PRINCIPLES 1

OF HYGIENE AND
FOOD SAFETY
MANAGEMENT
Following the example of the other training manuals produced by COLEACP PIP
programme, training manual 1 has been designed and written by the PIP Training
Unit of the programme. Bruno Schiffers, professor at Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech and
head of the unit, in collaboration with Babacar Samb, is the author of chapters 1 to
8 in the manual. Babacar Samb and Jérémy Knops, PIP experts, are respectively
authors of chapter 5 and chapter 9.

PIP is a European cooperation programme managed by COLEACP. COLEACP is an interna-

tional network promoting sustainable horticultural trade. PIP is financed by the European
Union and implemented at the request of the ACP (Africa, Caribbean and Pacific) Group of
States. In accordance with the Millennium Development Goals, the global objective is to :
«Maintain and, if possible, increase the contribution made by export horticulture to the
reduction of poverty in ACP countries».

This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The contents
of this publication are the sole responsibility of PIP and COLEACP and can in no way be taken
to reflect the views of the European Union.

PIP c/o COLEACP

130, rue du Trône • B-1050 Brussels • Belgium
Tel : +32 (0)2 508 10 90 • Fax : +32 (0)2 514 06 32
E-mail : pip@coleacp.org
www.coleacp.org/pip
PRINCIPLES OF HYGIENE
AND FOOD SAFETY
MANAGEMENT

Chapter 1: Basic food safety concepts

1.1. Food safety: facts and figures
1.2. Food safety: key concepts
1.3. The key role of operators in ensuring food safety

Chapter 2: General principles of food hygiene

2.1. Importance of hygiene for product quality and safety
2.2. General principles of food hygiene
2.3. Implementing food hygiene principles
Appendices: Guides to Good Practices

Chapter 3: Origin and nature of food risk

3.1. Origin and nature of biological risks
3.2. Origin and nature of physical risks
3.3. Origin and nature of chemical risks
3.4. Emerging risks
Appendices

Chapter 4: Handling and preservation of fruit and vegetables

4.1. Importance of different factors for handling and preservation
of fruit and vegetables
4.2. Use of cooling to preserve certain products
4.3. Hygiene and maintenance of cold chambers
4.4. Techniques for preparing and preserving products
Appendices
Chapter 5: The HACCP system
5.1. Scope and significance of the HACCP method
5.2. Description of the HACCP method
5.3. Example application of the HACCP method: production and
packaging of fresh mangoes
Appendices

Chapter 6: Establishing a FSMS (Food Safety Management System)

in a company
6.1. Usefulness and evolution of ‘quality approach’ concepts
6.2. Principles of establishing an FSMS in a company
6.3. The key steps
Appendices: Aspects of the documentation system

Chapter 7: The internal control and FSMS certification process

7.1. The continual improvement principle
7.2. Self-evaluations and internal audits
7.3. Third-party verification FSMS certification
Appendices

Chapter 8: Market Access Strategy

8.1. Business positioning and market access strategy
8.2. The European Union market for fruit and vegetable exports

Chapter 9: Private standards (PS)

9.1. Private standards
9.2. Private standards in the area of food safety
9.3. Private standards in the field of sustainable development
9.4. Conclusions about private standards

Glossary
Abbreviations and acronyms
Bibliographical references
Useful Websites
 1

Chapter 1
Basic food safety concepts
1.1. Food safety: facts and figures ............................................................................. 6

1.2. Food safety: key concepts ................................................................................. 13

1.3. The key role of operators in ensuring food safety ................................................ 23

 Chapter 1
Basic food
safety concepts

1.1. Food safety: facts and figures

1.1.1. A global problem

Every day in every country people fall ill from the food they have eaten. These
foodborne illnesses are caused by dangerous micro-organisms and/or toxic chemicals.

Even though governments throughout the world do their utmost to improve the safety and
quality of food, the high number of foodborne illnesses is a major public health issue for
all countries. The WHO (World Health Organisation) has estimated that 1 800 000
people die each year from diarrhoeal diseases, and most cases can be attributed to
contaminated food or drinking water (WHO, 2007). The cost in human suffering is thus far
too high, in particular for the most vulnerable population groups (infants and young
children, pregnant women, the elderly, the ill, etc.). Malnutrition, coupled with diarrhoea
caused by unsanitary food, can be devastating and this vicious combination is the
primary cause of child mortality in hygiene-deficient countries.

The WHO has also recognised that foodborne illnesses:

 are a problem in developing and developed countries
alike;
 place a burden on healthcare systems;
 seriously affect infants, young children, the elderly and
those who are already ill;
 spawn a vicious circle of diarrhoea and malnutrition;
 undermine the economy and national development
efforts, as well as international trade.

