameroun, Fhd. Rep. of, ind. somrelm si. (Jan. Creusot Coalfield: !engtti60m.
1960): comprises Eastern Cameroxm (tomer Canal 2kme, Panama; strip (rf land iMsad to
TIN. trust tarr. under French adm.) and vvcct- U.SJu for Panama Canal ; a. 648 sq. m. (276
em Cameroun (former TJN. trust terr. under sq. m. water); p. (1960) 42,122.
British adm.). Fed. cap. Yaonndd: thnber, Cananea, i., Mexico ; cattle, ooppm-, mver. lead,
cocoa, pi^ kernels. p<wm oil. groundnuts, zino; p. 117906.
bananas, coffee: a. 183,000 sq. m.: p. (estd. Cafiar, prov., Beuador; cap, Azoques; Boca
1968) ff.ff62MOO. remains; agr„ Panama hats; a. 1,521 sq. m.;
Oam^nin, I., Philippines; in Mindanao Sea; p. (estd. 1962) 112.6IS.
mtns.; sugar, rice, toteioco; a. 96 sq. m.; Canaries Current, ocemi cwmrf; ftows S. aloM
N.W. cst. of Afeioa flXHn CatsaManca to <X
p. (1960) HdWd.
Camiwina, , ■ coastal
Italy; malarial ^ plain , rouM Verde; rdatively cold and has very marked
Eome ; now b&ig drained; new commune of cooling e&ct on Saharan coasOands.
Latina founded 1982. , „ , Canary Is., or Canmles, N. AM. Oc.; group of 7
Campania, region, S. Italy; ch. t. Naples; a. Is. belonging to Spain. 60 m. c& Africa and
6,260 sq. m.: p. (1961) 4.7B6M94. . _ 700 m. a <rf Gibraltar; compr. Tenerife L. the
Campaspe, E., Fmtoria, Anstralte; &am- ; Igst. (cap. Santa CktB), Gran (jaimia (cap.
plan Mtais., flows N. into E, Murray at Ec^m ; i Las Palmas). Palma, Gcancra. Htaxo, Fuerte-
supplies water for irrigated area beewemi ventm®,ImttaaTOte; topical liodnce;^ exp.,
Eoohestar and Echnca ; length, 140 m. bananas, mang^ tmnatoes, vegetaito and
CampbeOhm. t, apt.. New Branswi**, Canada; tobacco: wine, cochineal; a. 4,685 sq. m.;
lumbering, filling; (1961) 9,873.
CampbeHtown, N.S.W., Ansfa^; , dMry and Canastoia, p. (1962)567.157. ■
i, N.Y., U.S.A.; engin.. tenilure,
plasMcs; p. (I960) 4M6. , ^
ponitey ctr.; propcsed as satellite t. for Sydney;
V. (1966) 22MS. , „ c , Ctobeixa, Auskalian Ctoital Tterritory, AusfaAHa;
Craipbeltown, bmih, spiU in Gr. Dividing Bai«e (alt. c. 6,000 ft.) 200 m.
Firth of Clyde cst. of peninsula Of Kintyre; S.W. of Sydney; ^(rtrrfsocLcfffkBnmcaiwealfih;
distilling, flMting: p. (1961) 6,S25. nniv.; 911 sq. m.; p. Off 1. 19^ 92^9. ,
Campese, si., Yucatan, Mexico; hot, flat ai^ Ctencale, i. IBe-et-Vaaine dep.. N. Frrace; St.
nhheaBhy; rise, cotton, logwood, chfcle. sM; Mehael’s Bay; oysters; p. {1954) 6,463.
a. 19.670 Ba.m.; p. (1960) Oandia (HeraMMon). Ckete; midw» along
Campeche, «»i>. t of si, spL. Mextoo: aa G. .^ N. cst.: olive raisms; p. (1961) 64,492.
Mexico; exp. l<«wood, sisal, hemp; p. (1960) Canea, ace EOiaifla.
31,272. [lands: battle 1797. CanMoims, dap., Umgnay ; wine ; a. 1334 sq. m. ;
Cwnperdown, oQ. on dunes, N. Holland, Neiier- p. (1958) 201359. ' ^ _
Camjflna Grmtfle, L, Paraiba. BiazS: agr.: tex- Cafiete, sm. wi. Uma d®« Pern. 8. Ameri^;
tUes, veg. oils: p. (est^ 1968) 157,149. 75 m, SH. of Callao; exp. cotton grown under
nmnipiTniH, i . -Rrajiil; B5m.N-of SaoPaulo; coffee;
irrigaMon in (kmete valley.
machin.; rubber gds.; p. (estd. 1968) 232 J4S. Cangaa de Onls, co«»8tuN<^ Spain; agr.. cattle;
Oampine or KempaniitTirt, disL, provs. Limburg ooaL cGTOpet, tanito; p. (1957) 10.713.
and Antwerp, B^tehnn : coalneld. , , Cangas de%neo, i. Ovtoo. Spain; nr. N. cat., 35
Campo Bdo, i.. itfinas (Serais st.. Biaril; impt. m. B. of ddiedo; woefitens, Unena: p. (1967)
cattle ctr.: p. (estd. 1968} 30.810. 21300.
CAN-CAR K34 GAZETTEER
the N. shore of the L. of Galilee:
CSmitata i. Sicily : galphux; in fruit-growing Palestine, onTell
dist • V 27 SÔ modern Hum (Israel).
Ctama^W'l..'Hehrides. Scot: basaltic pillars. Capo d’lsteia. Kwer. -r,, , . ^
Catmaaore, f.. Kerala. India: exp. timber, coco- Capraja, Oappoqum, t.. Waterford, E o.l on Blackwater E.
nuts- p (16011 iS 9S0 Italian I. in the Mediterranean, 10 m.
Cannet’di),
J2 SOI B. Ctoraica
t, Aipes’-Marittaies. France: p. (1964) Caprera, ; anciently
Italian N.E. CMiraiia.
L offcalled Sardinia, where
C8naes..^..dep.Alpes -M8ritimes, France; 20 m. Garibaldi Uved. ,
SW Kice- famoufl winter resort; perfomes; Caprese, commune, Tuscany, Italy; birthplace of
D *I9®5 S7 I3‘^ Michelangelo; p. 3,195.
CtmnocS and fednestord, vrb. dist.. Staffs, Eng.. Capil, I. and of
residence Bay of Napto:
t., inAugustus tourist resort;
and Tiberius : the
!.n S.W. flank of Cannock Chase. 7 m. N.E. of ancient Caprae; famous Blue Grotto; fine
WolTerhampton: coal-nmg.. engin., bricte, tiles, wines; p. (t.) 4.500: (I.) 8.050.
tools, elec, goods, car parts: p. (estd. 1967) Capua, ancient fort. c.. Campania, Italy; 20 m,
5SM0.
N. of Naples; founded by the Etruscans,
CtaonsbiTig, bor., Penns., U.S JI.; coal. ^b. oil, came under Eoman rule, sacked by the Sara¬
p. (1960) 11.S77. „ . ^ ^ tSerapB. cens: modem t. 2 m. N. of site of ancient
Canopus, atm. e.. Lower E.A.E.; gr. teiwle to Casilinum ; flreworks-mkg. ; cath. ; p. 14,375.
totsosa, t. Armlfei, S. Italy : rath. ; the Eoman
C^BMum : etr. of oMre-growingdist. ; p. S7,341. Cardoa^ cap.. Venesmela ; 8 m. mland from its
lyniBitigianji, mtm.. N. Spain, from Pyrenees to pt.. La Guaira; alt. about 3.000 ft.: cath.;
Cape Finisterre, hgst. pk. Pena Vieja (8,736 ft.). univ.; coffee, cacao, textiles, soaps, detergents,
Cantal. mmntmnms tfep.. Central Prance: steel, car assembly: underground rly. projected;
mineral ra>rings. main, dairying ; coal, marble ; p. (1961) 739,255. _
cap. Anrillac: a. 2,229 sa.m.: p. (1968) IG9.530. Caravaoa, f.. Murcia. Spam; iron, tanning; p.
Cauterbary, e., co. bor.. Kent, Eng.; at foot of (^67) 31,TOd. . [(19^) 20,955.
N. Dowm? on E. Stour: famous cath. founded Carhallo, (., Corunna, Spam; industl.; fishing; p.
A.D. 597 by St. Augustine: shrine of the mnr- Carbon County, N. Utah, U.S.A.; contains
der«i Thomas a Becket, a place of pilgrimage immense reserves of good coking coal suitable
for centuries: univ.; fruit growing, tanning; p. for blast furnaces ; notyet developed.
(mtd. 19693 33,140. Caxbondale, f.. Penns., U.S.A.; anthracite: p.
(toterirary, pwe.. S.I.. N.Z.; cap. Christchurch: (1960) 13,595. , ,, „
a. 13,940 so. m.: p. (1961) 339,333. Carbonla, t, Sardinia; built 19S7-38 nr. lignite
Canterbury Plains, rich grazing and wheat- and barite area ; v, 13,000.
growing dist. S.I., N.Z.: along E. cat., famous Caroagente, t, W. of CuUera. Valencia, Spain:
for “ Canterbury Lamb ” ; oh. t. Christchurch; oranges: p. (1955) 18,002.
Lyttelton.
ch. pt. Lyttelton. Carcar, f., Cebu. Philippine Is. ; sugar ind. ;
CanlaTho,
Tho.L.S.
t.,S. Vietnam; on Mekong E.; rice, fish; fish; p. (1948) 32,313.
tr. ctr.
ctr.:: p. 37,000.
27,000. Carcassonne, t., Aude, Franco: on Aude E.;
Canton (Ghmagahou) di. e.,
mton (Ghiajwhou) c., Kwantung, S. China:
China: historic citadel guarding impt. routeway ftom
Chu-kiaiig (Pearl E.);
on bank of (ihu-kiang E.) ; former treaty
treaty Aquitaine to EhSne valley ; farm implements :
pt: impt.
inipt. tr. ctr.; thermal power stas; maohin.
maohin. wines, cloth; p. (1962) 43,709.
1,840,000.
bldg, plant : p. (1957) 1,840,000. Caiohi, protv, Ecuador; cap. Tulcan; a, 1,495
Canton,
mton, L, HI..ni.. U.S.A.: mnft.; p. (1960) 13,588.
13,588. sq. m.; p. (1962) 93,824.
Ctaiton, industt. and agr. c., Ohio, U,S.A.: coal. Cardamon Hills, Travancore, S. India: forms
farm machla.. engin.; p. (1960) 113,631. extreme S.W. edge of Deccan plateau; drained
Canton E., see Chnkiang. W. by E. Periyan, E. by E. Vaigai; rainfall
Caavey I., urb. dmt.. Essex; fronting the Thames: less seasonal than over most of India ;
restrt; radio components, bookbinding, iron "China*’ tea plantations on middle slopes:
and wire wk.. oil storage: oil refinery projected; rise to over 8.000 ft. alt.
liquid gas terminal; p. (estd. 1967) 22,170. Cardenas, t., Matanzas, Cuba; sugar, rice, rum;
CSap-de-Ia-MadelMne, L, Que.. Canada; p. (1961) p. (1953) 47.760.
28.925. Ciamiff, cap. c., apt., co. bor., Glamorgan, Wales;
CkiD Baitien, spL, Eqp. of Haiti; on N. ost.; univ.; docks, coal, iron, steel, engin.. elect,
bombarded by BritMi 1865; p. (1961) 24.959. goods, brewing, paper: p. (estd. 1968) 287,000.
Capannotl, t., Lucca, Italy; sOkind.: p. 39,537. Cardigan, «««. 6of., co. t.. Cardigan, S. Wales: on
Cape Breton L, Nova Sootto. E, CSanada ; farming. Teifl E. ; p. (1961) 3,780. [N. and S.
timlxsT. (Whlng; di. t. Sydney ; a. 8,120 sq. m. Cardigan Bay, loe. bay, W. Wales, 70 m. extent
Cape Chifiley, I. off N. point of labrador. Cardiganshire, maritime co., S. Wales : moun-
Cape Coast, f., Ghana; on rat, 60 m. S.W. of tainous; mainly agr., mines and quarries;
Accra: palm ofl: p. (1960) 41 J43. a. 692 sq. m.; p. (1966) 53,090. [oil refining.
Cape Giradeau, t.. Mo., U.S.A.: p. (1960) 47J934. Caiddn, t„ N. Venezuela. ParaguanS, peninsula;
Cape Kennedy, E. Fla., UB.A., on Atl. Oc.. sea- Cardross, indnstl. viL, Dunbarton, Scot. ; on
ward extr^ty of barite is. Bhelteing Bahama E. dyde: Eobert Bruce d. 1329 in Cardross
E. Lagoon; mil. base for testing missiles. Castle.
C. ol Gi^ Hope, S. Africa; fomous headland. Cardwell, t, Queensland. Australia; harbour;
S. of Cai» Town, 1,000 ft. high. gold-mining dist. [(I960) 3,722.
Cape Province (formerly Cape of Good Hope Carey, t., Ohio, U.S.A. ; mkt. gaioiening; p.
Colony), prov., Eep. of S. Africa; physical fea- Cargenhridge, t., Kirkcudbright, Scot.; chemicals,
tures: Drakensberg Mtns., Orange and Caledon plastics.
E., Gr. Karroo, lit. Karroo; scanty rain except Caribbean Sea, between W. Ladies and Central
S. and E. cst.: sheep raising; wheat, citrus and S. America ; a. 7,600 sq. m.
fruits, grapes, tobacco; fisheries: diamond and Caribou Range, B.C., W. Canada; mass ot
copper mng. in Namaqualand: automobile ancient crjâlline rocks inside the gr. bend
^sembly. textiles, food canning; includes of E. Frazer; widespread occurrence of lode
TtanskMan tens, in east.; a. 278,465 sq. m.; p. and alluvial gold ; mainly alx)ve 5.000 ft.
(lOM) 5.362,853 incL 1J>03,207 whites. Caribou, t., Maine. UB.A.; p. (1960) 3,305.
Capa .Town, spt., cap. of Capo Province, and Caribrod, i., JugeSiavia : on Nlsava B. ; p. 4J000.
l^sSative cap. of Eep. of S. Africa; on Table Caihnata I., ofl S.W. Borneo, Indonesia.
Bay, 30 m. N. of C. (rf Good Hope; communi- Carinthia, prov., Anstria; cap. Klagenfhrt;
cation by rail direct with Ebodesia, Transvaal, mtnous.; mineral spring; rye, oats: lead,
urawe am Natal: docks; cath.; univ.; exp. iron; a. 3.681 sq. m.; p. (1961) 495.225,
WOOL pld, dtomonds; ofi refinery under con- Ciaiisbrooke, t.. I. of Wight, Eng ; oas. prison of
(too. 333.413 Whites). Carlingiord, t, apt., Lotddi, Ireland; on CarUng-
C. VMdc l^nds, Portugi^ Is., in Atlantic, 360 ford Charles
Bay; 1 (1647-8)
oysters; : p. (1961) 5.23k"' "
la* w* TO Ca Verge, Amca; divided into two Garliagtord« lioiigh» [Louth. Irel^.
Mat of sea between Down and
(Windward) and Sotavento Carlinville, t.. BL. U.S,A. : bricks and tiles, agr.
(Leeward) ; 16 ^ and islets ; a. 1,516 sq. m. ; machin.; p. (1960) 5.440.
L. CO. bor., Cumberland, Eng.; on Eden
^ 8 from Îway Firth; impt. route ctr.;
, ancient oas. and cath.; textiles, biscuits, metal
tapemaum, in tune of Clirist impt. place in boxes: p. (estd. 1967) 70,950,
metal-wkg.; p. (1959) 123,301.
Cartego, t., Cauca, Ctolombia, 8. America; coffee,
toMOK, cattle; p. (estd. 1959) 84,830.
Cartago, prot., C^ta Elea, Central America;
cap. G; coffee, fruits; p, (1963) 154,500.
Carteret, bor., N.J., EB-A.; metal and oQ m-
flning, chemirals. tobacco; p. (1960) 20,502,
Carter Fell, «f»., a smnmit of the Cheviot hills, on
Cannartbsiuailre, co., S. Wales; co. t„ Caimar- the Eng./Scot. border, 1,815 ft.
then; mcrantainotss; mining; mainly pastoral Carthage, c., NfE. Tunis, N. Africa: mins of
land; a. 920 sa. m.; p. (I960) 188,000. ancient Carthage, destroyed by Eomara 148 b.c.
Carmans, t., Tam, Itence; glass mftg.; p. (1054) Carthage, t. Mo.. O.S.A.: coal; p. amO) 11,284.
11,485. Carianei, par.. Lanes, Eng. ; near Elyerston.
Cannel, Mt., mtn., N.W. Israel, estends 12 m. to Campano, spt., Venezuela. S. America; exp.
Med.; tot. p€^, 1,818 ft,; in biblical times coffee, cacao: airport: p. (1961) 30,000.
ass. with prophets Elijah and Elisha. CarvinB,t.,Pasê-CMaia, Prance; p. (1954) 15,780.
Carmen de Bolivar, spt., Campeche Bay, Mesico. Casablanca, autonomorm e., Morocco, N, Africa;
Carmiel c.. N. Israel; new t. built between Acre motor plant; p. (1960) 985,277.
and Safad, in the Galilean hiUs; planned for
p. 50.000. 1(1957) 27,115.
Carmona. J., Spain; olives, wine, fruit: p.
Camac, ail.. Morbihan, N.W. Erance; 8.E. of
Iiorient: prehistoric stone monuments and
circles.
Carnarvon, t, W, Australia: on E. GSasooyne:
NASA tracking sta.; p. 4j000.
Carnatic, region, S JB. India, between E. Ghats and
Coromandel cst. where earilest European settle-
mmts were established. [(I960) 11,887.
Carnegie, bor... Penns,, TJ.S.A.; steel, iron; p.
Camew, til., Wicklcw, Ireland: granite, slate.
Camiorth, t„ w*. dtsf.. Lancs, Eng.; rly. ctr.;
p. (1961) 4,113.
Carnoustie, burgh, Angus, Scot., on N. Sea; 6 m.
S.W. of Arbroath: resort; p. (1961) 5.5ZI.
Camsore Point, 8. Wexford, Ireland.
CamtoghOT HBns., range of mtm., liOndondetry,
N. Ireland.
Camwath, tU., I^mark, Scot. ; coal, shale, iron.
Caro, f., BCoh., IJ.S.A.; sugar-beet refining; p.
(1960) 3,534.
Carolina, see N. and S. Carolina.
Caroline Is„ arcMpelago in W. Pan. Oc.; 549 in
number, lying between the Philippines and the
Maraball Gr., former Japanese mandate now
part of TJ.S. Pac. Trust Trarr. ; ch. exp. copra,.
Caroni R., ¥60620618,, S. America; hydro-dec.
complex at oonttuence Orinoco B. under constr.
for white marble; p. (1961) 84,901, t,, Tuscany, nr.

CaMddeogus, tmm. bor., Antrim, N. Iretend ; Bfiht inds.
on N. shore of Belfast Lough: textite, nyton (^stdftanco. fc. Txevfeo, Italy; fine church and
fibres, tobacco hidB.; p. (1M6) 10,928. painttogs ; suk ; p. 4,240.
Cffinciekmaoross, wht. i.. urb. diet., Monaghan, Castel QandoUo, t, Certol Italy, to, Alban Ei&;
Ireland: liand made lace; p. (1966) 24134. papal BHmm® r^dmice; p. (estd.) SJOOO.
Carridr-on-Shannon, co. t, rural disl., Leitrim, Cast&amar% (iocfcjMid i., Italy ; onBayofNapte
Ireland; p. (oft.) (1966) 1,638. atfootofy^vins; minatal aaiQgs; wat. pL;
Ctoriok-on-Saif, mkt. t.. urb. dist, Tipperary, p. (1961) 64.eiS. „
Ireland; coal, timber: p. (1966) 4,830. Oastellamme ^ OoQo, spt., N.W. Sidly; wat.
(kmrizal-Bajo, Atacama prov.. OhUe : port for pi., tuna fishing; p. 18,032.
Carrizal-Alto. 25 m. E. ilO.973. Castell6n de iaFtena, proo.. Spain; on Mediter¬
CarroUtc^ t., Ga„ U.SA.,; textiles; p. (1960) ranean. part of andent Valenda, mainly mtns. ,
Cairon, cil., Sthrling, Scot.; nr. Palkirk; femons a. 2,579 sa. nn; cap. Gastefidn; p. (1969)
ironwks. 334,472.
CAS-CEO Kae gazetteer
CfestendnaelaPlana,f.. Spain; porcelain, orange, Catasauqua, hm., Penns., TJ.S.A,; industl. •
oirob-wowl. onions, wines: oil reflning: p. flour, cement, textiles: p. (1960) 5,06Z.
(1959) 57,7m. Catastrophe, 0., S. extremity of Eyre Peninsula
C^stolnarâry, t. Aude, Prance, on Eanguedoo S. AustmlLa.
canal, bameii by Black Wnee, 1865: p. (1954) Catawba, B., N.C., U.S.A. : rising in Blue Bidê
8.7m, Hange: length 300 m.
Caststo Branco, c., Portugal: cap. of dist. same Caterham and Warlingham, urb. dist., Surrey
name; p. of dtet. (1960) 325,5(W. Eng.: on N. Downs; realdtl.; p. (estd. 1907)
Oastclyetrano, t, Sicily, Italy: indiistL; wine; SS.910.
p. £4,7îS. Cathay, ancient name for Cihina and E. Tartary.
tetigfloM, i, .Sicily, Italy; near Clatania; Catooho, 0., N.B. point of Yucatan. Mexico,
mnpmir refining.
milnhur remung. t;aitine, t.,
Catrine. t.. Ayr. scot.
Scot. ;: nutg.
•mffcs'-
totigliona Hojmtino, t, Italy; nr. Arezzo: seti* CatsMll Mtns., N.Y.. U.S Jl : gr. In Appalachians
cuiiuie. w. or jiuoson it. ; nouaay resort.
ealtnre. "W. Of Hudson E. ; holiday resort.
Castile, formerly 3 Idngdom of Spain; now dir. Cauoa, £., Colombia; trib. of Magdalena: length
OM and
into Old find itiew
'Tow (Sstile.
fiistilfl fiOO m.
600 m
Castine, i.. Me., D.S A-: on Penobscot Bay: resort: Canca, dep. Ooiombia Eep.r cap. Popaydn* a
ftaUng. . , , ^ 11.667 sa.m.; p. (1962)523.040. ' '
Casbebar, urb. d»st.. cop.. Mayo, Ireland ; Eace Caucasia, region 'befcween Black Sea and Caspian
ot CMtebar ” battle fought here in 1798 Kebel- divided by Caucasus Mtns. into N. or Cis-
lion; bacon curing, hat-mkg.; p. (1966) 5,630. Cancasia and Trans-Caucasia.
Oast»laFney, mb. dist.. Monaghan, Ireland; nr. Caucasus, lofty mtn, range between Caspian and
P- Black Sea; highest summits Mt. Elbruz
Cê &ry, wit t., Somerset, Eng.; N.E. of (18.463 ft.) and Kasbek (16,546 ft.) : length of
A»yil: dairyw: p. (1951) i. 004. system about 930 m., greatest width 120 m.;
Casa^w^w,, Stmingahire, Scot. ; sta. on Eoman many lofty passages and Ige. glaciers.
wall; silioa, fiR^lay deTOsite, _ Caudebec, oncicMf Seine-Maritime, France; oil
Castleoomer, rwca am., K. Kilkenny, Ireland; refinery nearby; p. (1962) 9,270.
rt „ Caudoran, commune, Gironde, France; sub. of
Castle Dmilngton, (,, rural dist., Lelcs. Eng.; p. Bordeaux; p. (1954) 26.548.
, Caudete, Albacete. Spain; p. (1967) 7,862.
CtetW)<mgte,6Kn7ft, Kirkcudbright. Scot.; 16 m. Caudry, Nord, France; lace and tulle: p
S.W. of Dumfries: cattle fate: p. (1961)2,252. (1962) 12.475. [12 927
Ca^rford, mun. bor.,
8.E. of Deeds at confluence V4. AVO. AXIJ.C CUAIA
'W.B. T'orks. Eng.;
of Es. Aire10 and
m. Oausses,
Cauguenes,Les,L. limestone
Chile: cap. of Maule
plateau. proy.’
Aveyron p‘
Tarti
Calder: CMll-mng.. chemical, class and
Calder; cad-mng., chemical, glass and clothing nlnlhing deps., S. France; on S.W. flank of Central
denn S UVanno- nr. aw
mnfs., flour-mflUng, brlek-mkg.; p. (estd. Plateau ; caverns, gorges of Es. Lot and Tam ;
1967) 29,020. sheep provide milk for Eoauefort cheese;
Castteisland, L. Kerry, Ireland; agr. ctr.; p. alt. 3,000-6,000 ft.
(1966) 1,673. Cauterets, vU., dep. Hautes-Pyrdndes, France:
Castlemaine, Victmia, mineral springs.
tiywiia, Australia:
ivuMiraiiai at au foot of ur.
loot oi Gr. mineral springs.
DividingEange, 25 m. S. of Bendigo: dairying. Cautta, prov., S. Chile; cap. Temuco: a. 6 705
sheep; engin: wool; p. (1960) 7.08 Cauvery, E.. V1Qfin
P- 2 S. Indfa: rises in ^the W. »• Ghats.
flows mto Bay of Bengal through Mysore and
Oastietown, t.,
(1961)Me
12,2of Man;
27. ’
former cap.; ' p. Madras ; length 400 m.
(of dist.)
(1958) 1.755. Cava or La Cava, t., Salerno, Italy; summer
CasOetown Borehaven, spf., Ckirk, Deland : on resort: textiles; p. (1961) 42,235.
Banter Bay. Cavaillon, commune, Vaucluae. France; cath.:
fSartr®, t, Tam. France; uii on J.V.
E. fvBuuu,
Agoflt; luiuicr
former I V, Knvxyd,! n .xxa.
p. (1962) 17,212. ■
I
S.W. Belfast;
vi«.
p. (1966) 4,165.
xiacuutLUU* tu 1 n-
74^ sq. m.:
W.I.. greatly
W.I.. greatly damaired
damaged bv by fixe .Tnno
June lois-
1948; Onofine aw A Vinoo, , OP B- Adige:
xinutuu, m.
tabpm p. (1967) 25J00O. industl. : p. 22,821.
Ctotro dri Kto, t.. Andalusia. Spain ; on E. Guadjo ;
^ induBri.; p. (1967)14.122. Cavite, spi.. Luzon. Philippines; oil reflning
C8stec«ioTaBni, see Emm.
£<zma. Cavour
nearhv*
p. fiQftm
nearby;(kuM, irrigoMm
(1960) >?o? canal.
54,291. - —
Piedmont - -
and^
Wi^ptaliA Gen^ny ; mdustl. ; coal, cement, Lombardy regions, N Italy • links B
Po nr
provides water for 250.000 acr^ of rice-Sa
, Chiv^ wlKricino 10 Si- im of
— TTi ; wikk ^ cfcr. for local vjuwixu wine,
ttuuve oU
ji*
and sUkwoima; p. (estd.) 10,000.
CW L (or Gnaaahnni), BMiamas. W. Indies: a.
"*»»• «“ ofJiaaMt-inaS; V&aK)
AEahabad: grain, cotton, woollens, S!)!’
aircraft
340 sq. m.; p. (1953) 2,291, Caxi^, t., MaranhEo, Brazil; on Itapeouru K. *
^cac«, fl. 75
Piaia dep.. cotton, rice; p. (1960) 60,607.
H v APeru
'’if' ;•Panama hats.
naw- COttOn. rice: P. (1960)
mftg.; mtn.. 947j7
Andes.
p (1961) 60 697
Ecuador; alt. 19,535iwiYion,
92. ft.
cotons, wooEens, Cayenne, spL, cap., Fr. Guiana S êrkk-
rich in minerals; cap. Barcelona; nu- famous for pepper* p (estd 1965)
looon *
P.
S>!''*^=
SSfS
“SihlSisS-Moo^m.:
WMOOl consists of Grand Cayman, cap. pj«a.,
’ " 'V'" XJXVUOB, a., xuu Bil. iu.i p. lesta.!
lamaing; gold, sflver, copper mng.: a. 40.942 George-
sq.m.; p. (1960)172,990. to^; Littte Cayman; and Cayman Brao:
Cwantar^ t,, cap., C^tamarca prov., N. W. Argen- turtle and shark fishing.
-r., vtuvra-AAVis, (iliennal

bUCTIIUlI Ce^ st.l^Brazfl; s^. 'cotton, coffee, Ashing,
Phmnn,n«.. b*„ 'â^^Sater'^p. Tort'alS^^’ S^d
sq.m.; p. (1961) 234.^7. ** “®7 „ eeênt; a. 1,702 sq. m.; p. (1960) l.mloo.
oo B. cst. at foot of Mt tetd )’Jioôo °‘^' °^ »•
of“^îST trib. of
mi.:
dyeing; p. (1965) ,JsSw ” “^tues. p. Mia^ppi E.. length 400 m.
Jackson defeated Banks 1862.
CED-CHA K37 GAXETTEER
92,035. Onwala; a ‘^l^2u.r.32 sa. Colombo; steel mill at
m.; p. (estd.) llM4.0m.
Ce^town, t.. Ga., U.S~/L: textiles, ruober Chacaburo, f., K. Arsen tina: agr. ctr • n 15 (fOO
tyres; co^nsesd oil; p. (1960) 9,340. Chaclaapoyas, t, cap. of Amazonas dep.. N. Peru ;
coast. Lower tkl.. Mexico. agr., forest prod.: p. (1946) o 49-1
CefelO, spt, Palermo, N. Sicily; famous Norman Chaco, ten., N. of Argentina ; part of Gran Chaco;
oranges; fishing; farming and prairie land; cap. Eesistenck ;
oaSnf ■c..
CegUe, i^’rLecce,
2£; S.
o Italy;
Tt I ■ ^ „a, 38,468 80. m.; p. (I960) 535,000.
wine, olive oil. building Chad, £., Ige sheet of water of N. Central Africa ;
5 .
5 . T.
Tin- a, 50,000
a, 50,000 sq.
sq. m.
m. When
when in in flood.
flood. vari«!
vari«! in
in extent
extent
^
Cehe^n.f., Murcia. Spam; onli. Qmpar; p. p. (19o()
(19of) with
With season,
season, tind
jind is
is drying
dryins np,np, shaEow,
shallow, many
many
ooif™ t, r. „
# Guamjuato, nr ■ I , , r . Is., liffi between the wooded region of the Sudan
Celaya, Mexico; ctr. rich farming and the steppes leading to the Sahara d«3rt.
Chad, Ind. sot. sf. vAthin French Community. Equa-
telebes, see Sutawesi. torial Africa; cap. Fort Lamy; a. 488.000 aq.
C8lma,_t., w. Ohio, U.SA-; resort: furniture, m.; p. (estd. 1968) 3,460,009.
7SS9. Chaddeiton, mb. dist.. I^ncs. Eng.; cotton and
Coljo, A. Slovenia. Jugoslavia; lignite, zinc eheinlailmftg.: p. (estd. 1967) 31,550.
^lt%; p. (1960) 29.^. Oiagford, par.. Devon. Eng. ; stone circles.
CeUe, t.. Lower Saxony. Gennany; on E. AHer; Chagos, Is., Indian Ocean; administered from
former residence of the Dukes of Brunswick- Mauritius; fine harbour in Diego Garcia,
Lftneburg; cas. ; metal, leather, paints, Chagres.spi., Panama. S. America; on N. sMe of
textfles, oil; p. (1963) 59,000. Isthmus of Panama : p. 1.300.
Mont Oenls. Chûaramas, Trinidad. W.L, part of naval base
Cento. i Ferram. Italy; mdnstl.; p. 4,943. leased to TT.S. A. since 1941.
central Am^nEepnhuo.wMi'. SOP. St. PrencA Chahar Mahal Bakhtiiyari, region, Iran; W. of
h'Ouatorial Africa; cap. Bangui; a. Isfahan: mainly mtnous.; cap. Sharkord: a.
234,000 sq. m.; p. (1968) 2,256,000. G.072 sq. m.; p. (1967) 209,057.
Cratral toeriia, between Mexico and S. America. Chakray-Ting, (.. Cambodia: cement plant,
the Isthmns of Tehuantepec to that of Chalcidloe, sk Khniiddhiw.
Panama : mcludes Guatemala, Honduras, Nica- Chalcis, Euboea, Greece: p. (1961) 24,745.
mgaa, Salvador, Costa Elea. Panama, Brit. Chaleur Bay, Canada : between N. Bninswick and
Honduras: tropical climate: forests, savannahs Gasp6 Peninsula, Quebec.
p. (estd. 1965) 30,000,0 0. Chalon-sar-Saone, ancient indnsU. c„ SaOne-et-
Central Asia, uauaEy appHed to regions between Loire. E. France: glass, iron; p. (1962) 45,993.
30° and 40° Chaions-sur-ltene, c., Mame. N.E. Franco:
Eu®ian CA. N.islat,
the and
land55°between
and 86°Cldna
E. long.;
and 20 m. E. of Epemay; cath.; military ctr.;
Afghanistan and the Caspian, now consisting brewery ind.; p. (1962) 45.,346. 111.473.
of various Soviet Eeps. Chamalteres, t., Puy-de-DOme. Prance; p. (1954)
CentrM Fans, c., Ehode Is.. TJ.S.A.; nr. Paw- Chaman, t, Baluchistan, Pakistan; on Afghan
tiicket: cotton gooite: p. (1960) 19,858. frontier; terminus of riy. through Quetta.
Central Greece and Euboea, geooraphtcoL dli\, Chamba, f., Himachal Pradesh. India ; 100 in.N.E.
Greece: contains the cap. Athens: a. 0.704 sq. of Amritsar: p. (1961) 8,609.
m.; p.(1961) 2.623.653. Chamhal, R., trib. of E. Jumna rising in Vindhya
Central Province, pro®,, Han, cap. Tehran; p. hEls : len^h 650 m.
(1967) 4,950394. Chambersbuig, tor., Penns.. U.S.A.; foundries.
OentraUa, (., IE.. UBA.: p. (1960) 13,904. brewing; p. (1960) 17,670.
Csphalonia, see KephaEenia. Chamh6ry, t, cap., Savoie. 8.E. Franca : silk,
Ceram (Serang), Z., Moluccas, Indonesia: a. c, 7J.91 _ leather; p. (1962)47.447. [wines.
sq.
Is.) m.: copra, resin, sago, flsh: p. (incl. offshore I Chambolle-Musi^y, eomm.me, C^te d’Or. Franoe;
720,000. Chamhon-Fet^toUes, t. Loire. France; coal,
Ceres, Cape Province, S. Africa; on E. Hex; iron, steel mftg.; p. (1954) 17.695.
health resort; p. (1960) 6,173. Chamonix, t, Haute-Savoie, France: at foot of
Cerignola, t.. Foggia, Italy; Spanish victory Mont Blanc, in vaBey of E. Axve; winter
over French 1603; p. (1961) 49,287. sports ctr.; road tunnel links to AMta; p.
Cerigo, see Kythera. (1954) 5,699.
Cernauti, sec Chernovtsy. Champagne, old pros.. N.E. France; famous for
Cemavoda, f.. Dobmja, Eomania; on E. Danube, its wine; wheat, sheep, impt. tr. fairs in Middle
70 m. S. of BraUa: p. (1956) 6.602. Ages.
Cerro
lead:de copper
Pasco, t. dep. Junln,
smelting; largePeru: silver,minra
vanadium coal. Champagne Humide, <day
Central Prance; miural
vale, division
runs 100(“ m.paysN.B.
”)
W. oft.: p. (1961) 19,354. from Auxerre to Bar-le-Duc ; drained by Seine,
Ceiro Rico, min., BoEvla ; in Andes, W. of Potosi ; Aube, Maine, AJsne and many tribs. ; hearily
alt. 15,680 ft. ; V. rich sflver, tin, tungsten ores. wootM, mat^y; where cleared and drains
Certaldo, commrne, Firenze. Italy; anc. cas.; grain cultivarion.
home of Boccaccio ; p. 22 j)64. (Mampagne Pouiliense, natural
Cesena, old industl. L, Forli, Italy; cath,: anti¬ Cenigal Franw; barren chalkdiiHsim
plateiu,(“ pam ”),
extends
quities; aulphxir-mlnes. wines; p, (1961) 79,704. 80 m. from Sens to Reims; drained by
CeÂ Lipa, t., (^SE.; on E. Ploucaioe N. of Alsne, Verie, Seine, Aube, Mame; dusty down-
Prague: industk; p.J1961) 14,038. land pastures ; sheep; vine growing on S.-faeing
CeskA TrehovA, m L. OSSE.; W. eff ParduMoe; vaBey sides and S.B.-facing escarpment of
engin., textEes: p. (1961) 13331. lAlaise de I’De de France favours productfon
Ceske Budejovioe, f.. t^R.; on E. "Vltava 80 of Champagne wines, ch. prodnetag ctrs.:
m. S. of Prague; pencils, porcelain, brewing, CMlons-sur-Mame, Eeims, Bpernay.
anthracite; p. (1981) 63349. Champaign, t., IIU, TJ3A.; foundries; p, {I960)
Cesky Tesin, (Tesdien), SiMa, CSSE.. (divided 49.583.
betireen Poland and Czechoslovakia); coal and I Champeitoo, apt. S.W. Guatemala; coffee.
Ironwks, : p. (1961) 15308. Champigny-Bur-Mame, t. Seit®. France; em¬
Cessnock, i, N.S.'W., Australia; coal-mining broidery; piano teys: p. (1962) 57,925.
decHnii^
25 J2S Inc. 1968;
BeEbicd.clothing wks.; p. (1966) Champlain, i.. 0.aA: N. frontier of N.Y.. state;
dfeoharm by EidieBea E. into St. Lawrence;
Cette, see Sbte. flanked by fanmk route fl»m New York to
Ceuta, spt., Morocco; opposite to and 16 m. flnm Montreal ; a. 600 sq. m.
(3ib:^tar; oath.: the ancient Abjia. one of Champlain Ca^ N.T.. H.SA.; folows gap
the PiEars of litotes: p. (1950) 56,936, between Adirondack Mtns. and Green ]®iis.
Cosines, mtns., S. France; separating Imains of occupied by Hudson E. ; links Albany with L.
ône, Loire nnd Tam ; highest point Mt. Cbai^laln and allows through baige traffio
Mezen^ alt. 6,794 ft. between New York and St. Lawrence vaB^.
Ceylon, I., ind&p. son. at. within Br. Common- Chaimtal.8!!jt.,N. Atacama. ChBe: liesingoldand
wealth (1948); in Indian Ocean, SJi. of India; copper mng. ctr.; p. (1960) 22.096.
fertfle plains, mountainous intôc; prineipai (hancelade, commune. Dordogne, France; arch-
prod.; rice, rubber, tea. coconuts, frrutta and type-site of Chancelade cûre {ta.te paleo-
spices; rubber tyres and tubes, hardware, tfles; Eth^.
chahshe Ksa gazetteer
CShai^ i, Nagpur. MaliaiaditTa. iBdia: ancient . CBiaxIe-rille-M&iiferes,
France: on Mease B.; L, iron,
Ardennes
bricks, dep., NJI.
nffls. hard¬
temples; p. (1961) SI,4S4.
OBnda, dirf.. IkiaiarMilitra, India: teak forests, ware: P. (1982) S0,229.
ccal, iron: a. 9,200 sg. m.; p. (1961) 1^88,070. CharleviUe, t., Queensland, Australia; on Warrego
Chaaiansi, t, XJttai Pradesh. India: cotton, B., 400 m. W. of Brisbane; pastoral dJst' •
hamp; liy. ctr.; p. (1961) 48,587. p. (1966) 4,788. ^ Michigan,
. [(I960) 2.75l’.
dtaMemagore, i., W. Ben^, India; on Hooghly CJharteyoix, pi., L. IJ.SA..; p.
B.; French 1816-1949; cotton: p. (1961) Charlotte, c., N.C., TT.SA.; key rly. junction;
67,I0S. machin., chemicals, textiles: p. (1960) 201,584,
ChaifiteiSi, JlnitM (err., E. Panjab, India; Charlotte, t, S. Mich., IJ.SA„; furniture, car
sitaatedonplatCOTatfootrfHiinalaya, S.W. of parts; p. (1960) 7,dS7.
Simla; built 1951-3 by Le Coibnsier: nniv.: Charlottenbrug, f., Germany ; on E. Spree ; sub
of Berlin: iêe; china, beer, machin.
esip. rrfPonjab st.. p. (1961) 89^21^.
CbarShow IChaniiliou), c., Kian^. China; in Charlottesyflle, i., Va., XT.SJi. ; on Elvanna E.
TaJiey of Taiigtee E., on Grand Canal 70 m. unlv. ; MontioeDo — ^home of Thomas JeSerson ■
S.B. of Nanking: mkt. for intenslyely cultivated p. (1960) 29,427.
dtefc.: silk: p, (1953) 297.000. 1855,000. Charlottetown, apt., cap.,_ Prince Edward I,,
ClmE«ctam, c., Kirin. fSiina; rly. ctr,; p. (1053) Canada ; I^rliament bnildin^ ; iron foundry,
CMnpmch^ I., Kerala, 8. India: tea, cotton shipyards, fisheries: p. (1961) 18,318.
spinning, silk; p. (1981) 42,378. Charlton Bings, urb. dist., Gloucester. Bng.;
CteJgjal Shan. m£M„ form bdy. between China at foot of Cotôlds nr. Gheltenham; p. (1961)
and N. Korea: drati^ by Es. Yaiu. Ertao, Tu- 7,744.
roen: highest point, Peiktusan, alt. 8,006 ft. Charnwood Forest, wpland district, Leicester. Eng, ;
Changsha. c„ cap.. Hunan prov., China; tea, rice, to W. of Soar vaDey, 12 m. N.W. of Leicester;
antiinony; p. (1953) 851,000. composed of ancient rocks; stone-crnahing;
Chane!hn,c.,Klangsa, China: in valley of Yangtze largely forests; used for recreation by Industl.
14. 65 m. N.W. of Shanghai; mkt, for local agr. ts. of E, Midlands; alt. 600-900 ft.
produce: p. (1963) 101,000. Charters Towers, f., N. Queensland, Australia;
Channel Isiaads, gr. of s^-goveming la. belonging 925 m. by rail from Brisbane; pastoral ctr.:
to the British Crown off N.W. France, of p. (1966) 7.533,
which the test, are Jeraey, Guernsey, Alderney 1 Chartres, c., cap., dep. Enre-et-Loir, France
and Sark ; part of the old Duchy of Normandy ; fine Gothic oath. ; milling, brewing, distilling ;
vegetables, flowers, ftnlt, granite; two famous p. (1964) 28,750. [near Grenoble
breeds of dairy cattle; tourist resort; German Chartreuse, La Grande, France, famous monastery
occupaticin. 1040-46: ch. t, St. Helier, Jersey; Chateauhriant, t., Loire-Infdrieure, France; rly
total a. 75 sg. m.; p. (1961) 110,503. ctr.; p. (1946) 7,905, tp. (1946) 7,233
Chantahnri, t.. spt., Oliailand, rubies and other Chateau Thierry, 1., Alsne, France; on E. Marne-
pr^pus stones. Ohfiteanronx, {., Indre, France; 60 m, SJl. of
(aantada, eowj»«Be, N.W. Spain; cattle, leather. Tours on E. Indre; woollens, machin- n
soap, bricks, linen: p. (1957) 14,487. (1062) 46,772.
ChanUUy, fc, Oise, France; femous race-oonrse; Chatelet, t., Hainaut, Belgium; on E. Sambre-
p. (1946)jbK.
Caannte, 5J05. coal, pottery; p. (1962) 15,483.
t., Kan., TJ.BA.; ofl, gas; re- Chatelineau, i20,09s'.
t., Hrdnaut, Bdgium: p. (1062)
fi!:«tes.ênt; p. (1960) 10.349. Chatelleranlt. f., Vienne, France; 40 m. S. of
Cliso(*ow (Oisozhou). c., Kwangtung, S. China; Tours: cutlery, small arms; p. (1954) 23,583.
raajto ^ 20 m. N. of Swatow; ctr. ofcnlti- Chatenay-Malabry, t.. Seine, France; p. (1954)
vated plain; nee, sugar, tea; linked to Swatow 14.289.
vated plain; rice, sugar, tea; linked to Swatow 14.289. ’
by rly.; p. (19M) lOl.GW. , ^ , Chatham, m«n. 6or., docAyoni, (/omer natwJ arse-
Cha^. £.. Mexico; chiefly in JaUsco st.; a. «al), Kent. Eng.; on estuary of E. Medway;
_ 1.800 sg. Inds.; p. (estd. 1967) 53,560.
Chatham, L, apt.. New Brunswick, Canada:
Ohroaye?^ t Knlbyahev Beôn, B.S.F.SJE.; lumbering, fish exporting; p. (1961) 7J09.
clwnicate, agr, maiJhin,: p. (1969) 33,000. Chatham, c., Ontario. CSmada: farming, &uit,
(mpigcsrcM, nr. Arman, Dumfriesshire, Soot.; machin.. canned vegetables: p, (1961) 29,826.
Chatham, Is., New Zealand dependency; a. 872
aapS-ea-l^Wth, rm. t., jwa dist., Derby, sq. m.; Igst. L, Whaiekauri; (1961) 487, _
^Bng.; p. p. (1961 rural
rural dist.!
dish.) 18,368. Chhtillon-sur-Selno, t.. Cdte d’Or, Ecmce; on
_
«®«ieTOm, stA. of Dublin. Irdand; on E. liffey.
fSiapra,!, Bihar; onGanÊ.; ctr. ofsaltpeire ^^Seine. 46 m. SJB. of Troyes; p. (1964)
and indigo tr.; p. (1961) 75^80. Chatou,
Chard, mun. bfv„ Somer^t, Eng.; lace, iron. 15,338, t., Hants-de-Selne. France; p, (1954)
Shirt and astton mftg.; p. (estd. 1967) Chatsworth, pc»., Derby. Eng.; on E. Derwent
;
t nc-r. seat Of Duke of Devonshire.
ri S.S.E.; on the Central Chattanooga, c.. Tenn.. IJ.8A.; on Tenneêe E.;
sepoo. nniv.; rly. ctr.; cottons; Iron, steel, chemicals,
cap- ■Arfoul≠ paper, metals; p. (1960) 130,009.
2,806 sq. m.; Chatteris, urb. dial., Camhrid^ and Me of Ely,
P. (1968) 331J016. Eng - Tnlrl, t • p (1961) 5 490
ilSwpbw Bay of Biscay ChandiSro on Ottawa ’e..' above Ottawa,

