GE 1308

Energy Today and Tomorrow

Topic 5 Solar Energy & Photovoltaics

Dr Sai Kishore RAVI

Assistant Professor
Editor-in-Chief, Energy Technology

08 Mar 2024
Recap

• Soil Nutrient Loss

• Fertilizer (energy-intensive)
• Ethical concerns (crops for fuel)
 Today

Energy &

GE1308 Tomorrow
Solar Energy Resource
Direct Use – Solar Heating
Source: Freepik, @macrovector
 Is Solar Energy really “Renewable”?

The sun provides an enormous amount of energy that

we can harness through various technologies.
Solar Energy it just an
Unlike finite resources like coal and oil, sunlight is an inexhaustible resource!
essentially limitless and renewable source of energy,
which makes it a critical component in the transition to
sustainable energy systems. Sustainable Renewable
 At the Center of the Sun

❑ Pressure is 690x greater than at Earth's center

❑ Density is >10x than at Earth's center
Sun - Source of ❑ 15-16 million °C
Energy
620 million tons of hydrogen fused into helium
every second.
 A blackbody is an idealized object that absorbs all
electromagnetic radiation that falls on it. No radiation is
reflected or transmitted. The radiation emitted by a
Blackbody blackbody is called blackbody radiation.

A blackbody emits light with a distribution of energy

that is determined by its temperature

Air Mass 0 =
Sun’s spectrum AM 0
at the equator
before it enters
the atmosphere
AM 1.5
 Atmospheric
Attenuation

AM 1.5
Standard

NIST
AM1.5 Standard
Boulder, Colorado
Latitude: 37 deg
To compare solar cells
Irradiance

Global Irradiance = Direct + Diffuse Irradiance

 Irradiance at 𝐴𝑀0 = 1361 W/m2
Irradiance at 𝐴𝑀1.5 = 1000 W/m2

Irradiance
Solar Heating
Solar Heating

Natural solar heating of the cliff dwellings – Bandelier Canyon (New Mexico

Absorption of Solar Radiation: The rocks absorb the solar radiation and convert it into heat energy. This energy
is then stored within the rocks.
High Specific Heat Capacity: Rocks have a high specific heat capacity, which means that they can absorb and
retain large amounts of heat energy. This helps the rocks to store the heat from the sun for a longer period of time.
Slow Heat Release: The rocks release the stored heat slowly, releasing it back into the air in the cavates.
Thermal Insulation: The rocks act as a natural insulation, trapping the heat inside the cavates and preventing it
from escaping. This helps to keep the living space warm and cozy, even in the presence of cold winds or low
temperatures.
 Siege of Syracuse (213 BCE)

Solar
Concentration

In the tale of Archimedes' Death Ray, it is

said that he used large mirrors to reflect and
concentrate the sun's rays onto the Roman
ships.
This would have caused the ships to become
extremely hot and potentially even catch fire.
Of course, there is no evidence to support this
story, but it provides an intriguing example of
how solar energy can be harnessed and
Archimedes focused to achieve the heating effect.
Solar
Concentration

One of the first large-scale applications was the solar furnace built by
the well-known French chemist Lavoisier, who, around 1774,
constructed powerful lenses and parabolic mirrors to concentrate
solar radiation. This could reach the remarkable temperature of
Antoine 1750°C.
Lavoisier
Solar
Concentration

Flashlight: by having a source of light at the focal

point of a parabolic mirror surrounding it, the
The geometry of a parabola makes it a particularly good light emitted reflects off the mirror and emerges
choice for applications where you need to focus light waves from the other side parallel to the optical axis.
on a single location. The parabolic shape is such that incident This design means that essentially no light
parallel rays will converge at a single focal point no matter produced by the bulb is “wasted” and all of it
where on the surface of the mirror they actually strike. emerges from the end of the flashlight.
Solar Heating
 Radius = 6371 km

Irradiance: 341 W/m2

Incoming solar energy rate: 174,000 TW
Global Energy Consumption Rate = 18 TW
Earth’s
Energy
Globally, over the course of
Budget the year, the Earth system—
land surfaces, oceans, and
atmosphere—absorbs an
average of about 240 watts
of solar power per square
meter
 1.3 Hr

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒) = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Radius = 6371 km

Solar energy reaching earth: 174,000 TW (341 W/m2)

123,000 TW (240 W/m2)