Participants in the WHO/FAO International Conference on

Nutrition (Rome, 1992) recognised that 'Access to … safe food is a right of each
individual'. In this context, the availability of suitable food should be seen as a top priority
by governments, industry and consumers.

Yet cases of food poisoning are constantly rising. It is estimated that foodborne
illnesses affect from 5 to 10 % of the population in industrialised countries (WHO, 1999).
Epidemics caused by bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157,
Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, etc. or by viruses have struck thousands of victims
in Europe, Japan and the USA. New hazards are discovered every year, associated with
the presence of chemical contaminants or toxins that form when food is processed or
prepared. Food allergies are also on the rise.

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1.1.2. A steady increase in the number of cases registered

This increase in the number of cases (referred to as 'prevalence' ) is the result of a large
number of interacting factors, including:
 the growing number of operators who
intervene in the food chain between
the primary producer and the
consumer;
 inadequate hygiene controls at
various steps of production and
distribution, as well as in the
consumer's own kitchen;
 a change in the way food is prepared
and consumed: shorter cooking times,
more consumption of raw products
either for taste or to save time, less
canning and more freezing, more
fermented products, cold-smoked fish,
and so on;
 more consumption outside the home
in restaurants, canteens, etc.;
 more preparation of food, ready-to-
cook or ready to eat;
 greater sensitivity of products to
spoilage (e.g.: less salt or sugar
used);
 increased demand for meat or fish,
which are more prone to
contamination;
 longer food preservation periods due
to the complexity of the food chain and
greater distance between the field and
the consumer's table;
 a larger quantity of food involved as a
result of industrialisation of the agri-
food chain and centralisation of
distribution systems;
 more international trade, more
transport and storage, which offers
fewer guarantees that the cold chain
has been maintained;
 better detection of bacterial
contamination (more cases are
reported);
 more exotic products in the diet;
 less respect for growing seasons.

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Food hygiene is regularly cited as a cause of food poisoning. Those who produce and
distribute food obviously must respect rules of hygiene, but individuals should also be
concerned about the food they eat. This point will be discussed in Chapter 2 of this
manual.

Main factors leading to foodborne illness outbreaks (FBI) in France (Source 'Conserver
mieux' - CTCPA, 1997)

Contamination of raw materials: 54 %

Non-respect for the cold chain during meal preparation: 40 %
Error in the preparation process: 35 %
Too much time between preparation and consumption: 25 %
Contamination by equipment: 21 %
Contamination by employees: 17 %
Non-respect for the hot chain: 14 %

Nonetheless, food poisoning is not caused solely by insufficient hygiene but also by
various types of contaminants which, at certain concentrations, can be toxic for the
consumer. Despite the recognised health benefits of regular fruit and vegetable
consumption, recent studies on consumer exposure to pesticide residues point to an
1
identifiable risk of poisoning for some groups such as children. (W. Claeys et al., 2010).

Risks for the average consumer, however, remain low, but they can be reduced further
when simple and efficient hygiene rules are applied and all operators implement food
safety management systems based on an analysis of the hazards linked to their
professional practices and the type of product they handle.

1.1.3. Evolution of the concept of product 'quality'

The international standard ISO 9000 defines terms related to quality. Quality is defined as
the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements. Quality
comprises multiple characteristics, or components, that depend on the product or service
under consideration.

1
W. Claeys, J.F. Schmit, C. Bragard, G. Maghuin-Rogister, L. Pussemier & B.Schiffers (2010) -
Exposure of several Belgian consumer groups to pesticide residues through fresh fruit and
vegetable consumption. Food Control 22 (2011): 508-516.

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Quality requirements for food products have multiplied considerably in the past years.
They cover not only aspects relating to a product's food safety, but also to the way it was
produced or related services related to it (e.g.: information about the product). For
instance, quality elements can include:

Nutritional quality: Regulatory quality

quantitative and qualitative of the product, respect for the
aspects environment

Social quality Organoleptic (sensory)

ethical production practices, quality:
fairness in production, etc. appearance, taste,
pleasurable/attractive, etc.

Quality of service: Hygiene and toxicological quality:

conservation, storage, no foreign bodies, insects,
consumer information, etc. dangerous micro-organisms, toxins,
pesticides, etc.

The concept of 'quality' can be illustrated by 3 circles (Venn diagram) representing:

1. Customer needs: which are variable and never totally expressed;
2. Specifications: both internal (never perfectly defined) and external (better defined,
for example regulations);
3. Actual production: in the actual production process a gap often appears between
the real conditions and those foreseen in specifications (in particular for
agricultural products: inclement weather, materials, seasonal workers, etc.).

