102 CHAPTER 12 K I N E M AT I C S OF A PA R T I C L E

12 CHAPTER REVIEW

Rectilinear Kinematics
Rectilinear kinematics refers to motion s
along a straight line.A position coordinate O
s specifies the location of the particle on s
!s
the line, and the displacement ¢s is the
change in this position.

The average velocity is a vector quantity,

- ¢s
defined as the displacement divided by vavg =
¢t !s
the time interval.
s
O

The average speed is a scalar, and is the sT

total distance traveled divided by the time sT
of travel. 1vsp2avg =
¢t

The time, position, velocity, and dv ds

acceleration are related by three a = , v = , a ds = v dv
dt dt
differential equations.

If the acceleration is known to be

v = v0 + act
constant, then the differential equations 1 2
relating time, position, velocity, and s = s0 + v0t + 2 a ct
acceleration can be integrated. v2 = v20 + 2ac1s - s02

Graphical Solutions
If the motion is erratic, then it can be dv
a = ,
described by a graph. If one of these dt
graphs is given, then the others can be ds
established using the differential relations v =,
dt
between a, v, s, and t.
a ds = v dv
 CHAPTER REVIEW 103

12
Curvilinear Motion, x , y, z
Curvilinear motion along the path can # #
vx = x ax = vx z
be resolved into rectilinear motion # #
along the x, y, z axes. The equation of the vy = y ay = vy
path is used to relate the motion along # # v
each axis.
vz = z az = vz s a
z
k
i r " x i # y j # zk
y
j x
y
x

Projectile Motion
Free-flight motion of a projectile follows 1+ c 2 vy = 1v02y + act
a parabolic path. It has a constant 1 2
1+ c 2 y = y0 + 1v02yt + 2 a ct
velocity in the horizontal direction, and a
constant downward acceleration of 1+ c 2 v2y = 1v022y + 2ac1y - y02
1:
g = 9.81 m>s2 or 32.2 ft>s2 in the vertical + 2 x = x0 + 1v02xt
direction. Any two of the three equations
for constant acceleration apply in the
vertical direction, and in the horizontal
direction only one equation applies.

y a"g

vx
v0
(v 0 )y vy v
(v 0 )x r
y
y0

x
x0

x
 104 CHAPTER 12 K I N E M AT I C S OF A PA R T I C L E

12
Curvilinear Motion n, t
If normal and tangential axes are used
for the analysis, then v is always in the
positive t direction.
O¿
The acceleration has two components.
O n
The tangential component, at, accounts
for the change in the magnitude of the s an
velocity; a slowing down is in the a
#
negative t direction, and a speeding up is at = v or atds = v dv
in the positive t direction. The normal at
component an accounts for the change in v
t
the direction of the velocity. This v2
an =
component is always in the positive n r
direction.

Curvilinear Motion r, U
If the path of motion is expressed in #
vr = r
polar coordinates, then the velocity and # v
acceleration components can be related vu = ru
vu
to the time derivatives of r and u.
vr
$ # P
To apply the time-derivative equations, it ar = r - ru2 r
# $ # $
is necessary to determine r, r, r, u, u at $ ## u
the instant considered. If the path au = ru + 2ru
O
r = f1u2 is given, then the chain rule of
Velocity
calculus must be used to obtain time
derivatives. (See Appendix C.)

Once the data are substituted into the

equations, then the algebraic sign of a
the results will indicate the direction of
au
the components of v or a along each axis.

ar
r
u
O
Acceleration
 CHAPTER REVIEW 105

12
Absolute Dependent Motion of Two
Particles
The dependent motion of blocks that are
suspended from pulleys and cables can
be related by the geometry of the Datum
system. This is done by first establishing
position coordinates, measured from a sB
fixed origin to each block. Each
coordinate must be directed along the
line of motion of a block.

Using geometry and/or trigonometry, B h

the coordinates are then related to the 2 sB + h + sA = l
cable length in order to formulate a
position coordinate equation.

The first time derivative of this equation A

gives a relationship between the 2 vB = - vA
velocities of the blocks, and a second time 2 aB = - aA
Datum sA
derivative gives the relation between
their accelerations.