18 TW (580 EJ in 1 year)
174000 TW (626 EJ in 1 hour)
123000 TW (443 EJ in 1 hour)
Solar Resource
Map
Solar
Intermittency
Geographic
Variance
Seasonal
Variance
Residential
Water Heating
Passive Solar
Design
Passive Solar
Design
Insulation Poorly
Insulated
House

Well
Insulated
Passive solar heating of the cliff dwellings – Bandelier Canyon (New Mexico)

Passive Solar
Design
Solar Electricity
 Solar Electricity in Remote Locations
Off-Grid Solar
Power Solar electricity is helpful in remote locations without access to the grid, providing
a continuous source of power.

Solar Panels in Rural Solar panels used for seismic

Madagascar surveys in remote locations

Source: www.kristinahunterflourishing.com Source: iisee.kenken.go.jp

Solar panel systems can power devices like seismometers for long periods, without the need for a large
number of batteries, making it a cost-effective, reliable, sustainable, and scalable solution.
 If the battery has a capacity of 12 Ah
and a nominal voltage of 12 V, the total 12V 12 Ah Battery
Off-Grid Solar
energy storage capacity of the battery is:
12 Ah x 12 V = 144 Wh
Power
Assuming the seismometer uses
5 watts of power continuously, it
will consume:
5W Seismometer 5 W x 24 h = 120 Wh per day

Over six months (180 days), the

total energy consumption of the
seismometer will be:
120 Wh x 180 days = 21,600 Wh

21,600 Wh / 144 Wh = 150

We would need 150 batteries

with a capacity of 12 Ah to power
the seismometer for 180 days
 Photovoltaic Panels

Solar Electricity

Parabolic Troughs
Source: BQ Prime

Source: renewableenergyworld.com
Parabolic trough collectors from a concentrated solar project
(Courtesy: Abengoa)
Source: www.airswift.com
Sterling Engine
 Although photovoltaic solar
panels currently only account
for a small percentage of
Growth of PVs
Photovoltaic power
global electricity consumption reached 1 GW in 2000;
(about 2.5%), their capacity doubling every 2 years
has been growing rapidly,
doubling every two to three
years.

Source: Vox
 ▪ China's long-term energy transition plan aims to shift away from fossil fuels
and increase the share of renewable energy sources, with solar power

Growth of PVs
playing a crucial role.
▪ By 2060, China plans to achieve carbon neutrality, increase the share of
renewable energy to more than 50%, develop smart grids, and invest in
energy storage to support solar power.
 Evolution of PV ❑ The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a metal
surface when light shines on it.
Physics ❑ Heinrich Hertz discovered it in 1887, and Albert Einstein explained it
and won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
❑ The photoelectric effect formed the foundation for the development
and understanding of solar cells and modern-day electronics.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Albert Einstein

Source: Study.com Source: WIRED Source: New Scientist

 1941 1954 Efficiency 4 % 1958 PVs in Vanguard I
Efficiency 1 %

Gerald Pearson, Daryl Chapin, and

Russell Ohl (Bell Labs) discovers the Si p-n Calvin Fuller (left-to-right) of Bell
junction and the effect of light on the junction Labs demonstrated the Si PV cell

Source: dinosaurspen.tumblr.com

Synchronar 2100 – First solar/light-

powered watch
 p-Si is doped with impurities such as
boron (B), gallium (Ga), or indium (In).
The dopant atoms create "holes" in the
valence band, resulting in a net positive
charge carrier concentration.

n-Si is doped with impurities such as

phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), or
antimony (Sb).
Source: Study.com The dopant atoms introduce extra
electrons into the conduction band,
leading to a net negative charge carrier
concentration.
Light
& Light Matter
Interactions
Matter

Solar Energy Conversion

Light-Matter Interactions (Macroscopic)
Source: Bennett, Jeffrey O., et al. The cosmic perspective.
Pearson, 2014. (p. 145)

Absorbed
Reflected
Transmitted
Source: Maggie’s Science Connection

Light-Matter Interactions - determine the appearance all

objects around you
Basic processes: Absorption, Reflection, Transmission, Refracted
Refraction
Source: www.santilli-foundation.org
Light-Matter Interactions (Atomic & Molecular)
Physical Processes in Solar Energy Conversion