Customer needs

Actual
Specifications
production

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The final objective of any 'quality strategy' will be to reconcile 'needs / specifications /
actual production' in all circumstances - for controlled quality is found at the centre
where the three circles intersect! Quality strategies will be discussed in Chapter 6 of this
manual.

Food safety and traceability

requirements reflect the desire
of buyers and consumers to
know where, how, and when
the food on their plate was
produced in order to have a
guarantee that it is safe.

1.1.4. Significant evolution in retailers' approach

Food safety cannot be used as a sales argument because it is illogical to sell foods that
are 'safer' than others (they are either safe or not!). This aspect is nevertheless promoted
by some retailers who oblige suppliers to apply their own private standards in the place
of regulations such as MRL (maximum residue levels authorised for pesticides).

In Germany, for example, after the Greenpeace

campaigns in the retail sector on pesticide residues
in fruit and vegetables ('Eating pesticide-free') the
main supermarket chains imposed MRLs well below
those authorised by the EU, even though reducing
the limit considered as acceptable by 20 to 30 %
has no effect on the consumer's level of risk!

Campaign in the Netherlands (with the 'Hypermarket C1000' label):

Mandatory limit of 80 % of MRL and maximum of 3 detectable residues
authorised in products.

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Examples of residue requirements set by various supermarket chains:

Maximum % of the European MRL considered as acceptable

80 % MRL 70 % MRL 33.3 % MRL 50 % MRL

Moreover, the above list does not include retailers that impose their own lists of
authorised active substances for use on crops, which are more restrictive than official
authorisations.

Food safety and quality have become a major concern for the European retailing and
distribution industry, which uses it as a marketing argument to address consumers'
concerns and calls for change from some pressure groups. Retailers have thus also
become 'standards developers' and given their economic clout they can easily take the
place of regulations.

In this context, it is clear that the retail industries are particularly keen to know
whether ACP fruit and vegetable producers master production and packaging techniques,
especially as regards food hygiene and the use of pesticides!

Whether food is sold locally or exported it must be produced in accordance with

general principles of hygiene that are recognised throughout the world (such as those laid
down in the Codex Alimentarius).

Food exported to the European Union from other

countries, however, must also comply with the
general requirements of European regulations. This
is because the regulations of the destination
market apply de facto to ACP producers. They
cannot ignore these requirements if they wish to
access these markets or merely to keep their
present share of the market. For this reason, even
though the regulations of the place of production
apply as a priority, this manual will regularly refer
to European regulations.

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1.1.5. Restoring the confidence of stakeholders and consumers

One connotation of the word 'safe' is 'trustworthy, reliable'. A series of food crises,
however, has shaken European consumers' trust in the safety of their food. Despite
efforts deployed in the European Union since 2000 to revise its regulations and operator
monitoring systems, the latest opinion polls show that consumers still worry about food
2
safety. The latest 'Eurobarometer', published in 2010 after a survey of 26 691 individuals
in all 27 Member States, shows for example that:
 79 % of those surveyed stated they were deeply concerned about the safety of their
food (much more important than dietary matters);
 48 % worry about food affecting their health (compared to 44 % for road accidents);
 72 % are worried about pesticide residues. This is the number one 'risk' (freshness
ranks fourth and GMOs rank sixth)!

To ensure that food is harmless and restore consumers' confidence and sense of
security, it is necessary:
 to reinforce and continually update the regulatory framework to reflect technical
changes and the results of risk analyses;
 for operators to organise self-evaluation and risk control systems based on
HACCP principles;
 to identify the data to be recorded to ensure product traceability: to be able to trace
the history, destination or origin of a product;
 to guarantee application of these measures through inspections, monitoring plans,
and internal and external audits.

Confidence can only be restored when:

1. Food hygiene is guaranteed (by taking measures and organising the conditions
to prevent hazards and ensure that food products are suitable for consumption).
2. Food safety is guaranteed (by using production modes that assure that the food
is not harmful to health: good practices and quality strategies).
3. Efforts are taken to provide correct information to all stakeholders and the
population in general (information, traceability, withdrawal and recall procedures).
4. All actors in the food chain adopt an approach
towards food safety that entails a continuity of
responsibility through the whole life cycle of the
product, in other words from farm to fork.

2
Eurobarometer, 2010 - http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/riskcommunication/riskperception.htm.

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1.2. Food safety: key concepts

1.2.1. The concepts of 'hazard', 'risk' and 'crisis'

In order to meet food quality and safety requirements, agricultural businesses must
identify all aspects of their activities that are decisive factors for the safety of their
products. They must be able to control all hazards at all stages of product life cycle
(development, production, storage, transport, marketing) in order to meet specifications
(regulatory and market) and assure consumers that their food is safe.

