BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF COCONUT (Coco nucifera L.

) EMBRYO ADDED

TO THE DIET ON GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF RED TILAPIA

(Oreochromis spp)

An Undergraduate Thesis

Presented to the Faculty of

NORTH EASTERN MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for Degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FISHERIES

Jenely B. Haloot

Reysando C. Pilapil

May 2024
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

As aquaculture expands to meet rising protein demands, the search for

novel and sustainable feed additives intensifies. Alternative protein sources

are crucial due to limitations in fishmeal availability (Mráz, 2023). Plant-based

feed additives, insect-based feed additives, and animal byproducts are being

explored as viable alternatives to traditional fish meal and fish oil (Hossain et

al., 2023). Additionally, functional feed additives (FuFAs) like nucleotides,

organic acids, probiotics, and certain amino acids show promise in enhancing

fish growth and health in alternative protein-based aquafeeds. The use of

processed animal proteins (PAPs) derived from animal byproducts is

considered safe and sustainable for aquafeed production, offering a circular

food production system approach (Fredrick, et al., 2023). However, despite

the research on various feed supplements, there remains a conspicuous gap

in understanding the specific effects of coconut embryo on the growth and

survival of Red Tilapia. This gap is noteworthy considering the potential

benefits coconut embryo in the growth of the Red Tilapia.

Red Tilapia, known for its bright red appearance, fast growth,

and adaptability, plays a crucial role in global aquaculture production due to its

ability to thrive in diverse environmental conditions and its rapid growth rates.

This species is popular in countries like China and India, contributing

significantly to aquacultural practices (Manikandan et al., 2023).

Understanding the genetic architecture of sex determination in Red Tilapia is

essential for enhancing aquacultural production through the selection of all-

male lines (Coli, 2022). The industry faces challenges related to disease

prevention and cure, prompting research on strategies to enhance tilapia

immunity and improve overall health in aquaculture (Devin et al., 2023).

Therefore, optimizing its diet to enhance growth and survival can have

substantial implications for aquaculture sustainability and food security.

Coconut and its derivatives have been extensively studied for their nutritional

benefits and applications in livestock feed, particularly in ruminants and

poultry (Mat et al., 2022). The rich nutrient profile of coconut, including

medium-chain triglycerides, polyphenols, and flavonoids, presents significant

antioxidant potential (Mat et al., 2022). Furthermore, coconut residues have

shown promise as alternative protein sources in aquafeed formulations, with

studies indicating high protein digestibility and low anti-nutrient content after

fermentation (Beegum et al., 2022). Despite the limited exploration in

aquafeed, the use of coconut products in aquaculture holds great potential

due to their positive effects on digestion, growth, lipid metabolism, and

antioxidative responses in aquatic species (Ramesh et al., 2021). Therefore,

further research into incorporating coconut derivatives in aquafeed

formulations could lead to sustainable and nutritious alternatives for the

aquaculture industry. Understanding the effects of coconut embryo on Red

Tilapia can broaden our understanding of its potential as a sustainable feed

ingredient for aquaculture.

Parameters such as weight gain, feed conversion ratio, and survival

rates are crucial in evaluating the efficacy of alternative diets in aquaculture.

Studies have shown promising results when using coconut-derived products

in fish feed formulations. Incorporating fermented coconut dregs flour in

catfish feed has shown positive effects on growth, with higher levels of the

flour resulting in better absolute growth rates (Hafrijal et al., 2023).

Furthermore, diets enriched with coconut products have been linked to

improved growth coefficients, feed utilization, and carcass quality in giant

gourami juveniles, highlighting the potential benefits of coconut-based

aquafeeds (Dewi et al., 2023). Controlled feeding trials will be conducted to

evaluate the growth performance and survival rates of Red Tilapia fed with

diets containing varying levels of coconut embryo.

The importance of this study lies in its potential to offer practical

solutions for enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of Red Tilapia

aquaculture. By elucidating the effects of coconut embryo on growth and

survival, aquaculture practitioners can make informed decisions regarding

feed formulation, potentially reducing reliance on conventional feed

ingredients with environmental and ethical concerns. Furthermore, the study

may contribute to the broader understanding of utilizing natural resources in

aquafeed production, thereby promoting the development of eco-friendly and

economically viable aquaculture practices. However, it is important to

acknowledge the control of this study, including the need for further research

to validate findings across different environmental conditions and fish

developmental stages, as well as potential challenges in sourcing and

processing coconut embryo at a commercial scale.