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝜂=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
LIGHT ELECTRICAL
ENERGY 𝜂𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜂𝐼 × 𝜂𝐼𝐼 × 𝜂𝐼𝐼𝐼 × 𝜂𝐼𝑉 ENERGY

III.
INPUT I. II. Charge IV. OUTPUT
Light Charge Separation Charge
Absorption Excitation & Collection
Transport

Photovoltaic
 Energy (E) Frequency Wavelength ()
(𝑣), Hz
Nature of Light
380 nm

Particle wave duality

Classical Physics: 𝑐 = 𝑣 ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
Quantum Theory: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 
𝑐 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑣 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦,  − wavelength, h − Planck ′ s constant
Energy (E) - quantized. Photons - discrete quanta of energy

Look, it is a
wave!

700 nm
No, it‘s a
particle!

Image Source: karlgaff.wordpress.com

Nature of Matter (Isolated Atom)

Quantization in Matter "Anyone who is not shocked by quantum

theory has not understood it. " — Niels Bohr

Quantized Quantized Non-Quantized

Source: istockphoto
Quantum Mechanical Model
Source: istockphoto
Light-Atom Interaction

1→2
𝑛𝑓 = 2
𝑛𝑖 = 1

Δ𝐸 =
3
−13.6 𝑒𝑉 −
4
Electronic States are quantized Δ𝐸 = 10.2 𝑒𝑉
ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
1 1 
Δ𝐸 = −13.6 𝑒𝑉 2−
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑅𝑦𝑑𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑛𝑓 , 𝑛𝑖 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 & 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑠
Band Formation in Solids
+ + + + + +

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

Formation of
quasi-
Energy level continuous
Energy level
(Isolated atom) 3 atoms ➜ 3 split levels
splitting (two bands
interacting atoms)

N atoms ➜ N split levels

No two electrons in any interacting system can
have the same quantum state
Materials Classification (w.r.t. Bandgap)

Conduction Band
unfilled band
Energy

overlap 𝐸𝑔 Bandgap 𝐸𝑔

Conductor
filled band
Semiconductor
Insulator Valence Band

𝐸𝑔 ≤ 0 eV 𝐸𝑔 > 0 eV, 𝐸𝑔 < 3 eV (typically) 𝐸𝑔 > 3 eV (typically)

Light Interaction with Semiconductors

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡!

𝑒− 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 < 𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 > 𝐸𝑔

𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼
 Source: A. Polman et al. Science (2016): aad4424.
Materials Selection for Photovoltaics

Eg =2.2 eV
High Eg material
Transparent to low
energy photons

Low Eg material
High thermalization
loss
Irradiance

Near Eg =0.8 eV Shockley & Queisser S-Q limit

UV Visible 1500 nm Far
44% IR IR
7% 37%

Wavelength
Energy 400 nm 700 nm 1500 nm
3 eV 1.8 eV 0.8 eV
Light Management in Photovoltaics

35% reflected & lost

Planar Si 𝑛𝑆𝑖 ∼ 3.9

2
𝑛𝑆𝑖 − 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑛𝑆𝑖 + 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟
Reflected Absorbed Transmitted
Ways to minimize optical losses:
o Surface Texturing
o Back Reflectors
o Antireflection Coatings
Texturized Si o Light Trapping nanostructures
Losses in
Photovoltaics
Sankey diagram of a typical solar cell
(varies from cell to cell)
Source: Reaction.Life
What are PVs
made of?

Silicon is found in a variety of minerals,

Silicon is one of the most abundant
including quartz, which is abundant in sand on
elements on Earth, making up
beaches and in deserts. This makes silicon a
approximately 25% of the planet's crust.
readily available and cost-effective material for
use in the production of solar cells
What are PVs
made of?

AZoM

American Solar Energy Society

Types of Solar
Cells

Maximum
theoretical
efficiency: 34%

Source: mastersolar.ies.upm.es

Maximum theoretical efficiency:

50% (for 2 junctions), 57% (for three junctions)
Solar Inverter

US: 60 Hz AC
HK: 50 Hz AC

Inverters are used in solar panels to convert the DC

(direct current) electricity produced by the solar
cells into AC (alternating current) electricity that can Sourec: Palmetto Solar
be used by households or fed back into the grid.
Use of
Microinverters