The operators must therefore be able to identify all hazards (physical, biological or
chemical) that can potentially contaminate their products at different stages of production.
They must also be able to assess the level of each risk (probability) according to their
working conditions, procedures and practices. On the basis of these analyses, the
appropriate control measures, adapted to the type and level of risk, can be adopted. The
company must then make sure that these measures are effectively implemented,
complied with and regularly reviewed.

It is important to understand the difference between the terms 'hazard' and

'risk':

Hazard: a physical or biological agent or substance with the potential to cause a

proven adverse effect on health. The main 'hazards' will be discussed in Chapter 3.

Risk: probability of an adverse health effect. The degree of risk is a combination of

the probability and the severity of the effect (type of harm, number of people affected,
etc.). 'Risk' refers to exposure to a hazard, in other words to consumption of a
contaminated food (quantity and frequency of consumption).

Risk analysis at every stage of production and packaging is thus indispensable and must
precede any preventive action. The analysis method must be one that has been
tested and validated. In the agri-food sector, HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Point) is considered to be the most efficient and is the most widely used. It is generally
3
mandatory by regulation for all food processing firms. The Codex Alimentarius
recognises HACCP as the benchmark for identifying hazards and controlling risks in the
food sector.

3
The Codex Alimentarius is a set of internationally recognised laws and standards applicable for
processes, guidelines and recommendations on food, food production and food safety. The
Codex standards are the authority in the agri-food sector and most of the recommendations
issued by this body have been integrated into European and other regulations.

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Many private standards also recommend and encourage application of HACCP

4
principles. For primary production, however, at present it is only recommended (in the
framework of European regulations). As we shall see below (Chapter 2), on the one hand
programmes to control hygiene conditions (or PRP) must be introduced before a HACCP
plan can be implemented, and on the other HACCP alone cannot guarantee food safety.

It is also important to clarify the meaning of the term 'food crisis'. According to
terminology accepted by experts, a 'crisis' is a situation in which a real or hypothetical
risk can lead to collective misgivings throughout a population group. It is clear that a
crisis can occur even if the risk never materialises.

The crisis occurs when a malfunction is measured or when a gap between reality and
expected standards is either measured or suspected. This can occur, for example, when
results of an internal or external control (including documentary controls) or of
analyses reveal that insufficient mastery of a process has resulted in non-conformity
with a standard (e.g.: MRL exceeded) or product contamination (e.g.: traces of dioxin in
eggs, avian flu virus detected, etc.).

A crisis is also a situation where organisations, private firms and competent authorities
(ministries, inspection agents, laboratories, etc.) strive to cope with a situation considered
as 'critical'. For a given period of time they find themselves in the forefront where, under
heavy external pressure and acute internal tensions, they enter into conflict with one
another, often under the media's watchful eyes!

Europe has gone through a series of 'crises', all with repercussions among the public,
regardless of how serious the crises actually were. Over the past decade alone we can
cite:

1997 Numerous cases of BSE (mad cow disease)

1999 Listeria – Illegal dioxin levels in chickens – Contaminated Coca-Cola
2001-2002 Foot and Mouth disease, GMOs, various meat origin frauds
2004 Avian (bird) flu
2006 BTV - Catarrhal fever (blue tongue disease)
2008 Melamine-tainted milk powder in China

To restore consumer confidence, private firms and public authorities alike must prepare
crisis management procedures, establish mutual trust and get into the habit of
communicating together when a malfunction is observed.

4
Primary production: The set of steps taken in the growing and harvesting of fresh fruits and
vegetables such as planting, irrigation, application of fertilizers, application of agricultural
chemicals, etc.

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1.2.2. The concept of 'hygiene' and respecting the cold chain

It is up to each actor in the food production and distribution chain to take all steps to
make sure that products placed on the market are free of all risks to consumers' health.

Many of the hazards attributed to food originate in the failure to respect hygiene rules
at the place of production. This can be in the field or on the packaging line, or during
storage or transport. For this reason general rules of hygiene applicable to the food
industry are also valid for primary production. As a large portion of fruit and vegetables
are eaten raw, hygiene is an essential requirement for the conformity of these products.

Simple or cross-contamination of fruit and vegetables, either before or after harvest, can
have several causes. Growing areas, soil, inputs (manure), equipment and staff are all
potential germ vectors. Each producer or firm should organise hygiene measures and
practices that are adapted to the specific conditions of their production area, type of
products, methods and techniques, and staff in order to monitor and control risks to food
safety and promote the production of wholesome fruit and vegetables. Chapter 2 will
discuss sources of contamination and ways to understand the mechanisms involved.