a Tir ^-r Oiank,
_ Canada; hydro-eleotrio
t, Burma; power-sta.B.; chemical
on Irrawaddy
Im'^.’rnTp’ pilchards;
a. fertollser plant being built, due for completion
Oharmimt, fe, Hante-Mame. France; gloves,
n rubber; leather; p. (1954) 19.340.
1
uwri«Kfl.t., limnant. Belgium; D CEhEuny, 4.. Alsne, Frauce ; OH E. OIso ; chemicals,
on S. Sambre; glass; p. (1964) 10M44.
(M^ subs.). âtflaugna, L., N.Y. st.. TJ.S.A- ; summer resort.
Penns., D.SA.. steel._g^; p. Chaux-de-Fonds, La. 4. can.. Neuchatel. Switsser-
Tn™ TTO A . [(I960)
c.Îomj^H.S.A., on Cedar E^;9,964. land: Ctr. Of watchmkg. Ind. ; p. (1967) 33,300.
p. Chaves, 4.. N. Portugal; cath.; hot salt springs:
produce, flour, linen rilk; p. {i960) 13.156.
HiSiSnn ' A tt r, . ,
*^?mber. Chavllle. 4., Seine-et-Oise.
Cheadle, ruraJ dirt.. Staffs,France,
Eng. ; p. (1964)
coal pits,14M8.
metal
fflmcrete, fertilisers, chanioaJs, plastics, mnfis,; p,
(1961) 38J.53
Weaohing; p. (estd. 1967)
TT» A - ^ QaOey, ntb. mat.. Cheshire, Eng.;
S^«&-%9eO)^S P- frontier; industl.

Clxeboygan, l„ Mich.. tJ.S.A.: on L. Huron: CherweU, B., trib. of Thames, nr. Oxford: 1- 30 m
sawmiUs: i>. (1960) 5.859. Chesapeake Bay, inlet on Attantic Mast. U.S.A. ;
C!h6ddar,_ I'tl., Somerset, Eng.; famous limestone extending 200 m. from mouth of Stîuehanna
caves in Mendips ; cheese, strawberries. E. to C. Charles; sheltflsh iiid.; bridge-tunnel
Chednba L, B.ay of Bengal, Burma ; fertile, well- (opened 1964) spans entrance to Bay.
wooded : a. 240 sq. m.
Chefoo (Yantai), e., former treaty dL, Shantung.
China; on K. cst. of peninsula; p. (1963)
116.000.
CheMang (Zhijiang), maritime prov.. S.E. China;
cap. Hangchow; exp. Bilk, cotton, etc.; a.
39,486 sq. m.; p. (1053) 22.865.747. bldg.; a. 1,056 sq. m.; p. (1966) 1,472,000.
Cheling Pass, on bdy. between Kwangtnng, Cheshire, L, Conn., U.S. A.; agr., formerly copper.
Hunan. S, China ; liistoric route across NanUng and Imrytes mined: p. (estd. 1967) 42,900.
mtns., now followed by Hankow to Canton Cheshunt, urb. dist., Herts, Eng. ; in Lea valley,
trunk rly.; alt. 984 ft. [19,530. 7 m. S. of Hertford; bricks, mkt. gardening,
Chelles, L. Seine-et-Mame, France; p. (1954) horticniture: p. (1961) 35.371.
Chelm, {., E. Poland; nr. Lublin: cath.: 1944
Portland to Bridiwrt.
Manifesto of Poland’s Liberation teued here ; - ■
_ p. (1965) 35.000. [Maldon. Chester, c., co. bor., Cheshire, ■; at head■ of
Eng. d
Chelmer, R., Essex, Eng.: Joins B. Blackwater at
Ohelmno (Kuhn), t.. Poland; on E. Vistula:
ancient wells: large oil mills, engin., Impt. tr.: (estd. 1967) 60.360.
P. (1946) 11.634. Chester, A, S.C.. U.S.A.: cotton mnfs.: flour:
Chelmsiord, co. L, mwa. bor., Essex, Eng. ; 30 m. granite: P. (1960) 6,906. [p. {I960) 63,658.
N.E. London : cath. ; agr. mkt. : radio, Chester, 1, Penns., U.S.A.: large lads., textiles;
elec, engin., brewing; p. (estd. 1967) 55.210. Cbesterfield, tnki. i., mun. bar., colly, dist., Derby,
Eng.: onEotherE.; 8 m. S. of Sheffield; iron,
Chelsea, t, Maas.. U.S.A. ; rubber goods. shoa=. steel, engin., eoal-mng., glass, elec, lamps,
paper; p. (1960) 33,749. galvanised goods, chemicals; 14th-cent. church
Cheltenham, t., mun. bar., Gloucester Eng. ; spa : with crooked spire; i». (estd, 1967) 70,020.
educational ctr.; aircraft mftg. and repair, Chesterfield Inlet, arm of Hudson Bay, Canada;
precision Instruments: p. (estd. 1967) 75,640. 250 m. by 25 m.
Chelyabinsk, t. E.S.F.S.E.: on Mijas E. W. Si¬ Chesterfield Is., dep.. New Caledonia. Pac. Oe. ;
berian lowlands: metallurgy and machin.; French ; about 342 m. W. of N.O.
pipeline to natural g.as field GazU opened Nov. Chester-le-Street. urb. dist.. Durham. Eng. ; cloth¬
1963: p. (1967) 820,000. ing, confectionery: p. (estd. 1967) 20^300.
Chelyuskin C., most N. point of Asia. Chesterton, sub. of Cambridge, Eng. : p. 35.959.
Chemnitz, see Karl-Marx-Stadt. Cheviot, A. S.W. Ohio. U.SB-: clothe leather
Chemulpo, see Inchon. goods; flour; p. {I960) 10,701.
Chenab, K., W. Punjab, Pakistan; one of “ five Cheviot Hills, between Scot, and Northumberland,
rivers "into
of Punjab; Britain ; highest point The Cheviot. 2.676 ft.
S.W. E. Sutlej rises in Hhnaiayas.
: dams at Merala flows
and Cheyenne, B., 8.D., U.8JL; trib. of Mteioari;
Khanki provide water for Upper and Lower length 500 m.
Chenab Irrigation Canal Systems; length Cheyenne, cap.. Wyo., UB.A. : catUe-ranching
approx. 900 m. dfat.: rly. ctr.; p. (1960) 43.505.
Chengchow (Jaengzhou), c., cap. Honan piov.. ChJAna, Val de, valley, central Italy; longitudinal
Chins: 15 m. S. of Hwang-Ho, where it emerges depression separating Tuscan HUte from
on to N. China Plain: impt. route ctr. and rly. Central Ai»ennines : occupied by upper coarse
Junction where Peking to Hankow rly. crosses of E. Amo, middle course of E. Tiber ; followed
Sian to Tunghai rly.; p. (1953) 595,000. by main route from Florence to Borne.
Chengtu (Chengdu), c.. cap. Szechwan prov., CMangmai, prm.. N.W. Thailand; cap. Chiang-
China; silk, rice; p. (1967) 1,107.000. mai; a. 8.839 sq. m.; p. (1960) 79S.4S3.
Chepstow, niki. t, urb. disL, Monmouth, Eng.; CMangmai, c.. Chiangmai prov., N.W. Thailand:
on E. Wye 2 m- above confluence with E. on Ping E.; tr. ctr., teak; p. (IfiCW) 65,736.
Severn; Severn Bridge links to Aust (GIos.); Chiapas, Baeijie at, Mexico; cap. Tuitla-
fine mined eas.; light engin.. brush mlig., Gutierrez; mountalnons, forested; coffee,
asphalt, limestone: p. (1961) 6fi41. tobacco, sugar and cocoa, cattle; a. 28,729 sq.
Chequers, seat, Bueki Eng. ; official residence of m.; p. (1960) 1,219,870.
Prime Minister. CMatura, A, Georgian S.8,E.: manganese; p.
Cher, centred dep., France: cap. Bouiges; grain, (1956) IS,20<?.
wines, iron, porcelain; a. 2.819 sq. m. ; p. Chiavaii, A. Liguria, Italy; on the Biviera;
(1968) 304,601. [Auvergne Mtns. shrine of the Madonna: p. 17,586.
Cher, B., France, trib. of E. Loire, flowing from Chita, cap. of CMba prefecture. Japan: on E.
Cherbourg, spt.. Manche, France; N, cst. of Tokyo Bay; impt. tr. ctr.; giant ^py&rd;
(3ontentin Peninsjula; opposite to and 80 m. oil refining: aluminium, chemicals; new airpt.
diet, from Portsmouth : naval araenal. ship- projected 1972; p. (1964) SOldm.
bldg.; metals, ropes, fishing; p. (1962) 40filS. GMcago, c., BL. U.S.A.: on S, shwe of L. Mtehi-
Cheremkhovo, t, E.8.F.S.E.: N.W. of Irkutsk: gan: second Igst. UK, e.; economic heart of
coal, engin., chemicals; p. (1967) 111,000.
Mid-West: comm. ctr. called “The Loop”;
Cherepovets, c.. E.S.F.S.E.; steel, engin., saw¬ imm®se tr, by rail and Great Lakes, flourtehing
mills; p. (1987) 159M0. imiv.; grain mkt., pork, beef caaning, agr.
Cheribon, spt., Java, Indonesia; N. cst., 120 m. E, imptaments, iron and steel, machin,, clothing,
of Jakarta: rice, tea, wrffee: p. S4j079. furs, electronic equipment, metaia, chemicals,
Cherkassy, f.. Ukrainian SB E.; nr. Kiev, on petrol, coal: tot. airpt. in world: p. (1970)
Bnieper B,: sugar, engin.: p. (1969) SSROO. 3^25^63-, Greater Chicago (1970) 6^94,000.
Cffiemigov, t, Ukrainian S.S.B.: cm Dema E.: CMoh^ter, c,, mm. bor., W. Sussex, Eng. ; on
caths.; unlv.: flour, textiles, chemicals; p. B. cst. plain. 11 m. W. of Arundel : fine cath. ;
[Xmi) 1S2J)00. agr.: p. (estd. 1967) 20,640.
Chemogorsk, t, E.S.F.S.E.: 10 m. N. of Abakan: CMckamauga Creek, n.S.A,; branch of the
ctr.ofMinnsinskcoal-nmg.baan; p.(1969)5i,000. Timnessee E. above Ghattanoogs; Civil War
Chernovtsy. Ukrainian 8.S.E.: univ.; Greek battles: site of National Park.
cath.: wheat, dairy produce, textiles, engin., Caitaaslm, A. OMa., U.SJl.; maize, cotton: p.
chemicals; p. (1967) 175J000. (1960) 14M6.
Cffiemyakovsk (Ins(«rbnig), t, Lithuanian S.SfE.; Uhhêr^, E. Iteiset, Eng.; 8 m. N.W. of Wey-
chemicals, textiles: p. (1969) approx. SOJOOO. moutb: site for nuclear power eta,; on shore.?
Cherokee, A. Iowa. U.8jk.; p. (1960) 7.724. of East Fleet E.
Cherrapunji, A, Assam. India; in Ifhasi Hffls: CMclana, niftcr. A, Spain: nr. Cadiz; p, (1957)
reputed wettest place in world, av. ammal 18,262.
rainfall 500 in. CMclayo, cli. A. Lambayeque dep., Peru: rice,
Chertsey, urb. diet., Surrey, Eng. ; on S. bank of E. sugar, wheat, coffee: p. (1961) 54,400.
Thames, 4 m. below Staines; residtl; aircraft Chico, A. N. Cal.. C.S.A. ; food processing,
components, cement: p. (estd. 1967) 44.710. lumber, cement; p. {I960) 14.757.
CHI^CHO K4^0 gazetteer
Qjteopee, t, Mase., II;S*A. ; on CkmnecMcut E. : Cbineha Is., gr. off cst. of Peru; p. (of ch, t.) 14,7es
feMSwe, t,
CSiieoiitiial, caitKte, cars:
Quebec, p. (1860)on61M5S.
Canada; CUcoutiml Chin(diow
cement, (Jtiozhou), c., Liaoning
gla^, bricks, prov.,
tiles, paper and China*
wood
S,: i»Tdro-etec. power-sta.; lumber, pulp, pulp, oil; p. (1963) 352,000.
paper; p. (10SI) 31M7. „ Chincoteagne, t.. and L, E. Va., TT.S.A.; flabAriAa
CMtebaiwa, t. Tamil Nadu, India; nr. Cndda- poultry; p. (1960) 2,131,
tee; p. (lfi«l) Chindwin, K, Burma; ch. trib. of Irrawaddy;
CaiMley C., most X. point of Labrador, Hudson rising in Patkoi Hills, navigable in rainy season.
Strait, ftaada. [ft. above sea-levei. QUudwin, Upper and Lower, provs., Burma ; fer-
catita, £., tege lake nr. Munich, Germany. l.SOO tile plains and extensive teak forests, rice.
CWwri, t. Piedmont. Italy; nr. Turin; was (Jhingaord, see Waltham Forest.
in®di*Tal republic; Gothic church: silks, Cbingleput, i., India; S. of Madras; cotton
eotloas; p. 14.747. weaving, salt mnfs.; p. (1961) 25,977.
Cliieti, pros?.. 8. Italy: a. 1,142 sa. m.; p. (1961) (Piingola, t., Zambia, copper-nmg.
CWeti, i. mp., prov, Cbieti, S. Italy: the ancient Chiniu or Shinsha, t.. S. Korea ; cotton ; p 30,269
T«»te Marradnoram; Europe’s I^. glaira plant. Chinkiang (2ai0njiang), c.. Kian^, China : former
iisijK methane ftom Atreazi field; ip. (1961) treaty pt. Yangtse-kiang, 48 m. below Nanking-
43,011. tr. ctr.: p. (1963) 201,000.
Chigirik. Uzbek S.S.E.: new town being built Chinkolobwe, mines. Congo; manium.
<1968). 21 m. 8. of IMikent. Chinon, (., Indre-et-Loire, (ientraJ France; on E.
Gifeaecto Bay, inlet of Bay of Fundy, Canada. Vienne, industh; ruined cas., once a royal
CWgwdl, ttrfe. disi., B®ex. Eng.; on borders of r^denoy; nuclear power sta.; p. (1964) 6,743
Eppbig toForest;
porated Hainault
Eedbridge. GreaterEstate,
Londonnow incor-; Chinqmngnira, t.. Boyaca, Colombia; pilgrimage'
; residtl.
p, (estd, 1967) 56,040. cte.îômm. ctr.; coffee, cattle; p. (estd, 1959)
cmmueBimi. ChlnWigtao (Qinhuangdao), c.. spt,./or}nerf«a(i;
(Mia, G. ol. m ¥om, QuH ot pt., Hopeh. N. China; on Yellow Sea cst., 160
(MnmlSHa, A, Mexico; adjoirdng the ir.S.A.; m.N.E. of Tientsin; only good natural harbour
minli*, Block-raWng and agr.; a. 94,822 sa. on N. China (Ht. ; exp. coal from Kalian mines:
m.i p. (I960) 2.22S,m. P. (195S) 187,000.
fine cath,; 0..on c®, Chlh^M
Mexican Central Ely.; silver, Chioggia.
Venice; spL. cath. p.c..(1961)
fishing; N. Italy;
47.151.on L in G. of
cottons. wocUeas: p- (1960) 150,430. Chios, see Khlos.
CmeM, pen.. a.g.F.8.E.: world’s first Arctic Chippenham, t. mun. bar.. Wilts, Eng.; mkt t.
, L, on S. Avon: riy. signal and brake eauipment,
CMtaho, t. N, Kynmu, Japan; largest c^- bacon curing, tanning;_p. (estd. 19^7) 18,640.
mhM in the country. tV^tey. Chippewa Falls, c.. Wls., ir.S.A,; flonr. lumber;
Chitoot, E., mss., Alaska, leading into Yukon p. (i960) 11,708.
Chlte, a^^rfca. todewndm^ of Spain Chippiug Campdon, va., Gloucester.
Eng.; in
smcolSlS; Paciflo ooasW step sltoly Ctotswold Hills; formerly impt. for wooUena.
to Andes; Atacama E»^rt In N., fertile Chipping Norton, mun. her., mkt. L. Oxford, Eng,.
nr. Banbury; p. (estd. 1967) 4.420.
Eonrnn Catholic; fore^ In S.; caripping Sodbury, mkt. t. Gloucester, Eng •
dairying, sheep, wool; gr. nitrate output. 8 m. N JE. of Bri.=toL
MPpar,irOTom.ci:^. iodine paper petroteum; Chirchik. i., Usheldstan S.S.E.; 20 m.
N.B. of
t Omani, prov., Panama; cap. David; p. (1960j

It., E. co^t, Orissa, Ind^ Chirk, t., Denbigh. 'Wales - on E. derioc s of
(aai4n.
by onec.,«p.Nubte prov.. Chile: desteoyed 1939 'Vêxham; aSte. ocSl^ og. s. of
of worid’s worst recorded earthquakes: nhiflinnu, see Kishinev,
to rebuilt; agr. and comm, ctr.; p. (1961) CMslehnrst and adcup, see Bexley
and Bromley.
TT a A a -r, Oilsiyakovo,
C, tly. see Thorea.
junct. Siberia. E.S JP-S Jl.; on upper
vUfUtwSiCjCj S.Q*, C^jiSeuE* on -D s. Ûiiry

]&< At . Amur E,. 400 m, E. of L. Baikal; coal, eîn.,
dismicflils fiawmilHnff* ti pm cifin
to®, fto lumber: p (1961) 8,259.'^ ^ OMtaL
®^**aBong, d&i.. East PaMstan; ch, t., Ghit-
pS^.w!
I960; cJi. pt. tagong: p. (estd. 1961) 21 7A2 000
_ 1JB6U) fp. (1960) 22,073. OUt&4.'^SpS^:

Bttv of Ttenml- e-m -in+A fj»o . onE.cst.of
Chlnshoraao, whi., Ecuador, Andes; extinct Baxakhar E.. in steel ctr., of Asasol and Tata-
TOleano, aK. 20.610 ft. A new A
(4xbbte s7i^’!*toto™^* armed U.S. A. ; length
809mo. Cholet. u Matoe-et-Loire .

n., Franco; clothcotton, linen
factorie s:
eagi
movs. (imx Taiwan, the aut. regions of Kwangsl Cholon, i.. S. Viet-Nam- ID m SW
^ “Bfs.: p. (19^) 3^57. ’
4«^T “awTT
UiS^’a^m^) *1' P*- • (3ioluia, P.liio.wlib^cm(1964)2!^^^
aaofeni c. of lêbla. prov.. Meiioo • Astsn ’
■valleys md plains temple, pyramid of Gholula. and ntliRi-
®9tton. tea, hemp, Chooz, t., Aideimes, Fran®; pressurized -

water-
W. coast of Patagonia.
^tiinony, wolfram, Ohoiley, industL L, mun, bar N Lancs. Enir •
elMtrlflca- on W. flank of EossendX A T^Sîf
Ct^s£: ^f'^^'p^^'between
PhfiiTkninM* p hjjmuw w ivr« n&firowKorea nnd avto propoeals for expan-
jriuiAiîiMaa
Phiaî^ oy snci fonno^ sLcsrfisi* n‘ New 1QA7^. 'witn
fpAf.fi ®>wn. wltb jueyjana
Leyland tau.ooo
i*y/i (50,000
*
^ inotading Choriw Woid. «r6. diA. Eng.; p. (1961)
ep*r cawirfl® Pass, Argentina; In E, oordiUera Of
wkfl,, p, (1960)
xacomaaat to
alt.Autctfligasta.
14td&d ft.; used by rly. firom
ftli]
nydro-electricity and water for intensive
cnlfcivation iinder ini^tion of cotton, sugar-
beet, citrus fruits.
Chuanchow (Quanahou). e., Fukien prov.; nhfaa;
rice, wheat, sugar cane; p. (1953) 103,000. dudad Heal, prov., S. Central Simla; grazing
Cainohow (Zhuzhou), c.. Hunan prov.. China;
p. (1953) 127,000.
583,930.
China: one of most impt. waterways of China; Eodrign, c., Salamanca, Spain: captured
fertile delta known as “Land of fish, rioe and by French 1707 and 1710, by the English 1700.
fruit : around Canton network rf elec, drain¬ stormed by Wellington in 1812; fine cath.;
age and irrigation stas.. built sinoe 1069. p. (1967) 12,600.
Chubut, prov., Argentine; cap. Eawson; a. Ciudad Trujillo, see Santo Domingo,
87,152 sq. m.; a«r.; p. (1960) 142,000. dvttavecchla, spi., Latlum, Italy; on W. cst.,
Chudleigh, mkt. t, Devon. Eng.; on E. Teign; 30 m, N. of mouth of B. Tiber; sulphur
_ stone quarrying; p. (1961) 1,S44. springs; p. 34.400.
Chudskoye, L., between E.S.F.S.E. and Estonia smdlest co., Scot.; flat in Qsssa^
S.S.R.: 70 m. long. [gold deposit. and hilly elsewhere: co. t. Alloa: coal, textltea
Chukotkaa, pen.. H.S.S.E.; extreme N.B.;!rfch
Chula Vist^ t., CaL. U£.A.; agr., aircraft; p.
(1960)^2,034.
Chm^king (Zhongqing), former treatu pi.,
Szechwan, China; on Yangtze-Klang; comm.
ctr., S.W. China; em aOk, soya-beans, sugar;
p. (1957) 2,121,000. ^
auquibamba Mtns. (alt. 21,000 ft.). Peru.
Chnquieamata, pari of CaJama emmvms, N.
Chile; Igst. copper-minra in the world; p.
(1960) 30,470.
Chuquisaca, dep., Bolivia; cap. Sucre; a. S6,1S2
sq. m.; p. (1962) SmjBOO.
Chur (Ooire), t., cap. Grisons can., Switzerland;
Upper Ehine Valley; cath. and hfct. bldgs.;
fruit and wine: p. (1960) 20,000.
Church, Mrt, diet., sub. Aooringten, iMies, Eng.;
cotton weaving and engin.: p. (1961) 5,880.
Chuî Stretton, mb. diet., Sidop, Eng.; p. (1981)
Chrni^l, Ei, flanada; enters Hudson Bay at
Churchill ; 925 m.; fine harbour.
ChurcMth JB., formerly Emilton E. flocra into H.
inlet, cst, of Labrador, Canada; Tnagnfflramt
watmlklLCaiHiohai BMs.
ChurAQI, t, Manitoba, Canada; teminns of
Hudam Bay ily.; summer wh^ route from
^prairie prora.^ [tea. rice.
CSiusaa I., off B. cst. of China; cap. 'i’ii®hal;
C3nisoTOy, L, E.SJPB.E.; In Urals; iron and
steel; p. (1969) 60,000.
Chuvash, rep.. A.S.8.E. U.S.S.E,; a. 7.107 sq.
la.: V. il^m l,08SjOOO.
Clbao, lotoUmd area, Dcmainican Eepubllc, Oentrai - - - urb. disi„ Lancs. Eng.; nr.
America; extends along N, side of Cordillera Blackburn; textilemacbim, cotton and biumket
de Olbao for approx. 100 m.; cacao, tobacco, weaving, bristles, soap; p. (1961) 6.421,
maize; densely populated, oh. t. Santiago, dear, Alaska; site of American baUistio missile
cacero, t. m., U.SvA-: p. (1960) 69jr30. early warning station. [off S-W. cst.
dear, C. (sontiienmiost point of Ireland), dear I.,
dechanow,
agr. Inds.:t.,p.Poland: 49 m. M'.'W. of Warsaw:
(1986) 21,000. dsaiwater, i.. Fla., UBA, ; citrus fruit, flowers,
Cienaga, spt., N. Colombia ; exp. cotton, bananas, fish; resort; p. (1960) 34.653.
cacao; p. (estd. 1962) 69,900. deator Moor, (xdl2/.i..Cknaberland. Eng.: v. 8,291.
Cieniuegos, t., spt„ Cuba; sugar, tobacco: p, debume, t, Tex^, UBA-; rly wks.. flour; p,
(1980) 100.000. • (1960) 15,381.
OLE-COI. K42 gazetteer
CJecttiMton, wft3. t, Torks, Eng.; nr. Bradford; la-Zouch: coal-mming. engin., elaetic webbini?-
woollens, blankets. p, (estd. 1967) 28,150.
CSee HiHs, Salop, Eng.; between Es SeTem and Coanza, R., Angola ; length. 660 m.
Teme ; alt. 1.800 ft. Coast Range, mim.. TJ.S.A. ; along Pacific cst
raeethorpw, fc, mun. bor.. Mndsey, Lines, Eng. ; Coatbridge, burgh, Lanark, Scot. : 10 m E of
on E. f». 3 m. S. of Grimsby; resort; p. Glasgow: coal, iron and steel, prefabricaterl
lestd. 1967) 33,970. houses, tubes, engin.: p. (1961) 53,946.
Sent, MUb, NJ3. Woreester, Eng.; about 10 m. Coatesville, t., Penns.. IJ.S~A.: iron, steel brasL
S.W. of Birmingham, on S. edge of 8. Stafford- textiles; p. (1960) 12,971. '
Bhire ecalfleld, orerlooking valley of B. Coats L, S. of Southampton L. Hudson Bav
Stour; well wooded; u^ for recreation by Canada,
indastL te around Birmingham; maximran Coatzaeoalcos (Puerto MSxico), apt, Mexico- on
ig, I.0SffL , G. of Campeche: oil refinery; chemieate. fertl-
CSeikBawil, tndmU. London, Eng. ; im- lisers; p. 13,740.
mediately 27. of the City. Cobalt, t. Ontario. Canada ; silver, cobalt arsenic
Ctenaoat-Penand, Puy-de-Doms, France: fine nickel; p. (1961) 5.205.
Gothlccath.; former cap. of Auvergne: robber; Coban, t, Guatemala, Central America; coffee
chemlffiils;
wrautisus; food
louu. ind.:
uia.; u.
ii. (iflfisi
{xvooj 7.54.110. and
ana Peruvian
jreruvian bark
oaiK tr.;
ir.; p.
P. (estd.
lesta. 1960) 42,300
42.500
rae«<m, MS*, mt,
ofB.&vem; Somerset,
seaside Eng.; at mouth Cobar,
resort ; auarrying.brickB, t. N.S.W.,
v. (1966) 2.848. Australia; copper; sa^vmlu’s-
-r, , T, (Queenstown), apt, urb. dist, Cork, Ireland-

ciweland, hiUy agr. di$t, K.B. lorks, Eng.; fine harbour and docks; p. (1966) 5,608.
'ratby. Cobija, cap. 2,537.
of Pando dep., N.W. Bolivia ; rubber ;
CteveJand, e., pwt, Ohio. tT.S.A,; on L. Bne; rly. p. (1962)
ctr.; Bteamlxfflt nmfs.: machln., iron foundries, Cohonrg, t.. Ontario, Canada; on L. Ontario-
lumte. TOal. oil-refining, meat canning, steel, dairying, fruit, woollens; p. (1961) 10 646
chemicals; p. Coburg, t, Bavaria. Germany; old cas.: wicker-
(iSiO) 73^56; Greater 0. 2,043,000. work, furniture, metal, machines, toy tads - u
aevâecEaeve. , (1963)43,100. p.
gfwBay, aiayo.^land; 10 m. by 7 m. Cochabamba, dep.. Bolivia; a. 26,288 so. m.: n
CU^, 1, Seine, Prance: p. (1962) 56,495. (1962) 550 MOO. ^
tMtêtib.,BrMol,Bng.; onE. Avon; mineral Cochabamba, t, cap., dep. Cochabamba, BoUvia-
famous suspension Mdge. ^
EassaJe; canning; refining,
cath.; oilmodem shoes,
milk robber
plant; hydro-elec, fruit’,
tym. plant
» lu-j » Cochin, apt, Kerala.

„ projected; p. (1962) India:
92,003. Malabar cst.; exp
and steel: t>. (1960) .23.58.9. coconut oil, tea; oil reflniug; p. (1961) 35,076.
_«ipets;
®^^.^sX|&ash uaE.;machin..
p. (1060) 12,848.
CHntou Goltei Lto, L., Mackenzie, N.W.
w w Terr.,
uw N„ Ctuna Sea on E., and G. by of Siam
Cambodiaon W.; on
Canada.
drained by Mekong E.; one of world’s great
Cippertoa I., Pacific Oo.. S.W. of Mexico; belongs rice-growing regions; since 1954, when Vietnam
to Prance (since 1981). was partitioned, became heartland of S. Viet¬
(Sltheroe, i., mm. bor., Lancs, Eng.;i ou on rt. nam; ch.c.
E. „nam: Saigon; a.
cn.c.aaigon; a. c.
c. 26.500
26.600 sa. m.
sa.m.
Ibaâe quarrying ; Co(&hurn Laud, N. of Baffin I., Arctic Canada.
^ ■» , Cookennouth, t., urb. dist., Cumberland, Eng.;
^ shoe mfg.; p. (1961) 5.323.
com* p, (1906) Code* £ânamiL ATrtp*T*if*fi* /'orv
CftonaiiTy, t., Queenstod, Australia: in pastoral Penonom^; p. (1960) 93 156
C°«>s or K^lingIa, 2Wa% Indian * Ocean;
Ireland; rly.ctr.; p. (1961) 2.107. Christmas I., NJS. of Mauritius; radio and
mcotet, c., Galway, Ireland: famous monastery, cable ste.; civil aviation marine base; German
ntaamei, t, uH). dist., Tipperary. Ireland; on E. ertuser Emden destroyed by Australian cruiser
Bgr. otr,; feirs; cider, footwear; p. Sydney on N. Keeling I. in 1914; a. 6 so. m.;
p. (estd.) 1,000.
__ (1966) 11,028. summer
^^ûrwmessimg m fisWng, boat bldg. ; p. (estd. 1960) 55,000.

whmdi. cattle; p. (1960) 23.713. textiles, maohin.: p. (1963) 20.700.
^&i:Sll mm 23:7ir
(xm% mM. t, nr. Middleton, Cork, ^^^'
Ireland. Ckmnr d’Alene, f.. Idaho, TI.S.A.; lead, Germany.
textiles, uranium, engin.; p. silver
„ ljiBbOT; p. (1960) 14,291.
. : p. (1950) 17,133.
(1968) 204.400.
A. victoria. Australia, nr. ‘feY’&ce";
totha a, S.I., New gtealand.
- - - - nr. /Oboes, 0., N.Y.,
BaSu it . TT.8A.; on Hudson E.; hoslerr.
®wyd, DenWgh. N. Wales; flows into Triab P. (1964)
paper, 19.025.
foundries; *
p. (i960) 20,129.
_.%aatShyI; length 30m. Cohnbatore, {,. Tamil Nadu. India: coffee, sugar,
cotton Bplming; p. (1961) 286M0S.
tWtac*, t, Gtooisan, Wales; on E. Ta-we,
reêr^®* ff fê-giowing!
paper.
®Eare: nee. sugar, coffee iu a.; p. (i960)

G^ôw (WMteinch-Liathouse) completed , 18,536.
tSyd®, Firth ol, Scot. Colao, t, Victoria, Australia; nr. Melbourne;
C2y|«bpik, Dunbarton. Scot.; on the terming _Md dairying dist; flax, engin., and
Cly® adjoufing Glasgow; sbipbldg.. sewing I brfcknmklng; p. (1966) 9,497.
nsa^7 tT^bhwuiti- n* lOAHi Iu a pncjonajang; p. (1966) 9,497.
Oigj^ôr B. <4,4 S.W. aoot.
‘^“arK?Mfl864”^*®'^’ battles between

^ » CoJ^^fe'B^ck.Scot.; onE.Tweed;
p!{lW)^^k? • ® and knitwear; p. (1961) 1.227. ■
OoSbrooksSale, pO., Salop, Eng.- old coal- and f^-S-A.; engin,; fl:our.
Stoa-mlBes. ^ ’ G860) 5,330.
Ctolejw. t.. Natal, S. Africa; on E. Tugela;
; p. xv. xu^cia,
battle 1890
Colerê, «rk dht. spt. Londondenr. N. Ire-
land; E. Baim, 4 m. from sea; miiv.;
diatiUing: P. (19C6) 13.57S. „ cath.; univ.; p. (1961) .5,1.92.
Combe Caiê, rock shelter, nr.
gaeifloation Dordogne,
plant projected; new colliery 1065; p. 3,177.
Col^, TOfcano (30 m. N.E. of c.). Mexico, alt. Combe ISIartin, Devon. Eng.: 5 m. Aurignac iin
E. of Ilfra-
Xxm<,6S5 ffc. pSi^
CoUma, si., Mexico : on Padflc cst. : cap. (3oIima: E>own, N. Ireland;
rnS?S^V P?Po)ar^side i-esort:linen; p. (1966)
p. (1951) 1.920.
a. 2.000 SQ. m.; p. {i960) 164.4S0.
Colima, c BMa) ; on Colima E. In fertile valley ; Comlso, f„ SicEy, Italy; medicinal spring,
celammiffs.; p. 29.555. por-
Onii' „«■
Argyll. Scot.;fishing ind.
agr.. lob- Commentary, t., ADier, Prance; nr. Moulins:
Colle di Val d’Elsa, commune, Siena. Italy : cath.
; foot of Alps, on L. Como;
fP- (1966) f'.SZd. uuims.
wme, W^t^ Au&trîa; mib-bitiiminous coal; mimng; p. (1954) 9.25 P- 9.
(1961) 82J)70.
Collingswood, t. N. J.. IJ.S.A.; p. (1900) 17,370. (^® m. long), tourist resort.
touinôod, t, Ontario, Canada ; on L. Huron : Comodoro Eivatovm, spt. , Chubut prov. Argentina
^Pblfe. steel; p. (laei) s,SSo. on San Jorge Gulf 550 m. S.W. of Bahia Bianra; ;
Collinsville, 1, Hi.. U.S.A.; coal, zinc smelting,
canning; women’s clothes; p. (i960) 14,217.
uoim^, t,, cap, Haut-Rhin dep.» FraDcer Tia^^ Cemorin, a, most S. point of Hidft.
rayon, brewing: p. (1962) 54^64. Comoro Is., ôho°^ source of oE in Argentine;
unit of Pranch
P(»ro) Community with full
Come, L, mm. bor., E. Lancs. Eng.; cotton mtern. aut., Mozambique channel, midway
mnfs.; p. (estd. 1967) 18.850. be-
on Mayotte I. : total a. about 838 sa.m.; turtle
Colne Valley, Mr6. cm.. W.E. Yoiks; wooEens; nsiiing: vanills, copra, sisal, timber, perfume
p. (estd. 1967) 20,700. plants; p. (estd. 1968) 244,000.
Cologne, (Koln), c., Laîd K. Ebine-'Westplialia, Compile, t, Oise Prance; sugar-inlBs, rope;
Germany; on B. Ehine at N. end of Rhine Anmstira signed between AEles and Germany
gorge; rath.; univ.; eau-de-Cologne, electro- Hitler in 1340;
teohniral ind., machin.. metallurgy, paper, P. (1954) 22,32o,
wood.chenucals, care, oil refining, textiles; impt. Compton, Cal., tI.8.A.; heavy engin., glass,
retmmg; p. (i960) 71J12. ofl
finS’JPh A (1S68) 850,011.
B^bar. [p. (1962) 77.090. Conakry, rap., Guinea: experimental fruit gar-
Colomhes, i.. Seme, Prance; mfte. sub. of Paris; dens; textiles; airfields; p. (estd. 1965) 1J5,0(?0.
mp-. S. America, mountainons in W. ConoOTeau, f.. Finteftre, Prance: on I. nr.
{Cordilleras), swampy, flanos in E.; climate fish and preserve tr.; p.
mainly tropical. Es. : Magdalena. Canea E,nd
trilM. of Amazon ; Spanish language ; Eoman Concepoife, prm-.. (Biile; cap. Concepcidn
Catholic : coffee, tobacco, cocoa, cattle ; gold, ®'- 2.201 ; TO.Lota-
m.:
platinum, oil, emeralds: oilfield in Amazon a.; P. (1961) 535,633.
CcaKepcito, c. prov. rap., Chile; shipping
ctr.
through its pt. Talcahuano: univ.; comm, and
Colombo, ^' pi, Ceylon; exp, tea. rubber,
iTsMmocap., earthquakes 1939 and 1960:
coconuts: p. (1963) 510,947. p. vicox; laf>t700,
d*. Panama, Central America; at Atlantic
end of Panama Canal: comm. otr.. oE refining
nearby; p. (1960) 59,598. Conoepcidn ft, on est. of CaMfomia, U.S.A.
Colonia, dep. Uruguay ; cap. Colonia; a. 2,193 Conraption Bay, Newfoundlmd, Canada; N.W
TO. m. ; p. (1953) 135M8. of St. Johns.
Colonray, Z., Inner Hebrides. Soot.; 8 m. long; Concho^ E.. Chihnahua prov.. Mexico, Central
îMiasticM Mtiquitles; p. (too. Oronsay) 238. Amroca : Aoto N.E. from Serra Tarahumare
Coloiô, St.. UEA. ; In £,oSky Mtns. : agr. with to Eio Grande; cotton under irrigation in
irrigation ; pastoral ; gold, copper, sflver, upper vaEey.
coal, petroleum, uranium: rap. Denver (a.v.): ConÊ, t., Chfle; onN.E. iiointofValiiaraisoBay:
ofl refilling,
f, SO. m; p. (1970) 2.195,887.
Coloiô, E., W. of N. America, formed by union fitsraryctr.; textiles:
Of Grand and Green Es. (2,000 m. long, navig- p. (15J60) 12,275. textfles; p,
able for 600 m.). with canon (6,000 ft. deep).
Colorado, E., Texas. U.S.A, ; length 900 m.
Colorado, E., flows into Blanca Bay. Argentina.
Colorado Springs, teat. pl..hmUhresoH, Col., U.S S'H**,tfflrtfles;
"ft-S-A.;p. cm
(1960) 29,997.
Merrimore
64 m, S. I^nvw; smelting; p. (i960) 70,194.
Colton, _t., SJE. Cal., U.SJL; firoit and vegetable
rannmg; mkt. gardening; p. {i960) 18,560. Queensland, Australia;
Uruguay trib.
E.; ofp.
Columbia, c.. Mo., U.S.A.: ri;. univ.; flour. E. Darling.
0^59
lumber; p. (I960) 30,050. CouTOBano* wmmm. N. Italy; silkB, wtera.
CotaMbia, t.. Penns., UB.A.; mnfe; p, (I960) light mftg. ; p. 15,434.
^^•,07Oa I Bong L, 5 m. long.
Columbia, cap,, S.C.,UB. A.; burned 1865; univ.: TOmp^ Manlm^ B^. Brighton Beach,
cotton mills: ironwhs.; p. U960) 97.433. _ W* Brighton and W, lEnd ; seaside resort,
Colimîa, t., Tenn., U.S.A.; mflg.; Uvratocfc ( mm, bor,^ E, Qieshire. on
p, (I960) 17.024. S.W. margin (ffPennines: agr.. salt, clothing,
Colmnbia, E., on Paclflo sloiie of N. America; textilra; p. (estd. 1967) 7SE50.
rto in Brit. Cohunbla. flows through Wash., iCemgo, Eep. of the, ind. sov. st. withim Frmch
UBA.; salmon fishing; length 1,400 m. Cemujumffy, Equatorial Africa; cap. BrazzaviEe:
Colmnb^ Dist. of. U.S.A.: on left hanh of Pote¬ a. isg.000 TO. m.: p. (1968) 870.000.
st E.; contains Washington, the federal cap. (Cong^ of ih^ imd. sop. st. (ex-BMgian): Cen-
ÎT.S4.; a. 69 sg. m.; p. (i960) 7S3.95e.
Columbia, Ml., Alberta. Canada (alt. 12.294 ft.). Gentral (^ngo. East 1?^Kasai,
® provs.:
Ea^m Bandundu,
Provim e.
Columbus. St. cap„ Ohio. U.SA..; rly. ctr.: st. E^tor. EAtanga, Kivu, Wrat KTOai; oEmate;
uniT,; maohln.. paper, aircraft madhin,, uniformly hot. heavy rains; teopical forests:
êi^cate: P. (1970) S33,4ZS. agr., palm oil, cotton, rice, copal, ooffbe, ivory,
Columbus, L, 6a., UE,A.; cotton goods. maohin.: rahber: mlnesrals; copper. goM, cUamonda, ^
p. (1960) ZZff.m. uranium: communications mainly river, mimp
Columbus, t., Ind.. UB.A, ; engin. ; leather goods: rail; cap. Kiashasha; ch. ts. Buma, Kmrangani,
_ p, (1960) 20,778. [p. (i960) 24.771.
wlumbus, Miss.. U.S.A.: cotton, dairyinj?:; Lub^l^hi; a. 906,000 sq. m.; p. (estd. 1968)
Colwyn Bay, t. miun. bor., on cst.. 6 m. E. of CCongo, A, greatest E. in Africa, numerous tribs.;
Llandudno; Denbigh, N, Walra; seaside re* estd. length 3,000 m.; drains 1,500,000 sq. m.,
sort; diamond tools; p. (1961) 23M90. navigable from sea to Matadi for ocean steamers.
GAZETTEER
T Coonoor, L, Tamil Nadu, India; sanatorinm 6 000