Objectives of the study

 The main objectives of the study were to determine the growth

performance and survival rate of red tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) using the

coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Haustorium, also known as coconut embryo or

coconut apple, as a feed ingredient.

Specifically, it aimed to measure the following:

1. Determines beneficial effect on the growth performance using

coconut apple in the Red Tilapia.

a. Average daily weight

b. Average daily length

c. Weight-specific growth rate

d. Length-specific growth rate

2. Determine beneficial effect on the survival rate based on the

given concentration of coconut apple/embryo in every treatment.

3. Determine the Physio-Chemical Parameter of the water.

Conceptual Framework of the Study

Figure 1 shows the overall conceptual framework of the study. The

problem addressed in this study is to determine the potential beneficial effects

of adding coconut embryo or haustorium to the diet of red tilapia. The

phytochemical composition and the proximate composition of the coconut

embryo were analyzed. The experiment in this study consists of three (3)

treatments: T1 10%, T2 15% and T3 20% of coconut embryo that served as

an independent variable (IV). After two (2) months of feeding trials, the growth

performance that served as a dependent variable (DV) were measured. The

water parameters that served as a moderating variable (MV) were monitored

frequently.

Independent Moderating Dependent

variable variable variable

Coconut Embryo
Oxygen Growth performance
Treatment 1- 10%
Temperature Survival rate
Treatment 2- 15%
Salinity
Treatment 3- 20%
Ammonia

Figure 1. The overall framework of the study.

Significance of the study

The significance of this study lies in its potential to contribute to the

aquaculture sector, specifically in the cultivation of red tilapia. By investigating

the effects of coconut apple or haustorium on the fish diet, the study aims to

enhance the growth performance of red tilapia. If successful, this could lead to

improved tilapia production, increased revenue for farmers, and positive

implications for the feed industry. Additionally, understanding how coconut

apple impacts the nutritional aspects of fish feed may lead to eco-friendly and

nutritionally balanced feed formulations in aquaculture practices.

Scope and limitations

The study will focus on evaluating the growth performance of red tilapia

(Oreochromis spp.) using the coconut embryo that will be added to the diet.

This will be conducted from December 1, 2024, to February 1, 2025, at the

North Eastern Mindanao State University-Lianga Campus Brackishwater Fish

Farm, Poblacion, Lianga, Surigao del Sur, Philippines. This study is intended

to look at growth factors such as length gain (cm), weight gain (g), average

daily weight gain (g), average daily length increments (cm), weight-specific

growth rate, and length-specific growth rate (SRG% per day), and fish

survival.

Definition of terms

Aquaculture is the process of breeding, raising, and

harvesting fish, shellfish, algae, and other

organisms in various water environments.

Fish are aquatic animals with scales that breathe

through their mouths. Their meat is consumed

as food.

Red Tilapia Oreochromis spp. Species used in this study.

Coconut Embryo/apple Is the soft, spongy and spherical structure

found inside the mature coconut.

Diet Refers to the amount of the food consumed.

Feed formulation Process of which the feed is formulate using

the raw materials including the coconut

embryo/apple

Growth performance Refers to the increase of weight and length of

red tilapia.

Added The addition of coconut embryo/apple in the

feed for red tilapia.

Beneficial The benefits of red tilapia get when fed by the

 feed added with coconut embryo/apple.

Effect Refers to the change of red tilapia whether bad

or good.

Survival Refers to the continual of red tilapia to live or

exist.
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Biology of Red tilapia

Red Tilapia, a hybrid fish in the genus Oreochromis, is a complex

hybrid resulting from the crossing of various species like Oreochromis

niloticus, Oreochromis mossambicus, and Oreochromis aureus

(Zhandalgarova et al., 2023). The genetic architecture of sex in Red Tilapia

has been studied, revealing significant QTL intervals associated with sex on

specific chromosomes, aiding in the selection of all-male lines for aquacultural

production (Zhu et al., 2022). Additionally, the pathogenicity of Aeromonas

species in aquaculture, including their impact on Red Tilapia, has been

investigated, highlighting the importance of understanding different

Aeromonas strains for fish health and disease management (Azzam-Sayuti et

al., 2021). Furthermore, the breeding programs for Red Tilapia in Malaysia

have shown advancements through systematic selection practices and the

use of molecular tools for growth trait identification, aiming to enhance fish

production and farmer income (Mohamad et al., 2021).