Relative-Motion Analysis Using

Translating Axes
If two particles A and B undergo z¿
independent motions, then these
motions can be related to their relative a
motion using a translating set of axes z
attached to one of the particles (A). rB = rA + rB>A
Translating
vB = vA + vB>A A
For planar motion, each vector equation observer
a B = aA + aB>A a y¿ b
produces two scalar equations, one in the rB/A
x, and the other in the y direction. For Fixed rA B
solution, the vectors can be expressed in observer rB
y
Cartesian form, or the x and y scalar O
components can be written directly. x¿
b
x
 CHAPTER REVIEW 167

CHAPTER REVIEW

Kinetics
Kinetics is the study of the relation between
forces and the acceleration they cause. 13
This relation is based on Newton’s second F2
law of motion, expressed mathematically as
FR = !F ma
©F = ma.
"
Before applying the equation of motion, it
is important to first draw the particle’s F1
free-body diagram in order to account for Free-body Kinetic
all of the forces that act on the particle. diagram diagram
Graphically, this diagram is equal to the
kinetic diagram, which shows the result of the
forces, that is, the ma vector.

Inertial Coordinate Systems y

When applying the equation of motion, it a
is important to measure the acceleration
from an inertial coordinate system. This
Path of particle
system has axes that do not rotate but are
either fixed or translate with a constant vO
velocity. Various types of inertial
coordinate systems can be used to apply O x
Inertial frame of reference
©F = ma in component form.

Rectangular x, y, z axes are used to describe

©Fx = max , ©Fy = may , ©Fz = maz
rectilinear motion along each of the axes.

Normal and tangential n, t axes are often

used when the path is known. Recall that a n ©Ft = mat , ©Fn = man , ©Fb = 0
is always directed in the + n direction. It at = dv>dt or at = v dv>ds
indicates the change in the velocity
direction. Also recall that at is tangent to [1 + 1dy>dx22 ]3 >2 ƒ
the path. It indicates the change in the an = v2 >r where r =
ƒ d2 y>dx2 ƒ
velocity magnitude.

Cylindrical coordinates are useful when $ #

©Fr = m1r - ru2 2
angular motion of the radial line r $ # #
is specified or when the path can ©Fu = m1ru + 2 ru)
conveniently be described with these $
©Fz = mz
coordinates.

Central-Force Motion
When a single force acts upon a particle, such as during the free-flight trajectory of a satellite in a gravitational field, then
the motion is referred to as central-force motion. The orbit depends upon the eccentricity e; and as a result, the trajectory
can either be circular, parabolic, elliptical, or hyperbolic.
 218 CHAPTER 14 KINETICS OF A PA R T I C L E : W O R K AND ENERGY

CHAPTER REVIEW

Work of a Force F
A force does work when it undergoes a
u
displacement along its line of action. If s
s1 s2
then the work is U = 1 F cos u ds.
the force varies with the displacement, F cos u
F cos u
Graphically, this represents the area F cos u
14 under the F–s diagram.

s
s1 s2
ds
y

W
s2
If the force is constant, then for a
displacement ¢s in the direction of the s1
force, U = Fc ¢s. A typical example of
this case is the work of a weight, s
y2
U = -W ¢y. Here, ¢y is the vertical y1 x
displacement.

Unstretched
position, s ! 0

The work done by a spring force, F = ks,

U = 12 ks22 - 12 ks21 s
depends upon the stretch or compression
s of the spring.
Fs
k
Force on
Particle

The Principle of Work and Energy

If the equation of motion in the

tangential direction, ©Ft = mat, is
combined with the kinematic equation,
at ds = v dv, we obtain the principle of T1 + ©U1–2 = T2
work and energy. This equation states
that the initial kinetic energy T, plus the
work done ©U1 - 2 is equal to the final
kinetic energy.
 CHAPTER REVIEW 219

The principle of work and energy is

useful for solving problems that involve
force, velocity, and displacement. For
application, the free-body diagram of the
particle should be drawn in order to
identify the forces that do work.

Power and Efficiency 14

Power is the time rate of doing work. For dU
application, the force F creating the P =
dt
power and its velocity v must be specified.
P = F#v
Efficiency represents the ratio of power
output to power input. Due to frictional power output
losses, it is always less than one. P =
power input

Conservation of Energy Vg ! #Wy

A conservative force does work that is
independent of its path. Two examples
are the weight of a particle and the #y
spring force. W

Friction is a nonconservative force since Datum

the work depends upon the length of the Vg ! 0
path. The longer the path, the more
work done. "y
W
The work done by a conservative force
depends upon its position relative to a
datum. When this work is referenced Vg ! "Wy
from a datum, it is called potential
energy. For a weight, it is Vg = ; Wy, W
and for a spring it is Ve = + 12 kx2. Gravitational potential energy
Mechanical energy consists of kinetic
energy T and gravitational and elastic k s
potential energies V. According to the Ve ! 12 ks2
conservation of energy, this sum is
constant and has the same value at any
position on the path. If only gravitational
Elastic potential energy
and spring forces cause motion of the
particle, then the conservation-of-energy T1 + V 1 = T2 + V 2
equation can be used to solve problems
involving these conservative forces,
displacement, and velocity.