TBpifis aod falls, again navigable to Stanley ^ ft. above sea-level; p. (1961) 30,890.
Filis; estuary. 7-10 in. wide. Cooper's Creek (Barooo;, B., Central Australia;
■ ite in Warrego Eange. Gr. Dividing Bange
flows S.W. into marshes of L. Eyre; provides
Ccffllskffl, Ontaxio. Canada; on riy. 8 m. E. of' water for livestock in semi-arid region; 900 m
SndlKiry; nlciel smelting; town built by • Coorg, fmner st., now inc. in Mysore, India;
mtnous., forests: coffee, rice, rubber, tea; cap
and fcr nickel-mining company.
Cealstcm OM Kton, rain., nr. L. Coniston, Ibdcs, Mercara: a. 1,687 sa. m.: p. (1961) S22.S29.
Eng. fait. 2.675 ft.). Coorong, The, S. Australia: lagoon and long
CcaJston Water, L., N. Lancs. Eog. ; length 5i m. ; tongue of land on cst.
toiirist resort.. Coosa, B., Ala., H.S Jl. ; length 350 m.
Coajeeveram {Kancbeepriram), f.. Tamil Nadu. S. Ctootamundra, t, N.S.W., Australia; agr. and
mftg.; p. (1966) 0.207.
P. 110011 S2,n4. Cootehill, mkL t, urb. dist., Cavan, Ireland-
Bellamont forest: p. (1951) 1,489.
Coin»cht,_|jfffe.,_Irelmd:_ fincludes cos. Gsdway,
Copeland Is., gr. off N.W. coast of Down, N
Ireland, at entrance to Belfast Lough.
Copenhagen, eft. spt., cap., Denmark; on E. cst
of Sj&Uand I.: royal palace, nniv.. library;
naval sta.: steel, metal, textiles, clothing
breweries;
Copiapo, cap., airport;
Atacama p. (1986)
prov., 1,377,605.
Chile; tout, copper '
and iron mng. ctr.; p. (1960) 37,224.
Copparo, commune, Perrara, N. Italy; drained
agr. land, in E. Po delta; p. 23,777.
totaceo, (Wrying; Miing; vratches and clocks CoppercUff, E, Ontario. Canada : mining, nickel-
tfearms!, aircraft, engin., copper, bra^, machin. ; copper smelting; p. (1961) 3,600.
cap. Hartford; Igst. c. New Haven; a. 5,009 sq. Coppermine, B., N.W. Terr., Canada; flows N.
m.; p. (1970) 2M7SS0, into Arctic Ocean ; length SOO m.
Ccanecticnt, B„ flown S. to Lons I. Sound, Coquet I., off cst. Northomherland, Eng.
tr.S jV. ; fcngth 450 m. Coquilhatville see Mbandalra.
ConaellsviB®, f.. Penns., XJ.8JL; coke, machin.. Coquimbo, prov., Chile, on Argentine border;
copper-mining disk; cap. La Serena; a.
15.897 sq. m.; p. (1960) 393,664.
many lak(« and bogs; tourist re»Jrt. Cogulmljo, spt., Chile : prin. exps : iron, copper, and
tonowinso Ham, Penns., H.E.A.: ^tuated on manganese ores: p, (1962) 52,250.
lower Snsqnehaima E. ; hydro-electric power- Coraoora. t.. S. Peru; mining; pfc. Ghala;
eta. supplies power to inds. in Philadelphia. p. 8.000.
Coral Sea, Pacific Ocean, extending from the New
Coaro^ t., Texas. IJ.S.A.; oil, timber; p, (1960) Hebrides to Australia.
CoaStt, «jfi. dirt., Durham, Eng.; on edge of Coral Sea Islands Territory, Fed. terr., Australia:
Pemunes, 10 m. S.W, of Newcastle; iron, steel, scattered Is., E. of Gt. Barrier Eeef, off Queens-
ix)-ke, coil; p. (estd. 1967) 37,500. land cst: possibility of oil exploration.
Conshohocksn, bar., Penns., TJ.8.A.; iron, steel, CoraopoUs, hot., S.W. Penns., U.8.A. ; iron, steel,
smgio^ tnstruments, textiles; p. {i960) 10^59, glass ; p. (1960) 9,643.
Ccastance (Konstans), c., Baden-WOrttemberg Corato, t, Apulia, Italy; farming ctr., olive oil.
Germany: on L. Constance; cath.; textiles, wiD6 • p* 44
machin., chamicafe, elect, inds. ; route ctr. ; CorbeU-Essonnra, Essonne, Prance; on E
p, (1963) S6.m. Seine. 12 m.S.E. of Paris: flour mflls, printing;
Ooastawss, L., or Bodensee, between Switzerland paper; p. (1962) 27.038.
and Gennany ; 46 m. long, 9 m. broad ; a. 207 Corbridge, t, Northumberland, Eng. ; on E. Tyne
nr. Hexham; p, 2,415.
Corby, Northants, Eng.; 7m. N. of Kettering;
steel wks.: one of “ New Towns," designated
1950; steel wks., shoes, clothing,
_ (estd. t.,
Cordell, 1967) 46,580.
S.W. Ga., XT.S-A.; tr. ctr.; peanuts,
cotton mills, sawmills: p. (1960) 10,609.
C6rdoba, oor. prov.. Argentina: cap. Cdrdoba;
a. 66,195 sq. m.; p. (i960) 1,760.000.
Cdwoba, c., Argentina; uniy.; wheat, flour, wool,
sho^^ car and aircraft prod.; p, (1960)

Cdrdoba, dep., Colomb&i, S. America; cap.
Monteria; p. (estd. 1959) 377,030.
Cordoba, t, Teracruz, Mexico: cottons, woollens,
coffee; p. (I960) 32,333.
Cdrdova, prov., Andalusia, Spain; cap. Cdrdova;
agr., olives, vdnes, livestock; a. 6,299 sq. m.;
Cdrdova, f., Andalusia, Spain ; cap. of O. prov. ;

on Guadalquivir E. ; oath. — formerly
. » a saored
lu,.
mosque 305.150.
P. (1969) of Mohammedans : textiles, leather,
distilling: p. (1066) 215.000.
Corenê, E, forma bdy. between Brit, and
Netherland Guiana ; length 400 m.
Corie Castle, por., Dorset, Eng.; cas. mins;
mkt.,seepotto’s
Corfu, day.
Kerkyia.
CoÛano,
dalabria; Uagr.;
S. Italy; 4
p. 75,920, m. from E. cst. of
Cortnga,t., Madras, India; at month of Godavari E,
Cmintu, mfromis ol, divides the Saronic G, from
G. of Corinth. Greece ;
OaaaaL out across by Ship
Corinth Canal, ship caned, S, Greece ; traverses

Isthmus of Corinth, links G. of Corinth and
Ionian Sea with Saronio Q. and JEgean Sea;
1898; length m., depth 26 ft.
Corinttua, Greece; p. (1961) 112.491.
Oormtp {(k)Etaei), c.. Greece; at W. end of Isth.
or u>nnth: occupies a site 3 m. distant from
K45 GAZETTEER
. . ‘’* C6te
15.892.
Corinto,
. max.d’Or N.B.
alt. 1,968 ft. part of Central Dlassif:
ch. spt., N.W. Nicaragna; exp. hidra,
Biigar, coffee: p. (1960) T’.OOB. Cote d’f^dep., E. Prance: traversed by E. Ssone;
Coi*, cq , 8. Ireland ; test, and most S. ; mtns. : live-stock. Iron and steel;
dairying, brewing, agr., fisheries: cap. Cork: a. 3,391 Sd. m.; p. (1968) 421.192.
a. 2,890 Sd. m. ; p. (1966) 339,525. peninsula, N. France: 50 m. long;
Cork, spt, m. bor., Cork, Ireland: at mouth of E. mouth,
Cherbourg, at its extremity, 80 m. from Ports¬
liee: umT. : woollens, butter, cattle, brewing
cars, i-ubber: p. (1966) 122,066. C6te-taôrd, agr. liep., Brittany, W. Prance: cap.
Co^ Harbour, pt. of call (Cobh) for Atlantic
steamers. St. Brieuc: wheat, flax, iron, slate, ■flshinsr,
toen-mkg. ; a. 2.787 sq. m.; p. (1968) 508,102.
Corleone, L. Palermo Sicfly Italv minPi-i,! ^ <^968) 506,102.
sprim^; p. 13 704 ' Cotopaid, vol.. (alt. 19.613 ft.) in the Andes of
SJrlSkdO,. S.
Comer
- Brook,
- — , c^W.êwf
w.* ouadL-ind: Ku. harbour:
gd. uitriAJur;
Cotrpne, Catanzaro, S. Italy; good tr. in
wine, olive oil, etc.: p. 21,498.
^^Ôhto) 17’ <3airying, tobacco; p. Cotswold Hills, W. Eng., between Lower Severn
Cornwall, CO.. S.W._ Eng. ; mkt. gardening, oats, md Upper Thames: highest point, Cleeve
cattle, fishing, mmerals. kaolin, granite, tin, it. „ Ooud. 1,081 ft,; fine sheep pastures.
engin.: extreme point Land’s E^' Vn to ifc nne sheep pastures.
Bodmin: a, 1™57 sq
ComwaU,c..(totSio m ^ uu {196m
vûu«.u<», 779
ot,. jjavuviico xt. ; *^tt*™* Ciermany;
metallurgy; rly.ctr.; p.on1968)
E. 71,390.
Spree;
H.Q. rf Seaway Authority; textiles,
pulp, iôra dep., Frajjce: tar and lubricanfc refinery,
paper, flour; p. (1961) 43.639.
Cornwallis Is., Arotio Ocean, Canada, textiles: P. (1954) 15,334. 111,092.
too, t., Venezuela; agr.; p. (1950) 28,307. Cou^n, (., Mre Atlantique, France; p. (1054)
CouMon and Parley, former tab. dik., Surrey,
h La Pp <iep.. Bolivia: at alt, Eng., now Inc. In Croydon outer bor. Greater
13,000 ft, in Central Andes. 60 m. S. of La Paz
; jUndon: m dry valley of N. Downs, 4 m- S. of
impt. TOPper-minlng ctr.; p. (1946) 4,500. Cwdou; residtl.; cbalk quarrfes; p. (1961)
^romradel to., cat. of S.E. Tamil Nadu. India.
j-auxiixxauu, Aiitua. 747;^^ . _ . -
resort: P. (1960) 18.039.
S?’p?(i960?is^. seaside coimoil Btai^
p. (1960) implements,
c.. Iowa.
51.3$1. U.S.A.: paper, nmohin.:
on Mtemrl E.:
CoromMon Gulf, arm of Arctde Ocean; extreme
pomt N. CanMa ; discovered by Franklin. Court^voie, (., indnsti. sub. of Paris. France;
Coronel, spL, Chile; p. 28,027. on E Seine: p. (1962) 59,941.
Coronel Oviedo, t., Paraguay; p. (1946) S3j098.
Comwl^ f.. Hainaut, Belgium; coal, linen.
Corpus Christl, c., Texas. H.S.A,: cotton: p. _ fiwtoriMi: p. (1962) 17JS31.
p. wurnewte (La), t., Seine, France; p. (1954) 18.349.
(1960) 167,690. scot. :
P. (1954) 75.340.
Co^^ dep.. S. Central France; cap.
CoiTib, Lough, L., Galway and Mayo, fi.o.L: a. 6S ftjomôn of Loch Long and E. Clyde; p.
sq. in.: E. Corrib flows from it into Atl. mjtg. e., a>. bor., N. Warwick, Eng.;
-Argentina: cap. Corrlentes: a. 18 m. E.8.E. of Birmingham: ctr. of cycle,
^.826 sq. m.; p. (i960) 543.0M. motor-cycle, motor-car Ind.; aircraft, tools;
Cotrtotes. L, Argentina; on PaxanA E.: univ.: chemicals; projectiles, textiles: cath.: unlv.:
“Jton; p. (I960) 104,000. rnlestd. I960) 335,650. 123,091.
TOrrieiftes, C., Mozambique, Port. E. Afrirai. Covilhm t. Portugal; cloth factories: (1960)
CorrvT Pennr ITS A . All Portugal;
industl. cloth
c.. Ky.. U.SA,: on E. (1960)
factories: Ohio,
Hioe^)
“S o'SS.'ES.’a:
p. (1062) 275.465. excluding Bastla.
Corsicana, t, Texas, ir,8,A.: p. (i960) 20,344. Jwdenl^h. burgh. Fife. Scot.; ’ 5 * m. N.E.' of*
Corsp, G., N. point of Corsica. Dunfermline; w^; 1,0
p. 65.
(1961) 11M8.
CoriKuT / TToi Cardiff; p. (1961)
„ -i^>ratermjme; w^: p. (1961) 11.515.
P* L.„Mr6. dm.. I. of Wight. Eng.; on both
*'• rides of iMtuary of E Medira; home of the
(1960) 15.155 . ’
Oorto^, t, Tuksany, Italy; nr. Perugia; silk Eoyal Yacht Squadron; regattas and yacht
factories; p. 30f822. bldg,; alRsraft, p. (1961) 16,974.
Oxford. OtforMiim. Eng.: 3 m.
dvoO) 28a.,fi84, spt; &ZV, p» 13,86X» 3.^, Of Oxford* mnfe. Tuotor vplilolfts
L. N.aW.?^strato;îloik wheat
mJoo’ **' 485M7. t. its cap. p. (1966) dlst. and site of state experimental farm: sm.
guay. p. Q9tH)) 86,744, Steel; p. 40J)32,
Co^^hVcSi.fpTOv.^Snza. Italy; iron and
uorvaim,
to^^*nif lire.. IJ.S.A.; nch farming ..L,
section. ^zumell^ E. of Yucatan
Crac6w, Peninsula; Mexico,
see Kr^6w.
Craaook, t.. Ctepe Province: wool te.: p. (1960)
rxv«T^®®/ 15.475 ine. 5,200 whites.
new "iflty in a
Wol^h5i^Di^ * F' 996I) 1^Ti
?i!^‘’i.î ^ CralWTOm
39,557, under constr.,Ireland:
gfiiden c...toagh,N. 10 m. lorig, merging
iik
cam,, p. (1961) 77,590. PoiMownmajor
provide md base
Lur^, liêd by motorway,
for inft to
ft®*'* bvmX Fife, Soot.; p. (1961) 1J)66.
UHA.: ooaL gas. on,
X,
CMQihiig^.(.,Northimiberland.Bng: 8m.N. of
«Z7iyT. * xv,jjutic, pottery,
Newcastle; “New Town” designated 1964
pubuiry.
rOsm Brava,
5*^5® nmva, rag,, Catalonia, Spain; tourism.
tourism.(Incal authorises
aocal 3»,nfiin-rit?#«a and
athi private^SJtorise);
■nvixr„fA A-nIx,t-r,,e,.a^.
Sol, rep., Malaga (^. Spaia: tourism. proposed p. 45,000; major indu^ estate to be
established.
Costa xv*™, rey.. vûmu.
Si<^ rep.. Central America;
America: cap. san
Sam jose;
Jos6; established.
“8r.. eo^ lananas. rubber. Ctanbtook. TurcadM,. nM. t. Btent, Eng.; hops
gold. a. 19,300 sq.m.: P. {e8td.l969) 1.7001)00. and grain; p. (rural dlst.
1961) 14,155.
CHA-CUI K46
• iron, chemicals; gazetteer
p. Cristobal, dist. Panama (Suial Ceni«i
l6d,76G. America; adjoins ColdoX
Kh(^
crater t.. Ore., L. TJ.S.A.j
Tj£A. mi&; p. (1960) Canal; p. (1960) 11,499; oft. (196^^
; In Isational ‘
Park, is a Croa^patnok, mtns.. Mayo. Ireland 2 Bin ff
ST. body of trater 2,000 ft. deep and 6 m. Croatia, fed. unit, Jugoslavia^ foimeriv mW m
In a oater of an extinct gigantic Austria; mtns.; cereals, POtS^^toW/.A
CraMe and &Mmar, It Scot.;
pars,, Aberdeenslilre, o A timber, sq.pigs,
i6,418 sheep, cattle; cap. âgrctr^'
hi.;d. (estd. i960) dloTMo '
Cas. Crockett, t.. E. feas. TT.S.A : iffi?® cotton-
tsvates, p. (19511 1J291, seed on, pecan nuts: n. (ifiooi n skr
Cia^, i.,Ce9,Tu st., Brasil ; at foot of Chapados Crocodile B., see Limpopo.
deAi»ipe,approx.300m.byran8.ofPortaleza; »o® and
Ckois, t.. Nord, Prance; Cromar
p. (1964) t^ Scot • oft
isro?
N.E. cst. of Black Me; p. (1061) ff£)d ’

Cisa, wcm, âciesKin-Elidiio dep., S.E. Cromer, U urb, dUt Korfolk P.nff • v a
SSf®L^ x< * Crompton, mftg. seaside
t, urb. nraort; p?{i96l)
dist., Lancs. Eng 4^sl
• 2 in
Pennines, Eng.; re- S. of Bochdale; cotton. engin., e^ iamra;
.atlvely
Mow low ttmestone plateau, alt. mainly p. (1Q81) 13.707 mmpa.
800 ft, except where capped by grits in Crooked I., BaJiama M, W. Indies- n
S' ,^5r®° • typical limestone features, caves, Crosby or (Jreat Cr^by mun ^hn?' r
rta&ctltes and steJagraite, steep-Mded vaHeys Eng. ; onêrpo^ Baf 3 m n’ of
•date):
to BM. ;drêd
hxMr^ »• ™e
moorland, to sheep
S.W.. B. Stl.; SdS.
rearing Cross, “se^WeTôrtf
Nigeria • p. (e“d.
in 1967)
in vaUem r^ffiig
where cnlUvation of cattle for fattening else- lands, flows W
of root and fodder crops; Sbar;
a^’ S into G
^fifl
M Pami^ to easy
Ok only
filT® Leeds routes
Preston, aero®to Cten- 8^x400^ waterway, length
Leeds Car- Cross mtn., Cumberland Fnir ■ v
_ h# : cIi-SM- is- and route ctrs.. Skipton. Settle. ofro • iS 2 93^t ’
t, In^ tt.S~A.; p. (1960) 14,381. Crow Head, 0., Kerry" IrelancL
ti»e Crowley, L S, S '^Â^ rice inni=
@ HeijSB-te; oxie of "New experimeBfc sta * p (1360) i^fn^
Towns" dMtgmted 1947 to leHeve population Ctoto sonthem mort
coagîcm
c^gestionto in London; extends from vlL vfl. of
of N^t Îs pass B across
C A Canadian
Wn Bocky
C^da;
tawsrley N. towards Horley; engin., pharma- Mtm; used by rly. from Medicine Hat to
®etel. leather, wooden goods; p. (estd. BMkane (H.SA,) ; alt. snnomit 4,469 ft.
Croydon, mMl t., former co. bor., Surrey. Eng
^ (1907) 83300.
CrayftM. Tendon; inc. Coulsdoii
fyrmer urb. disL, Kent, Eng.; now inc.
m Bexley, G»ter London; engin., fabric
PTfating, oil and resin ref. 14,433. m9)^'%66)
Stes; maehin. mnf.; p. (1964) 13,600.

Crra^ immune. Cremona, N. Italy ; oath. ; wine Crn^^ (.. sao Paulo st.. Brazil; p. (estd. 1968)
silk, linen, lack Imts; p.SSJSS. Hungary; iron and steel.
Cremana, e., K. Italy; on E. 1%; rilk, cotton. (1965) 30.000.
fCandia) tat. c,; ^?^v>tTM}rated intQVlrrrm nffor constituted an independent

^ f^V tropical, plenty rafe-
Gwrie, ***.. CJmtial Stance- aer efe • mir> oS^fS? "-tS- yTnca. enters L. Ngami.
p- (1968)15fi,Syo.
Cretôt, 1)0, f,, Sadne-et-Loire, (^0967) fra
Ifrance- |ge ord- f*nntrme 23 3/30 ■•' P.
«_
naneevra-te; p. (1964) 23 333 * Cuotai^, Bj, Sufflex, Eng. ; uses in High Weald
(tarfewaM-la-Crob;, l. Mroelfe dop NE Stance- Bnglia CJhannel 4 m. W. of
iron fonndri®:
CtwUteite. i„ Boain • P.winft
(1954) 10 1^ ^ j Pa^_aiTongh
beautiful gap; length 28 m. S. Downs in
: S^tanKeimrte. Colombia,
Eng.; 20 m. S.B. cattle; p. (estd.
aJr^ftvehindro;
HMte ^^clger^'wl^doMnS^^*^*
p. (estd. 1M7) 52^» * 17.975.
spt., Tamil Nadu. Lidia; nr. Pondi-
Srn, c^l'Seeds, cottons; p. (loei)
glOTes, concrete proft?*p?*"(i96iv^l^^^^^^ Pradesh. India; cotton.
dist., mM, L. Brecon. S Wales- W-® Yorks, Eng.; p. (1961)
OrS^®®- ’ P. (rural diet. 0“^ J mining jmm.. Central Spain;

j^«ai.,,,Ecuador;„uniy.; oath.;
P (1962)T&‘^“^
H8SB.
xJSi. - P n«63i “‘-“•'I'K*

ac^ pe^Mu]^
Of Klataoe. R.W .A. Biftraudo Is.. Spain* W cst of
CMffln Hias, I. of Skye. Soot.;
®®*®’“**
withÂluiI^; pôm
' oriffita’Sni T highes
1”^ = ’<*««“
,l%nra AJasdair; t peak
alt. 8,261 ft,:
tteer
DAI-DAV
Daron, «€ 'JMen. Danvers, {., Mass.. U.S.A.: n. (1960) 21 92fi
an and mmlba«^Smmil,'W.Afeica., DanviUs, c.. m.. U.S.A.; coal p {lQm% xtn
groundnuts; p. hemp; horaes; p. (i960) 9.010. wpaceo.

no«fi
Drtffi S%1.™ »I>«e,l, ITAB.; 170 m.
B.. trib. Of Missoari R.. U.S.A. Dardanelles, strait hetêm Enmn^

“■ Sea with Sea of
p. (1939) 20.m0.
j.,,, . unCMCXI,
c j, , „
iCUKlU 0.40 iU. _ (the ancient Hellespont). 40 m. long
Datolve^ B S. total Sweden; length 326 m. Dar-es-Salaam. spt. cap f Tanzania ‘17 Africa
Daiaguete,
Dalagnete, i,
i. Cebu,
tom. Phllippiiies
PhHinnhies:; sugar,
smear, maize
maize: : nrir ^.^11^+
p. 30,080. [nuclear reactor (1968).
Datot, f., S. Tiet-Nam; 140 m. N.E. Mgon;
Dalteatbe, burgh, Kireudbriirht. Scot.: granite,
«Mry prod. gl0T«: p. (1961) 3,104. Daryeld, urb. disL. W.H. Yorhs, Eng.; p. (i96i)
Sf S'fifSKa.'*' ’•“> «55f
D^.(,.Q!ie™iand.A^ralia; likely to increase 05^^: proi.®tudan
oa cst.. Scotbu^: Newt.p^ ^

xS! 7.ol7lt.
'ii
Smf
Midlothian, Scot.: 8 m. 8.B. of g SgoUk^ônE Hara-
oalkw, t. Dubto. Ireland: on B. cst.; 4 mu N. airbed mmiver hampton (1966); nuts,
bordesr; seasids resort; residtl.; fabricated steel mnfs., drop forgings, car bolts
com¬
_ P. (1956) S.SSS. ponents: p. (1961) 21,732.
Dmê., Tewl U.S.A.; to cotton and grain- Dar?S|. N S Au^strali-i
aeroplanes: p. DWding
Divi Range ding
ii’ows S.W.'ik•to riap= ■ o*1?’
Murray
_ at Wentworth ; length 1,702 m. ^
R
■’IflSS^rSi-ssr-- -irSS’Slsr---
”a!Sg“’ «"S‘oS;ES
Daly. S.. N. Terr., AustaHaf ^flowing intoin^ ^ cas-: comm.
Damanhur, t, IjA.E.: ot E margin^’of^Nile • r^®es in Dartmoor, flows

delta. 25 m. S.E. of AlesLdriaf^t. for iS Daltlord 1. 46 m
a@r, produce; p. (mO) 123.000: cd nf m- S.
DamMalMd, formerly pita of German 8.W. Africa % .9?. Eondon;
Pt..Wa!vfeBay; oatMeleStog: ^ S.W.p.Devon.
Paper; (estd. Eng.;
1967)
tooonsly inhabited c. to worid: meM-^ ponies; a. 220

ilm cement; p. (1061) Willhays, 2.039 ft.
i,, Madhya-PrEdesh* lndfsr* sfione-wniior

Oetmany ; ooa
leather, iron; p. (1968)
S.S.B on Dvtoa R.; tez
®'=‘®®-waU ec
T,pa^:p. (1961) 29.7^.“' p. (1969)
Wks.;*'®' SS.OOC
I*WHpptoMir^ (estd.
Dw^n oil refining.
m J at foot of Book I.
Mortta mpton. England,
i ™ "JÊy; boot-mkg.. Hghf. enain

_ wireleffl-transmissioTi of n •
4MWs Strait, chmn^ between Greenland ai

DAV-DEO jr-o
IS A’2!|y "I '*!“ g* E R
kJT^d.tZZ^r^*
Atlanti c with Baffin Bay. uaiiua»; connect
New Je«y
Davos-Pl
land; a^ alt. Amnetant
4.B4d ft. ;erp. sj;s9.
resort, Qrisons, Swiiater-
Deteware Bay, itilei, Atlantic «»t.
L
TTSA*
drownM erti^ of E. DelaTOre.
ir ironwlffl.. pipe, cement, on S.E. estemis
roadstime, asphalt and brick wks.,
engta.;
P- IQCS) 21,240.
^todStl Of
^t 8,000.
p. (1D60)
’ *•• Devon, Eng. ; on S. cat.
Sl-oY4ll?ttTeetriO^^^^^^^ S cv5?™®-
c" Switzerland;
(1.60) watdmite.
■a "••‘-'•'...■ajiu, A'lciueriaiuM; on tecme
betweeresort: n-,Btn k5isVBrExe "-'tterd
- DeWr®rTir„,i.„^
am; famous
.side
.side resort:
Dawson,
p. (1961) 7.507
p. (1961) 7.507.
f., ûion
®
-s . Holland,
TOramics (delftware ^ , ’teehn. nrav.;
Netherlancte:
Terr., Canada; on Yukon E.. ), tool mftg., precipion in-
nr. _ the Klondyke goldfields; asbestos mng. p'-(i cent. OW chnrSTSmi IsTh
96D
projected 196S; p. (1961) 84S. ^ ^t. Nw church; p. (1907) 79,805.
Bax, t. Landes S W
- --Vi-., . AFran«'- nn -txsiuur
iciiiAV-A;, Uil idrarr. -K,.
n «• noc
hr^t ehurch; p. 11907) 79.80,
Mphur Mtween Indus
_ sulphur spnng; horse mart; p. (1962) 18,422
spriiir:hoLS.-n'V?2R5w*J.9* 4 , •' valley and aiiu
and ar’.fi
hot allnviai region
plpia of
Dayton, e., Ohio, U.S.A; on Great Miami R • Ganges; iff igation to support agr.; Kew
Delhi
™bl3er goods;
™ Weoflgl^^’
Daytona Beach! C'jla.. U,S.A • resort tr and ^ „
.shipping, ctr.; p. (1960) 37 395 ' ’ ^h>zig, E. Germany; 16 in, E, of
De Aar, (.. rly. .irnmon, cLîtovtaoe S Afrim- DSnno^®f- h- «9«3) 23,314.
500 m. from rlvs N w* {- Saxony. (Sermany; nr.
F “wV"’ S.E. (Pt. Elizabeth! p.^S l foodstoffs;
I®ael and Jordan : m

surface l,..86 ft. below level of the Mediter- Del Bio wrf Tctsb tt «; a . >-» <■for sgr
ranean ; a. 340 so. m.. length 474 m D-te.A. ; mkt. a..
Width 91 m., greatest depth 1 309 ft •* receivcH Vwl, sheep; p. (1960) 1S,€12.
waters of Jordan; high mlneml content ^ > highest peiik. Elburz
Deal, mun. 6or amSt ^ F extinct volcano,
on S.E.
OB S.E. ^fc.
(St. 7
7 la.
i^^.E.^f TtovS
H.E. of Boyer; nnSSbl •rv^TJr ^ .Esseauibo
JCii:iKe»4iuo»> and
aUfl
seaside re®3rt-; Juliusopposite
C^sar
te
^6 ^Jd
780 to- have first landed nr.; j^. vcotu. AUU//
aoi., ’p.(estd.
D^, Forest ol, Gloucester, Eng. ; between 196 trough
Transylvani
7) an Alps.
which the
InmDanube’
Gate.”rushes,rocky in the
deffle.
Wye
and Severn Be. : coal-mining. Demir^, (., Turkey; nr. Bursa; carwks.
Dearborn, f.. Mich.. TJ.SA,.; p. (i960) 112,007. Dramun, (., Neubrandenburg, E. (leniiaBy: snswr
Deame, urt>. dist„ W.E. Yorks. Eng.; p.
(estd
^ p. vesia. ?• tP- 2'.S75.
26,7
1967),Valley,
Death 20.
(Z(ê5sion, Cal.. U SA. • in Mohave n^wSh ^^ânce; .nr.
nr. Douai;
Boxiai; cf.ia!;
Desert, 150 m. N.B. Lot :Wel£- S ^â^rring. coal, stete
-- — wwi,, fw, t., A./UiilUJ4SLL, A>. Vtmtf'i:
dairmg. elate; in Yale of Glwyd. 10 m. .S, of
276 ft. below sea-level.
p. (1961) 8,044. -i
Bhyl;
Debra Markos, cap.. Gojj'am pro-^, EtMopia; ‘ê^tdes ; p.
DeteeoeKSary; 114 m. E. of Budapest : ® BeS^lw Ghit?“p“<lkirs

imiv.: ctr of paôral dist.: fairs: phaS DeFS.’s^'Si 'ih^ ^
D.S.A.; steel, textiles: p. (i960)
Den Helder, see Helder.
Deeatar, t., Ga., U.S.A.. p. (1960) 22,026. Deôtae,
nS^l(.. 'A w.E. film
Mr^disf., Brit, ’industry.
Yorfe. Ena.; nr.
Derate, c., EL, U.SA..; mnfe.. coal; p. (i960) ghiiTiiig. textUes: m (1961) 2.596.
78t004, Denis, spi.. Spam; 45 m. N.E. of Alicante :
Dâzeville, t., Aveyron, S. Eranoe; coalmine (due
for closure); p. (1962) 12,032.
4.V
the TkT r ’-I®**
Narbada and Kistna Ks. uwuHUDu uy
Dedham, i. Mass.. XJ.SA.: p. (1960) 28M9. D^m, c.. Texas, IT.SA.; on Bed B..; cotton.
DeozAt-.S. Malawi, new t., p. (1966) 2,261. hmte: p. (1960) 2^.745.’ “
P. (1960 ) 4.¥i07
Dee, E„ H. Wales and Gheshire; length 90 m, Deolsai, t, AnatoHa, Turkey; 47 m. S.W. of
and KtooardinA Scot.;
lengthSTm. jta^;
im im.Mtectf p. (1965) of
“the Damascus
gardens —laodtei; Aiato-
0.®o.
Dee, E., Kirkcudbright, Soot. : leaagthSSm. DemnM^ kwpjfojn, Kf.W, Buroi«; {jons^lag of
DÊ., penmsnla cff Jnthind and Mands in BalMe;
length Louth,
20 m. Ireland; flowing to Dundalk Bay: aE®oeiated Inds.; cxjâl flifljeifcs:
Defiance, t., N.W. Ohio. D.S.A. ; Hght mftg., trade ®D- Dopajhagen; a.
agr. ctr.; p, (1960) 14,653. 16,576 »ijm. ; p. (1968) 4MBM0.
steei castings, precast concrete;
Daodasht
— c..
w.* Iran; otp. Knhgilvleb
ii-iAUL&Aiviojji and
tioiu Boer p* (1901)
\iyvi) 7^61,
jjuer u. 7 7B1
*” Pradesh. India; p. (1961) D^du «h*.. vklais Alps. Switeerland:

vraavu-. xv\jn 3 o f
iCÔT^^B^ydad^
39.767. . D'totocsasteanx Is., gr. off SJB. New Guinea.
P. (1961)
Dej. adminfeteasd by Australia.
f., on Szamos B.. Eomania; Ige. distillery;
P. (1963) 22,827. . D’EntKKMs teaux Point, G.. aW. exfetmnifer
ATtfttmjifi..
of
Delatole, p«. Cornwall. Eng. ; on H.W. flanu
_ of Bodmin Moor ; Ige. slate Quaities. Dei^, c., cap., Ccd.. DB.A. ; on the E. slope
Detogoa^Bay, naiureA harbour, Mozambiaue; of Bocky Mtns., on South Platte B. ; urdv.;
_ Port E. Aftica; ch. pt. Lonrenco Manin^. ^ iêotronlc eauipment, mug, mahhln., llve-
Delaware, AOanfic st., D.S.A.; agr.. lumber, fer- _ wTOt omming; tourism; p. (1970) B12A91.
m.. p. (1970) 542, S75. Deog&i, C Santal Pargans dist., Bihar, India:
K50 GA2ETTEEH
pilgrimage; P. . DeTOn, E.. trib. of Forth, Scot : Ieneth<?ii«
^1)30M3.
wri, t.,
L, Madhya Pradesh,
^ ^
Pradesh. India;
tP.{im)fl,3S3.
India: nr. Sagar;
D6vonport,/arf/d
Saaar: 1 Md Plinth
Plrninni-.h
spi.. onf.io,.«.
on Tamar S. Davoiu royal
TnTnnr eî^:
K do*^^
- ^
Deigi, naval nn sta.; road bridge to Saltash^^
DsPot, I.. WiB.,ir.sJL,; wr. etr.; mftg.; boots,
paper, obemicals. brfcfcs; p. (1960) 10,045. Tamar; p. mclnded with Plymouth .
Devonport, spt. Tasmania Australia;
D^hx^teel^mMmn. from Launceston; agr. dist.; canning, 82 m
De Quincy, t., I*., P.S ; oil, gas, lumber, rioo, foimdrv
inds.; p. (1966) 14.848.
_ «««; p. {1960) 3.m.
Dmwr Gl^ *,
Khan,
***«*M»
<MP.,
cap.. West
tivau Punjab,
Pakistan;
JL UAlJCbUy Pakistan;
.C ilkiUSWCbU • Deyenporfc bor., Auckland, N.Z.; naval base and
W. side of B. Indus; silk, bra®, ivory goods,
hawtoome f mc«qu®
B. Indus;; p. silk, bra®, ivory goods. Devonahf
25,000. dockyard: n. riORRi n
rA maritime co.,oo»
S.W. Eng.; uase ana
betwppn
English and Bristol Channe l^fomom “'I
D« Ismail Kahn, die., W. Pakistan; p. (1061) docSî?di p; (1966)11:0^; • fm
s,om,(m. er^Md cider ; ch. ts. Exeter and PlyjTOuth-
D®ra tanaa Khan, f., W. Pakistan: on Indus E.: a. 2,611sa. m.; p (1966)555.000.
adia. ctr., caravan ctr.: p. (1961) 46,100. De^^, t., CO. bor.. W.E. Yorks. Eng.: on
Owtait, t, «pi., E.S.P.8 JR. ; on W. side of Caspian E. Calte, 8 ^ from Leeds<®std. 1967) 53. m\
; heavy woollens
Sa; textiles, petrol: p. (1056) 41,800.
St , „ coai-uumng. oyewKS.; p. (estd. 1967) .52 7^7)
Iteby, 00. fo)f., CO. Derbyshire, Eng.: on E. Dexter, t, Mb.. ir.S.A.: ration
floiirnnni^.'
Dement;
mnf. riy. wka,
and repair, pottery,
yehlcte, aircraft
textll®: engine p. (i960) 5.529.
natural nonr. poultry;
gas Deyeth, t. Cambodia; plywooods
Calow P. (estd. 1967) 127,910. Dez Dam, Iran, over Dez E KhuTTistpn m/,
Derby, t. Conn..
WTO mite.: U.S.A 29,209.
p. (1960) ope]^^18 Mar.°1963
; rubber, metal, hard- DhMnmspt ’’ prov..
SaiiS-Akbia- nil
Australia; on natural harbour DhmMl t. Bihar todia* I^^zinp
tnnio
0^
Mnteriand littte developed of Australia; assembly; p7(19M)^>5ff’ ' *°o^- "^*0
but potential gold Dbannshkodi, t. Tamil isfadu" India" nn t n
^ M. m.: P. (1966) sismo.