Red tilapia displayed deep-bodied individuals with larger heads

compared to Nile tilapia. Morphological differences included body depth and

head shape variations between red tilapia farms in Colombian Andes

(Montoya-López et al., 2019). Red tilapia exhibit significant morphological

variations compared to other tilapia strains (Ramli et al., 2016). These

variations include characteristics such as body width, body height, pre-

pectoral length, and pelvic fin length, which have been identified as key

parameters for distinguishing between different red tilapia hybrids (Allaman et

al., 2013). Studies have shown that the morphology of red tilapia can be

influenced by genetic and environmental factors, leading to differences in

body shape among populations from various farms. Additionally, research has

highlighted the importance of selective breeding programs to enhance specific

morphological traits in red tilapia, emphasizing the potential for genetic

improvement to meet consumer preferences and optimize production yields.

Figure 2. Red Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.)

Food and Feeding of Red Tilapia

Feeding red tilapia involves various dietary strategies to optimize

growth and health. Studies have explored alternative feed ingredients like

soybean residue, biofloc meal, Moringa oleifera leaf meal, and specialized

feeds for different life stages. Utilizing fermented soybean residue improved

growth performance and feed utilization in red tilapia, while biofloc meal

provided sustainable nutrition with adequate protein levels (Nguyen, 2022).

Additionally, feeds enriched with specific nutrients like fatty acids and
traditional Chinese medicine components can enhance fatty acid metabolism,

liver health, and spawning success in red tilapia (Chen, 2019). Incorporating

Moringa oleifera leaf meal in diets showed promising results, providing

necessary nutrients without compromising growth or survival rates, making it

a viable alternative protein source for red Nile tilapia (Doctolero & Bartolome,

2019). These studies collectively highlight the importance of tailored feeding

strategies to ensure optimal growth and health outcomes for red tilapia.

Growth of Red Tilapia

The growth of red tilapia can be influenced by various factors such as

diet composition and supplementation. Research has shown that

incorporating fermented coconut husk waste in feed at a 50% filler level can

significantly enhance the Specific Growth Rate (SGR) and reduce the Feed

Conversion Ratio (FCR) (Haetami, 2023). Additionally, supplementing with 4%

soybean oil has been found to promote growth, with the highest SGR

observed in this treatment (John et al., 2022). Furthermore, optimizing diets

with organic trace minerals like chromium-L-methionine in combination with

zinc amino acid complex can improve growth performance, feed utilization,

and immune responses in red tilapia (Limwachirakhom et al., 2022).

Moreover, supplementing diets with ethanolic roselle calyces extract has

shown to enhance growth parameters and improve immunological responses

in red tilapia (Lili et al., 2022). These studies collectively highlight the

importance of diet composition and supplementation in promoting the growth

of red tilapia.

Reproduction of Red Tilapia

 Red Tilapia, particularly the Red Nile Tilapia variant, reproduce through

mouth brooding, with females holding eggs until hatching. Brood sizes range

from 100 to 2,000 eggs, depending on female size. Red Nile Tilapia are

favored for their ease of breeding, rapid growth, and adaptability to diverse

water conditions. They have an omnivorous diet, consuming plankton, aquatic

plants, algae, and duckweed, making them suitable for aquaponics and

aquaculture (Lingam et al., 2021). Additionally, according to their studies

these tilapia can live up to nine years, tolerate brackish water, and thrive in

temperatures from 63°F to 101°F, preferring warmer environments. They are

active feeders during the day and may feed at night to maintain adequate

nutrient intake. Given suitable conditions, Red Tilapia reproduce prolifically,

making them valuable for both home consumption and commercial farming.

Reproduction in red tilapia is influenced by various factors such as

genetic selection, environmental conditions, and exposure to contaminants.

Studies have shown that genetic improvement through breeding programs

can enhance production traits (Hassan et al., 2022). Additionally, the use of

specific breeding methods involving hybridization can lead to the development

of new strains with desirable characteristics like rapid growth and vibrant body

color (Zhao et al., 2020). Environmental factors like salinity levels have been

found to impact the reproductive performance of red tilapia, with optimal

salinity ranges varying for different strains (Robisalmi et al., 2019). Exposure

to contaminants like petroleum crude oil can affect the reproductive organs

and hormone levels in red tilapia, highlighting the importance of mitigating

pollution for successful reproduction (Passos Neto et al., 2015).