Following basic principles of hygiene considerably reduces risks that food will be
contaminated with germs.
Preservation conditions during storage and transport also have a considerable
impact on food quality. Fruit and vegetables must be handled with care to avoid
injuries that make the products more vulnerable to pathogens.
Failure to keep food at the right temperature and relative humidity can lead to
spoilage and favour the development of pathogenic micro-organisms. The 'cold chain'
must be respected absolutely!

To ensure the stability of physiological and

organoleptic properties of fresh produce,
the optimal temperature and relative
humidity of storage must be known for
each product. If required, fruit and
vegetables must be harvested, transported
and preserved at low temperatures
(examples: green beans, tomatoes, etc.).

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1.2.3. The concept of 'product'

'Product' is understood to mean the result of
production, in other words a coherent
sequence of operations (the term 'process' is
discussed below).

In the broad sense of the term, products are all

foods of plant or animal origin that a producer
places on the market.

When we speak of a 'product' we are referring to

products that have been harvested, possibly
processed, and packaged.

Other foods are not considered to be 'products' in the strict sense of the term, even
though they are marketed. This the case for products that have been picked or collected
in natural conditions, such as mushrooms, berries, small fruits, aromatic herbs, edible
insect larvae or gastropods snails, or even honey produced by colonies in the wild. This is
also the case for food that has been fished or hunted.

Despite the fact that these foods were not produced under someone's responsibility, but
were merely 'collected', the person selling these foods nonetheless remains
completely responsible for ensuring that they do not harm consumers' health.
Conformity with health and safety standards must be ascertained.

Each type of food product is associated with different types of risks due to their:
 nature (origin, composition, sensitivity);
 production mode;
 preservation mode;
 mode of preparation and consumption (raw or cooked).
It is thus important for the producer to be fully aware of the characteristics of the
products and processes in order to evaluate the risks.

Some types of food can be considered as 'high-risk foods'. A majority of cases of food
poisoning are in fact caused by:
 Eggs and egg-based products, which account for about one third of foodborne illness
outbreaks (FBI);
 Poultry, in particular chicken and minced chicken meat;
 Food eaten raw (fruit, vegetables, fish, meat or shellfish).

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 Eggs and egg-based products

According to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) about

2.3 million of the 50 billion eggs produced each year are
infected with Salmonella (primarily Salmonella Enteritidis).

The main means of prevention is to respect the cold chain

and to pay scrupulous attention to use-by dates.

 Poultry and poultry-based products

Chicken is often a Salmonella carrier. The mere presence

of these bacteria does not pose any particular risk
because chicken is almost always eaten cooked. However,
Salmonella brought into the kitchen by this means can
contaminate other food items that are not cooked
(such as vegetables) (see Chapters 2 and 3 of this
manual). Food can be contaminated:
 Either directly: if the chicken directly touches other food, in the refrigerator for
example;
 Or through surfaces that later come into contact with other food.

The bywords therefore are strict hygiene – from hatching to slaughter and cutting – and
thorough cooking.

 Foods eaten raw or only slightly cooked

Fruit and vegetables, even when eaten raw, should in

principle not pose high risks for consumers, apart from
allergies that some people may have to exotic fruit which is
often allergenic.

Eaten raw, they are rarely harmful and are even highly
recommended by nutritionists ('eat five portions of fruit and
vegetables per day').

Nonetheless they can pose serious risks for consumers due to the presence of:

 pathogenic micro-organisms, especially of faecal origin, through accidental

contamination during production (e.g.: tainted irrigation water), harvest (e.g.:
unwashed hands), transport (e.g.: insufficiently disinfected containers), or packaging
(e.g.: insufficient hygiene);
 'toxins' (mycotoxins) caused by poor storage conditions and overlong preservation;
 chemical residues (nitrates, pesticides, biocides) or heavy metals which contaminate
the food.

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Prevention essentially means respecting Good Agricultural Practices and applying good
hygiene measures during harvest and packaging.

Meat and fish in principle should be no more risky

than other foods, since they are generally only
eaten after cooking, which eliminates most
parasites and pathogenic bacteria.

Nevertheless, with changing preparation and

consumption habits (the sushi fad, for instance),
these foods become more risky with respect to
food poisoning.

When eaten raw they pose a much higher risk than other products for the following
reasons:
 Animals are natural carriers of certain parasites (such as Anisakis, which can
reproduce or survive in the human intestine after being consumed in raw fish: herring,
mackerel, tuna, salmon, etc., or Ascaris, found in the intestines of many animals).
This will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 3 of this manual.
 Animals are naturally contaminated on the surface (skin) by excrement and thus
carry germs. Even washing after slaughter cannot totally eliminate these germs.
 Sale and distribution of meat and fish imply cutting/slicing operations, or mincing
and mixing, all occasions where the food is liable to be contaminated by staff,
equipment, work surfaces or the food products themselves. In the case of minced
meat, contaminants spread all the way to the centre of the mix and only thorough
cooking can eliminate the bacteria.