Kio tef *■ E- Euwab. India; lOO m. ss
N.E. of Anmtsar; sanatorinm; alt. 6.000
Dâm, f., art. diet.. Norfolk, Eng.; 14 m. scene^,- p. (loei) 10.255, ft •
vv. Norwich: agr. implements; p. (1961) 7,297.
®paratlns Galway and dare from Tipperary. ^rn^-p- ™ ?• of ®oa,
if?, cave on I. ranch visited 77163 '

with known " ootton mnf.; p. (1961)
and as “ St. Patrick's
H^yas, Nepal; alt. 26.810 ft.
P^ôfS: ®°yo"oign a. within Eep.;

DsffiwmL B., Cumberland Eng • ien^fh m Sauiashtra. Indto,; 75 m. W. of
i>tOT0ngi:S“S’:
Derwent, “• ch^cals. salt, cotton, bldg
E. Yorks. S.; 67 a
leii. . length dSf
cattte; cSsaia*
lahr ch^tSat
E;
D!«^, E. trib. of the Tyne E.. te;, l^th sugar-cane.
TiinT; r 1 T itiu^dx au jn,
nSSLIff* -n' I^S^l/owi^ to storm

DftSSmE X: dSKia. S' „°ss
„ Wick; S m, long. oenano. m. ^ Diar^te, t, E êntma ; on Parani
^ E. ; grain,
Dasaffuiidfiro. Eîivia h a J. ^.oattle: p. 11,618.
to the worid. Nêoeth 200 mT
S?s=>TqS» *• “* sgas't'- a
P^Poto pagt,,»te. nraw. Balkans : Mt 7,800 ft DiSSi i^®^) 66^ coconut
D»«- ?“>'». T^d«WkS-
sfffi
on Great Lakes: p. ssg'n w'a'-
(1970) 2 492 <i ra- gKTt'
Pivonmse costnm; oath.: “» =««■»
baihina- paslnn-
®
r\uZiZlJZ** ► tu* auurce fonnded
or yMmtw,ai\ R. fex-
1947;
GAZETTeETR
® I
D<^ma, n.S.A.; p. (IW) 18^0.
nr. Patna: p. (1961) ro.hs. ' »ife. t. Tanzania. B. AMca; 250 m.
Dionr^ hot res., Dle-et-Vilaine, France; op. St
r Of Dar-ffl-Sala
from Dar-es-SaJaaamm on central Tanganyika rly.
_ JWo: ch. -R-at. pL of Brittany: p. (1902) 9,432. to Kigoma; a!fM> on main
Dmaxio mtn. range, Jugoslavia: Wghest A. to 8. motor road.
peak. Dinara, alt. 6,007 ft. Di^wora, «r6. dist. W.E. Yorks. Eng.; nr.
Dindignl, („ Tamil Kadn, India: 2,^ m. S. of Tri- Barnsley; coal; p. (1961) 4.139.
chinopoly! ci"iir*? fobapr*n* *'n**^nQci\* 09 o f'v rs » COfilij p, (X96Z) ^tl39»
Dinaras, Liiizon, PhiiippiEs Is. ; rice, henin
ingxas,
tobacco«tm., Luzon, PhiliDDinîg. - ri£L.^hPrr!r>'
: p. 22,iS4. Of? DenmariC ; depth
Sea,
a) fatho^; valuable d.?hing ground:froinaction
6 to
betwcra
Dingwall, di'riilj. Boss and Cromarty. Scot.: at Mtween British fleet under Beatty and Oennan
head of Cromarty Firth; p. (1961) 3,732 fleet under Hipper ; Mudter mi^ J&n. 1915.
Dinslaken, t.. N lilnne-wStoMia nil, t™. • 19^5.
N. of Brnsburg;
Msburg; co^.S
coal, steel, iron, footwear, tim¬ ■ti mil. ^ t*K5L., iuiuucu uy bend
fornsed by irtsiiu m
in liis
tbs
K. Thai^ off G^nwich, London. Eng.;
ber; pO pipeline from Wesseling tender con¬ OTItoU dpokB and shipbldg. yarde.
struction; p. (1963) 46,400. liyofiha, Japan; landlocked
Diomede Is., two barren granitic islets in Behring °f Shimonofleki Straits; flanked
Strait between Alaska and Siberia: accepted
oy nteWy indnstl. zone inc. Yawata, Waka-
bdy. between Soviet and D.S. territory. laatoi, Tobata cs. ; requires conatant dre^ng
;
Bionrbei, i., Senegal, W. Africa; hides, ground*
nuts: p. 18, cm. Dokknm, i, Friesland. Netherlands: P.
S.073.
“» *. •
length 4 m.. width i-lf m.
Diretewa.'t. Ethiopia; 25 m. N. of Hanar.
wks* p. (estd 1060) 4/> d/5/) riv.
‘ ourj., iif. j^nce , on H. Douhs, nr* Ddon ;
Dirk Hart(«f: oil Stork Anstralia.
“SiASiotf- S eSiSfiipfT'oS;
fa 1678-‘bhlhr.&fP^^’ IS
hna. D.SA. ; contains D Drammond and ex- Dotor’

tends 30-40 m. S from nr NnrfniP i^tmar, r , ofr
t-iaciâniian, fccot: at foot
Oiss, rhkt t arb disi NorfolkFno ■ nn i? _^^falSilis, Om. N.E. of Alloa; p, (1961) 1,95J.
Waêy isT's w ’ofNo^^ch^CT fmnS' »»«>»•. m. Peebles, Scot.; alt. 2.680 ft.
Dittersbaoh, cowjwHie. S.W. Poland: co&‘, drugs; Dotoô?*^/^’*^MonmlH China- Tii ,nh- +
neirfby
Din, Bja.. at
I Kayakoy;
Off S coast a-of20Bombay,
sq m,; India: oil Dom
p. (i960) ‘SpiSÎ bmss io?s^ p Buddhist
S
it; v.v..v»»vw,iv».', .j. M,v» v.îaaj3 jl'xGiuvc, iJUcbl.

Dtvnogorsk, {., B.S.P.S.E.; 25 m. W. of Kras¬ fruits, spte: extremely beantiful; cap.
noyarsk on E. Yenigei; dam builders’ t.; p. E(âu: a. 290 sa. m,; p.featd. 1968) 7S.000.
(1963) 25.000. Domimean indep. Spanish-gpeakfag E. part
Dixon ^^noe,
T nn<^ Alaolra channel between Queen Charlotte m I. of Blspamola. Antilka; cap. Santo
pomingo; sugar, coffee, earao, bananas,
Diyarbakir, <„ Anatolia, Turkey: on Tigris E.; totooeo, bauxite, iron ore. cement; a. 19,332
head of navigation ; ancient Amlda, old walls. sq. m.; p. {estd. 1968) 4,039.000.
T&5)W%2T^‘^ DomodoA fro«K«- t.] Piedmom. N. Italy, nr.

K^fal!!.!&tlm.N.W.o^ Dot“f“lliKri^t'’--SfatoN
Dlwapura
donesia. (Snkamapnra). cap. c.. West Irian. In- salmm; Sh Yorks. 8ea-
fe mEng. ; trib. of E. Ouse ’
Djakarta (Batavia), cap. c,, Java, Indonesia; length 70 m.
cornm. ctr.; textiles: p. (1961)2,973,052.
Don, E.. lîne-et-Loire. France: length 40 m.
u., , UU Jli.
cst. piam 100 m. N.W. of Palembang; pro¬ beltw E(®tov ; navigable to Yoronezb ; acce®
ductive oil-field; a. (dist.) 17,345 sq. m.; to the \ Olga by the Dou-Volga Cs^.
P. (1961) of dist. 744,381 of t. 113,080. DonE«hadee, ept.. urb. disl., Down. N. Ireland:
Djapara-Eembang, prov.. Njl. Java; petroleum, nearest iwfat to Scot.; carpets; seaside resort -
sugar,
cau.,, rice ; a. 2,339
....ouo sq.
ou. m.
ui. :
. p. 1,885,548.
If, j.,aao,ofia. P. (lUfiK)
p. (1966) 3,649.
a.AMS.
Di^rodzer^dnsfc f.. Dtaamim S.S,S.: W. of Donanesebingen, {., Baden-Warttemberg
Dnepropetrovskon Ger-
Dfaeper E.; iron and steel, many; to cûen^^^BiSiSi IS
P- ^
^7) 2®^^'' Donawitij, coiMmMW, Styria tirov.. Austria*
E., unlv., coal, Iran, s^l, manganese, engln.. lignite, iron and steel ; p. 17,623 '-
Donbas m?«^. Dtaaii^ 0E.Sa
Dfaeper, E.,SJS. Europe; rises in UB.S.E., flows Don Benito, f., Badajoz
fato the Black Sea ; connected by canals with Doncaster, Spain* tr’ £i wheat'
i, eo bar W E Yorka. Ehk on Dm!
.•.nMvxv,
Balttc , the
etc. ; UXXW Dneprostroy
X/XJUJ|,fXUO(,avl> dam.
UcbUA, a «
barrage E^W
- r-x m. XB of
yx StoffleM*
-'••0-4*mines;
|*<J,M4XXXWXU» tiSs.
UXOSJltUlOi, ixyiuii
Efehtas by
erected across the E. at Kichkas sn-o
tho Soviet
h-n- the iat
coal racewurse;“aoKHs, p. nSSn
nylon
(estd.
Government, feeds the Igst. power-sta. in the 1967) aSMO.
world : length 1,400 m. Dimchery, andent t, Ardennes, France, on E.
Dniester, JB*. S.E. Europe; rises fa Carpathians Meuse, nr. Sedan : scene of gr. battle 1870.
and flows into the Black Sea; length 700 m. Donegal (Tireonnafl). ».. N.W. Ireland : eh. t.
Doab, dist, between " two rivers " Jumna and ^ Donegal, a. 1.865 sq. m.; p. (1966) 108,486.
Ganges. Uttax **xv«y«hix.
Pradesh, AJAuoo
India. . ! Donegal,
j-ronegai,apt., mu,,
cap., uo.
Co. Juoneffai.
Donegal, IreJand:
Irdand; on
on W
w
DobelUj^Îieiprig, E. cst. of XloDâi Bay: bomcsnim twEods (yw*
Dohric^
n t.. see Tolbukhin.
‘^rands^rinds.; p. (1963)29,327.Donets. E..(MOT
ptos*. p, Dkralne 8 8E.
l5w. nsap • rtana““*
in
Dobrnjto ^t., E. i^mania;
a. 6,102 m.. ch. npianto of central
ancient wall of flows SJB. 400 m.
fato_E. Don; creases Impt. Donets coalfield,
xrajaoi, p. u»W3) oi/.Wio. Sea Donbas,
Dobstaa. U, CSSR.; cave containing ice-field of Donetsk (Staiino), t, Ukraine S.S3.; coaL iron.
^nn T, ®*8fa.i chemicalB; France;
B“^ses,I,oireAtIantiqne, p. (1967) 833.0M.
iir.St.Nazaire;
Dtoeêse, gr. of 12 Greek Is. m .Egean Sea, oil refinery. - a«iuc,

1912-46*. Dongola, New. t, Sudan; left bank of B. Nile
a. 1,055 sq. m. , p. (1961) I22,34ff. above 3rd Cataract: OldD., in ruins: p. 15,009.
DON-DRU K52 gazetteer
Donna, S. Teras, U.S.A.; sugar refining, Down, maritime co., N. Ireland; agr and fiah-
fruit and vegetables: p. (1960) 7.,52,2. . eries; industl. round Belfast; Doto-
Donai^re-Mcmdrôn, l^vence. France; site of patriok; a. 967 sq. m.: p. (1966) S86 980
gr. txirrage on Ehfine supplying hydro-elec. Downers Grove, t, N.E. HI Trs.A • 'dninr
iwBencompIetoi l962. produce; tools, furniture: p. (1960) si'iM
Doon, R., Ayr. Scot.; flows from Loch Doon to Downey, t. CaL, U.S.A.: agr.- aircraft
Dora Mtm, B.. Is. Italy; rises in Mt. -o, asheios prod., mt;^h^-’s<Sp?P^S.
Blanc, 82,605. S)
^ uwou;
and 8. through Val d’Aoste to B. Bo Downham Market, t, mb. dist., Norfolk
at Chjva^ ; toot, routeway from N. Italy to Enn- •
on E. Ouse ; flour-milling, malting, sheet-metai
Switzerland
ami (through Gr. St. Bernard Pass)
Fiance (through wks.; p. (1961). 2 ddO t mecai
Little Bt. Bernard Pass); Downpatrick, mb. dist.. co. t.. Down N Ireland-
tenstli95m. onR. Ouoile- linen- n nofifii
Dora R., Italy ; trib. of E. ^. flowing Downs,
shipping
roadst^d.
betweennatural
Kent harooui of refuge
coast and GoodwS for
South, two chiefly pastoral
Dorchêr, mun. bor. co. t. Dorset. Eng.; on Sands in the English Channel. wxJdwm
tent mkg.; p. (estd. 1967) 13,570. broad chalk ridges in S.E. Eng.; N.
Dorchester, oS entry, N.B., Canada: on ending at Dover, and S. Downs at Beachy
Peiitscodlac E. ; p. 1,000. Head and enclosing the Weald: fine grazing
Dordogae, dep.. S.W. Prance; a. 3,560 sa. m. ; ground for sheep.
rap. P&igueus:; p. (1968) 374,073. Diymton, L, 8. Wilts, Eng.; nr. Salisbury; on
Dordogne, R., France ; joins Garonne to form the E. Avon; agr. college.
Gironde: length 290 m. Drachenlels, mtn. peak on the Ehine, the steepest
range, nr. KOnigswinter :
Do^scht, c., nr. Botterdam, Netherlands, on alt. 1,066 ft. : ascended by light rly. ; famous
L. Merwede : timber, shipbldg., seaplane ; p.
(19G7) cave of legendary dragon. S.E. France: nr.
Mole to S, of gap through N, Downs ; residtL : Toulon: p. (1962) 16.085.

light inds.: p. (estd. 1967)22,010. Diakensbe^. mi». chain between Natal and
Dornoch, burgh. Sutherland, Scot.: on N. side Orange Free State, S. ^rica ; extending 500 m.
froin (3t. Fish E. to Olifants S. ; highest peak
of^Domoch Firth; health resort; p. (1961) Mont-anx-Sources 10.763 ft. ; rly. crosses range
by
Oy Van
VoiH Eeenen
JtC66ll611 Pass.
D^hoi,^ t, Moldavia. Eomania; 33 JLU» m. S.E. ui
of JrfiflS
Chernovtsy; gr. annual fair; p. (1966) 14,771. Drama, pref. Macedonia Greece-
can Tirnmi..
mnfB.t._Gcrn^:
Dorp, ; p. 14J)00. on E. Wopper, nr. Cologne; T(196D 120^021!
Dramm^ spi.. Norway; nr. ^ Oslo,’ on the Dram-
Dorset, w., S. Eng. ; mainly agr. ; sheep : Pnrbeck men E.; shipyard: exp. timber, wood-pulp
marble, Rjrtland stone: co. t. Dorchester: paper: p. (1968) 47,827.
a. 9sa 8«. m.: p. (1966) 833,000. D^cy, Seine, France; p. (1962) 65,940.
fanaing. sheep; some cultivation where soil DrSe. E. prov Netheriandf?^ tn®
’A^W^h^ Germany; fwOTUis^l’
S- on E. Elbe
Dortmua^ i cigarette,
11 engin.,
i N.M. Ehine-Wes
• V.* chem., , jxilo UdLb UUlIttCClOIlS I
Dotoua^ tphaHa. Germany:
Ehine-WestphaHa. Germany: oLmtte®’
brewing, gen. mds
hnpt. E^ comm, ctr.; coal, iron. steeL
„machin.,_^wing: p. (1968)242.722. opticalunpt.
glaas. photograp
and route otr. ;hic apparatus, porcelain'
oil pipeline from Schwedt
Diûnd-^BEM Canah N. Ehine-Westphalla. mider oo^ruetion; _p. (1963) 499,014.
: HnJ® Dortmund on Euhr CoSi^ Dreu^ t.. Eure-et-Loir, France; nr. Chartres-
Jron-ore traffic ; ^
length 90 Lingen;
m. impt. coal, ^^war^ Yorks, p.Eng.
heap- ran i^s.; ; on
(1964) Yorks.
12.272.
t.. Quebw, Ctoda; p. (1961) 18^98.
8^^, S-®-A-I P- (1960) 31,440.
DSSrC«Frobre*;*lirrLiôn'to^ wta; r V,.
coal, tom and engin. wks • bell°toSîno’' oll-oake
Jugoslavia, separating
^.f^5X)6%^’
_ aroenal: p. 0968) 42J2?. ' ““Pdlnk. ftpmî^si^; length 300 m. ^
mkg. iash; cap. Beaancon; a, 2.052* so m •

Doaglss, cap..
^P. (1968) 1. of Man; 75 m.
426,363. ' ^ “•*
W ofTJvnmnni Petroleum,
S6£isld:& rescair* x> s/t * Dwj^bycz, Ukraine, U^S.S.R. ; 40 m, S.W. of
I>(wlas Point, on shore* of L. Huron Onfc DrottwSi f P- 32,222.
Canada; nuclear power sta. freactor" t., man. bar- Worcester. Eng.; brine
D<^ Litteaal, prm.. Portugal: tenmu. ^ne egr-. forestry, sericulture, textile
fruit. catUe: cap. OwtoSv i. isiAi, a, 2.633 sq. m.; p. (1968) 242,221
m (I950)1.2b'.?ro.^^’ ^ “^wuf^^Heland;
D^ E., Derby and Staffs Eng.; Mb. of DiSn^f^ Pv.(1966> 2U121.
Jtat: ^S&iaa'Md^fcot‘A^'SS
Kent, Eng.; one of ta»Plementa: p. (1961)
Stiait^f D. & to? Kania.. Eng. ; sub of Uton-
OonMnent: p. (estd. 1967)^1S2.^™*' unenncais; p.

SS:
^ver, rop.. Drii.. U.SJL; p, (1960) 7.2WJ t-, Quebec, Canada; 46 m
D^’ i* **.• ^^Kens; P-Cioei) 27,909.
iron. mnniMons, eiplo- Sê^Ji ^*Tr.^?‘fF*’T> oI
^ P. (1960) 106M4.
cramljarton, lmrah.,w. U, Dtmbairtoii. Soot. ; on
N. tenk of E. a^ê, 12 m. laelow Glwxw ;
smpWdg, TOje and tabe-inkg.. iron and brass-
ware; p. (1961) 26,835.
I>nm-l>nm, South, t„ W. Bengal, India; anunnni-
tdon; p. <1961)
Dmiirie^ OTirtiime CO.. 8. Scot.: onSoIwayKrth:
N. parts mtns.. much of the lenminder pastoral ;
lead ore, coal, sandstone; a. 1,068 sq. m.; p.
P.
(1961) S5.48a,
BmnWes. eo. hurgh, Dnmfiles. Scot.; on B. Mth.
10 m. tom Solway Firth; i). (1961) 27^5.
iJtmaaJsaros, Hungary; SJew Town built firom
•vlL of Dunapentele; iron and steel whs.;
paper inds.. engin.; p. (1962) 34MS.
Dunbar, spi!., twrcA, E. Lothian. Scot.; 25 m.
E. (rf Bdlnbnrgm potatoffl; p. (1961) 4,003.
Dunbarton, eo., W- Scot;, agr.. stook-rafaing.
shipUdg., (diemicals, dyeing, paper-mkg., ndn*
eiJSia.; a. 246 sq. m.; p.
(1961) 184,546,
Dmbteie, jnia. bursh. Perth. Scot.; on Uta
Water. 6 m. freon Stibding; ardent cath.;
woollen ind.. light enidn.; p. (1961)
Duncan, c., Okla.. tl.SJL.; oil: ollweH rnadihx.:
asphalt, cottonseed oQ; p. (i960} 80M09.
Duncan Bay, t., Yanconver L, B.C.; newsprhit.
Dnncanaby Head, pntiumtory, Oaithne^. N.B,
Scot.
Dundalk, apt., wb. dist., cap., Louth, Ireland;
hnpt. rly. ctr.; engin.. footwear, tobaaso, brew¬
ing: p. (1966) 19.^34.
Dnndas, t. Ontario. Canada: at W. end of L.
Ontario: leather, paper; p. (1961) 12,913
Dundee, c.. spL. Angus. 8k»t.; on Birth of Tay.
60 m. N. Edinburgh; jute nmf., shipbMg..
gazettee
r
OURHECC KS4.
R ai?enwicli,<.. Rhode I.. U.S.A.: light mfte

D&rife (Dmaaso), s'pf. Albania, on Adriatic:
for Tirana: tobacco ind.: p. (1960) 32.000.pt. otr of the Weald a Vn w «
Etohaabe (fomier Stâb^K t. cap. Tadzhik 4Sr?s£:-^r’=.’’^“-‘ «»■»>■•

Newh^ bo? .’Greater LondS^' ^
Diisaeôrt,
on R. cap.. Jv .uuKhine-WestplmUa.
Rlitoe. Germany : K ®°™ec^Sulawesi,
4*. 20 m. N. x'i, of
ui Cologne
^joiogne;: admin,
aomm. ami
anu
Sr l&fSten and
oilturai ctr., art and medii^l academies; iron,
CTiltpral ctr., art and medical academies: iron, coffee sugar.
steel, machin.. soap, cars, paper, chemical inds. :
Pfc-: p. (1968) 6S3.S03.
Bowl, mkm, U.S.^: name applied to Great
Plains on E. flank of Rocky Mtns. : subject agr. macto., aero engines, engin.
to elec gonda-
»wre soil erc»ion by wind, particularly in
drought years (1933. 1936) due to detraction
of nrtaral yêtôn
Mich Qaians, tee Surinam.
by exoeteive ploughing. “5“'iw6?<l!s”/‘“‘‘ "iotbtoe;
iFcc Durmam. j. /lO/jnT pn’o;^ - - i'wi^tery nmis.:
fcnkhona and X'^ychgeda. G.S.S.E. : connecteti Watr ’rkfw^*

by ai^^thjlsva and Volga; length rSmui.
Bzaiidzhikaa, see Chdshon&ito. Sff P- (I960) 10,732.
ISO/JOO. explosives), p. (1967) East Pakistan, »m».. Pakistan; comprises E. terrs

Itehalil, (.. B.SJP.S.B. ; new t. 30 m N E of and former Assam d’ist. of
^ Almetyevsk to serve new A. oflfldd ' ee™re flooding 1970 a
Djasmabnl, i„ KazakhstS t.S R - on E Talis % P- (19C1) £Ô.Sd4,000. ' ’
xêse’orenear: Ea^
Jyf »5S
tte. machin. ^^=
: cattle, grain mkt.: p.
(1965)
te^âria, re^m^ Sinkfanff prov,, NW China' n?
E^te. ouler bar.. Greater London; comprising Ctoages, ruins; p. 250
B. Tafl,nfq:f “^^pe < includfirt fvi i?iZ„ Gheshhô, Eng, ; on S of Meisev

feWiflows
E., Perth, Soot. nrb. dist.r?^^fto
; ûesfromljoch ^
T?i<im ffii toêhester
G.S.A* ; p, (1950) 10 004
len^^S locomotives;’
Off W. Argyll. Sc^®
t ‘™oMve8;
_P; {68^.1967) ^,07™“"“^- . .
^5“^.eteei:macbhi..furnitn?^ p. ’AgeO)
ej*^rei»e E. point of New ZAginr'd tiaroe/i S Ontario._ Canada; p. (1961) 24,555
iii
tenner AÎo^Leot E-B.A.: on Chippewa E.-
6'®'* *®^0Ps, PepCT, furniture; p. (I960) 37 027 ’
Bast Anito Heights, hm. extend s.W. to NJB.
IrtwTiKifi Pyrenees. S. Prance.
SrHPiffl 95rw!fcl Eb^ Mfc. Isnie] ; oSirite GSaS- ah ^«a vt
farms and Ige. fields, mixed farms malnlv K«i^‘ ê^crt: coal, iron, steel tlnniate
&u.?Ta»Mf&i.°'“‘''^**''' ’'>: aoMssSS; ““'* “«•»*« »»»■; c.

“eludes part of ‘^™ie“y: knitwear.
UGugal Presld6noF! rkip infA 4»nH-rkwi> • Precision tooJg; p, pt ^/)n *
wk£.fc^; P^C J^m^&n^JBiIs. f'l^th

srMr^ ' residtL; p. (
East Goak Bays, 6or., N,Z,. p. (i960 cheimcajB. ooal-minlng; p. (estd. iW)
East Coast Bays, 6or.. N,Z,. p. (1960)) is.ssr.
12.357.
leatow:
-
1x05
EccM* W.B. Of ciai^ Water

g„,. ^ to IriEb feesi ; Isngth°*«TTEER
12 m
^’ ««:,/.. Staffs,
^_?'*tippine Is. ; Ens. : fi ctr.
tobacco m. «./rom Enner-
EchuiS^ T. vTctS* AuSlii • oo ™SSK 'lSte°"-

««ip«20oa. N. Spain;
1" ii. ra»,
60 m. E.E. of Ben^TO^ riF Sta-
wKS., aiaiT PrSds..
proas., timter;
timber* p.
ti mm)
nofift) sSil
xnid ide^
®Sii5« wSf »•y-i&fffSii™-
n — JV*
f
«957U6il,
■»««,! ■“
; p. 7y7m, ki.,,...,:
Âujuuiy ; p. /v/go.
on Baltic N.^. of Kiel; flaliir®- resort* V n®*" gorge between

(1903)20.400. iiaiiuw. resort, p. EoblsiK anti Bonn; drained by Kyll. Ahr.
EcWngton, f. Derby, Eng.; SB ofSheffielrJ- wood-
coal, w. implements ; V. 14.614. in ““nonl* » -vaUeys; rises

Ecorse, t.. Midi,, D.S.A.' n tiOfiOi ry oêr „,000 ft.
® 4™®”^: , on Eanatdrial'Paoific "^&rknd “switerilnd I*®
scgj.rarsSi sS
obry ; race chiefly Indian âliSig to toLhS? <>“ ®t-: rises to 1,289 ft.
«-«« YJvjTrT. ^ bv/iu,“*

wpiitji-, stiver,“-=
irana-
^•
Nfjheriands ; on cst. IJssel-

Einohoven, c., N. Brabant. Netherlands; electronic
7 V. (1967) 16,558.
1^5; Is.. Scot.; the Ocelli of Pto-
eqmpment. motor yehioles, toliacco and textile
indE.; teclm. muy.; p. (1967) 183,687.
FH dIW.
Ed nl:,.,, ^-r „
cap.. Norther Kestd. 1949) S,000.
n
""” - Switzerland; monastery.

Ede.
“fa iv’rgp
t Geiderkml 'S.
WBfWT«r.,i=. t oS'
* , gr®* ««« Ireland, itepuhlio of.
Ed?!T°|^.%r»Sf p
length 66 m. ^ Oaxhsle. Eisenbe^, i.. Gera. E. Germany: pian«?. porce-
Edenton, t. N.C.. D.S.A.' sronndnnte cntMn P- 13.066.
herring fisheries; p. (1960) d,45S ’ ’ ’’4”*^®', -^S^ria: most northerly
Bdessa (Edhessa), t., cap., Pella prefecture Mace S£L«?^t “^^riooting Danube yaJley
donia, Greece- n (wrd ® between and Vienna; impt. iron-ore de-
,f
#s
E.: high-level bridge links Strathoona: impro^X:^;

3s s£S ss
SSSS'k1uMl&^- “iisgss- ftov- S.«g p.- («M.
''*r' •"''*«*****/• w.«. VA^v av^«Ai.v/^;g» UA XV. XIJIO . CVilr

„ 3,000 ft., length 44 mu, breadth 82 m ® <»»■. Kortofeiu Sudan; 200 m. aW.
Edwardsvine, t, m.. U3.X; p. (1960) S.998. of Khartonm: ivory, gnms, osteti* feathers;
Betelnm; textiles; p D. (estd. 1961) 5d.S70.
_ (1962) IS,B71. 135.832
PI. ® ^ 3»w,. Etmador: cap. Machida; a. 2,238
oath.; p. (1962) sa. m.; p. (^td. 1962) IffP,5Sl.
® Paso. c.. Pe^. D.8,A.; on Eio Grande;
p. (I960)
Thames. El Qnanteia
ES^B.^^k^-h&f’Tio.OOd. (El Kantara),ore i..refining;
gaadistrlhutlom
D.A.E.; on E
n-pvwMAWW f WMIKMAIS UVliA \JX XVitUUj IliCUO,
Where King John Signed Magna Carta; resldtt. : terminus rf Palestine Ely. system: Hnfe-eî
P. (estd. 1967) 31,670. by ferry across canal (and temporary swing
Elgmont, min., N.I., N.2. ; volcanic; alt. 8.200 ft. bndge) to El Qnantara (W.) on Egyptian Ely.
Egremont,
TjTnr^’ijiil t., Cumberland. ]^.
“ „•’ ;
i S.o. of
oi systems.
systems.
vra^ven; Hmestone. iron ore; p. (1961) El^ênte, f.. central Chile; copper-mines; p
K56 gazetteer
Eta, Eadnor, ; riMs on S^. sides of Ellis E, New York harbour. TJ.S A • rptotiI
Plyntoon, tows
iilmyader; lower S.E.
Taueythen N.B. into
contains E. Wye at
sesries immigration ctr.. 1892-1943 ' ‘ ‘ d as ch.
of 4 Ige. Ellon, fcaraA. Aberdeen. Scot. : on E Ythnn. „
K . on ji. xenan. p.
imm>ir8.fength for Binniiudiain.
4 m.. capacity (1961) 1.450.
10.000 milUon Ellwooa,
i„ Penns., TJ.S.A : p fiQRfO yp
apd h:^ro-elec. project EUnhnrst, t. Bl.. IJ.sXf p.
pkmed at Keta. 30 m. to N.W. at confluence Elmlna, t, Ghana. W Africa- t.
^|- |ad ^ ■ branches of Euphrates; p. (1966) iniSm oD. ivoir. gold : p?15.2O0.
marbfe, salt; bapoleon's flrsi eiiie here; p. (I960) 4ff 51 y

t’ toiSi ’of^ * aiari. iwain.
c|.^Porto Perrajo; a. 140 sq. m.; p. (1960) Elôm, f.. ^rmany; N.W. of Hamburg; p
a. Sea
Sfssii.&sj, «°ss airlSfe"*- "*• * ‘S’S:
at Cuxhaven, 65 m. below Hamburg; Eltham. residtl riid Wnrit wno. . q f*-^don.
‘Sa * ft. hosiery, oil: v,{WQl) 208321 ^^pets,

^î,.S|^-Mar;Mme,SW; wooHens: p. Guadlana E.;
Elblsg (ping), s:^N. Poland (since 1946). ElwS’4^Sf®‘lh|® uf A^ôn
— « . - CSiiajtlWlULK.. hUChUliXU.. ,
yehicles; p. (1965) S5M0. Ely, c,. Oxbridge and I. of
TChS? n
stap Mt, Caucasus, highest in
laachln.. „grain. tlnpla4;’*p. (1980) Ely,
Europe (18.480
Eng. ; on“ S frfan-o
ilTm
ft.?, ow-toppiiig Mont Blanc by 2.69S
V- «*.Vjr4.4« WJf ft.
i U. D, iXlftil ) if ff/O - ’*
bordering on Cfea- Ely, I. of, see’Cambridge and
Ita Me of Eiv
to; hfeh^ Demayend. 18,500 ft. ESite, t.. OMoU to ■ rf „„„
^-’
pf aloH s.j?if
r®®^= crosses pro-

iC^ZA
du^y
prody e®SSteo&
-r™*
imports iron ore.oiuijuiug., oars;coal
nsning
non from Euhr; p. (1983) com; exp. tmd
Oô. for reS; 46,100.
Emiua-Somagna, reoion, N. Italy; S of Po E •
^^smania, Australia; carbide wks.
W8M (m ioorf llm^tone and hydroeleo.
!taque in 8. hemisphere. power;
S.S.E.; new township
Iftennal power sta. Eitaem t., DrOTthe, Netherl
ands; 80 m. S.E of
ElMtrpstal, (., E.&.P.8.E.; 35 m. Gronh^n: elec. machln..baU bearing, ttortâte
E. of Moscow: fron wks.; p. (1967)
st»!, engn.: p. (1967) HOMO.
-p,. ^nwta.: p. (1967) 75.000: -

Giô. 125 m^boye^gaA .b^t^ oranges, rice in a.; p.
water afao supplied to Me^ ’y ^ p. 21,000.

B»trSS,S^, 'J-SA: aool:*- ,.
ges^t,GM«e; nr. Athens; shton^^sS lengths ^ ’

HtaW i. Ba^tanasrl^; R (S^® ^,.1“ Sanertad.
watches, dec, goods TnaAhfn entf>r 2^ fiohr coalQdd to
âsilcals. wood prod.; p, at H^bom; canalised for
Tia
aS^^rsft. TO. Scot.: sranmer Erw^^’IS^ A^’

p. (1961) lass. snmmer ^ S. Australia, receive Murray E.
^W^yE^ Imtaubashl. Eand.fem. Antarctioa: aof &of Good
„ma^&^1ron.*oll-i^:^^‘^6O)'w7*0ftS*^^^
satellite t. 17 S ITtf A^de. a X. N.Yj^.SA..; shoe mflg,:
^ p^d'Ho)
to tooh
BIta^<.,N.a.1Jto.; timbered.; p.amo) 1(1960)1^^1
En^fa’
Eliaabethton, i., Tenn.. USA.* Tnauffn-npcA* P^tor ton drreaterXondon; comprising former
aO66)°l00&*°“’ Southgate; p.
ESrt/tf fÊ Of paper, En_ptoo,
csa^dn.; p. (iOdO) dO.i^d.'’ Switzerland; upper valley of Inn E ■
^ Mtns., ioftg mnge, W, Ool USA • reagrt; chief t. St. Moritz,
highe^ point Castle Peak, alt 14 116 ft I-nzon. Philippine la,
■ ■"
rlSSL'w"^
TSlhllT'** i'ijii.; oiomteten-
England (w^ ‘- S'taAofee.
Wales), forma S. Fnm*;
and htstp
&wwi*i, ^C.^se* I* extreme
’«'"~in, unin ltaited; n 1
Cembito Gr.. Cambrian ’

.toop :CtealL'Bhd''
GAZETTEER
v>v;o.Jit X-tuii* JU.UXX CUIu

Steel mnfs^ machinery, machine tools:, engin., 1052: fomier Itelian col., 2T.E.
&.St¥?»toA CS4. Africa; Eîpa
tobacco,
prods., road vehicles and aircraft, ships, tex¬ cereate, pgxi flahmg; cap. Asmara, a. is.754 m.
tiles,
.— pottery; good road <uiu rail tiuuilu.*
and likii cap.
comm.; cap. 1 la.;
m,; p,p. (esra.
(estd. M«0) 1,000,000.
IMPtii 7 fUtfi non
top valley in Cancasna Mtns. ; wooDea mnfe.
,870 ■
46,102
Englewco^ i., N.J., E.S.A.; p, {1960) 26,057
Rnffiteh rhannaT/T:); fruit canning, machine tools; p. (1939) 200.000
swrroy sea eeparat- Erlangso, 200,000'.
t, Bavaria, Germany ; nniv * testflcfi
o/S to 73^0^ ffieS: t rnkfiir.!!^'

ErJ^-AS^mnfe -^^^bffltaao
dlrabledex-smlcem n Andover
ctr. for
en: 2i m. N. of ; Sf^72
Don^l ^y. ’ ''iretod“flo^to
r7^V<?
TTC! A iP' f^®60) 35,559. &ode, {.. k Tamil Nadu, India; cotton; p, TloeB
w 1 ironwks., farm immp Hrskine, t., Eenfrewahire Scot * nfw psatpiiff#* *■
Ei^sulzen, c., spt., N. Hollpid. Netherlands; on Erzgebirge (Ore Mns.5,
W. ret Ijsselmeer; picturesaue 'rntn 'range fjcrmanv"
c.. p. (1967) hfehest peakT^.S ft.
,231. ’ EKuraai, i., Tptey; agr. ctr. on fertile
’
Emm11 {Oastrogiovanni), i., Sicily ; rocksalt, Bulphur- ST. strategic plateau
impt.;
minra; fanions for its connection with the p. (I9o5) 1Q6^0I»
Proserpine legend: p. (1961) 28,145, E&bj^.sjrf.. Denmark: W. cst. of Jnttand: ex-
En Nahnd, t., centra! Sudan ; tr. in cattle, ivory, port harbpnr on N. Sea cst.: exp. agr. prod.:
cotton, ostrich feathers; v. 13,300. Milng; airport; p, (1965) 5SM2.
r ^ „ "amns: aupoTt; p, (1S65) 55,552,
Ei^Mtak t., N. Ehlne-Westphalia, Germany; EScanaia, t, Mich.. D.S.A.: fam.
shlnolnB
Sip-Jm Ennep^Voeide;
32j000.
iron, 1949
t. created with p.merging
maohin.; lumber, chemicalB; p. (1969) 15,331
(1968) jEsoatrdn, t, Spato; on Eto E.
Luxembourg; mining ctr,
’
Ennmdale Water, L.. (hnnberland, Eng. P. {I960) 27,334.

cêraaiB vvaser, i/.. unnoeriana, ling. P. {I960) t27JJ5J
farming. EsAww, ^ - »—•
fes®;n. Germany ; cas.; machin.
flour: P. (1966) 5.831. testto, leather, cigars. chemicalB; p. (1963)
EStmiscorthy, mkt. L, mb. dist., Wexford, Ireland;
brei^, tanning; p. (1966) 5.762, Efech^^CT, (., NT. SMne-Westphalla, Gemmny;
EamisMuen, co. t, mun. bor., Fermanagh, N. K.W. of Aachen; hgnitemng.. steel, iron, metal-
Ireland: brewing, nylon mftg., meat processing; ^ lurgy. leather, textiles; p. (1963) 40.000.
p. (1966) 7J54. Esconmdo, (. Cal.. DE.A.: p. (1960) 15,377.
Enns, E., Anrtria; S. trib. of Danube; 112 m. ESdraelon, ptow. Israel; kW. A^; between
ElnstiedQ. i,.,
c., uicujsBta.
OveriJ-ssel. Netherlands; cotton- Carmel and Gllboa Mtns.
i'lefcneriaiias; coiron- uarmei and GlShoa Mtns
spinning. textile maoh..enghi.; techn. Esiahan. See Isfahan.
Entoh^ ?' T ^ômse;
Mri. diA. Surrey. p. (estd.rftsidtl.:
Eng. ; Oil E.Mote. 19671
Enterato, c.. Ala., U.S>A.; peanuts; p. (i960) Eshowe, Aeoift resort. Natal, S. Africa; 40 m. from
Ei^ EI^ p^., Araentiim ; tetween Faiand cap.

and
livestock; flows S. into Sây Firth ; length 60 ^Sds,
m.
Ba^: m 29,427 sa. m.; p. (1960) 804,000. me, B., N.E. Yorks.. Ei^ flÊ.totoN Sea
^trocamiente, t. Central Portugal, on Tagus E. at Whitby; length
Emmm cop. E. prov,, Nigeria: c^; p, (1958) E^td]stcma,£„ Sweden; on E. of same name; iron,
63M0. ^ _ , [(1962) 22,799. steel, machin.; p, (1961) 59,072.
Epmw. Mame, Franra; dhai^gne; p. Eridsehlr, i.. Turkey; W. of Ankara, anc. Dory-
^lesm, raiaed c., Turkeî^ 8. Izmir. laemn; rly. ctr.; meerschamn; p. (1866) 174,451,
cattle rearing, toera^t. Venezuela. a Amerira:(^mio{»E.
prmtmg. p. (196()) 7,6^. EsmeraMas, proe„ Ecuador, a AmEsica; cap. E
..tobacco: a.
„ 6.464m. m.; p. (Mtd. 1962) 124,742.
tobacco, cacao, rubber; gold mines nearby; p.
(1961) f.,362>0j.
E^pmg, [dairying:
urb. dist., Essex, Eng.: p’.nikt.
(1961) 15,001 !
gardening.
Eppiag, forest, Essex, Eng. Espirito Santo, mariMme sL. Brazil; sugar, cot-p.
Epsom and ESweE taun. bor., Surrey, Eng.; ton, 13 J59.
(1962) coffee, fruits, forests, tborfum: cw.
18
.jw m. _S.W, . of London;• resldth, xav/c^juuaov, Vitoria;
i^sMVAua*, racecourse; Vlburja. a.£b« 16,785 m. HI.:
XQ.lOa Ha* m.; D-p. leSw.
(estd. 1968}
lynHI
1,921.352.
draJiypipes. bnek tiles; p. (estd. 1967) 72,320. 1,921.35
e®®- Essaonto (Mo^dor) spi,. laosj
» 'N. Africa:
2. Morocco,
, toeate. atopnds, gum^blc, en^ p.
Eauatorial Guinea, rep., W. Africa; (formerly {I960) 26,892
BMintod terr. Bssem (.. N. Ehine-WestPhalia, Germany; dk.
t-. to W; Brito; co^-nmg.. sted O&npB). rilec,
Cmtoo, Elotoy Grande and Elobey Chioo; and hs^t engin. ; p. (1968) 5flO,5W.
totalm :U),^2 M. m,; total p. (1968) 281,000; Eraendon, sttS., Mdbonrne. Victoria, Australia:
cap. oanta isaDeL ^ racecoose, aJx-pori.
Brandio, ft N. suh. of Bilbao. Bpedn; iron ore, ^toeninki, t, StaviopoL U.SB3.: light mrifg
paper, tobacco, jpne; p. 11,355. [Antarctica, medicinal
ErehTia^ «i/n„ aftr.tvft vnT/*j».nn Vi/»*‘rtTl«. T.o-nii
springs 33 J«?0.
i> _
AUXJtMSJ' • liy , lA/ ^JUUeUiUiUi.
_ coal-nrines; steel wks.; p. (1960) 5,515. by North Sea: co, t, CShelnôrd; Mes matniy on
Erfurt, c., cap., Erfurt, E. Germany; oath., ctr. London Cta,y and rihalk; agr.; wheat, tariey.
of mkt, gardening and seed-growtog dist., sugar-heert martet gd.: S.W. part cf Greater
textiles, machin., foodstuflk, footwear, radios, London with manf. sribs.; motor wks. at
heavy engin.; p. (1968) 150,517. Dagenham; on refe. at Shell Haven; dvil
Eiiriit, loch, PertA Layemess, Scot.; in central nuclear ipower-stai. at Bradwell; univ. at Cd-
Grampians ; 16i m. long ; hydro-elec, sême. ^chester; a 1,528 M. m.; p. (1966) 1,244.000.
Erie, lake, N. America; separating Canada from Esslingen, t, Baden-WtSrttembecg. Germany; on
U.8A.; polluted waters; a. 9,940 M. m.; 241 E. Neckar; mach. and rly. shops; textOes,
m. long, 67 in. broad. chemicals, leather goods: Irebfrauen church
Erie, indusO. c,, lake pt.. Penns., D.SA.; iron (1440); p. (1968) S3J900.
and steel ind., engin.: p. (1960) 138.440, Esto, N.E. Italy; ancient fortress; iron, pot¬
Erie Canal, see New York State Btoge Camd. tery. ohemteds; p. 14,438. [53,373.
EriSkay, I., vAuwsT
™ta«uw, Outer aeoriuBB,
Hebrides, DOTE.
Scot. EsteU, dep., W.
xssteu, aerp., w. Nicaragua;
Nicaragua; a. a. 772
772 so-
so. m.;
m.; p. p.
EMî/omernMtn.
Thamee estuary 6or.,Eent.
5 m. below Eng.: on S.
London: bank oil
emrin.. of Ehtepona, spL,
cffrn« fTTrit. hhilaga,n Svsisi; whie. oUves,
nirfifnAB:
too. to Bexley l^r.. Greater London reiwirtog; p. (1961) 37.160.