Fish feed development

 To sustain the high rates of increase in aquaculture production, a

matching increase in the levels of fish feed production is necessary. Fish feed

technology is considered one of the least developed sectors of aquaculture,

particularly in Africa and other developing countries worldwide (FAO, 2003).

The development and management of fish feed play a crucial role in the

growth and expansion of aquaculture. Indeed, it is a major factor that

determines the profitability of aquaculture ventures. Jamu and Ayinla (2003)

reported that feed accounts for at least 60% of total expenses in aquaculture.

Nutrients requirements

The protein needs of tilapia decrease as they age and grow, with higher

levels required for fry (30–56%) and juvenile (30–40%) tilapia compared to

larger ones, which need lower protein levels (28–30%) (Winfree and Stickney,

1981). Abdel El-Sayed (2004) found that red tilapia perform best with 35–40%

CP. Dietary lipids are essential for energy and fat-soluble vitamin absorption,

with tilapia diets requiring at least 5% lipids; diets containing 10–15% lipids

improve growth and protein consumption efficiency (Chong et al., 2004). The

vitamin C requirements of some tilapia species have been studied (Stickney

et al., 1984). Minerals like phosphorus significantly impact weight gain, food

conversion ratio, and protein efficiency ratio (Stickney, 1997).

Market Demand

Asia leads globally in tilapia production, consumption, and exports, with

the Philippines experiencing gradual but consistent growth in tilapia farming in

recent years. In 2016, farms in the Philippines produced over 300,000 metric

tons (White et al., 2018). The Filipino tilapia market is primarily domestic, with
minimal exports. Production is spread across the islands, but Luzon

contributes the most to both production and consumption. Pond culture and

cage culture are the main methods of tilapia farming in the Philippines. The

majority of production comes from O. niloticus, mainly derived from the GIFT

tilapia and subsequent strains developed in the country (Bentsen et al., 2017;

Weimin, M. 2017).

Coconut Embryo

In the early stages of coconut sprouting, a sponge-like structure called the

haustorium develops, capable of extracting nutrients from both coconut water

and flesh to nourish the growing embryo, completing the process within 20–24

weeks after germination (Li, L., et al. 2019). Known by various names such as

"coconut treasure," "coconut heart," coconut embryo, and "coconut apple" in

Hainan province, the haustorium is esteemed for its sweet and crisp taste.

Figure 3. Coconut embryo

Rich in essential nutrients like vitamins, potassium, iron, and protein,

coconut embryos offer numerous health benefits, including antioxidant

properties. Consuming coconut embryos can boost metabolism, aiding in

weight loss and diabetes management by improving insulin storage.

Particularly for those with diabetes, the consumption of coconut apples can

enhance insulin storage and help control the condition (Rabya Jamshed,

2018). Coconut embryos exhibit an antioxidant activity of 19.80%, with vitamin

C content of 10.95 mg/100 g, crude fiber at 1.98%, and ash content of 30.2%

(Gayam Laxmi Preethi et al., 2023). As reported by Yufeng Zhang et al.

(2022), smaller coconut haustoria contain higher levels of ash (10.17%),

protein (9.22%), and fat (5.03%), while haustoria of various sizes are

abundant in potassium (4.06–4.69%) and phosphorus (0.39–0.50%).

Coconut Embryo as feed ingredients

Coconut embryo, along with other parts of the coconut, shows potential

as an ingredient in animal feeds. Research suggests that different

components of the coconut, such as coconut water, milk, copra, and flour, can

be utilized in livestock and aquaculture industries, offering cost-effective and

nutritious alternatives (Mat et al., 2022). Studies on coconut meal in sheep

diets indicate that its inclusion affects intake, digestibility, and nitrogen

balance, with specific recommendations on optimal levels based on nutrient

content (Maués et al., 2021). Furthermore, coconut dregs have been explored

as a feed ingredient for fish, with fermentation processes showing

improvements in crude protein content and fiber reduction, although

challenges remain in meeting fish feed standards (Putri Karlina et al., 2013).

