UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA, JOHOR

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SEEU 2012 – ELECTRONICS

PROJECT 1

PREPARED FOR:

SAMURAH BIN ALI

SUBMISSION DATE:

PREPARED BY:

NAME MATRIC ID
AIEMAN IFFAN BIN HUSIN A20EM0012
MATTHEW JUDE MARTIN A20EM0318
MUHAMMAD AHKAM BAIHAQI A20EM0448
MUHAMMAD HAFIZ BIN ADANAN A20EM0156
NUR ADZANARISYA BINTI A19EM0362
HAMRAN

INTRODUCTION

The IC555 timer is a widely used integrated circuit in electronic circuits, known for
its versatility and reliability in generating precise timing signals. Since its introduction in
1971, the IC555 timer has found numerous applications in various fields, including timing
circuits, pulse generation, oscillators, and more. This literature review aims to explore the key
features, operational principles, and significant applications of the IC555 timer.

Figure 1: IC555 TIMER in 8-Pin

The IC555 timer operates based on the principles of comparators, flip-flops, and a
network of resistors and capacitors. The timer comprises three operational modes: astable,
monostable, and bistable. In the astable mode, the IC555 functions as a free-running
oscillator, generating continuous square wave signals. The monostable mode produces a
single pulse of a predetermined width, triggered by an external event. In the bistable mode,
the IC555 acts as a flip-flop, maintaining its output state until triggered by an external signal.

Figure 2: Animation and Types of TIMER IC555 Circuit

 The IC555 timer is available in various packages, including 8-pin DIP, SOIC, and
TSSOP, offering flexibility for integration into different electronic systems. It operates over a
wide range of supply voltages, typically between 4.5V to 16V, and exhibits low power
consumption. The timing intervals of the IC555 timer can be adjusted through external
resistors and capacitors, allowing precise control over the generated signals. Moreover, the
IC555 offers high stability, low distortion, and excellent immunity to noise, making it
suitable for demanding applications.

The IC555 timer finds extensive use in a multitude of electronic applications. One
prominent application is in timing circuits, where it provides accurate timing signals for
various purposes, such as time delays, frequency generation, and pulse width modulation. In
the field of robotics, the IC555 timer is employed in controlling motion sequences, servo
motors, and generating precise control signals. It is also utilized in the design of oscillators
for applications like frequency synthesis, tone generation, and clock generation in digital
systems.

In addition to timing applications, the IC555 timer serves as a building block for
various electronic projects. It is widely used in educational settings to teach basic electronic
principles, due to its simplicity and ease of understanding. Furthermore, the IC555 is
commonly employed in hobbyist projects, such as LED flashers, sound generators, and
sequential timers, allowing enthusiasts to explore the realm of electronics and circuit design.

The IC555 timer remains a fundamental component in electronic circuits due to its
versatility, reliability, and ease of use. Its operational principles, features, and specifications
make it suitable for a wide range of applications, including timing circuits, pulse generation,
and oscillators. Furthermore, the IC555 timer's presence in educational and hobbyist projects
highlights its importance in fostering learning and innovation within the electronics
community. As technology continues to advance, the IC555 timer remains a steadfast tool in
the hands of engineers, students, and enthusiasts alike.
THEORY AND PROBLEM ANALYSIS

Multisim, a sophisticated circuit design and simulation software developed by

National Instruments, offers numerous advantages for engineers and students engaged in
projects involving Signal Generators and Inverters. In this specific project, the objective is to
utilize Multisim to analyse the performance of Signal Generators and Inverters based on
NE555 timers. The focus is on confirming and validating the frequency ranges of the square
wave generator when each switch is closed and comparing the calculated values with the
actual values obtained from Multisim simulations.