Prevention does not require complicated measures: fish and meat must be cooked to
70°C (at least). Fish can be eaten raw after it has been deep frozen for a few days at
- 20°C.

 Allergy-causing foods

In addition to risks of biological or chemical contaminants, there is also the risk of allergy
that the presence (even traces) of certain foods or food components (such as egg yolks,
celery, groundnuts) can pose for sensitive consumers. The producer must be aware of
the risk of cross-contamination between products.

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1.2.4. The 'food chain' concept

Ensuring food safety must be a goal for all
'actors' along the food chain (another term for
'actors' is stakeholders).

Just like a real chain, it is the 'weakest link' that

determines the sturdiness of the whole system.
The image is totally appropriate.

An approach that focuses on the food chain to manage food safety and quality
recognises that all actors are responsible for providing food that is safe, healthy and
nutritious (FAO, 2010). The diagram below shows the parties involved in the food chain,
and indicates the information flow:

Authority Operators Service providers

Growers

Producers of
fertilisers, soil
Competent Authorities (regulations and controls)

Animal feed producers amendments,

biocides, pesticides

Producers of
Transport operators, local buyers,… additives and
processing aids

Equipment
Processors manufacturers

Packaging
manufacturers
Exporters / Importers
Service providers

Trainers
Wholesalers / Distributors
Experts

Laboratories
Retailers / Restaurants

Consumers

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1.2.5. The concept of 'process'

A process can be described as a chain of activities that transforms 'input data' into
'output data'. According to ISO 9000 a process is a sequence of activities accomplished
by different players in order to meet an internal or external need by making a product or
service available to the customer. Process inputs can be a product, raw material or
information.

'Placing a food product on the market' is a complex process that requires the
involvement of several operators. It is also one that requires a combination of different
skills to attain an objective. A company's production process approach can be depicted
as follows:

Linked Linked Linked

Risks Risks Risks

Inputs Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3 Output

Requirements Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3 Traceability

(quality, Analyses
standards) Measure-
ments

Control Control Control

Measures Measures Measures

An objective and meticulous analysis of the processes is important in order to identify:

 The sequence of operations (steps in the process), and to be able to distinguish
between operations that can directly influence the safety of a product and those
that are production 'process supports' (which, although important, do not have a
direct or indirect influence). This analysis is a crucial step in organising hygiene
measures, drawing up an HACCP plan and choosing the appropriate control
measures. As each company has its own organisation mode, this type of analysis
cannot be transposed from one to another.
 The risks linked to each operation (e.g.: crop management, harvest, transport,
cleaning, etc.).
 The responsibilities of each entity involved and the skills required for each.
 The inspection measures (records necessary for traceability) and control measures
that are relevant for each step in the process.

Describing the overall process, in other words the chronological sequence of key steps
and the operations carried out, is something that must be validated on site. The
analysis consists of examining the whole process and methodically calculating the
relative importance of each relevant parameter. This involves visits to the various process

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sites, interviews with staff and customers, measurements and analyses, all of which in a
fact-finding approach.

The complete analysis of the process will yield a picture of how a company
operates. It will be used to ascertain its results in terms of quality and conformity of its
products, and also to foresee the risks associated with its organisational and functional
mode.

1.2.6. The concept of 'system'

Food safety must be conceived as an 'organised system' with the aim of meeting a
regulatory objective (producing safe and suitable food) and, if relevant, other contractual
objectives (complying with one or more private certification schemes). The industry refers
5
to this as a Food Safety Management System, or FSMS (see Chapter 6).

All food safety management

systems must be grounded in the Managing the QMS
elements that the ISO
22000:2005 standard deems as
essential to guarantee the safety
of food at every link in the food
chain:
1. interactive communication
between all players in the
food chain;
2. systemic approach (system-
based management);
3. prerequisite programmes;
4. HACCP principles.

As for any system, a company's FSMS must be designed and prepared. It is then built,
managed, evaluated regularly, adjusted and improved (principle of ongoing
improvement).

Although a management system can be certified if the customer requires this or if it

represents a competitive advantage, certification in itself does not guarantee that food
safety objectives have been met. The company's objective should be quality and
conformity of the products, not mere certification.

5
In reality this system often covers management of food and phytosanitary quality. It deals with
regulatory requirements concerning quarantine organisms in relation to phytosanitary
certification for exports.

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1.2.7. The concept of 'traceability'

Traceability of a product means the ability to identify:

 all stages of its manufacture,

 the origin of its components and their suppliers,
 where the product and its components have been stored,
 checks and tests on the product and its components,
 equipment used in manufacturing or handling,
 direct customers who bought the product.