Additionally, coconut pulp has been successfully processed into feed

ingredients for fish and poultry through fermentation, demonstrating increased

protein content and safe aflatoxin levels (Syahri & Syahrir, 2016). These
findings collectively highlight the potential of utilizing coconut embryo and its

derivatives in animal feeds to enhance nutrition and cost-efficiency.

CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental Fish and Site

A total of 135 fingerlings of Oreochromis species will be purchased at

Panabo, Davao del Norte. The experiment will be conducted at the

brackishwater pond of North Eastern Mindanao State University, located on a

national highway in Lianga, Surigao del Sur at 8° 37' 59.99" North latitude and

126°0.5' 60.00" East longitude.

Figure 4. Map of the experimental site. NEMSU-Lianga Campus

Brackishwater Fish Farm.

Preparation of Coconut Embryo or Haustorium

 The proximate analysis will be conducted to determine the composition

of the coconut embryo. The experimental feeding will be carried out at the

Regional Feeds Chemical Analysis Laboratory of the Department of

Agriculture - Caraga Region.

Experimental Diet

The formulation process will involve blending rice bran, soya, and

copra meal based on their respective crude protein content using the Pearson

square method to achieve a target crude protein level of 40%. Each ingredient

will be weighed according to its calculated inclusion rate. Subsequently, the

feed mixtures will be sun-dried and allocated into separate containers labeled

as diets T1, T2, and T3, representing 20%, 50%, and 70% inclusion levels of

the coconut embryo diet, respectively.

Experimental Design

The study will adopt a completely randomized design incorporating

replication and randomization. It will entail a singular experiment featuring

three treatments: T1 (20% coconut embryo), T2 (50% coconut embryo), and

T3 (70% coconut embryo). Each treatment will comprise three replicates

housed in 50-liter mega boxes, each accommodating 15 Red Tilapia

fingerlings. Following an acclimatization phase, fish will be randomly

distributed into duplicate groups within clearly labeled boxes for each

treatment. Feeding regimens will be administered thrice daily (8:00 am, 12:00

pm, and 4:00 pm) based on a calculated daily feed ratio adjusted post-

sampling. Growth will be periodically sampled at 15-day intervals, with

aeration facilitated by aerator hoses connected to a blower for optimal

oxygenation. Tank maintenance will involve siphon cleaning every three days

and 80% water renewal every 15 days.

Storage
Box

Red
Tilapia
Water

Figure 5. layout of the experiment.

Water Quality Monitoring

Daily monitoring of water temperature (in degrees Celsius) and pH

levels (measured in Cybertronics units) will be conducted using thermometers

and digital pH meters, respectively. As per the American Public Health

Association (APHA, 1995) guidelines, traditional methods for assessing

dissolved oxygen (DO, measured in mg/L) will require the addition of various

reagents to water samples. These reagents will react with dissolved oxygen,

resulting in a noticeable color change.

Growth Parameters

Fish weight and feed intake will be quantified to evaluate growth

responses. Parameters such as average weight gain (AWG), average length

gain (ALG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), specific growth rate (SGR), and
survival rate (SR) will be computed utilizing this dataset, following established

equations as outlined by Jobling (2012) and Adewumi et al. (2016).

Formula:

a) Weight gain = Final body weight - Initial body weight

b) Length gain = Final length weight - Initial length weight

c) Average daily weight gain = Final weight - Initial weight/days

d) Average daily length gain = Final length - Initial length/days

e) Feed conversion ratio = weight of food consumed / weight gain (g)

f) Specific growth rate = Final weight - Initial weight / No. of days × 100

g) Survival rate (%) = No. of fish survived / No. of fish stocked x 100

Statistical Analysis

The data will be subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

for statistical analysis. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)

Software, version 20 (2011), will be employed for conducting the tests. A

significance level of p<0.05 will be utilized for the parameters under

examination.

Data Analysis

Performing a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will allow the

researcher to determine if there are statistically significant differences in

growth parameters among the treatment groups. This analysis compares the

means of the growth parameters (AWG, ALG, FCR, SGR, SR) across the

three treatment groups (T1, T2, T3).