EST-FAI K58 GAZETTEER
Estoia, tmmvent rep., U.S.S.E. ; formerly Evanston, t, HI., Tr.S.A. ; on L. Michigan • sub of
maepcndent 8t. : climate: severe winter, mflil Chicago, seat of N.W. Univ.: n (198o5 79
sammer, moderate rainfall : farming and daii7- Evanston, t., Wyo., TJ.S.A. : coal oil iron- flsirir'
!iif, textileB.matcl’e.e. leather: a. 17,610 aq. m.: livima SteU p. divide
ing, agr.; Southampton ’ Land
(1960) ^,501. ’ from
i'. oirdit, uiviaes sjoutnamp
Estoril, watenng-piact
cap. Talhnf p. (1970)and tlienn.al spa, Portugal; Coats I., Hudson Bay. Canadr
J. 357,050.'
1^.
J.T. side
cj«utr of
ttj, lagrns
Ati|K;uD Ktuary. [peak 7,524
^.U*-** ft.
lli. Evpê, mSto-
Evansville, m/to. c., Ind., implements;
tr.S-A,; on Ohio
tr.S.A p. (1960)
E •
Estrcia, Serra da. min. mmte. Portugal ; highest
Estesiadtira, prev., Portug-si; cap, Lisbon; a. Everest, X^2 fO^St
2.064 sq. m.; p. (1950) 1.595.067. Mt. (Ctomolun gma = Goddess Mother
Bslergom, t.. Hungary; we,aving; mineral “ j Hunalaya. on frontier of Nepal
simac.-'; cath.; p. (1962) 23,770. world . Hillary and TenzingS- : .^sheat
ftrstmtn.
Etampos. f., Sei'je-et-Oise : France ; .'50 m. S. of summit in 1953. to in the
reach
Paris: wjuuiicitc,
.tails, coHimerce: p. (1962) xo.r«o.
II. (JLMH.;? 13.658. KUUUnit m ISOH.
Etang de BcrrC', losom, Bouches-du-BhOne, S.E. Everett, rnfto. t. Masi. TT SJl nr BoRtnu • imn
Franceof; Lions
Gutf te: E. byof Ehoao delta, separated from and steel; p. (1980) 43,^^" '
low Oliaine iron
de I’Estaquo : Everett, t. Wash., U.SA.. : timber salmon fmit -
traversal by Khune-Marseille
oliTPhiieriesina.; approx, a. 100 Canal; saltpans: Everglades,
sq. m. p. (1960) 40,304.
Pla.. IJ.S A. • exteuHvp’ 'mnrahoo
on, fruit,
seaside resort: Evesh^, mki. t.. mun. L!!ôrc“
n 2S in Vale of Evesham, 15 tee
m Sing.-
E of
ytSSSfn • Worcester; fruit ctr.; p. (estd. 1967) i3J40
Ethiopia lAhptsinia), nidn'. sovereign st.. Africa; Evora, cap.. Evora proT., Portugal- iron cnrt--
^nunation 1986-41; federated famous for its mules; p. (196^34’ 744 ’
tnWeland with average Evreux, (,. cap.. Eure, EraW - iron
ghiss 'textiipn •
height .LOOO ft. mtersected deep valleys; Samen . p. (1962) 40.158. ' •
aitaa. Hi.OOOft,; aimmer rains: pastoral, farm- Evvoia (Euboea). Oreek
1 Mspst-n Ptan • hk ™
ibame;:.
al!0fH. fj”®' t mirt. ai
Otomel u™,], ;
S|;fclR;™nlB.E.STmN't
oppc^te
famous Windsor;
public Exeter,
c., co. bor., co t Tfevnu P’r.o- ■ w
f ' Wb. Of Coosa)

f«?7.^-J-(W61 K.
3.307. cath.; aircraft
of Bartmoor components.
on E. Exe^.' kSleather goods- n
ffielfSdv®:
carpets brewing; p. (1962) 53.091.

ptnck, E., Selkirk. Scot. ; length 32 m. ^ Mghm Mhifc.'DiS?^ = °n E.
Beacon?™ ft side of=
Eucla. t., W. Austnilia : close to bdy. of S. Austra-
Ife on Transcontmeiital rly. ; artesian wells.
Euclid, t.. Ohio, H.SA.; p. (1960) 62,998. *- opened 1967:
scheme; will hold eight times as much water m » heathy moorlaM^

Sydney Harbour when completed. ironwta.; p. conditions than in remainder
®'
6^3,^0Spam
of19
^central allow olives, vines, cereals*
(I960) 50.977. [21 sse
TOtton, rice; p. (i960) project to develop a, in progress.
^ 9^ Gimdiana;
BiSeka, r,» Cai., U.S Jt. ; timber* n MRmp;? 7«?7 a ^^'^tically dried up.
& sa»*sfi,£‘ss“- «»”“

SrSn«unl«ii«£»
warnisumm^.ooldTtoter^ SteêarS^; p. 33,635. -of
dry Eummers, warm wet winters- JAbnzia, t., nr. Monteleone, Italy; p. 4,150.
N. tuneta: sSavH Sd^l ’ ES,i?m ' ^^Tokwo*®^"^ 57 m"' from
~
Europort-name of the latest expansion of the %r.
Em^ pêctwre. Thrace, Greece; can. AlexanJl^&V,^--:v¥^®'*.?;8^-LP- Jl?60)‘7î33.
FAI-FER ,S^59 GAZETTEER
Faiyimi, see El Ealynm. Faroe Is.. 200 m. N.W. of the Shetiands, Scot.:
eft. t, BadakMmn, 3Sr.E. Afghanistan. cap-ThOrahaTalStrOmai.); Drinl«h pwwwion;
Fa&enMi^ t„ Norfolk. Eng. ; on B. Wensum. fishing, agr. ; a. 540 sa. m.: p. flSftSl 38,mo.
Gomw^ Ei®.; flows to the English EarreU, 1.. Penns.. 1J.8A.: p. (1960) JS,7ga.
Channel ; Iragtb flSia. ^ Pannkhabaa, i.. Ettar Pradesh. India ; on Ganges
Falaise, t., Olvados, Bkanc®; birthplace of B.: gold, lace, brass wk.; p. msi} s^sgj
waiiam the Conqueror; rcene of ront of a Pars, pror., S. Iran: agr.: cap. Shiraz: n {ififi?!
German Army. 1944; p. (1962) e.711. 1,498,472.
Falaise de I’De de Prance, low S.B.-faHng e$carj)- Pasa, t.. Pars Prov., Iran; silfc. wool; p 10 000.
mmt, 60 m, S.E. and B. of Paris, France ; over- Pamso, {., Bari, Italy ; tndnati • n. over 20 000
looks "pays” of Champagne PonlDenBe; ch. Pastaet, mhOiome in Attoiio. 4| m. g.w. C.
vine-growing dist. for champagne-wine ind. of dear, Irfeh cat.
Bhehm, Enemay ^ ^ „ Fatehpnr, <„ TJttar Pradesh, Ihdfe : hides, grain :
Falodn, at.. Venezuela; bordering Caribbean Sea; p. (1961) 2S.323. [pilErimMe ctr
cap. Coro; p. (1961) 340,450. Paiima, Mmlei, W. t>w - 1
ttt Portugal, tt, ^
near Briria: E.C.
Paaaik, burgh, Stirling. Scot-. ; 10 m. SJBl. of Fatshan (Foshan), c., Kwangtimg. China: S.W. of
Stirling; foundries. brickB, chemical. aluminium Canton; ironandEteel,textaes;p.{lB53)723.000.
wks., concrete, timber yards; batttes 1298 and Fanclllss, Les Monts, range of hOls, tymnoptiny
1746; p. (1961) 35,043. Vomm and Langres plateau, B. :fence:
Falkland, burgh. Fife. Scot. ; 3 m. S. of Auohter highest point about 1.600 ft.
mnehty; nikt.; p. (1961) 1,082. Favaia, L, Sicily, Italy; sulphur, marlflc.
EWkland Is.. BHl. Crown col., S. Ariantic, com- Faveisham, bid mkl. t, mtm. bar., Kent Eng *
prises E. and W. Falkland and adjacent ft.; 10 m. W. Canterbury; fruit, houfi, bricke.
wool): cap. Port Stanley on " ' ■ ■ ■ - - -
sheep
E. rearing {for
Falklandl.; brushes,
a. 4,700 sq.m.; p. (estd.) 2^003. Pawley, engin.:Eng.;
t., Hants. p. (estd.
on W.1967)
shoreM.S’Sd.'
Southampton
Fsdkland Is. Dependencies, comprise S. Georgia Water; Ige ofl refinery; p. (1951)
(ctr. of whaling ind.) and S. Sandwich Is. (S. Fayal I., Azores; oraiw?a growing;' cap. Horta.
Shetland,
were S. Orkney
constituted Js.. and
a separate Grahani’a
ool. In 1902 and Innd
now Bhyetteville, t.. Ark.. tJ-SA..
ctr.. agr. implemente, ; uniT.
resort; ; rly. 20,274.
p. (I960) and tr.
form British Antarctic Territory (q.v.)). Fayetteville, N.C.. IJ.S.A.; p. (1960) 47 JOS.
Fall BJver industl. c.. Mass., U.S.A.; cottons. Fear, O., point of the N. Carolina cst. tJ.BA.
dyeing, brewing, iron; p. (1960) 99,842. Feather, B., Cal., TJ.SA.; trib. of Sacramento S.
Falmouth, «pi., raiun. 6or.. Cornwall, Eng. : onW. Feathratone, t, mb. dUt., W.E. Yorks, Eng.;
sideofestuaTyofll.Fal. 10 m. S. of Truro: fine coal; p. (1961) 14.333.
sheltered harbourage: seaside resort; fisheries. Fdcamp, am. spt. icoi. pi.. Seine-Maritime. France:
ship repairing, mng.. quarrying, it. engin.; p. 12th cent, abbey; fishing; p. (1982) 19,SS1.
(estd. 1967) 17,350. [peninsxda. Fedelmnko. glacier, Igst in XT.S.S.E.; in Pamir-
False Bay, inlet on E. sido of C. of Good Hope Altai mtns of central Asia; 60 m.l.
Palster, I. in the Baltic, Denmark: cap. NykSbing; Federal D^, si., Mexico: a. 431 so. m.; p. (1960)
p. (1960) 46.662. U8.S0S. 4.371.000.
Falticeni, t. N.E. Eomania: timber; p. (1966) Fehmarn, I., ofl Schleswig-Holstein. W. Germany:
Falun, t.. Kopparbeig, Sweden: iron, paper. a. 72 sq. m.; p. 12,000.
zinc and lead ore; p. (1961) 18,813, Feiraael&ntana,b, Bahia, Brazil; cattle, tobacco,
t, i., spt.. Cyprus: on B. cat., 2i m. beans, manioc: p. (estd. 1968) 133,396.
S. of ruins of ancient Salamis; p. (1960) 34,774. Foldbeig, mtn. paJi. Black Forest, Germany ; alt.
Famatina, t., la* Blola prov.. Argentina ; in fbot- 4.900 ft.
MUsof Andra, 360 m. N.W. of Cordoba; ojpper- Feldfcirch, t., Vorarlberg. Austria; on Swiss
mines. frontier; p. (1961) 17M3.
Faimloh, lodft. Ec®s. Scot, ; (6J m. long), drains to Felixstowe, pi., arft.dM.E. Suffolk, Eng.; 12 m,
Cromarty F. _ S.E. Ipêh; seaside resort, fertilisers: dock
Fanning, Brif. 1., Gilbert and Ellce Is. ooL ; N.
Pac.Oc.; a. 16 sq.m.; guano, mothar-of-pearl;
p. 196.
Fano, Italy; on Adriatio cst., N. of Ancona;
resort; p. (1961) 41j033.
Fano, I.. Denmark; off W. cst. of Jutland,
opposite Esbjetg; a, 20 sq.m.; p. (I960) 2,675.
Faiato, oasis, Libyan Des^ HAuE.; ^ m.
W. of Asyut; dates; stage on caravan route
from Cyrenaica to Upper HA.E.
Farciennes, commune, S.W. Belgium; coal, mftg.;
p. (1962) 11,359.
EmOham, L. urb. dist., Hante., Bog. ; at N.W.
comer of Portsmouth Harbour; sm. boate.
ceramics; p. (estd. 1967) 75.330.
Farewell, 0., southernmost tip of Greealrad.
Fhrewell, G., most northerly point S J., N.2I.
Fargo, c., NJ>.. DEA, ; on Bed E.; grain, farm-
machiu.; p. (1960) 46.662.
Faribalut, i., Minn.. uHA.; flour, feotories;
p. (1960) 16,928. by E. Syr Darya; semi-arid bat extensive
iOTdpur, f.. E. Bengal, PaMstaa; <floth, carpets;
p. (1961) 83.300.
Faringdon, mkt. t, Berks, Eng.; on N. edge of
Vale ofXTOte Horse: v. 11,450.
Farmington, t. NJCH-SA.; jp. (1960) 23,736.
Farmington, t., N. Cornu. 17.SA- : zesidtl. and
industl,; p. (1960) 10,798.
Famborough, t, wb. dist, Hante, Eng. : S m. N.
of Aldershot milltaiy camp; Boyal Aircraft
Estahliahmmit: p. (estd. 1987) 4OJ0W.
Fame lA, off Northumbmtend cat., Eng.; a.
80 acres; sinoe 1923 bird sanctuaries. --
Famham, nM. t, wb. disk. Surrey, Eng.; at N, Ftesno, c., AsooH, Italy; p. 25,000.
Foot of N. Downs, 10 m. W. of Guildford; pot- Fermoy, t, Ctork. Ireland; on K. Blaekvmter;
tery. en&u, coach mkg, ; p. (estd. 1967)29,340. p. (1966) 3.207. ^
Famworth, t, mwn. bar., Lancs, Eng„ nr. Fernando de Noronha, L. terr., N.E. cst. Brazil;
Bolton, cotton mn&.: p. (estd. 1967) 26,700. penal settlement and met. sta.: cap. Vila dos
Faro, woo., Portugal, cap. Faro; fruit, fishing. Eemddlos; p. (estd. 1968) 2,400.
wines, salt; a. 2,0288a. m.; p. (1963) 314,900. Fernando Po, I., Equatorial Guinea, W. Africa:
Faro, spb cap.. Faro prov., Portugal; win©. in Bight of Biafra; mtnous; coffee, cocoa,
ftuit, cork; p. (1963) 13.909. bananas, limber; p, (1963) 61,000 inc. 4,900
Faio, 0., N. point of SlcUy. nearest to Italy.
GAZETTEER
FER-FL.O K60
FerjjaaJe, Mkh.. XT.S.A.: p. (1960) 81.347. Finsbury, see Islington.
Pemi#, f., Brit. Colnmbia, Canada: in Rockies, Pinsteraarhorn, mtn., Switzerland, (14.023 ft)
nr. (irowB Nest Paas : csoal highest peak in Beniese Oheriand.
Finsterwalde, t., Cottbus, E. Germany; textiles
Feroapore, t, Punjab, India; -wlieat: p. (1961)
furniture.I., metaUiugy.
Fmucane glass; p.deepwater
pf., W. Australia; ams) 21.117
pt. to'
Ferrara, :■»!>.. N. Itaiv; cap. Ferrara: a. 1,019 ship iron ore and new t. projected.
sq. m.; p. (1961) 3mS3$.
Ferrara, fertfd. c., N. It-iiy : nr. hea<l of delta of Fir Moimtains, see Pichtelgeblrge.
E. Po: cath.. tiniF, : mnfe. silk, hemp, wine: Firenze, see Florence.
mkt. for fertile plain: oil refinery nearby; Pfcminy, mftg. t.. Loire. France: S.B. of St
petrochemicaLs; p. (1961) 151,145. Etienne; p. (1964) 21J61.
Ferro, mod S.IF. /., Canary Is. : a. 106 sq. m. ; Fishguard and (loodwick, spt., urb. dist.. N. Pem¬
broke, Wales : on S. of Cardigan Bay ; steamer
was chosen by P’r. scientists (1630) as first
meridian; cap. V.alverde. connection to Cork and Eosslare (Deland)-
Ferrol, spt.. naoal arsenal. Spain; on N.W. cst. p. (1961) 4,898. rmachin.; p. (1960) 43 021
nr. Coranna; p. (1950) 77,030.
Feityliia, III., Durham. Eng. ; 5 m. S. of Durham,
Fitchburg
Fitzroy, R.. c.. Mass., U.S.A.: w-ooUens. paper
W. Australia: flows into King Sound
in pap through limestone ridge which separates Fmme, see Rijeka. [p 77 5^
Wear vaUey from Tees yaDey ; commands main Fivizzano, f., Tuscany. Italy; mineral springs;
N. to S. route along towland E. of Pennines. Flagstafl, t. Arizona, U.S.A.; seat of Loroil
Fertile Crescent, an arc of fertile land from the Univ.; p. (1960) 18,214.
Mediterranean Sea, N. of the Arabian Desert, Flamborough Head, O., Yorks cst.. Eng. ; chalk
to Persian Gulf; home of some very early cliffs, alt. 500 ft. : lighthouse.
eiviliaations and migrations. Fldmmg, heatMand, Potsdam, E. Germany; occu¬
Festiaiog, see Ffestiniog. pies low sandy ridge, alt. below 800 ft.. 60 m
Fefhiye, svt, Turkey ; cpp. Rhodes : p. (1960) 7.053. S.W. of Berlin: heathland, coniferous wood¬
S’etlar R, Shetland Is., Scot. ; 6i m. long by 2i land: former military training a.
m, wide. Flanders, dial.. Belgium, divided into two provs. of
W. (1,248 sq. m., p. (1968) 1.042.586.) and B.
F«ierbaoh, inSmtl.
many ; N.W- sub. c.,of Baden-'Wfirttemberg,
Stuttgart ; sandstone (3er-
: p. 1.305.717; caps, Bruges
(1963) 27,000. and Ghent. ta
Fez, e., Morocco, N. Africa: lies inland 100 m. E. PlatEivm, c.. Mo.,U.SA.: lead mines; p. (1960)
of Ealrat; one of the sacred cities of Islam; Flattery Cape, on Pacific cst.. Wash., U.S.A.
uniy. attached to mosque (one of Igst. in Africa) ; Fieohe. La, i.. Sarthe. France; nr. Le Mans-
impt, comm, ctr.; p. (1960) 216,138.
Fessan, proi?., Dibya, N. Africa: numerous wells Fleet. urb. difrf.. Hants. Eng.; 4 m NW of
and inhabited oases. p. (1962) 14,
Aldershot: 392
P. (estd. 1967) 30,650. . ’
Ffestiniog (Festiniog), urb. dist., Merioneth, N. Fleetwod. spl.. mun. bar.. Lancs.. Eng. ; at mouth
Wal®; at head of Vale of Ffestiniog 9m.E. of of^re; fisLung; Ige. chemical plant projected
Portmadon: contains vlis. of Ffestiniog and nearby; p. (estd. 1967) 28,630.
Blaenau Ffestiniog: impt. slate quarries; world’s Flemalle, 2 communes. Lldgo prov.. Belgium-
test pumped-storage hydroelec. sta. (1968): gla-ss: p. (1962) 13.857.
CCTient: p. (1961) 0.677. FlOTshmg, spt.. Schleswig-Holstein. Germany; on
Fiana^to, f., Malagasy; p. (1967) 34.845. Baltic cst.: coal: sbipbldg., machin.. iron,
Fiditolgebirge (Fir Mtns.), mtn. range. N.E. cheimeals, fishing; p. (1963) 97,000
^yaria, (^rmany; highest peak, Sohneeberg; Fievosted, (.^Netherlands ; adrainistrative ctr. of
Fite, co„ E. Scot. ; between the F. of Tay ™dsrs, E.. Queensland, Australia; flowing to
-^wrtraiis: extend 260
^ forth; eo. t. Cupar; a. 492 sq. m. ; p. (1961) 1 .3 * [G. of Carpentaria.
rae Kêxtamne E. point, Hfe. Scot. -.-..P-™ rtom

Fion, t.. Manitoba. Spencer ; 90
head ofCanada ; ait.
G. m. 3,900N ft
by rly. of
Fte^ra to Fqs, fc, Portugal; resort at mouth of
opnn wine; p. (i960) 10 MS. Flint, c., Mich,, D.S.A. ; motor oars, lumber
Fignetas. fertsd. t, Gerona, Spain; nr. French woollens, aeroplane engines; p. (1960) 196.940
frontier: glass, cork, leather: p. (1957) 16.589. P- Mptshire, Walra; ylscose
HJl, %m€p. St. within Oommonwe^th (1970): tertiIeyaOT, imlp: p. (1961) 13,690,
group of 822 coral Is. (106 inhabited) in S. Pac.;
roreste. Imnanas, coconuts, sugar-cane; cap. PUntsatoe , CO.. Wales: stock-raising; coal, iron.
^rti Levu I.: a. 7.095 sq. m.: p. (estd.) SPlti ®rit.), Pac. Oc. ; uninhabited.
oO§JOQO.
Pito, dist., E.B. Yorks, ®®®rtde
Eng. ; resort;
on B. cst.
p. Flodden, ml., Nortbumberland, Eng. : on E Tin -
famous
(19l6)tattle
\®lS.®1613,
^®“^°^ ’ TV
James m.: p.
257 ofsq.Scotland
E.; defeated by the Earl of Surrey.
Mtom Bristol, Glos., Eng. ; aircraft wfcs. Flora, c., So^ og Fjordane. Norway; new c.
80 m. N. of Bergen:
Ftocl^, f^ter mm. bor.. Mddx.. Eng., now inc. p, (1965) 7,700.
in Itepet cmto bor.. Greater London, {q.v.y.
<Kiromse), c.. Tuscany. Italy; on E.
Scot.; .rôrt.• 'wy-j.
Knfflom, Mting Moray, 370
viL, 69. hi, Kranoe; p. (1962) 14M0.
Tmm.: p. ami) Amo, leaffier- work; famous for art treasures,
tattnimd chutes: ruled by Medici 1421-1737;
p. (1961) 1.331. bntlplaôfDante and Michelangelo; sevei^y
Kincardine, Scit.
Fi^l s Cave, Sta^ I., Inner Hebrides. W. Scot •
lumber,
45food: airport: 1966: (1965)
,049P.textiles,
" * f’
^0 M p. (1960) ,?7 iron,
Fmiste ooi
^ D&B2Uticro, France; s.
N.W. unm cap. Ouimner-
Flores, I. most U-S.^; p. (1960)
north-westerly of 24,722.
a. 2,780 m. m.:livestock;
p. (1968) coal, granite ; flshhuj’ gr.; Portuguese; cap. Santa Cruz; the Azores
K.W. 768,929.
point of Spain. set up ballistic missiles tracking sta. French to
of Timor, one of Lesser
racked, innimierabte ’ lakes;
1 tow-lying tableland,
wood-pulp. teS
forested: oats, bimda Is., mtnous.. densely forested: a.
c.
languages, Finnish J: lores, itep., Uruguay; cap. Trinidad: a 1744
mainly as altema- sq.m.: 0.(1863)
i7in™P “ff56.505. offshore Is.) 194,000.
« “ainly agr.: cap. Helsinki: Catarina st.. Brazil;
winrt^nî) '’^fween Siilawesi and Flores,
P- (estd. 1968) 750.072.Indo-
IJmbartciîre. Scot.:
IsSS* Sea, oil
260 terminal
m. between Atlantic and G.
tourism; lumber, paper.
to Gtosgow;Stoe mtoMaJfl. fruit, vegetables, sugar, cotton;
CONTENTS
PAGE
PoHticai Divisions of the U.S.S.R. ♦ ■ • - 18

World .... 2
Asia . 19
Europe . . . . . 3 South-Western Asia - ■ 20
England and Wales . . 4-5 Israel . 20
London, showing Under¬ India, Pakistan, Ceylon and

ground Railways, etc., and Burma . . . .21
Haces of Interest . . 6 China and Japan . . . 22
London District . . . 7 South-Eastern Asia . . 23
Scotland . . . . 8 Africa
Ireland - . . . - 9 West Africa
France and adjoining Countries 10 Central and South Africa .

Germany, Poland & Central North America . . .
Europe - • - - 11 Canada . .
Netherlands and Belgium . 12
United States
Denmark . . . .12
Switzerland . . . .13 Mexico, Central America &
West Indies , .
Scandinavia and Baltic Lands 14
SouthAmerica
Spain and Portugal . . 15
Australia and New Ticaland 31
Italy, Centra Europe and
the Balkans - . .16-17 Pacific Ocean • • . 32
,■©■ ' ' ,

PRINTED BY JOHN BARTHOLOMEW AND SON, LTD.,
AT THE GEOGRAPHICAL INSTITUTE, EDINBURGH 4388
jr/,jjvTic
26
t^ria rpem
flowing intf
rSi* Chad, -4fri«: p. ilSfiSi 92 OfK

mife, concrete prod., fertilisers; p.
Prefeb. !.i-L
33,648. '
E®£f ^ksrs, t. FJa.,

Fla.. U.S-A.;
tX.S.A.; p.
p. (1960) 22,52,%
(1960) 25 S56
M John.
„ ^fteld; (.. B.r..
p. (18611 3,619 C^mada; on Peice* E.
rfnln>*'n 5?®" ^.S-A.; maize, whest. cattle
' s-. Ark.. E..S.A.: on Arkangas E.
f-S '*"501 9,410.
^ cattle;
n historic rums in Zimlialywe mining ctr.
Nat. Park
naTal Imse; IK h.SW0)’.5S“’
Fort Wayne, e„ ind„ 'DB.iL; rly.-carrisge bldp.
bêring- on Nicaragua; shops; p. {I960) 161,776.
(TJ.S.A. have aoqulr^ the for a canal
route through Nicaragua). Fort William, c., Ontario, Canada ; on L- Superior ;
FontêWean, t.. Seine-et-Mame, France: on _ sr^.pt.:
Fort William, p.buri^h.
(1961)Inverness,
45,214.
B. ^ne, 36 m.8.E. of Paris; magniflcent forest Scot.; nr. head of
S*. *2,500 acres) and palace: porcelain; Ecole Loch Linnhe. at base of Ben Nevis; aluminium
{ lofil ) paper-mill at Corpach; p.
d’Artillerie; p. (1962) ZSJ04.
Fontenay-le-Comte, indusU. L, Vendte. France: Fort Worffi, c., Texas, D-S-A.; rly. and comm,
p. (1962) 12,104. nParis; p. (1954) 36,739.
Fontenay-sous-Etols, f„ Seine, France; stB». of ctr. on Trinity B,; livestock and grain mkt.;
Fontenoy, vu.. Beigitua: nr. Toomsi; battle, petroleum, meat packing, aeropian®. oilfleM
Texas Christian Dniv.; p.
1745; MarahaU Saxe defeated the AlHea under amo) 356,263.
Duke of Cumberland: p. (1902) 639.
FmjtOTrauM, t, dep. Maine-et-Lofre. France. '^'Jkon, Alsska, U.SJl.; trading eta. on
Foochow (Fuzhou), c.. Fukien, China; former „ Yukon E. •. P.274.
pt.; gr. tearexporting ctr.; p. (196S) Fortelêza. rav., Ceari st.. Brazil: exp. sngsr,
5^3,000, mmn.
846,069. hides, camauba. wax; p. (eatd. I968i
Foots Cray, vm, t, Kent, Eng. : papeiwniBa
Forbaoh, L, Moselle. France: p. (1962) 22^03 Fortesouc, B., W. AustraJia.
Forbes, L, N.S.W., AustraUa; mkt. otr.; sm * lAsnond. and flows
nmfg.; p. (1966) 7,370, „ B, into F. of Forth nr. AJtoa : l€®5& 6* aj.
f Hants, Eng.; on B. Avon, Fewffi Bridge, Am. bridge, Scot,; spms F, of
sau-dotb; p. 3.394. Forth between N. and S, Queensferry; tesgth
Fordland^ t. JParA. N.E. Bra^h; on Fapsloa E. ; It m. Forth road briite (snspei^n) Just up-
oi» of the Ford rubber plantatfona stjmm opened 1964; length 5.980 ft.
Foreland, N. and S., two headlands, on B. eat. of Fhrth, Firth oL Ice. iniet, E. csi.. of Scot.; sub-
Kent. Eng.; lighthonse. merged estUMy of E. Forih ; navigable by Ige.
1*^ Q5|a>rfo. Canada; p. (1961) 20Jm. vess^ for 40 m. inland to Grangemouth ; other
2mm Hills, rmM. a., part Quel's bor„ N.y. Leith. Rosyth (naval), Bo’neiw; length
(to Alloa) 60 m.. width varies from 1 to 13 m.
Forth and cayde Canal, Scot. ; links F. of Forth at
Grangemouth, and F. of Clyde at Glasgow :
W,aos, MontroM; liien, Jnte; p, ’(1961) _ length 38
F«wtrc®9, m.
t, bmb. Boss and Cromarty. Scot. ; on
Fork, ancienf c.. Emilia Italy; sitt: faotrariffl. ! S.902.<»t, of BtoiCk Isle, on Moray Fhdh; p, (1961)
ironwks.: felt: p. (1961) 9ia4e.
Fonnby, t., urb. diit., Lancs. Eng.; on W. 6 Fortune Bay, Met, S, est of Newfoundland.
m. S.W. of Southport; p. (1961) 11,730.
Formeatera. I., Balearic Is.. 8. of Ihiza; 18 m. Fossano, t. Italy: nr. Turin: cath.; paper, silk;
long; cereals, wine, tunny fl^bing; p. (1957) p. 21,3,50.
2,657, Fos-snr-mer, t, Boaches-du-EbOne, S. France; nr
Fotmia, Caserta. Italy; the ancient Fonnise. Marseilles: deepwater pt.; oil refinery.
Formlgine, (.. Modena prov.. N. Italy; silk, Fosforia. 1.. Ohio, U.S.A.: gla®. Quarries, stock¬
leather; p. lO,S5d. yards; p. (1960) 15,732.
Formosa, see (Taiwao. Foffieringhay, til., on E, Nene, Nertteuptem.
Formosa, proc., N. Argentina: bordering on Para¬ Eng.; Mary Queen of Soots breaded in F.
guay; timber: cap. Formosa; a. 27.825 so. m • Castle, 1587.
V. ami) 173,000. FougSres. t., Ille-et-Vilalne, Frarsce; css.; n
Fonues. c.. extreme E. point of Jutland. (1962) 25,171. uadi.
Fowes, fcamh. Moray. Scot.; nr. mouth of K. Fougeroltes, Haute-Sa6ne, France; p, (1962j
Flndhom. 25 m. E. of Inveme®: >»i«t.inirn>- eouia,!., Zetland Is., Scot. ; westward, ot mam gr.
oat and woollen mills: P. (1961) 4,730. Foulness Island, Essex. Eng.
Forst, L. Cottbus. E. Germany; on E. Neisse- Poulweather, 0., Ore.. U.8 Ji.
E. section of t. Polisb siiice 1946: textiles: Fountains Abbey, line ruin, CSsteretan, fbunded
P. (1963) 23.931. 1132, W-B. Yorks, Eng. ; nr. Eipasu
Fort Augustus, tdl,, luvemeas. Scot. ; at S.W. end Fourmles, Nord, FYance ; or, Yalenciaines ; p.
of
now Loch
Abb Ness; cm Caiaionian Canal: Itart '! (1964)13.414.
ey. FoveauxStrait.NJZ. ; separates SJT.fitan Stewart L
Fort Coffins, c., OoL. D.S.A.; ctr. of rich farnnfag j Fowey, sp(.. imm, bar., Cornwall. Sag, ; on W. of
a.; gram, augarbeet. livestock; Mte of Colorado i Fowey estuary, 22 m.W. of Plymouth : setiaide
State Dniv.; p. (1960) 2Sj)S7. ' rMort. flrtsteg; exp, kahttn,; p. (mi) 2jssr.
N (80th Ed-)
gazetteer
FOX-HFRE
Fas one of tl»e AJefutton Is. gr.
Fc«e Basin Baffin
between and Cbaanekl, to N. of Hudson
L and Southampton I.Bay. 1 Pratta
FiSrê f°Que^^mda®nn
Mn^crin™ e
1^0 Pentasi^ j.»Qajaxx
Baffin I..
4.,, Branidin,
XAiUliaom^ Canada. 1<S.WU, - v*
Fiyer^ fqus, Inyemm, Scot. ; E.ofLochNm.nT. FranenfeM. can Thunmn
Augustus; aluminium wls., hydro-elec. Fray Bentos,P. f.,
cotton: cap.,
(1957) Eio
10^^ Negro,
‘ Urugua caa.*
_ aajeme. JPray Bentos, 50f.m./•rm
Uruguay fmmT?}o TT _ y ; on _E
Foyle, Lough, estuary of Foyle E„ between OTtton: h. amu its month :-
olm ; meat caa:
Donegal and xRjiJiuuimcfxy,
Londonderry, N. AX. Ireland. ana eaitillff. meat GTdiraofja* n
Kf\t)»n*c T«f TO T - _ 1 _ "V? _j.a_ -n
TBa&y Point’ terminal on N. side. E. Etechen.(!!l EMne-iStph’aita.^Sanyfw‘ of

Fos to 'lSf).. Parami, Braffi; highway £1: ^ luff fe^; 't
'•■
France,’ tep.ifomer mt^nhy and empire), W. FrSoriks&.‘^*«6’ oSâgen^'ui^SL^'^®^'

^pe
Channel. funded
W. by theN. Bay
by Belgium
of Biscay,andS. English mmiW
by the Frederikshaab. 847 Denmark; p,
iik snt nn w not „<./-> > o
Pyrene^ Md the Mediterranean. E. by Italy. Frederi^Sn- spt
“6 Germany. Greatest length •.
fiofini
greatest breadth 540 m.; a. FrSSd. f N?m^' at If mouth of Glommen
212,600 au. m.. or 3i timestaize of EnirinTis nnd ?> . +-
c. In Bum^), Bordeaux, Mameffles. Lyons, Lille. FreeMd, t N J vf:t' n ' nnsn a'i7d
Nice ami Toutouse: 19 uniys.; ch. mtns. : Ce- ml poWlm t m u’s
ve^, Vês.PrTene<M: cA Es.: Seine, E.; p. (1^0) 25 t .
Loire, lÔne. Garonne; climate, temperate; Free Port, In
t Long Island n v •
potatoes, sugar-beet. Tine; EkeepSf^f ^^
fr^B. silk. sheep, dating; minerals: slim fir^ sea- n ’(1980)
Iroin bauxite, potash; mnfe.: iron and FrMtownÔT® Si™ m At«
SrSTi„“l^«SlS?“S
Equatorial Africa: on K. Fteib^, c.’ &1-Maxx-Stadt German.- n«tt,
Ogowe; mangmese mines opened 1962. cas • metaffimoli^HiM oath.;
Freibu^ (Fritou^), ^., Switzerland: much forest
S.8TOM. m.: p. msh 284,540. ’
Botswana,
’)^PEpn (lana^ [p. Africa;
lOMOO. ™6.^producti'TO land: a. 645 sq.m,; p. (1961)
PalathM^ Germany; Frriburg, cap Freibure, Switzerland; between
N.W ofMajijibeiin; engin,. farm Implements, Berne and tousanne ; fine viaduct and bridges •
co^; p, (1963) SAAOO.
FraBfcfort, C Ky utsiA - ‘mfAfntP nn™ ( rJSr^-’ vwi*Jd
Ge55r^ ^Wn.. P- <1957)
choeolatFol^r
to Hack e;_p. a967) 2.9.d05
2.1m ’
S?1->^-S-Ad P. (I960) 15,30S.
W."&ny-
r^fcored cath. ; 6m IS.Sdi
iiniv.: ’ •
birthnlafte nf nrwafh^* ■ Germany; cath.; agr.
Pf «9
Fr^&I
_ MCto., cm. pt.
traasliipmenfc chemicals,
atffid:imblMiinfr. th^rngm ’ ‘
Germany; SS,800.
coal-n^jiiie.
I., B, Germany; 50 m. tom p QoeS) nranlum ore processing;
go«;t.'ss<.)'it
4s«}eS‘A^; ip,
Sr™“l3Sn??°SiS“ao "a almouHi of
»*»«; \ w*?JS- SftS
tod.; p. {I960) 5A2A ” P. (1960) 42,790.
.p,, ".‘““’SSr'
sparsely populated; furs* a. comprised the

654.032 80. m. v^viua.wu., lurs. a. Irôh AAican cote. Gabon (cap. Iffirevllle)
Fr^ttelmT6 Ldme (Franzeusbad), t w Bohamin • <‘^P4 Brazzaville), Ubangi-Shari
famous roa CSSE ''• Bohemia. (cap. Ba^). and Chad (cap. Fort Lamy ;
F^JosepanA
Ocean; U.S.5.E.. archipelago
N.ofNovayaZemlya; in Arctic 4
a TosOHoto^ ?63.740 sq. m.;
*“» now p. (1967)
WLaSd. U.S.5,E.. archipelago in Arctic timber, ivory; a. 953.740 sq. ’mtodep.
; p within
(1967)
m^y ice-oorered, 8^- “• • R. ODnmumty. See under separate heading
Ftasca^ L, Italy ; 12 m. S.E. of liome • mimmpi- Africaa Eep., Chad,M ™'
1 T cocoa,
resmt: famous villag and arch, remains- nuclei * forests;
resem^^tirrpiirîr
i««ai^ctr.; nucleai îd. phosphate
phosphato: IgeTd^ts
Ige. deposits ofofTalrrite
baliiite at
SrMor, Ej, B.O., Canada; rte@ at 6 000 ft on xsr exploited; poor oommuni-
>»«*-
Ftaserbrog, asp. L, Cape Province. S. Africa-
SS&. outlet of L.
uemns ot Dahomey. Ivory Coast. Mauritania. Niger,

p. {I960! 11.131.
gesnillo, t, Zacatecas (5t., Mexico ■ d 'ss Mil
Frego, c. Cal.. U.SA. ; ’ ct?f o? infpttlS
ted
!^Snrp. Nova Scotia and Kew

^^’prciTaos Winter «8ort:
^’tirne^, dui.^ N.W. Ebs ■ betw#=^’n Mawi

^pmhQ Bay and tbe »h &? •
t Franifert!! ®4™y;
57 W7 ™®<^hirgy, leather; p. a»63)

to
?E‘*foY?sai,,r”ii2"pS‘
<» Toyama Bay
■ piaine; tr.exp.in
'*«coastwise
' ige.
F.SS°;iiSs;^ ■>■ '■«Toyama
5? -£4. of Notp Peninsula;
Slfton-cSfl^x.““**^'’ ““***"•
pm Shan, i... m, S.E.
S- of Mukden;footmost'
of Chmg-
in Far East; ikmsmcs world's
impt,
uuck« bitmninons coal seam (417 ft.) worked
« 679 openH»8t mines; p. (1963)

g . (1965) 725.257.
Fusin (Fnxin). c,. Liaoning prov., t3iina;
coal
rang.: agr.; p. (1963) lOB.OW.
Xa, jMws, Tasco-Emllian Apennine®. N.
FloreTCe ; alt. 2,962 ft.
o raoBtty to (Sutom, Bologna W.
to
„ Atrfca. 'CTO outliers in Libaia and Stem Leona,
AM I* a (tf WaHte ls.. dejwite^
erf Ft. col. trf New, Ciledoiaa ; p. about 2/m.
lyyme, nam m$i., cecwopRicsl wS-wfeu, W
Eng. ( extends atong W. c* between
erf BIlAtfe and Wyra ; low. fiat p&in
ocnmd <»astel sand dimes, cowered by fertile
IBS
glacial derortte; oaltiyaM where drained,
graia vegetables; impt. pig and poultry reax-
mg dfet.; ch. t.. Blacktol. tomooB bolidar
76.925.
iTHngdal^^baUtetic missite rarty waning station
on Yortesbire moors.
Em, L. Danmark: to the Baltic Sea; a. 1,820 so.
m.; cap. Odgae: p. {i960) 576.572.
Argyll 40cst.
of Clyde; length m. 'W. Scot. ; an arm of F,
„ (1967) 10.4527. *•' OMolm. SiwJb ; ck. of leacl-

tow nrod.; p. (19675 ir.OOO.
». 6M m. m.:
apt. Tunlaia . on G. of Gabes. 200 m. S. of
ilinis; dates, henna, wool: p. (1961) 24.400.
Qabenme, cop., BotswMja. S.W. Africa; c-attle.
rSi.ia 1965) 13,000. mangan^ rung.; p. ie-rtd*
/iScf
P. (1965) 17SJs3. Jaiw: beartafs machin.; G^n. i»d govemm tf., within Fr. Comnmnlty.
EonaforlaJ Afrka; cap. Libreville; ivory
STOTgna, eitiact yolcano. Japm, 60 m. S.W. of
TO tolPfJgrim resort; «*. 12^ ft.
(Fnto) JMW.. Chliia; cap, Foochow cotton aad sSk
(jjuzJion); tea. nee. cotton, sugar, tobacco-
WoTdaof"'
Gadsem induM. c.. Ala.. ITB.A.: cotton,
cars.
ffl- i&^l ipapw; “•= p- ctwl. iron, steeJ; p, (i960) 58,088.
japan; aOk, p. (1965) Gaeta, apt., jort. Gaserta. Italy; 40 m. N.W'. of
•a««jtOwV» ancient Caietae Portua; oath.;
Fitoota, /.. Kynsiiu, Japsai; comm, otr.:
febrlis, doUe; p. (1966) 749,308,silfc,
\
FPaaguna, c., N, Japan; ciîcals, coal, iron
prod.; pears, cherries; p. (1965) 173.878. ; p.
Itoaesto
^^totoi.Plioephates; p. ne. textiles
(.. S. Hokkaido. Japan; p. (1064) &A’ wines;
lO.France: p. (1961)
(1962) $4jm.
2.0(551.
G^terd CWt, cgcocatJed cfeomneC Panazm^ Canal
Herae, W. Gennany: nr. Cassel: tm B,
^ne; car^
MtmfinMn PMMami Canal through OOStoa
L. Gatun
ainmi: palace, abbey; textltes. metaihnyy to Pa& Oc. ; lea^ 7 m.
rubber: route ctr.; p. (1963) 44.900.
«TMa, £ f-. UB,^; p. a»60) S9.TG1.
forms the B. Weser.Gtooany; -sritt* the Weira
Gato^, A. ^
Qaiaesvito, t.. HBÂ.;
Texas, DBA,;p. p.
(3960) IffBM.
am&i ISjum.
^Hu-ariu: ; s^nty vêtafcion ; winter pastui®
Gmton, s»f., southern end Bootle mtn.