Traceability aims to meet two different yet complementary objectives:

1. It must be able to locate the product in space and time. Tracking means the ability to
physically follow a product consignment. This is especially useful in a food crisis, to
locate products that have to be withdrawn or recalled.
2. Traceability, however, also means being able to trace information on the history and
composition of the product: origin of the seed or plants, crop management
practices, inputs used in production, plant protection treatments, processing methods
and steps, and so on.
Setting up a 'traceability system' is a sine qua non for food safety and is also mandatory
by regulation. The steps to follow when organising such a system are described in PIP
manual 2.

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1.3. The key role of operators in

ensuring food safety

1.3.1. The operator's responsibility is the cornerstone of the

regulatory approach

There have been fundamental changes in the management of

food safety over the past 20 years, through efforts to implement
and extend a new approach to food safety.

The result of this evolution in Europe is the 'food hygiene

package', introduced in 2004, which was the foundation for the
new European regulations.

Before these innovations, food safety was primarily based on the obligation for
operators to respect a long list of 'requirements' (laid down in laws and increasingly
detailed and precise with each revision). These requirements (or control measures)
ranged from compliance with hygiene measures to details relating to equipment and
installations (such as the height of tiled walls in slaughterhouses), mandatory inspections
and registrations, etc.

These requirements stemmed more from the accumulated experience of agri-business

professionals (producers and inspectors) about which requirements were effective, than
from a true a priori risk analysis. Over time and with the need to adopt new preventive
measures as a result of real incidents, measures were reinforced and new requirements
6
were set out in legal texts and ever more voluminous professional guides.

The concept of food safety at the time was based on the hypothesis that strict compliance
with all requirements would guarantee the production of safe and suitable food (best
endeavour obligation to guarantee a satisfactory result).

This approach was reassuring for producers, who merely had to apply the regulations
strictly to be absolved of all responsibility. It also made it easy for inspectors to assess
conformity because it was enough to follow predefined checklists, without worrying
about the importance or usefulness of a given hygiene measure in the context of the
company being inspected, or the usefulness of their records on the safety of the product
in the context of the process. Under this approach, the risk analysis was deemed to be
definitive and the measures required therefore applied to all operators in a given sector,
regardless of the size of the company, the nature of its products, the qualification of its
staff or the characteristics of the natural or work environment.

6
The US and Canada's approach to food safety is still based on the principle of 'written food
protection guidelines for industry' (according to Eric Poudelet, DG SANCO, in a personal memo,
2010). It is not surprising that this 'diagnosis and solutions' approach developed everywhere,
because veterinarians were the first professionals to adopt a health policy for the meat and fish
industry.

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This approach carried the seeds of what would later bloom into the 'food crises’ of the
late 1990s that shook Europe's faith in its food safety system. As the whole system
revolved around the inspection of operators, producers who passed these inspections
were not held responsible. The concept at this time – precisely those years when 'quality
assurance' was the hot topic – can be grossly summed up as follows: the inspector, and
thus the administration responsible for controls, on signing the certificate of conformity,
assumed responsibility for the safety of products placed on the market by the producer.

Furthermore, under this system, the need for stronger safety guarantees equates with
more controls. However, simple statistical analysis shows that, for substances with a low
accepted prevalence level, the absence of a micro-organism can only be guaranteed with
a sufficient level of confidence by analysing a very large number of samples, which is
neither economically feasible nor manageable given the capacity of laboratories. So this
approach quickly reaches its limits.

The current approach to food safety has completely reversed the role of each party.
The 'new approach' is non-prescriptive and focuses on the operator's
accountability. It sets general objectives without imposing methods. It is up to
operators to define means (for example in Good Practice Guides) and apply them.
Operators now have the duty to achieve a given result, in contrast with the earlier
best endeavour obligation.
 Safety objectives are regulatory, thus mandatory!
 The means to attain these objectives are guidelines, therefore their application
is voluntary!

The defining feature of the 'new approach' is greater liberty and margin of manoeuvre
for operators, who bear prime responsibility for food safety management: this is the
principle of active accountability (Bolnot, 2008).

It is based on the principle of guiding the development of control measures and

monitoring such measures, based on analysis of the risks linked to the production
processes employed in the producer's context, with the company's own realities,
means, resources, equipment, staff qualifications, regulatory requirements for its products
7
and for its customers, and so on .

'Risk analysis' is at the heart of the system, and producers are held accountable for
organising efficient health quality management systems, based on HACCP and self-
evaluation of their practices.

7
See for example: SAFE FOODS - Promoting Food Safety through a New Integrated Risk
Analysis Approach - EUFIC, The European Food Information Council.