Reference/s:

Allaman, I. B., Reis Neto, R. V., de Freitas, R. T. F., Freato, T. A., Lago, A. A.,

Costa, A. C., & de Lima, R. R. (2013). Weight and morphometric

growth of different strains of tilapia (Oreochromis sp). Revista Brasileira

De Zootecnia. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1516-35982013000500001

Azzam-Sayuti, M., Ina-Salwany, Y., Zamri-Saad, M., Annas, S., Yusof, M. T.,

Monir, S., Mohamad, A., Ngoo, M. H., Lee, J. Y., Chin, Y. K., Amir-

Danial, Z., Asyiqin, A., Lukman, B., Liles, M. R., & Amal, M. N. A.

(2021). Comparative Pathogenicity of Aeromonas spp. in Cultured Red

Hybrid Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus × O. mossambicus). Biology.

https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10111192

Bentsen, H.B., Gjerde, B., Eknath, A.E., de Vera, M.S.P., Velasco, R.R.,

Danting, J.C., Dionisio, E.E., Longalong, F.M., Reyes, R.A., Abella, T.A.

and Tayamen, M.M. (2017). Genetic improvement of farmed tilapias:

Response to five generations of selection for increased body weight at

harvest in Oreochromis niloticus and the further impact of the project.

Aquaculture, 468, 206-217.

Chen, T. (2019). Feed for adjusting fatty acid metabolism of young fishes of

red tilapia and preparation method thereof.

Chong, C. Y. (2004). An overview of lipid nutrition with emphasis on alternative

lipid sources in tilapia feeds. In Proceedings of the Sixth International

Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture (pp. 241-248). Manila,

Philippines: Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.

Coli, A. (2022). First identification of two co-existing genome-wide significant

sex quantitative trait loci (QTL) in red tilapia using integrative QTL

mapping. Science Data Bank Datasets.

https://doi.org/10.11922/sciencedb.01457

Devin, M. Bartley, J. R. Arthur, Kevin Fitzsimmons, Michael R. Phillips, &

Melba G. Bondad-Reantaso. (2023). Tilapia health: quo vadis?

Reviews in Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12789

Doctolero, J. S., & Bartolome, R. M. (2019). Utilization of horseradish

(Moringa oleifera) as an alternative protein-source feed ingredient on

the diet of red Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). International Journal

of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2003). Fisheries

statistics. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org

Fredrick, J., Juma, S., Wilson, M., Mathia, M., & Harikrishnan. (2023). Current

Status and Trend on the Adoption of Fish Feed Additives for

Sustainable Tilapia Aquaculture Production: A Review. Asian Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Research.

https://doi.org/10.9734/ajfar/2023/v22i3571

Haetami, K. (2023). Utilization of Fermented Coconut Epidermis Using Oncom

Mushroom (Neurospora sitophila) on the Growth Performance of Red

 Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Fingerlings. Asian Journal of Fisheries

and Aquatic Research. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajfar/2023/v22i3574

Hafrijal, A. D., Syandri, H., Aryani, N., & Mardiah, A. (2023). Effect of feed

enriched by products formulated from coconut water, palm sap sugar,

and mushroom on the chemical composition of feed and carcass,

growth performance, body indices, and gut micromorphology of giant

gourami, Osphronemus goramy (Lacepède, 1801), juveniles.

F1000Research. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.124706.1

Hassan, H. S., Shaarawy, Z. K. T., Kamel, S., Eldanasoury, M., Saeed, M., &

Desouky, A. A. (2022). Impact of Zinc and Selenium on Reproduction

Profile of Hybrid Red Tilapia Treated with Sub-lethal Concentration of

Water-Soluble Fractions (WSFs) of Petroleum Crude Oil. Aquatic

Science and Fish Resources (ASFR).

https://doi.org/10.21608/asfr.2022.126156.1020

Jamshed, R. (2018, February 27). Retrieved from [URL]

Jamu, D. M., & Ayinla, O. A. (2003). Potential for the development of

aquaculture in Africa. NAGA, 26, 9-13.

John, R., Haetami, K., Rosidah, & Iskandar. (2022). Effect of Addition of

Soybean Oil, Coconut Oil and Corn Oil to Commercial Feed on the

Growth of Red Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Asian Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Research.

https://doi.org/10.9734/ajfar/2022/v19i230469

Karun, A., Upadhyay, A., & Parthasarathy, V. A. (1997, October). Status of

research on coconut embryo culture and acclimatization techniques in

 India. In Coconut embryo in vitro culture. Papers presented at a

workshop on embryo culture (pp. 29-36).