Figure 3: Circuit Diagram of Signal Generator

Figure 5: Frequency Values that Needs to be Validated by the Use of Multisim when
Particular Switch is Closed
In
order to conduct the analysis, the circuit
diagram was first implemented in
Multisim, ensuring that all component
values and connections were accurately
represented. The NE555 timers were
configured according to the desired
operating parameters, including the values
of resistors and capacitors that
determine the timing characteristics of
the square wave generator. Once the
circuit was set up in Multisim, a series of simulations were performed to determine the
frequencies generated when each switch was closed. The simulations involved applying
appropriate input signals, activating the switches, and observing the output signals on the
oscilloscope in Multisim.

For each switch configuration, the generated frequencies were recorded and compared
to the calculated values obtained from theoretical calculations. Any discrepancies between the
calculated and simulated frequencies were carefully examined and to identify potential
sources of error or inaccuracies. The process was repeated for different combinations of
switch configurations to cover a range of operating scenarios. By systematically varying the
switch positions and observing the resulting frequencies, a comprehensive dataset was
obtained for analysis.

After obtaining the simulated frequencies, they were compared with the calculated
values obtained from theoretical calculations. The table of frequency values included in the
report clearly presents the comparison between the simulated and calculated frequencies for
each switch configuration. This detailed analysis of the simulated frequencies in comparison
with the calculated values serves to validate the accuracy of the circuit design and the
performance of the Signal Generators and Inverters based on NE555 timers. Any deviations
or discrepancies between the simulated and calculated frequencies were analyzed to
determine the factors contributing to the differences and identify potential areas for
improvement.

Overall, the combination of Multisim's simulation capabilities, accurate circuit

representation, and comparison with calculated values provides a robust and comprehensive
approach to evaluating the performance of Signal Generators and Inverters. The data obtained
from the simulations serves as a valuable reference for validating the frequency ranges and
confirming the effectiveness of the NE555 timer-based circuit design. By employing
Multisim in this project, engineers and students gain valuable insights into the behavior of the
circuit and can fine-tune the design parameters to optimize the performance of the Signal
Generators and Inverters. Additionally, the ability to compare simulated and calculated values
enhances the understanding of circuit analysis principles and contributes to the development
of essential engineering skills.
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

In order to conduct a thorough analysis and validation of the calculated frequency

values, it was imperative to accurately recreate the signal generator circuit diagram in a
virtual environment. To achieve this, the powerful circuit generator tool provided by
Multisim, a comprehensive software specifically designed for circuit design and simulation,
was utilized. By leveraging the advanced functionalities and features of Multisim, the signal
generator circuit diagram was meticulously constructed, considering the precise
specifications and component values required for the circuit. This ensured that the virtual
prototype closely resembled the physical circuit, thereby enabling accurate simulation and
analysis of the generated frequencies. By using Multisim, the circuit diagram of the signal
generator have managed to be generated as follows:

Figure 4: Circuit Diagram of Signal Generator and Inverter using NE555 Timers Generated in Multisim

The circuit diagram was analyzed in a systematic manner, focusing on closing one of
the five switches while keeping the others closed, thereby supplying each circuit with a
different capacitor value. This configuration allowed for the investigation of the frequency
response of the circuit under varying conditions. To determine the maximum and minimum
frequencies, the potentiometer resistor was adjusted to 0% and 100% respectively. This
ensured that the theoretical frequency values, calculated based on the circuit parameters, were
obtained for validation purposes.

By closing a specific switch, a specific capacitor value was introduced into the circuit,
influencing its overall behavior and frequency response. This approach enabled a
comprehensive exploration of the circuit's characteristics, allowing for the identification of
any variations in frequency output based on the capacitor's contribution. Additionally,
adjusting the potentiometer resistor to its minimum and maximum values provided a means
to validate the theoretical frequency calculations and compare them against the simulated
results obtained from Multisim. The purpose of this analysis was twofold: firstly, to
determine the maximum frequency, which represents the highest achievable frequency output
under the given circuit configuration, and secondly, to ascertain the minimum frequency,
which corresponds to the lowest achievable frequency. By precisely adjusting the
potentiometer resistor, the circuit's response was measured and compared to the calculated
values. Any disparities or deviations between the theoretical and simulated frequency values
were carefully evaluated and documented for further analysis.