and reso rt; olp.
XiverBo
onS toSk Nlm^h ^ted
I'- Michigan;
stÎ, tm-plate, cement* soap, chemical

Ss®sidse nilof
gMOony, awn&it vrov., dvOvUr S.W. Ecance
od
refining-; p. (leeo) 178^gl. ‘'“®«icais.
totein, t., Salzburg. Aostria; mineral snrinea.
^tonia,<; N.C..IJ.SJL; p. : on sriyiie.
Gêau. B..^nada: trib/ofOttaTO B^. which
^-jOttawa;
it joins nr. length 800 m. ên
cotton mnis*, Shodesi ar farming.
gold, mineral ’mining
depc^lt and
s* ncsai
Gatan.ari iflciol L„ Banama CJaruil Zone
Central
^ 10.000 (pol.s
Piiî^.000mm
hrongho^lmh^ ’
by Panama Canal’
!*■ Cmbbean Sea; 25m.S.
a. 260SdOTi;
smm
tomi road, Xl
faiîtte combined in one miit.
® silfc.co
°^^BlpehnefromBaraim i; tt^7lace
p. (1961)
™ Himalayas: 36 m, W of
Mt. Everes
Oavle, t; alt. 23.440
apt, Sweden; timbw.ft .steel nor-
textiles ”
aavleborg, co., Sweden: ch. t., Gfivle’
sq. m.; p a 7 610
ceto: p. (1961)
(1961) S83.070.
84. famous
788 .
Buddhi Por-
st pilgrim
ctr.; cottons, silis; p. (I96i) Tsr 108 *
ra»n®*w bitumen retoery
“&.0W;
xyav, occi^l^ by Israeli troops. Nov P. o.
Mardi 1967. and since
®^49®‘^^mLf’i.X-r™ June
f 19W. admin, since
^■' S.W. ofMalatya; p. (1966)
G^.’trsMdstan S.SJt.; 60 m. KW
Pmeime to Ghmyabraek opened of Eufr.
discoid
Poland; oh.mid-1960's:
Nov. 1963
t. Gdansk
- p. {1968) 5oS,550.
eraiml, nm. pom across SwiE® Alps. Valais to rap.Auch; grkint’viaes.
Gem,
Ob™ E., rising in the Pyroiiees,
P- ^1902) flows
232.577.
to the
fjimIS® ‘tjf
Gêral [cattle; p. 14^0.
Pico, i., b. central Argentiim ; grain,
uene^ c„ aw. cm. Genera. Switzeriand : at^ Get^tarrg. i Penns.. UB.A ; Federal . victory
.0 ite
end of L. Genera, B, Bhdne flows throngii c.: 1863; e; lengthp. 75
Garonngranite; m.
(1960) 7,960.
GeveWierg, e., Westphaha. Germany;
slmes-, p. am) 32400. ton
IP-H.O.. .I.T.U.. International
elec, goods,
conllaeBce at
to^r»rt; p. (1961) 179.400. G«^d^S^^N,E. AfH»: sitiafed between
Geneva, con., Switzerland: a. 1(39 so. m.- n Ahartoum: ararox 4,700 sq. m. camWe
Nne at
of
. x™ sq. m.. p.
aeQiy 25SM4. Switzeriand; 45 m.
,^“*®-scale
cotton: total a. approx.growing of l^h-
^ B.-W. in form of crescent: a. 224 bo m 7B0Osq. m.
GhadMea, omis, Sahara Dase^ Idbya;
Afiica; at point where Tunis. Algeria. libra N.
Ge^ât, France: rfte cMf gr. han«e and
■^* below Genera ;
completed 1950. ^ oinverge 300 m. S.W, of TtWhT^ Ma: rfAe in
steinlm steel wks.: Mbet, floTO tlirongh TJttar Pradesh; of
P. (1968) 56,031. Ganges; length 800 m.
GennevUlisrs, t., Seine, France; p. (1962) 42£ll sovereign and ind. st,
mantime pnm., Ifearia. N. Italy; a. TOthm British Commonwealth rinee 6 March
1,582^, m.; p. (1961) 1,044.633. 1857, agr.; cocoa, palm-oil, groundnuts;
Gmoa (Genova), svt., camm. c.. on G. of Genoa; mahogany, manganese, gold, diamonds: cap
fins palaces, cath., wnlv.; shipbldg., engin ;^ra; harbours at Takoradi and Tema:
Gentilly, t. S^-
Seine. Etence: f sq. m.; p. (ffitd. 197Q) 8,545^1,
848fi00. ’ ®bar^. A, S. Algeria; p. (1960) 58,327.
(1965) 17.497,
|«Wes: p,V. (1654)
(Senally, Quebec, Gauada; nuclear power sta. E. and W., ttco min. ranges bordering the
oemg omit. taangnbir upland of S. India, the Deccan; alt.
Gec®ge, |.. CaTC Province, S. Africa; footwear, of ch. summits, 4,700-7,000 ft.
saîlling, hops; p. {i960) 14,605 inc. S,635 Gharipnr, i.. N. India; on Ganges R.. E, of
wMtes.
varar^: agr. school; p. (1961)37,247.
GMrgetown. cap.. Guj^m. S, America; on Gha^./ortfd. «ii«. (., Afghanistan; TSm-S-W of
Berner^ B.; em sugar, coeum, coffee, timber. Kabul; gr, tr. otr.; cap. of the Etoidre of
I Alahmnd, c. ajo. 1000; p. lOJlOO.
Georgetown, t.. S.G, G.S^; flab, lumber, ■■ Ghaznm.c. and AM., Centra)
cotton; p. (1960)22,261, Prov.. Iran; a«r •
G^jgetmm, C Washington D.O., XJSJu ; on irngation Betetam;
pla cap.
nt. {ffE, Flandere, . on B.
E.Pot(Hnao: nniv.. cath. bohads; cath,_ univ.; extmsive cotton,
Geo^town, 33^.. Penang. Malaya; p. 139,068. woollen, sugar mds.; piastfcs, pWographlc
Georgia, at., 11.8.^; on Atlantic cst.; fcuested, refinery under canstructiffli:
cotton, tobaeiw, corn, peanuts, fruit; P. (1968) 232,525. inc, subs.
totllea. lumber, chanlcate. steel; ciiM' ts.; Giant’s Causeway, famous OaeaUk columns, on
Atmta (cap.) and Savannab: a. 68.876 so. m.; promontory of N. cst, of Antrim. Irelani
P. (1970) #.452.036. : bt- Mt. Etna ; industi. ;
Georida, comUMmt rep., GB.8.E. ; maize, tobacco,
wneat; engm. . metaUnrgy, ve^-n irmg oil Gibare, p. 25,550.
t.. Oiiente
bananas; p.8j945, prov., Cuba. W. TwPbs • exn ’
gold deposit disoovexed nr. E. inguri in a of
new b.e.p. project 1965: cap. Tbilisi; a. Gibraltar, Srit. ierr.. W. end of Mediter-
27,000 sq. m.; p. (1970) 4,633,000. rpem: on rfwky
Georgian Bay, Ige. inlet. Ontario. Canada; E. S. of Spam; navalpeninsula (1.396 ft.) R-rtTwpw
base of great strat^jo im-
ebore of L. Huron; many impt. labepts. (Owen por^ce: free pt.: oaptuced by BiitMi in
Sound. Parry Sound) where Prairie wheat is
tiananipped to rly. for destpatoh to Monjareal; Oinraitar,
niKZof4,®“« Strait!P"
01, connects Atlantic and Medi¬
a. approx. 4,600 sq. m. terranean :^ its narrowest breadth P-, (estd-) 37.000.
is 9 m.
Gera, (., Gera, B. Gmmany; Ugnite. wooUmis, Gibson Desert, centae of W. Aiws^Pw,
„ printing; p. (1963) 104J98. Gibson Island, f., Queensland, Australia; nr. E.
G«alfflon,3p(..W. Australia; 806 m. from Perth; bank of Brisbane B.; ferfeOiam wke.
m SCT. and pastoral diet.; exp, gold, copper, Giess^
wool: natural gas nearby; p. (1961) 10.878. tobacco,t, engin.,
He^ Gennany
textiles: ;p.on(1963)
E. Eahn; vmrv. ;
69.800.
n-lT’:'" « paper: cor-
- Texaa. IT.S.A.;
gazetteer
oil. lumber:
«v 9™laad. Australia: alumina
G»6n. *p|.. bvfedo.

gd.harûr; Spain:
tobacco, on 'Baycoal,
petroleum, of earthen-
Biscay; GtelsSe,’
sports equiVme^:p (loliBA 5-^har^^^’ a.
Gita, prw., K.W. &an. ^Sira'S!'”

on aîan Sea. bounded ■” Glamorgan?
ffastifeSSi'- c^s.T'isr
Vale oi' see Gwent ia.Tf ii
by tr.S.S.1!,,: sub-tropical climate: agr.. inc. QlarasS SwWrllnd^ of Plain
^P- ®- <10675 1,7S4S50. m.: sheep
Gilbert and BUlce Islands Cotony, or of coral Is Glama /• P‘ '10615 40J48.
(Brit.). fruit
danas Mi^nesia. Pac. exp.
and coconuts; chTcwr^ân.
phosphates’ GlaSowfT
^wtên"Lâfk Jrifw • ™ n o. a
and copra: a. 869 sq.m.; p. (estd.) 55M0. Sd lest cm ^ Clyde:
Qilgit, «ip., 6. extreme N.W. dist. of Kashmir mnfs- shinW/iJ^ thriving
Gilgit, B.. of the Punjab rising to of el^c-
the Indus, fiowine along the G&t vallsy into
Kashmir. ?£?!??? A_clr. of great in-
— Leitrim,
y. Ireland. wiuoAa ui Oimu tiiiu
?5- C.S.A.; coal; p. (1960) SJISS. Glastonbury, (., mun. bor., Somerset Emr • af
Giltoâm. /., mm. hor.. Kent. Eng.; 2 m. E, of gto:of p. (i960) M:
foot ’
pndip^ Hffls.with
6 m.legend
S. W. of
irf thorn
Woll^note d
Chattem: cherry orchards, cement, light tads.; planted
p. (estd. 1967) S3.95d. by Joseph of .îmathea, tools, steel, hoops’
Avalon^ burial I. of King also adjacent to
Arthur; sloves
p Belslmn, nr. Charleroi; coal;
Giloio L, see Halmkhera L
BVne. at Glatz, see iSodzko
C j
bead of Crinan OanaJ. Ml xjuuu j?jrue, ac
Kari-^-SMt. E. German
p-y;festd'
on
Qloja del CoUe, c., Bari, S. Italy; olive oil. wine, te&a® ““f®-
wool; p. 24.000.
dyes, machto.;
oPtte Adriatic. N. of G«T
to (lO Î^ . cahcoes,
lfE;s.B. White’
to Erals: saw-milltog
dik. 'S.M. Victoria, Australia; a.
^clftote.^95R.w;o.“®®®’
Glresun, gpt.. Black Sea. Turkey. W. of Trabzon- ®!Sv1S
pS ri/Tn^’
° by Perth to
®‘PP>toach to Drumochter
QiW™fTr/^?F:A.R.: onK Nile- p 1 000 ' ^“stâlia; alt. 3.618

— tt v ^ v.v,/, t., D, oiciiy.
Gtamde, B., emianf 8W Bkance* fomvftd Vitr Argyll, Scot.; S.E. of Ballachullsh •
«^W.. ». OmWte E«.; ™.«-, °SSi^SfeJS,T-t™gr-

I— a. of Adelaid
Mil e; Ist settlei
4a.uiuia«u uay: now
iâkZ
fi'toadng-wbs.; p. (1986) 24,9SS.
oichtrmi f w .B. A mainland ^ ~~
Yorks; on B. Bibble. nr. Gienoldo n. tor., i^nns.. U.S.A.; surgical tastru-
Qiugliano, t. Italy; N.W of Naples* mnfa - n ®-, C060) 7,2d£>.
^ SOMO. w. Of JMaples . mn& .p. Gl^thc^ (.. Pifeshim, Scot. ; one of the “ New
^liano^ ji, Tteramo. Italy; ftult. grata;^' S^T,,A^fi^^®^®v S.'^5. transtetor&c-
Q&â, Pt-, Bomania; on E,
BtSe: ffOOd tr • tlmhAr* T» Danube; wposito n lesta. 1965) 17,4^. Vboto precision tod,;
"tSH—
m. S. of Lyons; mnfs.; oil ’refining nearby at
Fer2to;.p. (1962) 17,239. s nearoy at _ 5 Paints, toys : p. (1960) 9.3^^^
Giza, admtn div.. UA.B.: cap. Giza- a. 892 so j ®0- S- Norway; highest
,.m.; to (I960) 1,337.000. a. 392 so. _,P^ ta Scandtoavia ; alt. 8,140 a
®%,<^.5tow«rtr.A.a: ontheNlle,3m.SW of J- ^^8?^ Silesia, Poland;
îro; nr. pyramlda of Khafta (Chephren) ^046; nr, Katowice: chemicals.
Etoufu (Oheops) and Men-ka-TO- #eelj p- (1966) 134.000.
Sphinx; contains Musenm of E^tian coPPer. manganese, gold,
bid.; to (1960) 250,000?^ tungsten mining; p. (i960)
~ vvyvaj«« ouem* wuuu.. XFUu iTina.
1946 ?;
Gjbyl^ G.;
t., Sp. Noi^y;
^d.) Albania ; rly.
on L. Mjosa: fiimittiw. ((^8a«).
S- junrtion: p.c., (1946)
Poland. German
1.631wood, before
.iron tods.;
■
GtoM^^ a (Glq^ 0.), Albanii^trait of Otranto. B.
r“^m SkaggeraJc.
oUh 55*orway : lest. Narw€«ian rAihuuiB
a. flows
r& GjtahSzSs, Bcrby, Eng.;OtSi
C). shail, at W.
Chemicals,
Gl^lfte^ t., N. Bhi^Westph riy.
alia. Germany*
TOt^. paper, food oannlng; p, (estd. 1967)
Sttop^ Manchester;
©LO-GOT ©AZETTEER
"SS I'*SSJsl’'SaS^-'p“fife»S“-
-mftg.
il - and -repair,
- v» waffon wlrs.. kjctctw, a.iiv:i£b£(
ensin.. mntchflH sw.* .
ill w- .arKyii,
Gronoeaî'
mftg. anamW.eJr^s'. '^.'.onwks.,
reimir, ■wagon E.Seyera; aircra
engiii., matcbes, ndiin|, tte„ and haa-bonr.m lm,000.
nylon: p. (estd. 1967) SS.OSO. MU.ft w. Indies; on W. Ar^n
cat. : p.
GloyMBviBe, c., N.Y., TJ.S.A.: gloves- p (IWO) P- 2"-®®’-
g|iiH’k-.grssS'A^^?l
-
E. - -
Ee^. nr. Stuttgart: oloks. metauU-tCtiailUXHy, I. TOUB. oor.. w .n,. xorKs, ifing.; second pt.
Jir^.
gla^,
glQSB, costume
co^mne Jewellery:
Jewellery; n.
p. (estd. lfiKii\
1954) .94 inn 1
34J00. 9“ HumberWEest.:.a secondfionr
iron, shipbldg.. pfc.
Omeimo (Gnesen), mStg. <.. Poland : E. of Poznan : mintog. fertilisers, alum and dextrine mftg.: p.
cath.: linen: p. (1965) 47,000.
:«P«e communication * ^
former Port. India: p. (1960) 626.978. (estd.
. ^m?) 1S,670.
A '*^*^r'**^' * VWAtiiJUlUXUVibJjJUJUffl
sta. of G.P.O., likely to be one of moet ad-
Goaji^ pemnsula on G. of Maracaibo. N. cat. of van^ satellite communication stag, in world.
oay, t., juaoraaor, i»naaa ; on Hamilton E.
Citowi“ * .r. ... »«u uopiangea, t, Baden-Wflrttembeig, Gemoany;
“‘I E.
Colopt.,
6oalTmda» mb ia. ; at
Pakistan Junction of Bs. between Ulta and Stuttgart : machin., iron,
Ganges and Brahmaputra. [2*866 ft. wood, ohemlcals; p. (1963) 48,600.
Gobi,
Gobi, stenn^
goat f Me and
steppM atonv
stony or
or ftaod'c-
and iTS-fl^n. fÂswarf
sandy Bute. Iy>
in nov^fv-î
Ctentrai I 100 m. N. of Varanasi;mum
desert Sc™ait: . timber;
grain, on tne
Ama: divided into two principal dlvs. : Shamo (lotertilisers; Govt.?»^ the
agr. school; p. (1961) l.SS.â.5.
to antai McSC -aTtafiSi Stiffi aSS'lMErsPTi
Kalgan-Ulan Bator Gtwgonaola,
^ * lamoilR for L.ifn N. Italy; 12 m. N.E. of Milan,
oliAAOA
Gototau^, #.,OTMn.6or., Surrey, Eng.; 4m. S.W. Gori, („ ; grain timber- p
of Guildforf; Ist public supply of elee. 1881; (1961) 33.100 gram, timoer, p.
SSoSmSA Sl'S’)??!™"' °“SS^ '■■ =“““*■ -• iw"n

Petroleum leflnte. steeh
P. (estd. 1954) 46,700. smrlngs: seê i^rt ; ina JUUSV. W* 4JVA. V3. ■OrW. X IZfXJLlUiUUll.
in oo. bor. d Gt. Yarmouth!
CMttas, t. Dresdoj, E. Germany; on W. Neiase
Godhavn, Danish settlement. Disco I„ W. of o3^7a.
Greenland ;» whaling
«»*»«>»**.**& ;
» scientiflc otHft.
sta. I S;vi59®’
OiffOfo* '*''*^* JPetaJhagy, machin.; p. {196S5
p. (1961) 52,167.
^^96\’)‘^'?r^*’ **®^*'-: teimeite; |GcaMovka, L, DtaaJnian
c<^. chemicals, S.SJa.;
engto.; in Doneteconnects
oli pipellae Basin;
Qodstone, vU., rural dish, Surrey, Eng.; nr. with Groznyy oilfields; p. (1967) 348M0.
Eeigate; p. <1961) rural dist. 40,068. Grano-Atoy*. h. E.SJ'l.E.; 60 m. SJS. of
GodthMb, t.. Greenland: first Danfch col 1721. PT- Ohuya highway to Mongolia; p.
Godwin Austen (K’), Mb, Himalaya, second (16&9) 27,000.
highest in the worid; alt. 28,250 ft. Summit Go^ &KaluKW»r&, t. B.8.P.E.8. ; new town in
reached by Prof. DeEio in July 1954. Mt. Siberian Arctic on E^ HantalM. 86 m. WJST.W.
named Chobrum. Komsomolsk; tinmng.
t j! . [(1961) 5,472. jxomsomoisK; tm mng.
Gog^spi, Gnj^t, todia. on G. of Cambay; p. Gtaseinon, eil., Q)fl.TTifii-gH.u. g. Wales- nr
Goara. S£S Ghaahara r^v/fVT ^ _
Inughour estuary, i
4 m. N.W. of Swaiwa; W-
Gogra. see
Gotena, h. Ghaghara
PernambucoE. st., Brazil;*p. (estd.
147M1.
19^) steel-wks., zinc refineries.
J _ sseei-was.. zmo Galway,
Gtnrtpriirolditet., rennenes.
Ireland; p. (1961) Jjsy,
industl. ctr., p.jestd. 1968) S45,0d5. Gorma (Q&z),
GorMa (Gto), c..e., cap. 6orizla
Gorizla prov., H.E. Italy,
nroT.. N.E. Italy
Goi^ sf.. Central Brazil; mountalnou^ forested cas.; agr. mkt,, frnii, wine; cotton mlite.
uvwiû. Kuiu,
stock raising: tobacco: gold, uuuuumis;
dianumds: cap.
cap textile macn.:
sexuie mach.; p. p. (1961)
(1961) 41,354.
41,354.
1968)^^71?^’ a. 247.900
\v.rwvrv4. .«.wvwi <w,a-w,
p^teto' #,ax. GoMârd tunudSwitzerland; at W. end of St
sa. m.; Gônem
Boan-imide Ck^tord, 1. N.S.W^ AttsfcraKa: 60 m. N, of
nbr^, T?* ilQ6t}26JOO, ^ , ... Sydney; and commuter t.; food uro*
Q<^coâ» /ori and c*. nr. Hyderabad, S. cessing, bldg, materials; p. (1966) 12j3J2
Gosforth, t, vrb. dist., sub. to HewcasUe-(m-
G<^ Biver, L. B.p.. Cana^; on W._cst of Tyne. Eng.; coal; p. (estd. 1967) ST’.i-iftJ.
Vancpu^ I. at jnncfe. of Heber and Gold B». Goshen, a. Ind., U.8.A.: p. (1960) 13.718.
iiJm!!! '• n .. r, , Qoslat, t. Lower Saxony. Gmnany; at foot of
of ^ San B^rancteco. Harz Mtns.; dothlng mnfis., wood inds.; rly
California, DBjSu ; famed (3olden Gate Bridge, Junction; p. (1968) 41,000
openM 1937. _ [the harbour of Istanbul Gosport mum. bor.. spt., Nwcal depot. Hants. Eng ;
« 7’^^^wuZu on the Bosporus, forming W. side of ^^rtsmoutb barboor; shipbldg
Golden Tnangle. ttie area of Britain and the con- engin.; p, (estd. 1967) 7S,S20,
K>ugh^ bound^ by Birmingduon. Gossan, ciL, St Gallen, Switzerland; erntwoldefry.
iranknirt^d Pans, which tool. London and lace: agr. ctr.; butter and cheese wks,; ik.7u914.
south-east and
Belgium England, northern And
LusemhcYimzr. Prance,
thA the Kuhr,
fiAnfKAm it, Swên; flows from L. Vfinin to the
t y&nem
Belgium and Luxembourg, and the southern Kattegat; also canal cozmecting L.
half of Holland. with the Baltic ; the G. C^nal provides a populax
Golden Vale,
uwôii dist., limerick,
Y we, aufu liiiuOTicK. Tipperary, Ireland:
xippenuT, ireianai tourist tatp
tourist trip from
from Stockholm
Stockholm toto Goteborg.
GOteborg.
h^ betwe^ ^pom Mtns. and Galt^ Gdtaiandtsouthemmostof Sold pro^. of Sweden;
altns., drained W. to Shannon and E« to Suir; a« 99,090 bq. m.; name us^ nwiy iq weather
nch farmmg a., beef and dairy cattle, pigs. foredisiB.
GoldOT VaUey, 1^.. ITB,A.; p. (1960) 14559. GStSbotg tmd a.Bobus, jwr.. Sweden; mi cst, of
x»90» mi., XU., \xwxi
Goldsboro. (.. N.C.. DBA, ; on Neuse E ; cotton. SAttegat: a. 1,989 sq. m.; p. (1961) 624,762.
tobacco: p. (1960) 28573. . Gdtoborg, e., cap., Gfiteborg and Bobus. Sweden;
Golê, CO A. Sutherland, Scot.: j^fabig pt. at mouth of E G6ta.; second e. in Sweden fW
Gomal Pass, from Afghanistan to W. Punjab, i commerce and ind.; ^lipbldg., oil refining;
Pakistan over Sulaiman mtns. [ deepwater tanker tenninal; p. (1960) 404,753.
GAZETTEER
GOT-GHA
GoQm, Erfint, E. Germany; iron, macMn. Orana Bassam, t., spt.. Ivory m W Afrir-T
porcelain, printing,
IMlrCBlain. •nriTifiriJ <»rtoemphy;
MTtno-ranhxr- p.
n (19Cs5
flOr.RI I exp. bananas, palm-kemela ; p. 5,!'43.
Airn
Grand Balnuna, one of the Bahama Is., W. Indies >
Ootlanu I., fertilf SsredUh I. !n the Baltic: cap. Ormid Canal, canal. K China; abont 1.000 m.
„ T-^ty; a, 1^2:i t,}. m.: r, (19615 54^22. long tom Tientsin to Hangchow, built between
'■'.Jifluies,
SottealJsrg, 1. S.V.*. Boland ; coal. mflg. ; assigned A.p. 005-18 and 1282-92
^.0
to Polaiid at Pot-dsm coidt-rance ; p, 5,d00. P. (1953) 35. ; now
QSttaigen, t,e., lowar
ijtjwur Siisony. Germany ;; iiniv.
uiuv.; : ost. or rad transport more topi. silted through
use. or rail craiisporc more impt.
up S
Venice, Itoy.
Goâldov (Ziin*. i f.,'&SE.: 40 m.odware

E. of Grand
Bmo; footwe»,tottea iid<Iomestiowo Grand G^ry,
Canyon, i„Arizona.
Canaries; cap. Las
IJ.SX; PdimM-
mjtw mWa'n
„ twia.: p. (inei, 24.1 1.9. S.OOO to over 6.000 ft deen boIoSdn T? * ’
Gouda, e.. S. Hollanu, Netherlands; on B. Hoi- Grand Cayman I., T.WX; a. 85sqf m -^coco-
lant|;e li m./rom Eotterdam; cheese. nuts: cap. Georgetown: p. (estd 1957Vfl
caMtemnfg.; ceramns, pipes: p. (1967) 4S,S23. Grand Combin, mtn. in the Alps N of
Qiwh
balingt, AtL
groundOc.of dependency of St. Heienc.; Italy; alt. 14,141 ft.
the great shearwater. ’ rr^sS’
Grand-Comme (La,), t., Gard. Eranee* u (I9fl«i
GwlRmm, c., N.S.W., Austmlia: commands route Grand Coulde Dam, Wash
m. .below USA
Spofee:• (Si-fro
Zrldl n
^ Sydney; catk; wool, dioe.s: p. (1966) 20,342. IM. dam; reservoir formed 151 m. long, a
Goullaini Victoria, Australia, 130 sq. m. supplies irrigation water to 1,90(5
Gooroefc l»{rah, Beafrew, Scot.; on Firth of sq. mu between Es. Columbia and Snake:
Clyde. 2 m. W. of Greenaik; p. (1961) O.SOS. hrdro-êc. power sta. when complete will
Gonvemenr. t, N. K.y.. U.SX. : minas talc. lead. generate 2,700,000 h.p.
zinc: maft. wood pulp, silk; p. (1960) 4,S4S. Grmde (^faeê. La, mmastem. Isto, Its liqueur.
France;
Govan, par., Lanark. Scot. : on the Clyde, part
orG!a«ow: dilpbldg.; p. (1951) 512.311. Prairie, t, Alberta, Ctoada: wheat: p.
GovenQor’sL./ort, Boston Harbour: also fortfd. Grima Forte, t.. N.D.,
Met in harbour of.N.Y.,. U.SjL U.S.A.; on Bed B.; in
Goyindpurai, t, Madhya Prad^h. India: nr, wheat region; p. (1960) 34,4S1.
Bhopal: heavy e.Ie& Mods; p (1961) 20,747. Grand Iskuid, e., Nebraska, U.SA..; cattle and
Gower, peninsula, W. Glamorgan, Wales, gram t.; p. (1960) 25,742.
Tay. Scc^.;
Gt^, Se mcludes Dundee,
.otirtite Kinnoul.
tract N. Perth.
side Firth of Grand
"^0^ Lahou. f„ Ivory Cbt W Africa* n raWt
nnn
^^ttatranean, nr. Malta: the Grand Pifee, see Bladt Prairie.

Gr^ Eapld^ c.. Mich., U.8.A.; on Grand E.;
Gractosa, I., Azores gr.. N.W. of Tercelra. ’ '®and”Hiw‘^'’ nl^^le "tlTcrÂ

P .(1957)
tron
Gl^ncl
leng SL. th navigabfttid
"W Oolorfl,fifi TTfaK Eapids,
le toT? Grand ttq a
Grado-AquiW^N, Adriatic, prov. Gorizia, Italy; wb. the CotoS E ^ length ’
vtoaro wort and framac Eoman spt.; rich to Oitod s^'of o£)b^^^^tw-= aT.u
ear^(3to^ mosaic and other Miqnffle^ îeos to ; p. ]%3f and
(aawg^beg. Jtsi.. Kopparberg
‘ «.uwuiuuKa.
co., Sweden: onS,
P. (est.) 3jm. ixuu UIB
^toigeofSrantoiavlaamtns.; “•* ore aepcwKia.
depcMta,
IronSweden: (mol) a 777
on S. ®'2f4rac&e‘^ Bayf
Iron depcMta, (1961) S?. summer resort •,‘®p p.
t. N.S.W.. omte.;
fiô/Sran^vt
Qratoa, Australia: on Clarence E.; Grangemouth
Forth, 204i,m. *iwpk.
W. of Leith:
Stirling
^d^Fprod.. timber: p.
„ didry prod., timber; n. (1966) 7S
(19661 IS.9#4. .9 Scot.* and
shiphldg. F. of
on repair
F
Gteatai. f.. N. Texas. DBto.: oil refining, flour marine engin.. oil reflntog. petroleum prods..
i^ng; p. (1960) 5.505. cJjemi(^,phara[iacentics; electronics and elec!
L tbe l^t. Of the (3ueen Charlotte
ga la the :feotae; ofl cst.QfBrIt. Oo umhto Gi^te City.m U.S.A.: p. (1960) 40.075.13,360.
RiSuiA Ftonart: p. (1961)
Gr^ C^t. general naSSiâS to cat. So®’

^P^^?rtc '“• EUesmere L. Arctic
Moray. Scot.; on E.
ml.. Westmorland. Eng.: at head of

Qronafla pr^yzi gL Snafh * frnwtKiAfT >,■«• o- Sydney* 3S".S.W., Ausfcntlla.
B. IK affoot of i^êl“pâ06l)®27^^
.U..>«.a4
Si iSS^ SSaffT aa£nf-,£'&Sffi '■
tMiuiiu. jamiBrica: cus-
CanaSa: on Yama^ E.:
p. (1961)®?*W5
3X463.
)
FraScittofteSiiî'i^toedM.™""^™"^-
’ G®?5®8ena, g)t^. «n^ Kent. Eng.: 8. bank E.
snd Para-
J^îLnAV^ fiMdng Tilbury; shipptogt par^
Thnrrook, urb. disL, Essex. Eng.; on the

“iSoT^ .
' GAZETTEESt
Thames, nr. OMbinT T'ort; oil reflninK, metal Athera : a®. : cereals, totacco. corrante,
refining, cement, paper board, margarine, s(Mip soats. cattle: minerals:
mftg.; p. {e^. 1967) 121,670. iron. 1^ magnesite,
Graz, L, Awstria; on R. Mnr; machin., iron and cbemicalslignite; mnfs. oil: olive
, shipTds.. oil.
refining:
steel, rlr. wks.; p. (1964) 249,000. a. 51,182 »i. m.: p. (estd. 1965) 8, .550, 000.
Great AltAl, ratwe of mtng., lying mainly in outer Greelev* t rw" a' J®®™* t»65) 8,550,000.
Mongolia but also in Western
Africa: Siberiaf
alt. 7,000 ft. QrS °êofBweduMtimi*-
c Wte U 8 A ■
Great AMtra^ BMin, artesian tmin, Australia ; pl5er‘'eS'’n“aM0) SS Jls* ^ ’ * '
underlte plains of S W. Queensland. N.W. New Gre^SIflf' S. Q S A • n ndh\
South Wales, N,E. of S. Australia; watersupply Greenhithe ThampR*KiAp tj
u^d on sheep-farms,
Normanton
Norm^to in m N. to cattle-ranches,
N. tn Remnart
Eenmark in in sS.,in rinn/ina-
a twZ KS!’
Ooodna- Bay. loftyJ ^Snice-capped plateau; peopled Baffin
by
datta in W. to Roma in E.; a. 670,000 sa. m. coast^_ .settlements of Eskimos; whale oil
Great Australian Bight, mde inlet, S. of Australia, ^ skins: some^j lead, zinc; U.S. base at
between C. Arid and Port Whidbey ; 850 m. ™ule; part of Danish kingdom: cap. God-
Great Barrier Reef, coral reef barrier, off N.B. cst. thaab; a. 840,000 sq. m.. of which 708,000 s<j.
of Australia: 1,000 m. long. 75-100 m. from cst;
currently being eaten away by the starfish, ™- ^ under a permanent ice-cap; p. (estd.)
Acanthaster PlunCl.
planei. Greenlaw, i1, T5^^TW^#'1r
I GrBfinlilW Berwick. Scot.
Q/*rt<-
Ore.. Wto. : inland drainage otr. Gr^t Salt S“*v «« S. i*ore

Ijake ; a. 210,000 sa. m. ; much desert : sparse p. of Firth facility:
tamCT of Oyde. 20sWpbldg.,
m. w’ of Glasgow: eon-
sugar-refining,
Gi^t Bear Lake, Arctic Circle, in N.W. Terr., woollens, chemicals, aluminium caKtiag. tin
Canada, over 150 m. long; a. 14.000 sq. m.; plate inds.; p. (19611 74„57S.
outlet through Great Bear R. to MaRirenrip. R. GrMnore, cape, Louth, Mand; separating
Great Belt, strait, separating 1. of Pyn from Dundalk Bay from Carlingford, Longh.
Siaelland, Denmark. Green E., trib. of Grand R.. Dtah. D.S.A. ; iengtli
efreat
BritishBritain,
Isles. see England, Scotland, Wales, _ ,50 ^ [p. (1900) IJ9.S74.
Greenstoip^, c., N.C., U.S.A.: cotton, tobacco;
Gre^ Dividing Range, mtn. svsterr^, E. Australia; t Rems D S i • iroT'-md^^
extend^ under different local names, from fa3^: p. (S 17.S«5 *
<aueen«and to ^ctoria and separates E. cst. Greenville, ^ ^
L, Miss., E.S.A.: on MiaB r • cotton
plaiM interior:
Kpskin^ ^^-328 ft.),reaches max
in Australianalt. in Mt. tr.; p. (1960) 41,502 ’
Alps, on Greenviile, c., 8.0. USA-- in the cotton belt-
bdy, between Victoria and New South W^fe. p!{i960> ^JSS
Gremvaie, Te^ TJ.8-A.: cotton, rayon, ship-’
Gâf^’l^f & Rrovince, 8. Africa. S'