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The HACCP method establishes 7 basic principles that the producer must respect:
1. Identify the hazards relevant to its activities and product.
2. Identify the 'critical points' where control is absolutely essential. These are called
Critical Control Points, or CCP.
3. Establish critical limits (that must not be exceeded) for each control point.
4. Establish CCP monitoring requirements (self-evaluation).
5. Plan corrective actions in case of malfunction (which can occur in the best of
companies).
6. Establish procedures to verify and validate that the system is working as intended
(internal audits).
7. Document its activities, record data on its procedures and keep this information on file.

It is worth noting that the risk of a 'mistake' is not excluded under this approach. What is
unacceptable is not the malfunction itself, but rather the failure to identify it or to react
immediately when a problem is detected
Traceability must enable the operator to show that the problem has been identified in time
and that it was solved quickly and effectively.

This approach is less 'reassuring' for the producer (who will need advice, training and
guides, since the 'critical points' are not pre-determined). It is also less 'comfortable'
for the control authority, who for each firm and each product must verify that the risk
analysis has been correctly conducted and that control measures are appropriate and
being applied. This approach goes well beyond the 'checklist' and 'inspection' logic,
applying 'audit' principles instead!

Although Europe has deliberately moved towards simpler regulations with fewer
constraints but more responsibilities, the major wholesalers and retailers have set up
schemes to evaluate their suppliers on the basis of their own reference standards (such
as GLOBALG.A.P. or TNC). Analysis of different specifications for such standards
reveals a strong convergence of their basic requirements: in accordance with the 'due
diligence' principle, producers must prove that they have taken all possible precautions
to make sure that their fruit and vegetables are not dangerous for the consumer. They
tend to fall back on the principle of 'requirements' but these are not based on an
analysis of real risks in the producer's context.

The plethora of private standards does not make it easy for producers to adopt a
coherent approach to their food safety management systems: one that combines a
'responsible approach' in terms of regulations and a 'standards approach' in terms of
market requirements.

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1.3.2. Operators' responsibilities and obligations under regulations

8
Regulation (EC) 178/2002 (General Food Law) clearly defined the responsibilities of the
various players (adapted from E. Poudelet, 2010):

Operators must Competent Authorities must

 Ensure that food hygiene conditions  Establish the regulations and

are met at every stage of production standards applicable to the
 Place on the market products that products
comply with standards  Evaluate sanitary and phytosanitary
 Ensure the traceability of processes risks transparently and
and products independently
 Be able to withdraw non-compliant  Define a food safety policy
products immediately and to warn (objectives)
customers.  Draw up a programme for official
 Keep the authorities informed and controls and set up these controls
cooperate with them  Communicate information on food
safety and risks

European regulations on the safety of food

and plant protection products grew from the 84
recommendations laid out in the White Paper
9
on Food Safety (published in January 2000).

At present, 99 % of food hygiene and pesticide

legislation has been harmonised at the
European level!

8
Regulation (EC) 178/2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law,
establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food
safety. Official Journal of the European Communities, L31/1, 1.2.2002.
9
In January 2000 the Commission adopted a White Paper on food safety. It was a response to
the major food crises the EU had faced in the years leading up to this document, in particular
'mad cow disease' (1996) and the dioxin crisis (1999). The Prodi Commission, which inherited
the trauma these events caused in the EU's executive branch (the Commission), quickly
identified food safety as 'one of its main policy priorities'. The objective of the white paper was to
re-establish and consolidate European consumers' trust.

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The organisation of European regulations can be summarised as follows:

Regulation (EC) 178/2002 (General Food Law)

For competent authorities:

For operators:
Regulation (EC) 882/2004
Regulation (EC) 852/2004 Official Feed and Food controls
Food hygiene regulation (controls for all sectors)
(all foods)
Regulation (EC) 854/2004
Regulation (EC) 853/2004 Official controls on products of animal
Specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin for human consumption
origin (controls for the animal sector)

A number of specific regulations

(on sampling, MRLs, chemical and microbiological contaminants,
microbiological criteria, and so on)

This strong regulatory framework has been formulated on the basis of general
international guidelines issued by the Codex Alimentarius.

Even if these regulations taken as a whole may seem somewhat complicated, it should
be kept in mind that Europe has endeavoured to set up rules based on simplicity,
flexibility and the responsibility of each stakeholder, starting with the producers
themselves.

The philosophy underlying these rules can be summarised quite simply as follows:

Food safety measures which fall under the producer's responsibility

=
Applying a minimum of hygiene rules
+
Setting up a HACCP programme

Europe sought rules that could be applied flexibly for small operators (flexible HACCP)
and with less red tape in primary production (HACCP not mandatory, but compliance with
general hygiene measures). This will be discussed in Chapter 2 of this manual.
International and European regulations as a whole are presented in PIP Manual 5.

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