Li, J., Htwe, Y. M., Wang, Y., Yang, Y., & Wang, R. (2019). Analysis of sugars

and fatty acids during haustorium development and seedling growth of

coconut. Agron. J. 111, 2341–2349.

Lili, W., Ibrahim, N., Haetami, K., & Grandiosa, R. (2022). Influence of

Supplementing Dietary Herbal Concentrations on Growth and Survival

of Red Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) Juveniles. Asian Journal of Fisheries

and Aquatic Research. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajfar/2022/v16i130362

Limwachirakhom, R., Triwutanon, S., Chumkam, S., & Jintasataporn, O.

(2022). Effects of Chromium-L-Methionine in Combination with a Zinc

Amino Acid Complex or Selenomethionine on Growth Performance,

Intestinal Morphology, and Antioxidative Enzymes in Red Tilapia

Oreochromis spp.. Animals. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12172182

Lingam, S., Sampath Kumar, S., Chidambaram, J., Aanand, P., Velmurugan,

S., & Bhosle, R. (2021). An insight to red tilapia breeding and culture: A

farmer advisory. Aquaculture, 25, 21-26.

Manikandan, A., Sudharshini, J., Arun, S., Vignesh, V., Paul, B., Zulhisyam, A.

K., Guillermo, T.-I., & Thirumurugan, R. (2023). Recent Advances in

Tilapia Production for Sustainable Developments in Indian Aquaculture

and Its Economic Benefits. Fishes.

https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8040176

Mat, K., Abdul Kari, Z., Rusli, N. D., Che Harun, H., Lee, S. W., Rahman, M.

M., Mohd Khalid, H. N., Mohd Ali Hanafiah, M. H., Mohamad Sukri, S.
 A., Raja Khalif, R. I. A., Mohd Zin, Z., Mohd Zainol, M. K., Panadi, M.,

Mohd Nor, M. F., & Wen Goh, K. (2022). Coconut Palm: Food, Feed,

and Nutraceutical Properties. Animals.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12162107

Mat, K., Abdul Kari, Z., Rusli, N. D., Che Harun, H., Seong Wei, L., Mijanur

Rahman, M., Mohd Khalid, H. N., Mohd Ali Hanafiah, M. H., Anis

Mohamad Sukri, S., Ili Airina Raja Khalif, R., Mohd Zin, Z., Mohd Zainol

Mohamad Khairi, M., Panadi, M., Mohd Nor Mohamad Faiz, M., & Wen

Goh Khang. (2022). Coconut Palm: Food, Feed, and Nutraceutical

Properties. Animals. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12162107

Maués, F. P. D. S., Da Silva, S. O., Pantoja, S. O., Nogueira Domingues, F.,

Coutinho do Rêgo, A., & Faturi, C. (2021). Coconut cake in diets for

sheep with high concentrate affects digestibility and intake. Caatinga

Journal. https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-21252021V34N321RC

Md. Sakhawat Hossain, Brian C. Small, Vikas Kumar, & R. Hardy. (2023).

Utilization of functional feed additives to produce cost-effective,

ecofriendly aquafeeds high in plant-based ingredients. Reviews in

Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12824

Merkawati, D., Agam, B., & Maryono. (2023). Utilization of Fermented

Coconut Pulp Flour as a Mixture for Feeding Catfish (Clarias

gariepinus). Journal of Fisheries Science.

https://doi.org/10.30997/jmss.v9i1.8412

Mohamad, S. N., Mohd. Noordin, W. N., Ismail, N. F., & Hamzah, A. (2021).

Red Hybrid Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) Broodstock Development

 Programme in Malaysia: Status, Challenges and Prospects for Future

Development. Asian Fisheries Science.

https://doi.org/10.33997/J.AFS.2021.34.1.008

Montoya-López, F., Moreno-Arias, C., Tarazona-Morales, A. M., Olivera-

Angel, M., & Betancur, J. (2019). Body shape variation between farms

of tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) in Colombian Andes using landmark-based

geometric morphometrics. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research.

https://doi.org/10.3856/vol47-issue1-fulltext-23

Mráz, J. (2023). Plant-based feed additives in Cyprinus carpio aquaculture.