'^Sea-^Ônriôf^^heSS
Jii ^W toons
moved for its Hospital. Royal
to Herstmonoeus). Observatory
Naval
p>llegB and National Maritime Museum; p.
ot TOtgr. from 25 to 40 fathoms. {IMS) 232 000.
Grwt^nrood, b. «r6. dirt.. Lancs. '•Eng.
w Greenwood, i, Mias.. D.S-A. ; p. (1960) 20.436.
; 6 m. Greenwood, t.,S.C..tJ.a..4.: p. (1960) ie.S«.
pnB; weaving, textiles, GreifewaM, spt., Rostock. E. Germany: on Baltic
Gr^K^!®ciU'’’ftfrince. S. Africa: high
Gxp&T^&^mprisingSfresh-water
b. Randers, Jutland. Denmark; textto.
&o^n 4 to 5 months in winter, enormous L. furmture, en^.; p. (1960) 9,£?SA
^^'f^GOsq.m. Grenada, I.. ««t. rt. in association with Gt, Britain;
rrfof c! *v IP.., St. George’s; fruit, cocoa, spi<» a.
W.!.; cap. Grenadines)
ôf 133 sq. m.: p. (estd.j
„ 102.000 (ino. some of the Grenadines).
9rmes Head, pronumtory, N. Wales; nr. Grenadines, Brit. or. of sm. Is., between Grenada
rt.SS'
Great Plains, lowland area of.central
i , N.
XT America.
. ^’Tid St. Vincent, Windward Is. ; sea-island
cotton,
extendlw B- Bocky Mtns, and S. from Grenoble, fortfd. c.. S.E. France; on R.
11 j, Isfere; 60 m. from Lyons; gloves, hiiUons,
Gi^t ]Ki|t Valleyi fault extending machin., Uqueurs, cement; joint Frimco-
fromS.W. A^ to E. Africa, 8,0M m. m length: GSerman nuclear resîrch reactor; n. (1968)
mcludes L. Tfiaeriae. Jordan Valley. Dead Sea, leifilS. 1(1960) 21,967
Gulf of Aqa]te, Red B®. and chain of Ia. from Gretna, t. La.. 0.aA.; on the Mississippi E. ; p.’
^ Nyn^; a branch runs throng Ls. Gretna êea, eiL, Dranftleîre, Scot., on Eng.
unngnyilia, Edward and Albert. bordm:; &mons as place of runaway marriages.
Great St Bernard, p<m, Switzerland. See 'S14S. 1764-1866.
Grew Salt Iê Dtah. U.S A. : in the Great Basin Grey Bai«fe, mtns., S.W. Queensland. Australia;
Platon of N. Amad» ; mm. long ; a. over extends S.W. from Gr. Dividing Range towards
2,000 sq. nu: alt. 4,218 ft; receives Bear, Minders Range and Spencer G. ; forms divWe
^ Jordan and BeawRs.; no oirttet between streams draining E. to B. Dsriiug and
Great Sandy Desert, N. part W. Australia. those draining W. to L. Eyre.
Groat Slave Lato, HW. Tot.. Canada ; l^th Grônth, spt,. S.I.. NJZ. ; to W. cst. at mouth
800 m.; greatest breadth 50 im. outlet Mao- of Grey E.; ch. t prov. of Wetland : coal: «.
kepleR. „ ■ • (l966)SjJ54.
Gitot tovo E,, Canada, flowing between Ii. GrifiBn, c., Ga., U.SJl. ; cotton factories and to. ;
Athabaska and the Great Slave L. p, <19601 Fi.7S5.
Great Smoky Mtns., Term., D.BA. ; with Blue Grim, 0„ N.W, Tasmania.
Ridge Mtns. form E. Zone of Appalachian Mtn. Grimaldi, oooe*. N.W. Italy ; remains ta prehis-
system; nse to alt. over 6,000 ft.; largely toric man, late Paleolithic, found there.
presOTved ^ National IBaxTit, Grimstei', apt., co. bar,. LMccfin. Eng. ; on Si. Ibank
Groat yicto^ DMerb W. and S. Australia, lies of R. Humber; Britain’s major fishing pt,. food
north of NmtobOT PEJn. proc^tng; chemical ind. at nearby limning-
Greater Antilles Is., W. Irrdles. bam; p. (estd. 1967) $o,110.
Greece, ktnodom. B. part of Balkan Penlnsala, Grimsei Pais, Bernese Alps, Switzerland: alt.
bounded on N. by Albania, Jugoslavia and 7*100 ft.
Bulgaria, on W. and S. by the Mediterranean, Qxindelwald, oil.. Bemeae Oberland. Switzerland;
and on the E. by the JElgean Sea. and ino. Is. tourist cbr.
in the Mediterranean. iSgean and Ionian Seas: Grigualand ISast, dist„ Ghpe Province, S. Africa:
gazetteer
QRI-aUI K70
pastares. wool; cK t. KoSatad; a. 6,602 su. Guam, I., most S. and Igsfe. of Marlama Archi¬
m, : p. 2S5,(m. pelago, N. Pacific: naval sta. of the D.SA •
Qrignaland dki.. Cape Proviace, S. Africa: Polans submariim base at Apra harbour: ch. t!
diamoMs ; ch. 1, Kimberley : a. 15,197 sa. m. ;
p. I $0,793. [Freueh cst. fo Dover. bananas:and a.,209
Agaiia m.; maize,
spt. issq.Piti; sweet
p. (1980) potatoes'
67,044,
Gnmabacoa, tndustl. t., nr. Havana. Cuba; p
Gtig-S«, G„ K.E. France: nearest point on
SriscMs iGranWMen), raw., Swifczerlantl; one- Gtmnabaxa, sL, Brazil: cap. Eio de Janeiro: n
half only productive, many glaciers, contains
the mta. health resorts of Davoe-Platz (alt. ^ (estd. WC8) 4,207,322. [p. (1963) 141 S2J
5.115 ft-.S. St. Moritz (alt. 6,089 ft.), Axosa fait. Guanacaste, pm’., Costa Pdca, Central America:
6.108 ft.); a. 2.746 sq. m.: p. (1960) 145,600. Guanajuato, si,. Central Mexico; very fertile
Qrjvegne©, t., Belgiian: nr- Li4ge: ironwfes.; p. productive and prMperous; a. 11,804 so m •
fl962:! SS,34(1.
Qroano, I., W. Byelorn5Bia (Polish nntil 1939): GiTMaiuato
p. (1960), 1,73
vh. t., G. st., Mexico : 0.
250 m from ’
5,49
agr. ; caffin.. textiles, chemicals; p. (1959) 72.000. Mepco c.; cotton, silver, lead; p. (i960) 23.379.
Qrofisisk MaaowiecM, commune, Poland; 12 m. Quanta, spt., Anzoategui st., VenezueLa. S
S.W. of Wsjmw. p. 18,727, America; on Caribbean Sea. linked by road to
Barcelona (10 m,): exp, oh.
Groaaa,
Dutch t.frontier;
S'. EMne-Weatphalla,
testO^, rly. Gteimany;
Sanction; nr.p. Guantanamo. C'ulja: sugar, coffee, bananas
fI063) 28,009. cacao; p. (1965) 128.000.
Qronafr't.Xorway, onPsiIdaFJord : p. (1961) S.OoS. Gtapore, B. Bmzfl B. America; joins tte
Groningen, e. , cap. Groningen, STetlserlande : comm, Mamore: length 000 m. [9 094
etr.; univ.: woollens, glucose. Bhlpbldg.; p. Guarda, t., Portugal; alt. over 3.000 ft.; p. (lOeO)
(1967) 15S,20S. Gnardm imne-aroKing disL, Portugal; between
Groningen, prov., N.E. Hethorlands; agr. and Es. Tapjs and Douro; p. (1963) 279,100.
dairying;
dairyine: natural gas cas depcîts
denositB at
nt Slocliteren
sWhtPrpn- Gnardalui, 0., most E. point of Africa.
a. SS3 sq m.; p. (1967) BOS.m. Gnatomais, republican st.. Central America •
Qroola Eyiandt. f G. of Carpentaria ; oH cst. of adiotos Mexico, Br. Honduras and El Salvador!
N. Jerr., Australia; manganeso ore mng. coffee, bananas, chicle ; lead, zinc, and cadmium
QrootlcatBin, fc, S.W. A&ica; copper- and lead¬ mined m sm. quantities: a. 45,452 so. m.: n
mining : vrorM’s test. Known meteorite on Guatemala City, cap. c., GuatemaM; cath.; imiv.;
iKarbr farm: p. {i960) 3.722 inc. 1,135 whites.
Qrosseto, t'tm., central Italy; eh. t. Grosseto, a.
minerals: 4,864
(estd. 1963) gold, silver, copper,
.000. lead; p. (estd^ '
1,7555 sq. m.; p. (1963) 216,704.
Grosseto, t, cap. Grosaeto prov.. Central Italy; Gmyaquil, eh. pt., Ecuador. S. Amenca; on
severely affected by heavy hoods Nov. 1966; Guayaa n-
B.. 30 m. alpve its entrance’ into the
p. 11961) 51M4. (1905)of 575J
Bay Guayaquil :)09.
devastated by Are in 1896
Groton, indti$U. t.. Conn.. D.S.A.; opp. New Lon¬ and 1899; uidv.: cath.; sawmills, foundries,
don at mouth of Thames P. ; p. (1900) lOJll. machm., brewmg; p. (1963) 506,000.
Grotiaglie, t, Lecce, Apulia, Italy; nr. Brindisi; Gnayas, prm., Ecuador; cap. Guayaquil: a
white glaze pottery: p. 14,850.
^ 8.331 sq. t„m.:Iteerto
toaynabo, Eico 825.600.
p. mm)
uf0v© City, dor*, Peiii3iS4, II.S.A. ; eBgines, cairi- W.I.; p. {i960) 40.257.
agesr p, (1960) ^,5^5* Gnbat, nmn., Luzon. Philippine Is. ; hemp, coeo-
GBWsayy, t. N. aiicasia. E.S.P.S.P.: on E. Terek; nuts, sugar-cane region ; p. 22,880.
naphtha wells, leiinery, engin. : starting point of Gubbio, i., Perugia Italy; lustre ware: p. 20,250.
pH pipelin®} to Makhaciikala Tuapse aM (Sir- Gifoin (Quben), t,, B. pt., on E. Nelsse between E.
^ loy&a; p. (1967) 319,000. Germany and Poland; formarly in Pixîan
GradaMa (Grandena), 1, on H. Vistula. Polish prov. of Brandenburg; comm, etr.: textil«j,
Pcânia; «.^fll|ng; synthetic fibre; p. (estd.
Granheig, «« SSWona Gom. p. (1965) 71jm. 1939) 45,800.
Grasto. rfish,_ cam Fribourg, Switzerland; cheese, Giittra^saal, or. valley, S. Norway ; leads S.E.
wwaa, fmhmuMe mmmer awl tumier tes., from Dovre Fjeld towards Ctelo ; drained by E.
Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. Loein ; n^d by main road Oslo to Trondheim :
Guadalajara, c., Mexico; cap. of Jalisco sL; PEOvidesralatively Ige. a. of enltivableiand ; hay.
cotton and wool mnfs.: cath.; gas pipe-line oats, barley, dairy cattle.
from Salamanca; p. (1960) 736,800. U Tamil Nadu, India; p. (1961)
Gnadalajara, prov., Spain: agr. and Milt mines; 50^384, France; eottcms; p.
a. 4 709 sq, m.; p. (1959) 195,637.
Guadalajara, mfig, i., G. piov., Spain; wooBens
leather; p. (1957) 15,700. Guelph, c.. Ontario. Canada; doth, yam, pottery,
Guadalaviar, M., E. Spain; flows into Mediter- agr. and veterinary colleges; p. (1961) S9S38.
ranean, nr. Valencia ; length 130 m. OumxsMy, Channel Is., between cat. of Ikance and
Gaatelcanah J.. Brit. Solomon Is., Pao. Oc. EngMnd; tomatoro, grapes (under glass),
Guadalquivir, B., Spain ; flows through Andalusia flowers, rattle; tourist res.: teandeh. spt. St.
toÂthintic; length 376 m. Peter Port: a. 15.654 acres; p. (1961) (li^
Gtjadalupe Hidalgo, (.. Mexico ; treaty dgned 1848 Heim and. Jethou) 4$, 126,
enteng Me.xM:m-tT.s war; p. (estd.) 29.000. Guerraro, Padjc st,. Mexico ; cereals, cotton,
Guadeloupe and Dapendeucies, Leeward gr • a. 722 coffee, tobacco; cap, CaHlpancingo ; du pt.
sq. in.; sugar pnKluce; ch. pt. Pointe 5, Pitre; Acapulco: a.24E86sq.m.: p, (1960> 1,126.718.
p. (1967) 330,000. French Overseas Dept.; Gmana, region, Sw America; a. 179J)00 sq, m.;
liSeward gr. consiKta of Guadeloupe (p. 113,412
Guiana Higluanos,
Gua^ pkteau,
^ Gteimia
S. and Swrmam.
Ammica; extod
ch. t.
h Pointe
.^sse-ter e), Grande
h Pitre) ; unitedTerre
a. of p.
Is.,{113^45'.
683 sq. approx. 90© m. from B. to W. araoss S, parte of
BL : and 6 smaller Is,, Marie Golante, D6sirade. VMezoBlai, Guyana, Surinam, Er. Guiana; steep
p. 304,000) sides, rounded tops approx. 3,000 ft. alt. but
Btm inhabited by white deaeendante of French rise 10 0.350 ft. in Mt. Eoraima; chieSy com-
eangmata of 300 years ago; monntainons: posed crystalline rocks rich in minerals.
rum, suMr, coffee, bananas. Qimime, old French pnw., separated by E. Garonne
Gradiai^ E., forms part of Spanish and Portuguese from Gascony.
frtmia^ fitwra mto Bay of Cadiz; length 510 Guildiord, 0., eo. L, mun, bar., Surrey, Eng.' 30
m.; JBxtreanadura vaUey redamatian teheuie
i?' S.W.N. London; <m ga© cut by K, Wey
through
^ Downs: cate.; univ.; vehicles, agr
In progre “!• ^BaHajoz. Spain; h^lMMaits. light inds.; residh, p. (estd. 1967)
- hemp goods. mtiJe foods. 00^470.
Granada, S, Spedn ; cate.; hats. hemp, Guinea, ind. rep. (Oct. 1968). formerly Fr. Guinea;
1 »- (IftoT) 30,08A « Unian of African States: iron-ore.
Veaeznela: motor road to totislte, aianLonda, groaadiiute» p&hn oil; cap.
“*Hes, eoam, coffee; p. (1961) Conakry; a. 97.000 sq. m.: p. (1968) 3,7951)00.
2Ug^70<.
Gmddo Tadino, cosnBwae. central Italy; catb.: Gninoa,
round gêrat name few W. Aftican coastlaj^
the greatest bend of G. of G. from the
Gralwarcto , i.. .Bntre
,7 91
Ei(«. ,
Argentina: ''*“*^*
eaitin ...‘Gtembte.'to'thO'^Ckmgo,.' ■ ■
p^t^y; ®, ;12
„ Wlasr.ofcE, p, (id&O) 43Um. GtUm^
Guima, Eoxtngaase.
Spanish. Sec See Paitognese
Equatorial Guinea,■ "
Chdnea.
SUI-HAI. SAZETTECTt
«ntoea Cnmnt. w«;» curnttf, flows W. to B. i H8«tesatdc, t. S.J. TI s 4 *

iron fomwirfca rfn-
toI™? from in } __î€weUerr. paper; p, {1060} juuijuoij,
wi., SQJiSl. in-
W. Indlffl; sa?rar; p. OTwrates fonner Dors, of Shoreditch footwear; p.
and StoSe
Gnl!K5batsn,fflti».. Litton, Phfflppine la; hemp;
^ lime deposits: p. SS,4W.
agr., cap. San Sebastian: toariani; a. 728 sa
TyM It. engin..
16 m. E. of Edinburgh lioslerr;
; wooHen p.
Emf.':
„ m.: p. (1959) 4S3.S8$.
OiOOit.
GuS^ngh t. mb. msL, N.E. Yorke. Eng.; to
GnfMii^!£’r w’ mâ, t, Jutland, BenmarlE: p. (IfiflO’. 3 4S4

®-' GermaaT. N.B.
rorodain.
soap,
- - ter;
^ p. l'sjSk,TdaJL,
GulfBasIn, Vn . Aiistralia ; artesian well liaslis. Hsêrstown, c.^ Îd., TJ.S.A.j machlB., fn-roitiir
ch^^miea!'-; n. ^PXA)‘
rSte!’ ff-S-A-; P- «S60> S0.204.
^ t,uc -•xtilctatli:* IJSSUUiltT UtiTJ •• ôzon, Philippine B.;
n of Mexico by HoAIa Strait, nee, snâr.
GM Stre^ prilt, see Koith Aiiantic Drflt Hjê, u. Se La, Cotentiri PenlBnik-* Fitirice :
French lleetiieet defeated
deieated hr hr .Biitfeh
Britkh 1682.
wtnninmba^ t, N. Ehine-Y’estphiEa., uemiiiiiy; Germany I'reriCil 1^4«
xioUanu,
riZnirT J, Jyettierl'ff lds: seatU1 of
JU’EUgovemment
XMWB, £., ;?>.
etmtis 52, rf0 a ^
R., trib. of Gangs®. India; flows past
„ P, (1068) permanent court of interna* lonal jaslJce; Mia.
teckopw. {p. (1961) IS7J2S. etr.; urban fafls., maeia and metal wares;
®'mtiir,
-- — t., *4^v*^*v
Andhra 4.Pradesh. India ;, uui.iAiii
ACiMcwtu, xiitiisi cotton luimftg. ; ; engm., printing;
eaf.iiii.. Tirintini?* rtp. (isa?) 3S€J8?.
Caspian Sea ; carpets, cotton, rice. Mt. (^rmeU terminiM of Iraq oil pipeline;
Gurjw, i. Kazakh S.S.E.; on mouth of R. Ural, in*, include oU refining, car SBeanbiy. steel.
entrance to Caspian Sea; petrol refining, erariB.; cheial«ilwk8,petro-cheinieal8; Techalon nniy. ;
oil pipeline to Oisk; p. (1959) rSjfXK. p. (estd. 1951) 190.000.
Gi^^t^:rR
.^; lnipt.
Gusirow,
i;p|^;4“r
mir; Inrot. etr. of riass ind * /losov Mnoo
etr. ofrlMini;'p.
t.. Schwerin. B. Germany; (1969)
a IMshmin
5JJXW.'
S. of R<»tock; H^lWeKKbl a;
fA. t., rural jS'
p.oyerR7(W; *6 ra.
iM$t.. Stwex,
{rural
,(fist. 1961} gfs- rope and twine; p.
s“*^ “* ■= ="• Hrfnaa, I., S. coast of Ofina ; t*. t. Kimw«*ow ;
S) s|*l
Qitterstoh, f.. N. Ehine-Westplmaa, Germany ; acMely wooded , oamphcH-, nKOxîmy. rctfewood :
nr. Biatfeld ; suk and cotton itids. ; ftaûs 1 18,974 EKj, m.
for its Pongremickel fWegtphsiian rye breiadj ; Haim^. pm.. Befetam, adjoining N.E. border
maohin., furniture, pubMiing, metallurgy ; | of B'ranee: Inrlustl. sad asr.: coal- and iron-
_ p. (1963) 53. Sm.
icr’SS®’* a:;1.488SQ. m.: P. tl9«} I.SJS’.STY.
H^btu*,^f., Austria:”^ sn *b! Sutlef^Skio ;
for^ts: minsKda:
a«.: sugar, rice, E. Sclrfdt; fenirth 40 m.
Iwncite, *
Haiplicmg, t., ch. port, K. Ylet-Kam; thriying
^ mangan^: copper in Cnyunl tr.; cotton, thr^, soap, gte mine? TOre
and Groete Qr^k areas; iron ore nr. Essâiho flsh caiuiics: p. (19601 3S9 000 ‘ ’
ratoarK
I>oor
poor commuiiicatinna:
commuBlcation®; <mn.
laoiybdarain atca?>.
EagteGeorgôwn: « Haiti,
Mt.; fldieries:
a. rvôwf « of(the
rep.
grosasts YV. “portion
Black ’ofEeptiblic *’), W Imiiee-
I. of Hispaniola ; cap
83,tMK).s(i. m.: p. (estd.) 730,000'. became aco- Port an Prince; language French; ccSee.Aal.
operative republic to. 1970. siigar, textile?, soap, ceiîent, nun; a. 10,204
Gwadar, t.. \Y. Pakistan: p. 15.000. sq. m.; p, (e^td. 1069) 4je8,00a.
HE'ri^tstaslt, c., Magdeburg, E. Germany eath •

metellurey, nibberinds., engin.; rly.Wctimr
300^3 7 toe. Morar. fPakfetan. p. (1968) 40.355.
^ °f f > S-S- ^"orw-ar: wood-pulp, paper foot-
37,590 inc, S.590 Europeans.
^7-590 research reactor;
(xwent, Plato of (Vale of Glamorgan), lotcland dist., HMde^h^, i.. Magdeburg, ■ E.'Gennanr. *
Glamorgan, S. Wales ; lies S. of mowlaud
, , ,of
niOjîaiid oi S- 960) p. (1963}
P. (1stoi^ware;
S. katlter, SJ^S4,
ire® oftodl^r^lX'^' - - P‘!,.for .Calcutta

4xpsr<.yai, W/,, .to
iJ. V( , urj, X>H haidte
UlLUK*
106 m. from Brisbane : former Oldfield ; now h^. Wore,, Eng.; coal, weJdless tub^, elec.
dairying: and pastoral diet., tropirail fruits, gd.«-. stamless glee! forgings, engin,; p. (estd
especially pineapples; p. (i960) 11,277 im)5a,3S0.
' •g"*** ji , UrV iunction
J; UXSV( UAtAU \JA
trf E. Raab with Haieswoiai, !.. mb. dist.. E. Suffolk, Eng.; on H
ami of of R.
R. Danube;
Danube; cath.; cath.: hi 'Rivfh 7 m.
horses. te-Ttnes Blyth. m S, r>F-R««
<s of
ami
chemicals, emnn., rolitog stock, maltmg. 7 engin.: p.Beoeles;
(1961) 2^3. ;n.».
fanning, com “t,r-milh!.’
P. (1902) 73.319. HMfax. sid,, cap., Nora Scotia, Canada; gi.
tr.; tu^y,; naval sta, and doc^TStii oiKWfi in
mater; niaclim,. iim foundri®. bi>d&j and
£ho^. Oil reitotogjp. asei) 183^46.
Haarlem, (., cap. 27. Holland proy., Netherlands: HKhdait, t, CO. bor.. WJl. Yorks, Eng.; ®. fer.ir«
textiles, printing, brewing, bulb growing: Peimines. 8 m. S-W. of Bradftsrd; carpets.
oath.; p. (1967) 1732308. machine too&; p. imo. 1967)
Habab, iMst., W. coast Itod Sea. Ethiopia.
Hacfaioii,c.. Honshu. Japan; weaving, BDk-cotton Cuaibedand
reisturffi: p. (1964) 178.000.
HA1.-HAR K72
»■ GAZETTEER
^'l- ™” P' Hmmona, c.. Ind.. U.S.A.; fronwks cork
Halle, /., Halle.
winf"? CTîio, B. t’ Germany;
^ onR.T. Saale:
o , nniv.;
• Himniond, La U 111.698.
_Packin|: p. (i960) SJl - ’ i*
potash, engin., chemicals: p. (1963) P. (1960) 10,5ff5.’ ’ "
HaHeta. t. Baizburg, Aiistria; on Aratro-Geiman
fronts iSm 8. of Salzburg: topt. salt-mto^: farming:* sWpblfc br^^‘^tenS^^l‘5ra
«
Haltetett. nl, Upper Austria: [culture type site.
early Iron sq. m,: p. (1966)
Age Hampsteadêe 1,453 0^
Camden a. i.ao3
mWm.Jnmtier mduf .J.. Nord. France: on H^pton, TSuOTes-sitfe «.. inc. in Richmond
nnor,
Hataahem,^
Tolcanoes,j..tropical
Indontka; ' mountainous,
forests: spices, acttee
pearl mile E.Ma^'^ln^he'^pS:
Sf H Court ^fejpton ^ wS°“
flslimes; igrows sago and rice: a. 6,648 sq. m. Hampton, i,. 8.E Va nSA* nirioo+ v
Hai^tad, spt, Katt<«at, Swên: iron U.U4J1 (VUU SWWi
and steel community in the TT.S.: &hing oyster andfiSS
wfc.,
wfc.. niachin.
niachm. engm.,
engm.. cycles,
cydea. textilw,
textiles, leather,
leather. TmePintr- (ioaa\ cn °7Bter and crab
jute, 'd-ocKi-pulp: p. (1961) 39.032. H^tramc^t..Mchu.U.SA..:
Hals, (., Jutland. Denmark: on lam PJord- Han, J?., Hnpeh,
^packing: p. (I960)Chma: risesp."• in
iSikst (i960) 34.137.
8.W. Shensi
Halstead, f.. wrb. dist.. Essex. Eng.: on B. Colne, prov., flows E. between Tsingling mtns ami
12 m. XAV. of Colchester: rayon weaylng, farm¬ Xapa range of N. Szechwan into Yangtze E at
ing; p. (1961) (5,4S5. [p. (esM. 1967) 50.S6U %uhan: ch^rib of Yangtze: lengZrsoOm!
Haltempri^ «ri). dfei. E. Biding, Yorks. Eng.:’ Han, B..’s. Ghina:*^fo^m rich air ^
H^twhlstle, tutqI (1960)^5.255. Swafcow: le^h c. 25^ " ^
!Nortliuiiib6rIaDd, Hanaii,
^
f., Hessen, Germany on R Main* ■m'hKair.
SzeiiTOn ^teder™âg?înd' to“
HSan!' tof-Ecbatanay. c. Iran. cap. prov.: ?4d of

tomb of Ayfcenna; _tr : cte.rfs^rwelXteKîigssiîf^lf
mft,. ttSSwtfcr'oSi StS:

mente, t,motorcycles:
Hmnar, Komay : on L.p. MiOsa:
(1964) 370.000. SoWuhan ’ toîles, flour. See jS“
of rich agr. Hanley, indmtt t (now inc in m hm- nf
Hamburg; B»al, c. Mo.’ U.I:A.r on E. toissippi
;
mdnML and comm, i. Land S^f ’•
Hainburg. N. Germany: astride E. Elbe. 86 m. « “ meS market "
upstrmm ftom X.
upstream ftom S. Sea: second Igst.
imd, German
fip.T^B.n t.,
+. namese o^he^ted
fort, now modem comm, "•.• w •
ctr.;oldtmiy
An- •
Md eh. pt.: i^y. and hydrographic institute: cotton, silks, tobacco, pottery; superphosphate
and magnesium phosphate nearby; bricks
♦ down Elbe from SaxonytrafiBe
and and bange
Bohemia concrete, robber: p. (i960) 644,000.
§2±£-”kE,?'S?“£”‘S
aS&«:^:gS!.?-Sf-*„a.; p.™i,
coal mnff wd«s«. c.. China; opp. Hankow, on
p!(m6)T&i
Hame (TavasMms), ■ (fep. Einland' a 7 ns an feealsoWahaa:6^-.
m.; P. (196^3.0^* s«- P^- ofthe I^pps: p. (1961) S.SSA
Hamelio (Hameln), 1 Lower Saxony Rermnny
on R. wSriki ^/.HttM Itadesh, India; tr. in sugar,
m tetteffSd^ê
Pied ViiTcr ”: p. (1963) 43 S<M Etiuopla: hides and
Hamilton, t. pt.. Bermuda IJ cap Bermudas- H^hf* i
tourtan; p. I967)3.wl) ® -“ermuoas. Hm^. _a, Heilungkiang. Chma; former treaty
Hamilton, /.,W. Vic^. AiSlm: mkt. ctr. for
mnfr.’; fruit ctr! Hû^ s^., Hanover. Germmy; on E. Elbe.

Hamflton, e., N.I., X.2;., on Waikato E.;i^v.: S"d..^tc!**^'™^’ *toseed-cruahing. india-rubber
Hamilton, burvh. Lanark, Scot.; in Clyde valley Hor^y; 75 m. long.
10 m. S.E, of Glasgow: co admta hd^«^-' ^/i®*tos„W. Germany; northward continuation
el^. goods, iron^ knit-wear goods: tore^d, now Igelyof deaied
?,fj2«.8e8PPW. EhlneiEt valley: fqnnerly
forft.pasture: highest
el^. goo^. iron and keA ’fou^^ ‘Sirp^ points read! just over 2,000
Hardwar. t.. Uttar Pradesh, India: on E. Ganges;
£tofltou. c., Ohio! UB.A.: on the Gr. Maine E.
thriving tod. and tr.: p. (i960) 72.354. Harelbeke, („ N.W. Belgium: p. P- (1961)53,573.
(1962) 16,998.
see uauronm
Hamilton,Jiv.. «ce E.
Churchill Ji. Hargeua, t.,
tinw;;.!™ , 'c7Somalia: comm. ctr. of llvestock-.to.wo,
Hamm, (., X. Ebtoe- Westphalia Germany nti «.. .Somali a: comm. ctr. of llvestock-
Hamme, >!,&.
(., E. Flanders, Belgium SWiLed 1966 when.Punjab st.
; «;pe. linen and
“P- spÎngrtotoTc^p. ^h^ptltoabTt: Ch^di-
Hammwf^
northerly L.; atotog:Norway; world’s most , .
p. (1961) 5^ p®®' '® ’’tolt; p. (estd. 1966)
Hammersmith, Tbames~Mde imer bar' LoDdon outer her.. Greato London. Eng.; com-
E^.; too. former hor. of Fuiham'-’ imtostl ’ ^^tonham and
ISsWtt.; etoo. and oar iSe^cS’^ andent Arras ; length 650 m. ; (E«d = river).
rubber; p. (1966) 324UW0. ’ ffelranistan and Iran; the
P. (1968) 1S9AWS.
“*1?® 5* Grace,
shooting; t., Md.,
p. (1950) 7 W.TTH.A. ; resort ; dack
Hawaii, J., feat, HawaHan gr.: three great
(13.796 ft.. hiSS
^d mto. inworld
wwM. dmmant)
s most . Manna Loa
actire volcano)
1®W): ch. pi. Hilo ideva-
stat^ by tidal wave. 1946}; teva
bamltoo forests: sugar-cane, cattle, coffee-
toui^; deep-sea fehing: p. (i960) Oc,.61.332.
atoitted
Imx. 1*: on B. csfc. of
ûary of E. Stour: packs* â. for Belgium. 1959 as 50tb st. of U^,A.; cham of coral and.
N^hralands, jOeoBoafk: oontainer
b^; P, fesWl. 1987) 14,400. TOlra^ H.: ^6.4;M sq. m.; cap. Honotaln
ns^ Mtns.^) in3$iQe in Bjsinovftr and Brunswkjfc Hawaxa^
rriSLSS® t, rural Pimt. 74S.S7S.
P- <1®70)
bfehest pejik the Brocken : 1,142 m! steel plMt; p. (rural - diet.. N Walea-
diet. 1961) 36.290.
forested stopea rich in minerals : tength 57 m. Êtbtopia. flows E. of Shoa frontter;
B^ffljere, i.. «r&. disL, Surrey. Eng. ; 13 m. icrtfrtli 500 m.
S.W. of Guildfoni. on hills of Htorlhi^ji and bcf-. N-L. N.Z.: p. (1966) 8J43.
residti.: Itinda.; p. (1961)
Ha^gden, (.. mun. bor.. Lame, Eng. : on Kossen- Hawick, bmt^ hi ^JstoorlaBd,
Eoxbuigh, Scot. ;Eng. (2i m.).
on E. Tertot
dale 3 m. S. of Accrington ; cotton, stone
ciuaip-mg, engin.;Limbotug. lene: p. (1961) 16.204.
p. (estd. Belgium;
1967) 14J50.gin dis-
Hawke’s Bay, p«re. dist.. NJ„ N.Z.; on E.
tlUenea; p. <1962) 37 JOS. cat.;
Hassi Messond, i.. Algeria, Africa; Ige. oilfleld: 24 : J««th SSO XXL
inch pipe-line to Bejaia.
Ha^ Algeria, Africa; natural gas, Haworth, t pLE. Yorks. Eng:; nr, Keighley;
8n^, Eng. ; on S. cat., home of the Brontes.
mldw between Beachy Head and Dungeness : Hawi^nra. L. S.W. (ML.
seadde resort; one of the Cinque Ports: p oil-prtKfaioing area; Tr.SJL: residti.: In
p. (i960) 33,QSS. gaa-
(e^. 1967)
H^tinp, tiles, dywka: p. (1960) 17,73$.
Nanler; t,p. N.I.,
(1966) N.Z. ; on Hawke*!; Bay. nr.
23,867. Hay, E.. Alberta. Canada; flows into G. Saye
Hartmgs, t., Hebraaka. TXB.A-; p. (1960) 21.412.
Hastmgs-on-Hudson, i.. N.Y., XJBwA.; lesidtl •
copper wire; p. (i960) S.S79. situated car B.
Hay. urb. dig.. Bitoknoefc
Umruiiundgee cm N, edgeWalM-'
(foime^ Sanjak ot Aleotandrette). ceded to of Bfrartns dkat. ***••
p. (I960) 441,209. coBeotmg ctr. for ftuit and wheat gaown router
Hêld, ^ Hei^ Eng. ; on Great North Boad. itttoric^ far despatch by ran E. toNaiandma
19 m. N. of Londoo; one of “ New Towns ” and Sydney, or by rihmr W. to Adeiaido
®A2CETT.El|*
HftVHHKR KT4 -
tKmwks.: p. (M54) BWetz, Ne^v.sy, feael;
Israel; oHweils.
oilwells.
or Grand Tetcm peak. EoekJes, ^*‘ ^ ™onth of Elbe ;
aai BuUd^. fomer vrb. diit, Middi.. ^ B.S^.; irib. of Bitter
|S»”T.S*°SS?‘3S*SS’S^S “SSTp.'SSWssSy^'- Heltetoasi

f “■• snlphpr-mines: p.
“Oath. ee... --^-r^jl'j' -• on ae
Ha^taofc, mmmil of the Mirondacte. Vt.. U.S.A. ; WiUemsvaart (canal) . textiles; p. (im?)
Haa^, t. Ky.. U.S Jl : mi, cml, m-wmOk. steel S^^hto^p

co.^: JfMSi
^tojêisIrTnJS'iw .*•■
HM OroTO and Btamhafl. urt^dvt, caiedilre, 1^“’
°Sffi“gSSSfe”,fc®"1“‘.™“»
HsaMms
Eng.: P.0..(em. 34,SOO.
imr)UJSA-;
Peam. ^n..^tês.
anthradte region: Helslngdr. TObbex goods, chenucais: p.
t siailanfl TiPTimofi- i,
leoaa Yorto. Ko..: ^
Acabu. xmtif „lM65)5ffiS. •^^•'™“‘'’’’‘'-- "’•

^bV!-lS’£fc.?S!’’’®®-‘ '“•“■o'
H«A 2.. a adito Ocean: 280 m. S.B. of Ker-
g^fen I. ; Ansfaalian possatsion. Helyellsn mtn., Cumberland, TSrTg.: a m. S.E
H^ttiraw, va„ Bng.; on W. maigto of
Wup^rflSdSSrf'k teVEc
Êeawld S^t
ft
c; alt. 8.118 *iP¥- . . o-ii.
HeMam^. •arh. dish. Durham. Eng.; onE.!ryne. . „ , ** Newor
^4 ^
nn betow (Mios^besidi
Gatesheafid ; sMpbldkM
shipMdg.. engin..
ensdn..and r^tfil - 9 m. N. jLioiira,
Qiflten^ jouti.
of Watford; i
_>on
“oo^staone ofofslopes
n.
S- bulk of
^li®y in&; p. («itA 1967) 84,940,
H^sa e*®*- WJl. Y<»tB. Sig.
^r®wka., heayy engin.; p. ; nnm. bw.
^ Hemêl Hempstead with new exists as
0® ^ Scot., grouped as
as Outer
Outer s^Muate jen^y; Bctentdflc glass, dteo. emtrtn
^ ^..grouped cars; p. (estA 1967)153 mo ^
cusm..
“ “• ®f cars; p. (estA 1967) 64J00.^^
P- «rh. d«.. W.B. Yorks. Eng. ; 6 m.
y^^8t eoal;
Scidîg-Hotetein. Gemany; ofcr. of fStlmffs'my® ”^** P-

„£te»2S; '■« -^= =STl"S”v'=^' 5». »• “
GewnS' ^âr. hSSIk;
tobacco, wood, leather, riy. carriages’- rir *•» ^-^c43aWs, Prance: p.{1962)
sas- ““ "“• »• ■<>«») 6,,.. <«»«. B..,.
Hclcêto, t.. Baden-Wllrttemberg. Germany ■ o^feSii A brewing;
N.E. of Ulm; texffles. maohin.: metaJta^ fp. (1962) If .299.
t;2H^ Aoruan; p. (lysg) 77 j^y . . ««u., iAtumu cjLpurwu oy

mien,4vm^»Mni»i,«r*«
'pfirr twini* Saadi AikWa; ihah^St- ««w»u> a. oU SQ. m. 1-000 «•!
very poea- eominmi WH/mo ■ “r?^>
wirt2'°‘?S ®**- “tIceland
S^S®» • P- ^<0004900 (StimatÂ^
; alt. 6.095 flL ’ jf^âwaddy
“moa ; p. 88M8.
Afghanfetan ; on
®S“.&gSSa»Kr» Sr&tt
„ 2.402 w.mTi:a9B i®'.w.
5^7 _ ■ “•
i»«. b.%;?„'2J--*,8,»««
Heretord. co.. Eng.; on Welsh border;
a'sa&?Tss,!S^‘»% ffertfle;
ssMn,
HjK. top. Urn. of 11.000 ft., mns 80Q ft. below
at h^ht
H^nstaa, fcrac^ name of part of N. India
100 m. wpsteram firan St, Joaquin lU ; oh. between Hsmalayas and Vindhya ranges,
soê of fcrigatfon for middle St. Joaqttin iimojom del Dnque, comnune, a Spain: copper:
JgHey; supplies water and faydroêkc. to San agr.: tedto: p. (1957) IJ.fff'S.
K^<dsco: height 430 ft., capacltT 1.466.000 Ja^pan ; nr. Sassbo fataous
million gallons. for bla& aaid wMte poreelaia,
H^ton, t. V7i. dist., Durham, Eng. ; 5 m. ^.E. of HiAiili
AnlMa. project on E. KizafamaAr 90 mu S^.
Turkey,
Durham: cc®!; p. (1961) 17,4S3.
Heverie, c&mnmnf. central Bekiam: mkt **^2®S8ki» f*, Hca^û, ©sstlej Mcouer
gartlens; p. (1962) 1S,49S. wre: p. U065) 15IM^
M.. Cape Provhice, Eep. of S. Africa: rises
m Lange Serge, flows S.W. to Gr. Beig S. at Wx^^^ apt <?.. oentr^ Btonsihu. Japan; olDse
vvqrcesiter: tralley givea acce® to Gr. iSatroo Miiirip temple;
/ Is]^ firstof L^t" rebuilt; p,
cifcy to with its famous
^ destroyed by
(JeatraJ African taWeiand. is used by trunk
rly, from Cape Town to JobannesbQig.
Hexham, mkt, t,, wi>, disL, Northnmberiand, Hhschk^ see Jeleila Qora.
Eng.: on E. Tyne. 20 ns. W. of NewcasUe: Greater Anta^ W. Indl^; ê. I..
P. (1961) 9,SS7.
Heysham, see Moxecambe and Hejaham.
Heôod, t, fftttn. bor. lanes. Ei®.; 3 m. K
Biot: coal, cotton, chemicals; p. (eetd. 1967)
30,400,
ffiayêe, E..Tenn.,DBA_: trib. Terns. E.
P> (1960)
KC.. UB.A.; p. (1960) IS.S2S,
Hldako, Mexoco: cap. Eachaca,; snug., ooffe&
sugar, tobacco; a. 8.057 sq. m.; p. (i960)
9S4,5S8. [69J}63
Point, ^ N.C.. US. A.; textfl®: p. {i960)
Wycombe, t, JMWM. fcor.. Backs, iîg. ; lAm.
N.W.ofWtodsor; fttmtfcure,papetnsksr.; fceese
dsT egg processing; p, (estd. 1967} B3j980,
K76 gazetteer
H<^ken, L, Antwerp, Belginm: shlpbUlg.; re- minium smelter- I is 7J m inr,™ i _
£-1
teâjs; commerce : Ho to™
^.552!^
p (estd i»57) I. y I., ofl cst. of Anglesey, Wales. * “•
4Sj44 Holy I., Scot., in F. of Clyde nr T nf
«pf. intla'nd, Denmark: nt W. end of Holy l!’(Lind'isf^6)f off ^t^’of North^^prlajw
Eng. ' ■"Ortnmnberland,i
^riagCT Fjord: cattle factory: p. <1960) machim; on Oojmecti
Hoctet, {,, Heffien; (Semany: on E. Main; p. cut R.;
for women: g^t of52.m
p. (1960) mS
Hoebstetter, mfn., 8.I., N.Z.; in Southern Alps:
alt. 11.200 ft.
Hoddesdon, t. «■>*. digt., Herts. Eng.; in Lea
^ st^^p coal.
,.. 8.E. H™; w>.»..

fruit tobacco, cattle; natural gas pipeline Holzminden. t Lower Saynnv „ r.
fr<m Szeged; p ams) SS^^S Weser; chem^f nS?
Kof, f., Bsvarxa. Oenminy ; onE;. Saale; textiles, 22,900 .. lumoer, p. (3.963)
<WS)Îot’‘mp. Anhwei prov.. brewing-, p. Homberg t N. Rhino-Westphalia.
China; rice Germany
OTwmg
a.; cotto and dlk; p. (1968) 184.000. Ho^^, t? ’denn^y-^
Arabia; p. (esto. 1^) toS; p. fwel)
chalk xiSe; alt. 606 ft. Home CountlVtemi apnlMl to the ppost-,,,?,;™!
Hohe ‘tenem, Alpine ranoe, Tyrol. Austria ; counties adjoining ^ndon if
H|teSV^^^Westphalia.Gennany; feel.'S^Sfe Sê^"^ ^

R. Orontes; ancient
inany: textflea, metaJ goods: p. (1968) 17.136.
HiênsoHem, {ormer prm., (Sermany; Upper pipelfaefrom Karachok fields; p. (1961) traversed
164 362
Danube : a. 441 sa. m. Em^'l siik, Wile^r <^ment: oil’ reto™
Hofljow (Haikou). c., Kwangtung proy., China; ^P- Kaifeng; cereals, coal; a.
comm, ctr.; p. (1963) 135.000. 64.545 8a.m.; p. (estd. 1967) -iA.dyo.ooo
HWbaek, t. Sjaelland, Denmark; W. of Copen- S^^yân^f^d panania hat
Holg^ to E. Cuba, W. Stef TO.^'Sttte. ^p*f m2)®f *1® harbour;

Ho»±Sera°^
Spalding**
; ll free pt.: irregular coastline:
sq. m., miiv.:
419 W. TOtre^t trade; textile (60 per cent of total
to Mich., pU.S.A.;
(1961)103,33?'.
p. (i960) 24,777. Kwrts). pasties, electrical goods, metal pro¬
Netherlands: a. 1.051 aq. m,; ducts, eleômt ^, toy inds.; p. (estd 1969)
. 10.(1967)3,33^373.
Holiandla.
irZri — t: ^
former *^'^vwwi.j.<wAvus, it, x*AOU &U» Iu.»
name of cap. W. New Guinea. 4,030.303 (mainly Chiiese). ® ‘
Jteiamed Barn by Indon^Bi, then Snkatna-
Djajapura. Himolulu, c., cap., Hawaiian Is.; on the I
of
Hoadaysbn^ tor.. Penn®.. U.H.A.; coal, iron ®-(ertM)1>f3.°^®“^= trc;ut flying;
a- 88.019 sq. m.
P^^’lSeoi^^yA’ machine shops:
&'2riarisf °™».
heavy ^y soils : . wîdSSd or ’ri* meS: packet sta.
Bevenoaks. Maidstone AMiford hav?*P^SS connections to Harwich, Eng.
on gaps through hills toNMd S of Ihe'ê^ C!oh™hia. Canada.
a «a««; An:-ate
^!SS^^.a&i5L^ggaic.ir
Ho^ t, Deabtgfa. Wales; on 7 m s »f *” J^b^dor cst.. Newfoundlmid,

t. N. Norfolk. Sag.: a. 0. 75.000sq.m.; p.
“P- Tienhdn:
Hght engltt„ woodwkg., clociks; site ®“

proT., KJSk Spain; mtaoas. ;
fpinnliig, caHoo pdnMna. ®s- ; P. {19TO) S42^.
„PMW. TO^BjKme; B. (1961) iaaero, t, cap., Haesca ppot.. Spain ; cm JB. BmPlft. ;
^ Maotiya ladto,; on cath.: CT. wine and iiniber tr. with Erance.
NMbadaE.; p.fmi)
Hoshiarptir* I., PimlaJ!), India* iaot3[tj0ar wiks- II- G957) 2SM0.
„inMd goods; p. (1961) SO.VSbI
p. (1966)irff.(!W0. ’ g^J^wn, (m^ St.Mongolia: Mary’s I. CMna;
Scilly Iste.
p. (19SS!
Hnila. dep.. Colombia. S. America: a. 7.990 Sij.
P- m,; cap. Eeiva; p. (estd. 1959) 3S3,090.
a9fom.3l7 *•
co^Mjie, aw. Beteimn: Htds^ cpsnmwjie. Netheriaads, pray. N. BbHantl ;
coal, smdt;^, gla®rarkB.; p. (1962) S.7S9 plastics; p. (1967) 19,60^.
Hnlan, C N. China; 20 m. JS. of Harbin: tr. ctr. •
^ of Simderland; co.il: p. (estd. 19671 on Harbln-Algun. rly.
Ôl,oW. \99
OT Kteston-m^HtiH, c., ap(.. co. bor., SJl
Hoolll^ f., Hauts-de-Seine, lYanoe; p, (1954 Yoito, Eng. : third pt. of U.K. ; at infinT oi
HqanslOT, cmip- tor.. Greater London, Ens • K. Hull, in esfcnary of tlse Hiimber ; tmiy. ; tarn;
me. former bora, of Breatforc! snd Honnslow:
Cblswiob. mn& and gr. dipping tr. ; do<i^ fluMpg, ghip
rcpalntig, rox>e, ma<îln.^ uhemieai^ te.Tir>fnff
Hqusatonlc,.B., (3ojm, and Mass., TJ-SJl,; empties cement: (estd.niillfpg^
res, oils,p. fiour seed eroshfiig, iMdiifc*
<m§} 333^00.
length 160 m.
SenftOTna^, Scot.; new eateime t.
I G*rel>ec. Canada ; feces Ottawa acrcBs It
! paper; p. (1961) sej>3S,
B*. ?* yeyas» U.SJl. N.W. Gal- h.vxabw, eOmrv of Bs. Ouse and Trent, sepaiatiji;:
X Ores and Linocdn, Eng, ; fine waterway; i-
oilfield ?:’ F-
m^hin., 1*?*' S-* «>1 reflMTies,
steel, chemicals, paper pto- 7 m, wide, length 38 m.
cîng. milling aadas^mhling plants: NAS^s HumlioHtB^, iwief, Gal., ir.S.A.; nndleax experi-
nêd space fligait ctr. aSd hma^ numtal breeder reactcg.
‘ Greater HnmboMt, wrtfi, tmm, E. Nevada. cr.SAL.
riomboldt Cnrteni. see Peru Onnceirt.
Hmiston .^p Caaai, Tesas. UJS.A, ; liaJs .Uouston mmem feto. NH,W., Australia:
Gidverton Bajr and continues wimM by dam where E. Muiray leaves Gr.
ttMugh bay to de^ water ; paovldai site for
total fengih 4m. DMdi^ Eaj«e. jnri; below conflaesme with H.
Hcwo, f.. SMOT. bor^ E. Susses;. Eng. ; on S. cst “Itta smjpHes water tax iirigaibrn to
upper BtvQdna dlst, ; apjacx. capactty 4*®Oo
contations with Brighton; reSdtl; toMay
resort; p. (estd. 1967) rsj40. Hupaii. into^pm., OUtea ; co^ ahm^ tea. wh^t.
eittsmlty of Aostraiia, cap-Qtangaha; a,79.37S«i.xGu;
®WW4 {.. S,^hQhh.. UBJL: p, C1960) 4tSffl.
ct’ 'I;. 5®”Sal. India; ihtssj Galeutta
Hooghli Huu^ry,
featuM;Tep^ Central Etnope; h-
Tfinnteal .
B.; jute, cotton, shipbldE.: p pta£a of teeete
„P. a963)SS,fi2d,SiSA E,
<1961 ! t. SliS.SSS. rlfet. 2X>S8,477. Danube, E. 13i^ Carpathian mtoa., D.
HUN-US Kth
M,? X. * ,
dry gazetteer
simmer. rainfaD moderate: Hyderabad, eA t of AnriTirfl
maize, potatoes, E. Musi: walled t t „
smAT-beet: livestock, poultry; mack., textiles, p. (1961) i 25j rro “™Pt-ooinm.ctx.: univ.;
meW prmls.,_eh^csals; cm!, lignite, teuxlte, Hyderabad, t ' W 'jPafa'Rtan • or.-p t
«
35 S'oo**-'
912 eg. m.: p. (1965) mjeOMcap. Budapest:
OO.a. Cemmt:
univ.; sifks '^d
hmW elm
Hi^Mord, wfef. t. ruKd dist, Berks, Eng.; on Hyderabad, PaJdatan’ n' naa}^}
’mtaf «.,“ll&nd.palatmate. Ger- hS! Bes

many: highest point,Norfolk.
2,677 ft. Eiviem ^d^
araitpeJaao ^ of Is., oft ^French
mb. dist, Eng.; S.B. shore Hythe, nr. Southampton FTanfo P^t.
of^Wash; ^de iwort; p. (1961) 4.S43. W Of-Po
Hythe, t.. »nMM.Xr®Kmt
lkmto ne: one of synthetic
Hmser, Jh. N&W,, AiMtraiia ; rises in Liverpool Eoyal W. of Folkestone
school of •mimk
oneetry ^lle anmff p|rg:
of ^tTiV
; p. (S^19W)
Itange, Gr. Dividlw Eange, flows S. and B. Into Eoyal school of mufiketrv^^^n ^JS?
lasman OouIlKirnat Newcastle: valley
lead from of Hunter
Kewcastle up 11,180. osketry, p. (egtd. 1967)
to Ctedlis Gate throogh Gr. Dividing Eange to v
.ntenor; length, approx. 250 m. *
Ayrshire, Scot. : civil nuclear power Jas^.
Hm|taS'on.aaa Peterborough, intand co..