❑ One inverter is used for the entire solar panel array, ❑ Each solar panel has its own microinverter, which
which means that shading or other issues with one means that shading or other issues with one panel
panel can reduce the performance of the entire system. will not affect the performance of the other panels.
❑ Provides less granular monitoring and control ❑ Provides greater system monitoring and control
capabilities, as the performance of the entire system is capabilities, as each panel can be monitored
monitored as a whole. individually for performance and maintenance needs.
❑ Generally less expensive than microinverters on a per- ❑ Generally more expensive than traditional inverters
panel basis. on a per-panel basis.
Organic
Photovoltaics
Bio- Bio-Tandem Cell

Photovoltaics

88% Photocurrent Addition

Green Red Tandem
Solar Powered
Touch Sensors
Advanced Materials 30 (39),
1802290 (2018)
Materials Horizons 7 (3), 866-
876 (2020)
❑ Grid parity refers to the point at which the cost of generating electricity from solar PV is equal to or less than
the cost of buying electricity from the grid.
❑ Solar PV reached grid parity in certain parts of the globe in the early 2010s, when the cost of solar PV
systems began to decrease rapidly due to improvements in technology and manufacturing processes.
❑ The first countries to achieve grid parity for solar PV were those with high electricity prices, including
Germany, Italy, and Spain, as well as regions with abundant sunlight such as the Middle East
PV Small-to-
Large scale

Centralized

Decentralized
Solar Farms

The panda solar farm in Datong, China

The panda
Bhadla solar
Solar farm
Park, in Datong, China
India
Sun-Tracking
Solar Arrays

❑ Sun-tracking solar arrays use motors and sensors to follow the sun's movement
across the sky, maximizing energy production.
❑ They generate up to 40% more energy than fixed-tilt systems, but require regular
maintenance and have a higher upfront cost.
Rooftop PV

Can Rooftop Solar Panels Fulfill Home Electricity

Demands?
Average U.S. home electricity use -> 886 kWh/month
886 KWh consumed in 720 h (30 days x 24 hours) Solar panels on rooftops are becoming
more popular due to their convenience and
886 𝐾𝑊ℎ ability to occupy otherwise unused space.
= 1.23 kW
720 ℎ
If the solar cell efficiency is 10%
12.3 kW sunlight is needed to get:
1.23 kW electricity

Average area of U.S. home -> 100 m²

Even flat top buildings can have solar panels installed and
Sunlight needed: maintained easily, with the ability to mount them at the
12.3 kW /100 m² = 123 W/m² optimal tilt for the particular latitude.
Global Solar
Insolation
Solar PVs
beyond rooftop

Source: https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X19856710
Decentralized
Concentrator
Solar Power (CPV)
photovoltaics

Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) is a technology that

involves the use of lenses or mirrors to focus sunlight
onto a small area of highly efficient solar cells. By
concentrating sunlight, CPV systems are able to
produce more electricity per unit area of solar cell than
conventional photovoltaic panels.
Photovoltaic-
Thermal Hybrids
Solar Trough Solar Tower Solar Sterling Engine
Decentralized
Global CSP
Solar Power
capacity Top countries for CSP installations
include the United States, Spain,
China, Morocco, and the United
Arab Emirates.
PS20 solar power plant, Seville, Spain Noor Power Station, Morocco

Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, California

 Decentralized
CSP Environmental ❑ CSP plants can cause bird deaths due to high temperatures
generated by concentrated sunlight.
Solar Power
Impacts ❑ CSP plants require water for cooling and cleaning, which can
exacerbate water scarcity issues in some regions.
Decentralized
Solar ❑ Solar desalination is a process that uses solar energy to purify seawater and turn it
into clean, potable water. This is achieved through the use of a solar still, which
Solar Power
Desalination captures solar energy and uses it to evaporate seawater, leaving behind any
impurities or contaminants.
❑ Solar desalination is a sustainable solution to the growing global water crisis, as it
relies solely on renewable energy sources and does not require any external power
sources or chemicals.
Advantages
❑ Inexhaustible &
sustainable Exceptions
❑ Abundant
Challenges
Environmentally friendly
❑ Equitable
❑ Flexible
❑ Scalable
❑ Low maintenance
Rapidly improving
❑ Cost is decreasing
Disadvantages of Solar
❑ High investment cost
❑ Pollution from PV
manufacturing
❑ Uses rare and expensive
materials
❑ Intermittent
❑ Doesn't work well at high
latitudes
❑ Requires a lot of land
 Q&A Thank You!

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