Reviews in Aquaculture. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12840

Nguyen, H. P. (2022). Effects of Dietary Replacement of Fish Meal by Raw

and Fermented Soybean Residues on Growth Performance, Biological

Parameters and Nutrient Digestibility in Red Tilapia Fish (Oreochromis

sp.). Pakistan Journal of Zoology.

https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20211015111004

Passos Neto, O. P., Marengoni, N. G., Albuquerque, D. M., Souza, R. L. M., &

Ogawa, M. (2015). Reproduction and sex ratio in red Saint Peter

tilapia, under different salinities. Revista Ciencia Agronomica.

https://doi.org/10.5935/1806-6690.20150010

Putri Karlina, H., Cahyoko, Y., & Agustono. (2013). Fermentation of coconut

dregs using Trichoderma viride, Bacillus subtilis, and EM4 against

crude protein and crude fiber as an alternative feed ingredient for fish.

Ramesh, S. V., Pandiselvam, R., Beegum, P. P. S., Kumar, R. M. S.,

Manikantan, M. R., & Hebbar, K. B. (2021). Review of Cocos nucifera

 L. testa-derived phytonutrients with special reference to phenolics and

its potential for encapsulation. Journal of Food Science and

Technology-Mysore. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13197-021-05310-2

Ramli, Z., Wan Zahari, M., Lee, S. W., & Ibrahim, C. O. (2016).

Characterization of four red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) through

morphometric characteristics.

Robisalmi, A., Setyawan, P., & Gunadi, B. (2019). Evaluation of larvae

production and growth of juvenile red tilapia NIFI F1 during the nursery

phase. https://doi.org/10.32491/JII.V18I3.420

Shameena Beegum, P. P., Pandiselvam, R., Ramesh, S. V., Thube, S. H.,

Pandian, T. P., Khanashyam, A. C., Manikantan, M. R., & Hebbar, K. B.

(2022). A critical appraisal on the antimicrobial, oral protective, and

anti-diabetic functions of coconut and its derivatives. Quality Assurance

and Safety of Crops & Foods. https://doi.org/10.15586/qas.v14i2.1040

Stickney, R. R., McGeachin, R. B., Lewis, D. H., Marks, J., Riggs, A., Sis, R.

F., et al.. (1984). Response of Tilapia aurea to dietary vitamin C.

Journal of the World Mariculture Society, 15, 179-185.

Stickney, R.R. (1997). Tilapia update 1996. World Aquaculture, 28: 20-25.

Syahri, Y. F., & Syahrir. (2016). Potency of dregs coconut fermentation (Cocos

nucifera) as an alternative feed for fish and poultry 'Pa-bio'.

https://doi.org/10.31327/atj.v1i1.198

White, P. G., Shipton, T. A., Bueno, P. B., & Hasan, M. R. (2018). Better

management practices for feed production and management of Nile

 tilapia and milkfish in the Philippines. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture

Technical Paper, (614), I-79.

Winfree, R. A., & Stickney, R. R. (1981). Effects of dietary protein and energy

on growth, feed conversion efficiency and body composition of Tilapia

aurea. J. Nutr. 111: 1001–1012.

Zhandalgarova, A. D., Sergeyeva, Y. V., Grozesku, Y. N., & Lagutkina, L. Y.

(2023). Influence of probiotic immobilized on enterosorbent on growth

intensity and physiological parameters of red tilapia (Oreochromis

mossambicus × Oreochromis niloticus). Vestnik Astrahanskogo

Gosudarstvennogo Tehnicheskogo Universiteta.

https://doi.org/10.24143/2073-5529-2023-1-64-71

Zhang, Y., Kan, J., Tang, M., Song, F., Li, N., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Chemical

Composition, Nutritive Value, Volatile Profiles and Antioxidant Activity of

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Haustorium with Different Transverse

Diameter. Foods, 11(7), 916. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11070916

Zhao, C., Hongfei, X., Zongwei, Y., Binlan, Y., Cailin, H., Heyong, Z., Hua, L.,

Feilin, L., & Zhijie, Z. (2020). Breeding method of red tilapia new strain.

Zhu, Z. X., Lin, Y. L., Ai, C. H., Xiong, Y. Y., Huang, D. D., Yao, Y. Y., Liu, T. D.,

Chen, C. H., Lin, H. R., & Xia, J. H. (2022). First identification of two

co-existing genome-wide significant sex quantitative trait loci (QTL) in

red tilapia using integrative QTL mapping. Zoological Research.

https://doi.org/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2021.402