oAUifc-iiiuwuig, Eng; I^hfetol"^:
p. uw&o; t., u^p. western prov.. NiserfA* Aor« xr’
HmlStt ». ,.. Hnnto. Ei».; m E. Ook.
mnÎonery; Huntingdon and Godman- Ecuador, S. America- atfoot ofVniA.„.,

Huntington Ind., P-U.S.A.
^®®td. ; 1967) 14,760.
on Little _ of Imbabura:
E. ; rly E>erlan Peninsula, p. (1962)
S W iSjsi * ..v“ i?' olcano
neninmiT.
«« ôol wfa ; p. (I960) i6:m ^ containing sta of & mdWug^-
Hunti^n,
marine c.. W. Va., IJ3Jt.: on Ohio E.; &»!» the Iberian iSrUa
® mardiine wkB..
HuntLy. iraH
t 7-
wkB., lumberin
7^-
lumbering;
jMimA
g; p. p. {i960)
{I960) 83,627.
c™,V.83,627.
K.; ?.
-i 1 _
C«>“Ebro
the Iberian
(Iberus) Mople
; a. 229who
064 m
Aberdeen. Scot.; at W- |l>icui. t.,S.ft ^-^w.u64 so. m p.
Huptly. mU.btirgh,
^ Deveron ; farming, ffag5myCanada;
Quebec, ; i^ om It. engin • 3«
n (i’mi i
Himtly, t, N.i., N.Z. : on Waikn.tr> P. • as m loa, cst. dev.. Pern i can Tnn - n *n ilnn *
„ S. Âuckland: coal; p. (1961) 4,617. - (1961)243,617. .<wosq. m. , p.
rt^’ ’ P- uwu;
“otton-miUs: p. (1960) ' r^n^- ^ ®- Greenland ;
Huon, 1.. 170 m. N. ofB,n/i ice-covered ?l‘P°“®-.Wlth
„Earifl^ tcit barren group. of New Caledonia. "»^vS“pHteanB“S“ 5.000 sq. m. ; higW^k
T5mS°“®glS
(Hubei), psw., China; N. of the Yangtze- 0.050 ft.; main ind. Ashing- cnn
Liang; cap Wuhm; tea, cotton, wheat, coal , ôi'^W^vik; a, 39,709 sq.m.: p (1969) 203 om
papr: a. 71.966 sq. m.; p. (1963) pt,, Hupeh, on Yai^f p -•
t®- -^yy. Scot.: nr. targe tr. ; p. 107,940. ”
IT, worsteds, coal-mng. (., 8.E. Honshu, Japan: ancient
one of the tetiles, pottery; p. (1964)
Gr. LasCT ot the St. Lawrence basin; a. 23.610 -
tQ.S 280 m. long. X7d 7J?0 ^chow, c.. Shanj^nng, nhfnn.* ftf ftvif^ rif Q'Ka^*
meat prod.; p. {i960) 00 m. NJB. of Tnngshan (Sueht^^
_ tcmield wây.micienf AlffAtoopinS Eng * fiwmT,.
Germany; S.W. Edmunds, through Wantage to
Iigniiemining,machin..ch^calB;
P- tlW8) 47,^. •r«,J^“®®®ter and goucester.
^nerife, Clanary Is.tag ■ agrto
t.. Emaante; tobacco, wine; p. (1966) v. 13,263. *
j « G®®tral Crete, Greece : fijmous in Greet
Huskrar^ A, Sweden: S. extreanity of L VSt- 8.068 ft.
^%i. ?2ilS61) 13.7^-
®®JtesifTO-Holstein, Gmanany; rly. 8t...IIE.A.;
mmerai rôn; part ofcap.
Eooky Mtas.
Boise in
City-
a, KM ™b>es n^by
-“tase City; :
p. <1968) 24.600. * • "y- lOWO F^, sq.A, m.Idaho,
„»• 83.667 tJ.S.A.:
: p. (1970) 60^75
food processing
HuWdnsMi, c., Kan., tr.S.A.; p. (i960) 37 574 laSi experimental7-
ef... Idaho, tJ.S.A.:
breeder 39SJ27S.
food" processing
rmctor; p. {i960)
Hutk iu^. fs., NX, N.Z.; p. (19TO) 114 73fl' " ®ttyer, lead, and gold mines n^H^-
p. {19TO)
breeder reactor:<3OTnany*
Sx S ®btaeiand-PaJatinate,
(im uS3“-
^'*b,^>S?-„Eng.: sub. tomamr;
to msastroua floods and

““bJect to dlsaaSfl^ ^ “b. to E. IrenA
— ::rr^ ancienccas..: meronnr
^8S0 flood eontroland “X® enekwe, S. Morocco; ceded by SnMn “®«otto
(Hnatnan), c.. Anhwei prov Cliin-i- ' ™®®ity
„ i^nes ; oiimabar; p. 10.317.
Hwang W^d:
impt. Hal p. (1963)
(Yellow 237,000:
Sea), arm ’ rv,’ -P-JleoS) 54,000.
of the Pny.
tetw^ Korea and China; b^^^^ ^ nimes. lumber-mills; E.S.E.S.E.:
p. (1986) IBMOon E. Yenesei
^“-.frolîts mouth;’- fiia:Dhite°&.
- -.- i^ll
' «« “■ ft"-" -
% ^
r’ :•
gaikS®ssx2"L oparin; leatner. tertii^p-
- gfe S ™
Inmnankrt, (Hnangshi),
nw&npouL /x»2 _ A,rfr^’ tar»”"V
Hiineh m.nmv sourceo
risesnr r»h4«« . i ffbie-prodi^
^*3^ dlst. ; fallk
Brazil; famoua p. (1967) 16,^.qjph'
»uu ume WK8.; p. (1958) 7r» flflo - JS. or Kokkola: n (iflfim
on B, Tam*. R Tn a "R ^ v ■Hr?* *:InSt.'-i.ESêV >?.: G»?8)
Gheah^'Eng.; ^fon^g^rart ' {“^separated by loc^
expanse of water fomieriy K

2j0m»S. 1.967 «,. ax., p, Mssetaieer (Ste X);«el). N..taeriau<te- shallow
fL.A~lND K79 CAZETTEER
Wferingen-Fiiesiimd Ctaml {Laguna
13 ni.) constnicted 1932; ijam) and .411- American Canal
active land reclaniation in prosit^ lest Tia™;
a
Anwak tn. t, M^pur, In^;
OB, Polder (185 bq. ib,>; eiiief
is Anisteidam ; wiien redaiBatioric.* p. (igei) 07 nt
water a, wiH 3^ rednced to 46I w’ L-. lAppi. Finland •” onttet
Inca, (.. i. (tf siajorca. Si«to: p. (1957)
into Barents feea ; a,. 686 go m 12 cn<.«t
to^te-Maketflrid, uk.&C.
”“7)fi.i^= P.afl67U7d..5S7; cap. UaBi. tnchgarrie, wlef., P. of Forth, Scot.; fiMn®

Uchester.f., Somerset, Ena-.: on E Ten- kvf nf centn!
ôrt'^Fife. Scot.
W . Mrica: 54 m. from IbaAm of 5'orth rail biS; ““
of lioger Bacon. - ’
?* soya be.a.m.
; rock Siilt ; p. 13,010
Hf^, former ^--SMa

mm. bor.,
g; 'Bsbbx, ^g.;on E.Hatoaiilt
tordering mib of
Imrert, now fee, in KedWdge Ooter London
^‘fli ’ P^Per-mUlg, elec, and mdio «iulp- ™epenaeafie, t,
f- -f •=
Kan.. TT-Sj!.: 7M9.
p. {i960) il szs
irTob/^ photoplate wljg.; p. (1961}
Btacom^, t. Brft.^dirf., N. Deron. Eng.; Ceylon; ch. mtns.:
Cliannel; seaside resort: on p. iEvpest 29.028 . ft.). E. aiS W
Ghats. Sulammin range, ffiodo Kn*. Kara-
Bahia, Brazil; exp. cacao, timber" n desert; ch. Bb.;
1988) 100,
(estd. .CeotRii 687. wmoer. p.
Asia, rises in Tien Shan -'iifi socmai; vêtatlon: dense n
L. Ba&haah : iensth 850 m. of
races, coopauWelfop ^»****"rtu

‘**^«'® ot
®- *’™= mds..
high rainfal sal, teak:
l; _agr., nee,, wheat, milfee
'^. dtiiiSr- cotton, }utf6, tBa, mliTbcr. lioBeed c
Shrep goats; forests, itadier; Semis-
d* **"■ ^*°r- DOTbj", Esig.: 7i m. W. of petrol^, maaganpj. iSgold. silver:
ôttln{^haIIl; coal, iron, ensrln loclcnit Kbrit-Q ea«te.. machin., urw
nîes, ptatte; p. (e^tdrm?
(•» tifh. )
^ ,P. YoriLfi Kiiff • 4'wi
P Iêeds: locâl rrikt. ;

Mtns.. flows N. o* (Indian thMaUindev,.,^-.,,
wiuun Br. Commonwealth (
tnn^h Mnl^n»e,_^hnar, btrasbom*. enters and 10 cmtrally adm. terisrt- ca^Nw1
EMne m. below Strasboing; te*th Delhi; nminJy a«r,: eh. crope, rice wheat-
IIlawaxa, dtet,K.S.W..Austraii£; iss m
land between S. teWeland and c^; belt of tea, cottons, miltet,
fateica,mid®©, fc®x3€v*teatber
raw cotton, di*^ tf»Yni-js*
finite
ve^
^Sf’ farmiiw; coal seams; ch. ts.. Delhi. CMcntta.
mawsTi.r^Fgssf "■ »•• »• l“«-
%
IlUmMi, MU nr. La Paz. Bolivia ; 21,184 ft.
liliniM, «,., U.S.A. : lamed after its principal H » Intto Ocean e^nds from S. erf Ai^
“St.'SS:- "• and
MMssippi K. ; cap, Facifle byE. tee
of
Springneid, Igsfc. t, Chicago; iron and steel S* and 0. Lewwto
^ 56,400 sa. m.; p. (1970) AnshteAfoandAnatralia; a. 29.840.000
nio^ r«.. OomwaH, Ensr. ; K.W. (rf Eednith •
_ Ate, copper; p. (par.)
jwiow. ra^nly Jugoslavia, stretrfitog afone '°&?n?r' =to<. ITO l»rt Of (J„ A C
Adrfetfc fn>m Trieste in ET. to Alhii:t)%.
as far as Es. Danube and <aay. petndeum , ’cement, dss; caf.;
Momv Biissla; a. 360 so. m. ; BrfUanap
T « 56»201 SQ. m,; p. (1970) 5J43
o^ eap.. Ind,, E.SA.; on \\hile R ■
Dmenau, (., Suhl. E. Germany; at If base of
ptirteger Wald, S.S.E. of Gotha; iwroeLte
toj’s. glass; p. 11963) 1$J15.
m’ Somerset, Eng.; 10 m.
“ j." .Taunton; cutstone, concrete. coHars In^Qiliia, S.E. federation in Fnajcb
wiaws. h<»tllitieB July 1964. <S-
Hotoco,
^lo valTKi;
c.. Salvador. 3.m.
p. (1961)Central America- cattle
wffee, sugar, indfeo ; p. Sl,:^3S.
^laM^ three sts. of
Iteilo, cap. prov of Hollo, Panav Phnipptees; IndoDKi^ EwMe of, S.E. Aria (ecsmpriring Java. Viet-Nam, Cam^m
Mwnut oil, fishing tod.: p. (estd.) 137,000.
uem, t, h, Nigerm, W. Africa: on LagroB-KAiio 15 minor Is.,
Sumatra, Kal^nta
thousands of eanaUerWest^lScli¬
n, SulawesL ’
liU agr-^^^vanctr.; govt, sugar growing mate: tropical, abundant rainfall; ones); equatoria
schttne at Bacita; p. 54j686. ^ * Mala.y : ^gr. ! rice, zbaLs©, sweetl
Imateri t.. spj.. N.W. Shikoku. Japan; on shore siipr-cane, coffee, tea, tebaeoo. ril
of Inl^ â ; nrnfs. cotton textfles, paper Wdms. cmchtma, spices, »>*"««'
rubber; petroleum
wealth:
^ned firuits: p. (1965) 104,470. ^
Iintabura, prtw.. Ecuador; a. 2.414 sq. m.
Ibarra; p. (i960) 182,700. ; cap Pradesh , indten Union; in
Imbrps, rttrirfsA I.. .Egean Sea ; fruit-growteg. K,- Narbada; cotton-nafils; p. (1361)
Lindsey. Ltocote Eng. ; on
S. cat. of Humber. 8 m. N.W. of Grimsby France ; agr. and tednstl ;
to.dpda; new deep-sea ofl and cwiItfflTOln^:
^he^cals. engin., refinery nearby at Killteg- ^[^CMteanroux: a. 2.666 sq. m.; p. (1968)
Indre-^Lnire, dev,. Central France : to tee N. W.
ImolA 1., Italy; S.E. of Bologna; cath.; giaa? m indie; agr.. vtoas. aflk factories; o.p.
pottMy ; p. (1961) 51.289.
Inu^Valto^ S. CaL. UJSA..: extends SO m. fi.. W. Pakistan ; rte in Tibet, and flow*
S.E. from ^ton S&a, to Mexican bdr. ; mainly Karimdr. Punjab. Sind. AWMto
Below s^rdevd; hot, arid ciiiD&te; cotton, lentil 1.800 m.; 6 bEft®.: Jbrinm,
dates, wheat under irrigation: water bim^t CSbienab. Eavl, Bess, Sutlej, cme csf world's
me-sRo Keo" gazetteer
E. systems; Indns Waters irrigaUcm [ Ioannina (Janiiia),t..Enirua Gfppap.
aii, >
^^meamjer development. frontier;
Insbohl. MJt.. Anatolia. Traiev: rm nsfc. nf IRlnrfr I Tnnn T nffembroider-
rî. -r ^ 34S97.
’rafoT^yZ”-— *' ancient bnrM to of

IiiKleboOTgh, vitn near Settle. Yorte. Eng.; Ionian Is.,CTrin Medlterr
Iteestoae; undewronnd caves, stalactites. Greece, formerly ane^T, .
stelagUHtea ; alt. 2.S73 ft. comraiainir *®
Englewood, c., S.W. Cal., E.S—i. ; chinchilla iamiB; ZAfcynthos LeykjwîmVo^?^'^ ’ ôphallenla.
. famitore; light engia.: p. (1960) (?5.S^. ’ mSd from sewre
llnnleli, cas.; machm., csms,on tobacco, Danube, nr. toM Sea,
oil Ionian a. 752“a la.; pfmeiflSSyi”®'
MediterranMn'-WT^^diw^"' ...
=
reflmng; od pjpelme from Genoa; transalpine Italy and Sicily on W '
pipelme nndoruiiuta constniction
uuijsirucooit from irom TriMte,
xTl^te, Iowa, st, UE.A ■ nrairfe
a^ve sea-levei ; watered ctTr-
thrpngh N.E. Italy and Ausfria to Ingolstadt.;
P. (1903, I 64M0. farming, dairying, by
nmfeMi^fel
e.XappifcS
and
Inhambane, SiiL. Mozamhiqne; sugar, copra, oil¬ potatoes, coal; cars, chemicalaSaSS?; s; can’ Dpt(
seeds, bric&i?. soap, tiles; p. (1060) 67^66.
butas, p. {xiiiiKff o/fiioo.
Momw a 50,290 sq. m.; p. (1976)
JMOmes: a 56 2ftO sn TTrt • tT 7iAi-Av « 2 mo ?qf
fwa Cifcv. Tn«7Q TT a A . a.L
fsssiiSi&sfiafcsi””* p"iari» ,““>■•
6?" sSilk“fie (““f s'';

IpswK^, c.. S.E. Queensland, Australia* coal
Itttad Japan ; length 250
’ m., breadth 10— woollens: rly. wks.; bricks. mthenwMe’
«39.0
m. ; . ; HirosMnia.
. Epte.
27ch. Okayama,
Kotw. Iquiaue, c., N. Chile, a pt. on Pacific; esnorts!
nitrates and iodine from Atacama desert* rtnenware
^Tyrol 4’ and
^TCrelng Switzerland, hardboard: p. (1966) 53.396 .
fish
Bavaria; entera R. the Austrian
Danube at
PaMu; the ancient CEnus; length 820 m. Iquites, ch. t. Iioreto, Peru ; shipyards
canmng;®^**°^‘* ^ttTF-mill
p. (19603 SS. s, oil800
refining. docks
; p. (igei) •
ufifl
lnnt!Tlmmm,burch a‘iiidhedUhTesort.P^hleB Scot * Crete; cap.
« It.md1>e^.
ctath 5 m. p.
knitwear; 8.E.(lOoi)
of Peebles;
si99. woollen
rimer
a!«D«Mongolia,
S.taiKlera«f. stretches “fflon* p’lK6?)’2d?l(f "^ “^P*
of Mongolian People’s Rep!; IraMra ?0audia) rw^ • „ * ,
«P. HaMot:
^ cap, Hiôt: p. (1967)
(1957) 9£00jm.
9.2ddj)£id. on ^ i, ,
Position
lanittfail, fi. Queensland. Australia: ch. eugar- 9S^’ Mil slopes: wMe
T P^îng ctr. of AiBtralla; p. (1066) 7.419. • iSi "s? Sr
Icastemok, the Tyrol, Austria; on R. Inn; sfe
eompmads N. approach to Brenner Pass ; univ. • table-
milita^ stronghold: p. (1963) 108.600. ^d
mainly and, ^ . cst, and parts of W. very fertile
iDOWjîaw, i., .^land ; nr. Bydgoszcz ; rock- *
clmate vanes widely; agr.: ilce cotton’
a«r.prod.; p. (I»d0) 47^0(^. tolmeco fruits, nuts; impt. oil iS.
Iiistobtirg, $ee C&emyôvsk. ^™t
^g.: heavy Ind. and rang, developtog*
of natural
iDtoklBKi, Bernese Oberiand, Benie, Switzer- gM to E.S.S.B. projeffl; 2p
tod ; on R. Aar. between Lb. Than and BiS^ : Teh^: a. 628,000 sq. m.; p. (197m S8 150 OOO'
iiSiiftsr - i-KyU. Seot.: nr. head of Loch ^.. Tfels, Euphrates: climate: hot, rainless"
Iayorhe^.i.M^j, Bdneardte Scot.; on E. cst..
!.^ty rainfSfV.
08ii>. Baglidad; iiupfa.
•orr * da-m andoimeias:
power jeet.
sta. pt
oti
fl»61)^9g/ f.Stonehav
lavm^m, en; linen, rayon inds.rp.
S.I.. N.Z.; Euphrates projected:
m S.E. csL; sawmills m m^ n
2*B.: alumMum smelter; ser^ by
IrWt, fi, Sverdlovsk region, E.8.S.R.: enain
H-S.W« Aostralia; 383 m. H. of môr cycles, wood-wkgs., ®«* “*• »•
tin; p. (1966) ^ {^ta.. 1970) 8.634.000.pharmaceiiticsl
Croiaarty, Its.: Shannon,
ch, physical fea-
Boyne,
HTOt. . on N. side of Cromarty Eirth. 12 m. Blaekwater, Barrow, Nore, Sulr, Idffey;
N.B.
oi Dingwall ; naval pt.; l©e. chiemical ind.
and groups— —all near cst. — ^Moume Mtnsch.
êlter projected; p. (1961) 1.^0 Wlôw Mtns., Mto. of Kerry; climate, mild
md damp , caUed " the emerald Me ” bewSe
liT. Diuifenaline; Ri;e.,Sc ot.: on F. of Forth.
siiipbreaMuff, paper mker '
^ anarrying; p..{1961) | o^tts^^sslands; A 82.000 sq. m.; p. (1961)
Z-'< “ountainous and well ((tonacht)

wotted , rising to Ben Nevis 4.406 ft * Gale- ® 21,.^ i*®s. (Ciavan, Monaghan
tonmn Ctanalcroffles co. ; little cuRiîcn •'^r rS^JST the former prov. of ^TOer,
Caledbnto ;
iî-ween ut. JJntam and
Ireland, eoimectmg N.
N±L_aidof Catobi^CtoiS^ and S.
„®t.with Atl. Oa
.Britain and
* 60—140 m. wide; greatest depth ;
1^ fathoms; a. 7,000 sq. m.
Inverurie, &t0*gA, Aberdeen. Scot • on R. Don t.
“•
(E^) ““ ^‘^soab^’fflîno” steel, engin.. tar.

rstn. :
Inwaai^ (Ja^), premttre. Bpiras, Greece* Ir^ hydro
P*-elec-powe
ore. undeveloped due to inaccess 15.365.
«b.i.Ibannma: p, (I96i)7ff^jj0jr.^ ’ T ibility. (rfiron
and tunnel.
S.E. Pianoe; drafned by Es. Issfere and
T Grenoble ; mtnotis. ; cei*este ; wine,
butter cheese; iron, Jejid, copT»er*
Isfere, B., S.E. Ranee; in W. Alja iUrande
SasBtere), Hoto W. Into E. Ittflae nr. Valence;
to eeoera|e hydro-elec. : used, with tilb. cap. Eome; urlmn and industl. N.’ caatrwta
^
ttongh ^ France to N. Italy
Mt. Cfenls (fWJos) TnnneL
N.BhiBe-WeiftnhaII».Gmnaay; iron. U.8.A. ; alt.
S. 1.675 ft. Mtesifsippi E., Minn.,
^ ^1. metalwfes.: needles: p. (IMS) se,3M.
EagOB St.. Nigeria, W. Attica.
Itatiaia, min., highest mtn. in Brazil : 9.255 ft.
mmm Itaijpa. / f.,S.W. ^raguay; laesmt®.; p. 21
Ittooa,
(anc. Aspadana), c., central Jmnx prov N.l., H.S.A.; onCayn^L.; sasat o;
W.; biôrical and picturesQ.ue c., noted for (tomellUniv.; elec, clocks; p. (1960)
its carpets and metaJware; steel mill under Ithê, cme of the Ionian In., Greece; a. .37 sq.
ch. t. Ithake: severe earthquake, 1953. ei. ;
isMtoil, #.,
T.wf fi*’Hokhahlo.
-?JapanP-: flSW) of marn ito, i Honshu, Japan; on E. cst. of Izu pen.:
on «t,ses.454.
Sapporo; ctr. of second !gsi. hot-spring reeiMrt: p. (1965) S9.404.
Br sm. petroleum production. Itmhoe. (., Schleswig-Hfflstda, Germany; on
Btenhay. t, Bashkir A.8.SJa.. E.S.F.S.B. ; m E htor It.; wood, cement, mschln.: p (ises;
ctr. of Ishimbay oiifields; p. (igso) 1(1959) e6'.!£)05.
Ivano-Praakovsk, Ukrainian Si?.E.; ofl; p
Htownii^, c., Mich., U.SA. : machin., gold, sQver. IVMOTO.f E.S.r.S.H.: N.E.ofHc®cow: textitei
JronjinaxWe; p. (1960) A557. iron and chemical wks.; peat-fed power stas.:
{Fs55s)> f.» N.B, Congo; admin, offlees;
TOttoQ ginnsdes; riy. r^r shops. Ivigtot.
, P-. (1»67)Danish
39SM0. dfieBient, S.W. ^Greenland;
IcryoUte.
Isis, E., head stream of E. Thames. Eng. ; so Iv^ I Balearic nr. in the W. Mediterranean :
named nnta its confluence with Thames at Spanish ; cath,; tourism.
Dop.’hester. Oxfordshire.
Iktonamm, spt. Hatey, Turbev; pt. and riy ivory C^t. i»d. xr,i-. si., within French Com-
mmity, vv. AfricTL; cllraate. tropical: miuze.
temiinns: oil; fertilisers: oil pipeline from coffw, rubber, mahogany ; dense forests: can,
Ahy.-az (Iran) projected, p. (1965) S9JZ59, Abuban; a. 189,000 sq.m.; p. (1968) 4.10O.(m.
Istomlmd, proposed new fed. cap.. Paldstan: out¬ Ivrea, i., Italy : on the Hcaa BrJtea, nr. Turin :
side Eawalpindl below Himalayas; nuclear Bilks, cotton mnis. ; p. 14,473.
power sta.
Iv^sur-SeinG. ta France; on E. Seine, sub. o!
Fans; organs, chertflcals, iron and êel; n
W. > ICtntyre:
J.-’ inner a.Hebrides
235 so. ;m.Argyll, Scot. ; 1,'} m. (1982) S3jS4S.
Isle ol OraiD. nmU a., E^nt; flat promontory Iwsmteawa, f.. Vf. Hokkaido. Japan; rly.
once separated from mainland by a tidal jnnctlmi: coalfield: p. (1965) e5,.50S.
estuary; Ige. oil refinery. Iwasm, spt., S.W. Hokkaido, Japan; cemper,
Isis SoyalA In L. Superior. Mich., U.SJL coal, sulphur: fisheries; p. (1947) 30.3$4.
Meworth. see BonnMow. ^ B- (1953)
Islington, inner bor., London. Eng.; N. of CSty
mcoiiMwates fanner bor. of FMtoy; imly ■ l2^^,<»BSJmt7K>.,N.W. Belgium; linen. totaicco •
mÎ, rîdU.; p. (1966) 255J»(». p. (1962) I7J57.
at mid-poiat of Sues Canal on Izharok, E.S.E.S.E.; stedi, engin.; p, (1967)
L. xuusah, 45 m. N.N.W. of Suez; has rail con- •1^0^000,
GAZETTEER
in-jrAs
ffitaMil?- ■” "'* -"iri “r- »«’•

i»o »Si^™°S<a"U 'ffi
jSli-7“S55'?ib'^rS,.
ln Br r
carpets, ruKs: anc. and historic c,: ch. comm,
carpeis,
ctr. d theruKs: anc. and
Lcrant; historic
p. (1865) c.: ch. comm.
417,413. TOalth
wealth fi’ofia^^wT'
(1962);
Middlesex, SurreyW.I.’, dlyided into thre?^M
and Cornwall: mountaino us’ '
IzBut, (.,, Tiirbey; B. end of Ssa of Marmara.; Wyhert
Kingston:peakuniv
(in ;Blue Mtns.)aluiina,
7,420 fte^S
cereals, tobacco, oO reSneir and polythene plant bauxite, - S’
mder constraction; p, (19G5) 30,061. \
Mexico; nr. Popocatepetl; p, Indian
tourifim* a. 4,411 sq. m,.! Union
p, (estd ) 1; ^7‘>
pr{39Cl)
7,065.
bananas. coS’
Jambes, commune, S. Belgium; sub. of Namur*
Sy^.trib. of E..To«lan; length 45 m. Jaglf

Blue (o?f^ kLLW
JaWon^ t, CbSE.:
Cssn.: on E. Nei^;Nefeae; artificial glass, Eidge
artificial Bhie ei^.:to C!he4i5
p. (1962)^ke13.4
Bay?26.
tenkh Ilo ,m
•mmr.
jewelleir; p. (1861) 27,286.
Jab^toa. c., E, Brarti; sab. of Eeoife; p. (1960)
of Pyrenees: p. Jamest orraT
proces sing; c..
p. ’(i960)
N.D.. 1,5,163.
U.S.A. ; Canlda
cattle;: teiSth
food
m
Js^?mov, t.. GSSE. : spa; raunium-mlnes, pitch-
btode, lead, nly^ nickel, cobalt; p. 8,806. Jamertown, c..’n.Y.. 0.S.A.; .summer resort
JacksOT, c.. Mich.. Cf.S.A, : on Grand E. ; loco- and
^rrir’ on (jtrano ; loco-
mftg
mftg.;• np. (19601
(I960) Jr
41,3firs — ^ auu
13.
t. cap, adiss., U.SA.; cotton tr.; p. wha£ a * !“•- month of
^ (I960) jr«,42^. u.. p. ^™f^**wh^fli^Îishnermanentsettle-
miiT.; cotton, cotton- JaSr^fC^W rat ’otvcnd^ôni t « „
oil, enginra. aswing-machines; p. (1960) Denmark “’
and Kashmir, st„ N.W. Tnîn anfl Jutland,
xr t?
h, Ohio, TT.SJu; foundrira, gas wells; PaWstan; divided along cease-fire line: traver-
P. (lym)? StBSO-
— -- sed by rês of the Himalayas: in .Sf™
ssmoT TOlley is the celebrated vale of Kashmii? pro-
lactemvil^, c., p#, Fla,, U.S.A.; cniy.; on St.
chemicals, shipbldg. and repair,
RSn^^?'S‘^“*‘^®T°^^beat and rice; rap,
g™tmg. lumber, dgar mftg.; p. (1970) b-
.facksoWle, f.. pxas. F.S.A.: rly.. ctr.: fruit. xata, Imn and H steel
iîbOT. India;
wks.; W. of323Calcutta;
p. (I95i) 044
'"'■‘“bens. rly. wks.; J^^d, CO., Sweden; a. lotm w
m • n
^Sion: textiles.
Pakistan: one of (esta. 1968) 13^,500. b*
SCOTCH, jfowicr sm<h Pakistan: one of raacMn.*''D (l96o')'«}^
0 (1961
P. } 35J
(^1)*^^*“ ^ !00
Brazil; E.. Itaploura;: .
on rab-continent
bfiiiyeen Philippines;
'''^brira Spitzbergen and Iceland
fineseal
woven
belong to Norway; and
Jacsob^,
cm iiiet Ml.I.. Orange Pree State, a A&ira; weather-forecast
Jaoobstadt, see YâMis.
R » y* flbout
Quebec GanaHa.* ft-IK rtf _rtonshu, E*J^: 144 fJCf. in.
K^hn; Ch. fe. Shikoku. Hokkaido,
mtnons. ; is active vol-
®®®beo. Canada; p. (1961) CTOoes;
TJVmahTV ralneet to ‘xT**earthau akes;JlOKkaidO,
°mKOKU. industh
comm., and flnanc. nation; 26 per cmt
Brazilian agr *
climate varira according to latitude iriN*
’êgetetion. broad-leaved
s
coaiferou forest: fine
Jade, or JaMe, ahutm, N, Sea, Germany;
^ fine
îraheln^flven. hMboiTO. good eommumc
mulberry ations; smmneis,'
and silk,ch. inds.*
Jathigt^ Bihar, India; uranhim plant. abmSS’ tobacco.
mines, wine, garden lumber: fisheries:
produce, leathar, weaving ; a 6 209 so m • teîes, suto. cottons, woollens: shinbldy
maclin., jêmleals, electronics, metal
Jaen, h, ^ 773.j^n. ““* “*
S. Spain:
563. sq. m..
N. of Granada: paper; oil from Honshu: cap. 'tokio* a
, p. (1959)
^liUKKia.
^ p- (1959) eojaS.
JafEa^dW aW, f..' Israel; orange-growing dlst * ’ ’
ToSt* *’ and between Koma,
<1S70) 104,e4Ml7. ° ^
Jagerafonteln. („ O.P.S., S. Africa* moKt front «,. Colombia, Brazil. S. America* rising
dfamopd mine: p. (I960) tok wE te! nniF.n,n.-, and floi^thS
Colombia,
*«baooo.'daV m Ja«^ ^
if Si^^p” H
. - - - , Jaroalaw,
.Ta««w nm.
,™«„ t,
. Ezeszow.
-n - ._5“..™’.»Poland;* mK^*
Jakarta,
-r’’ a«5 Dja kar
-Abuijaauuaiu. xutim:ta.rajfnrn ntr •
Jsipim, cap. e., Eajasthan, India* comm ctr • <W65) 3f.(X?0, on k. san,
t ^ ^1001> 403,444.
univ.; p. (1961) 403.444.
cj ,x.i- t7"_L_.* Vx . - . ■oomm.
«omm.
. ctr.,
ctr., I Jaw^,
iiaiTOW. HM.,
f_. S.W,
nu«n. Iran;
hinv flows
m*
Durhmn,
1^,...^.. _ into
belowEng. Peisian
Gateshead;
TTi-.* ; on aS
JarW f mto
*“"1 i'ersian
tube wks.:
‘w^phatfiSu »“ 9y atoiage, birthplace of Venerable Bede*
Veramm st.. Mexico; p. (i960) dl«^tmCT and knit^ wool mkg. at Bede
iê Bstete; p. (estd. 1.967)
“^ttle.29,120.
agr.. lumber;
Jalgaon. "t iHiti YL. -Dr. . ..
1=-* P-^ÔOl) 30,530;

JAT-JON
Jatfra, f., Valencia, Spain • wine nn twiu . ^ « GAZKT'I’eeh
St., S.E. Brazil- coI'w’®^p
Ft- of iS I*- «wi5

j f..: Indonesia:
P-jlMl)
P. a96I)^&^*®‘’ 0“®-Gnmt
mfens. (manr ^ i;
volcanlrt • Bihar. India; firebricks; p.
Bihar.
tt- t, India; firebricks; p.
fisen
mm
loftiest peak, 12,057 ft. : agr.. mb^HobS^:
EOSlft-:,
rS5r tob^’ Pi®jab,RikM.an; mortW
^lrBf-*nTvS«5l““L W.
oft»!p
Of the
tunber.
^ S^tera, i. Spate; nr. f^dfe; p.
.coffee ctr.:
J^fer'SSf^rto Eta, w Mte-
Bngar, tobaw, cotton; n Mjss' ‘*P- Eadopfa; coffee ctr P.•
“'X^p.'nSeouTw!'-®-^' 2s “Sif®- P- “op»ii».<»i-

«.iwJ-M». ffsgoi S
iwer scheme; oot-
T£fP?^site tor laffl of HanranTsy^Tct t.•
acioJ'Tmt^^l® £ri!^'™f®‘r copper smelting, flonr and maiw
»!e]ana of Syria Tat
Jew Musa
Jebid Miiea rtf iwf sh««i ct». cm — a ^ w. Pamfba A., BrasH; tkpoiigli
Je^tiwb, 6wfffi Itoxbnrgh. ôt,.; on B. J@d,
^ m. S.Vif, of Kelso; aljl>e7 ruins, tweeds,
woollens,
wwxiciiy, rajon;
rayon; p,
P, (1961)5,^ 47.
(1961)5.647 -^yTOSniina.
Jofiewon, «., Te»s.%!s!4; ; n^ oHfidd* cattle. fe«MJMgan«fe piaat.
, gain; P.mm3.0st o««e. ^ Indian S.E
Eajastlmn. UntoST^
. Finl^d
P. WaToH^- .- ^
o° ®- MfeBoori, 224am - ■“'uau unwn; p. (ipsi)
T 3B0 m. w. of Sf. 3[<ouis; ôesL fsnn
Jnplemrats: P. (1960 ) ^ ^ »?Pce: P. dwl)
fo”^P^-. Cto: dWded 1955 anumg ®*^**«*-

f- Bower Siteî. Potend
Jo^G6ra(Htewmberg),t.InwerSlSa Bntanrt jlJ?- fM'A . __
Si' S. Africa; nnlv.;
"• “I*- *,. one. SSS,S17
J^TO (Mitan), f.. Intrla U.S.S.R. : on B. Aa •
tatfi^ p. am) 31,300. “ • ^°SithS*S*“®’ “■• ^“'toncan^y Head.
mutj. BDOei; p. naoiri
Halufi JEt. : coal, irem ; Frencli vMory OTor I Jetonson
^
CHty, t. N.Y.. IX.S.A. ;U^.A. : chemiteaM
leitl^ ebsaicak
17924 p’daeBi’is™""
l., Gera,_E. Gmnany; cm E. Saale; tmtr.; p^™).#.«^^
paper; p. (leoo) 19MS. 'ôimjicajs.
Jeâ8laBtontoia,f.. Andahisia.SiKiin; 14 in. ^ Sftove m^.;

Pears Cyclopaedia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pears Cyclopaedia

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pears Cyclopaedia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

i r S A .

First published l 8^J

(g) ipyi fy Pelham Books Ltd.

3 Background to, Public Afiairs. C 1-48

4 The Law of England D 1-26

9 The Contemporary Theatre I

20 Atlas of the World

FEARS CYCLOPAEDIA Page

Communism . . . . • ... . J12

Taste, sense of . . . Q18C2)

Chronicle of events from the earli¬

101 4-1327 A.D.

10^ mdeb^d the CULlMlNATrON

takes English crown: civil wars ^eJh&r. Sicilians against

first king of TnestW“ ^ ^ of England, con-

-founf^f^ of Santiago Suppression of Templare by king of France

U87 Hattla: destruction of Latin litogdom of 1327** 0“®***-

1387 Death of Giotto. - ■ Burning of Joan of Arc,

valid until 1806. '

“J^MollSSTimST" “? team* Date Of Bx,.

1 T* , Columbus discovers the West Indie^

1898 Timur invades and pillages Northern India.

pd tilled by En«^ Hootiand iKK^ ®®^®tus burned by Calvin

, «*“S accepted ta^Germ^ ^

Of Swiss iaviiiclbttKy ^ ^bar becomes Mogul ISmperor^tlMS)™®^-

teevocably. Ch^s Alva

iS &A‘«; ta oem^ ,„,SSd

a^/4S5aLS^,^!S.‘»S i'Mlto mder^^m^ Clentral Sudan at its

16^ ^ege of Vienna by the Turi™ c SebaSi^ ofp^lS*® pli^*’northern pro-

t>y I^ancleco Pizarro. d«Sf

^ Dilution Spanish-Duteh War,^*^^° intervention in

reUgion^levMSM' because of ISM ® Great) becomes rule^^er8la®(d\629)®® ^

1606 Gunpowder Plot. ®®oond OivE War: New Model x nees

®*^tch independence in factt ! ASCENDANCY OP FRANCE

Hmgarlan *|pi Succession begins. bolds Arcot: checks

^ ^h-(^imnuiiards. May 28, -Thiers President ^ SUCi

lUVAB IMPEEIAIi POWERS Open^ of Kiel canal, June 21. Rosebery

gss.d‘3ssa,.7.£i2f «“»■ Vto^'s

1885 Khartoum captured; Gordon slain. Jan. 26. T«n Sm^y"

command. June 29. Third Battip pf v

I Q?i and florence NightinraJe. the Aime. Oct. 28 Can^tto-

accepted by London cSeni- ®

June. Kellogg Pa^ accepte

Tw,'„i.i ■ Labour Mini^ry under Mac-

19^ Hitler appointed Chancellor bv HinfiftTi eni^e ofton&eSb^ur!'“®®“'

t.,i„ iTT;^ V , Bisneo ra nondon.

j^ase and Lendi^4. ^fofcen lalanirlfi, ix tt.S

, • urcn i-^ battle

Ks 24^mW|^ ®ennan air-bome

between 18 and 26 to be dlrectPii

DeSSr 1^-/^ BSS°^taf Sl:

“54^ hMr9itfsh^^-y Vl^dagaacar to-

1846 General (rfJtodia and 3dr. tTinnah Governor

suraounded by .Russian troops. 27 Russians 1848

day). 28 Naval art attaoks^n jap^ f“®® Imerto

"’tv AUiilf hrWarsaw recognised 14 BriOah’ Sl“for l^taeto^* at

flrrt'used against Japan: “'riWto'^ dto^inX"^ Cominform;

IVtoch 16 ClothM rationing ends in Great Britain.

Stafford Gripps Wh ^“^^‘■•“^attackec

U87 Hattla: destruction of Latin litogdom of 1327 0“®*-

16^ ^ege of Vienna by the Turi™ c SebaSi^ ofp^lS® pli^’northern pro-