Throughout the experimental process, the measured frequency values were

meticulously recorded in a comprehensive table, allowing for a detailed comparison between
the theoretical calculations and the simulated results obtained from Multisim. This
comparison served as a basis for evaluating the accuracy and validity of the circuit design and
calculations. The obtained frequency values are tabulated below for reference:

Frequency Ranges of Squarewave Signal Generator

Theoretical Value Simulated Value Percentage Error
Closed
Capacitor (Hz) (Hz) (%)
Switch
F min F max F min F max F min F max
Switch 1 C 1=1nF 29.7 k 357 k 27.0 k 194 k 9.09 45.66
Switch 2 C 2=10 nF 2.97 k 35.7 k 2.67 k 22.4 k 10.1 37.25
Switch 3 C 3=100 nF 297 3.57 k 277 2.29 k 6.73 35.85
Switch 4 C 4=1 μF 29.7 357 26.9 229 9.43 35.85
Switch 5 C 5=10 μF 2.97 35.7 2.15 16.8 27.61 52.94

Table 1:Frequency Ranges of Squarewave Signal Generator Obtained

The observed discrepancies between the theoretical or calculated values and the
simulated values can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the theoretical calculations are
based on ideal component values and assumptions, whereas the simulated values does take
into account the real-world characteristics and tolerances of the components used in the
circuit. Variations in component parameters, such as capacitance and resistance, can lead to
deviations between the calculated and simulated values. Furthermore, the presence of
parasitic effects, including capacitance, inductance, and resistance, in the circuit can impact
its behavior and introduce additional impedance or delay. These parasitic effects are often
difficult to accurately model in theoretical calculations and can contribute to differences
between the expected and simulated results.

Lastly, the accuracy of the simulation results also depends on the assumptions made
during the simulation setup. Simplifications or idealizations in the simulation model may not
capture all the nuances and complexities of the actual circuit, leading to differences in the
observed values. In addition, during the theoretical calculation, certain assumptions are made,
such as neglecting the forward resistance and voltage drops across diodes 3 and 4 (Schottky
diodes) and assuming an infinite reverse resistance for the diodes. These simplifications are
often made to simplify the calculations and obtain a general understanding of the circuit
behavior. On the other hand, when running the simulation, the software takes into account the
specific characteristics and parameters of the components, including the forward resistance
and voltage drops across the diodes. This means that the simulation considers a more realistic
representation of the circuit, accounting for the actual behavior of the diodes. The
discrepancies observed during the analysis of the maximum frequency range could be
attributed to these differences in assumptions between the theoretical calculation and the
simulation. The inclusion of the diode characteristics, such as forward resistance and voltage
drops, in the simulation could lead to variations in the observed values compared to the
theoretical predictions.

It is important to note that the assumptions made during the theoretical calculation
and the complexities considered in the simulation can introduce deviations between the two
approaches. This highlights the significance of validating the simulation results with practical
experiments to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the circuit behavior and minimize
uncertainties. Considering the impact of the diode characteristics and the assumptions made
during the theoretical calculation, it becomes apparent that they could be contributing factors
to the larger percentage errors observed during the maximum frequency analysis.
NE555 TIMER AS AN INVERTER

The NE555 timer is a versatile integrated circuit commonly used in various electronic
applications, including as an inverter circuit. In the context of an inverter circuit, the NE555
timer can be configured to generate a square wave output signal with a frequency determined
by the external components connected to it. By appropriately setting the resistor and capacitor
values, the NE555 timer can produce an inverted output waveform, where the logic level is
flipped from high to low and vice versa. This makes it useful for applications that require
signal inversion, such as in motor control, signal processing, and digital logic circuits. The
NE555 timer's simplicity, low cost, and wide availability make it a popular choice for
implementing inverter functionality in electronic designs. Within the circuit diagram
generated by Multisim, the NE555 timer (IC3) serves as the inverter responsible for
generating the inverted output waveform. To achieve different amplitudes, resistive dividers
are employed before the output is sourced. These dividers, connected to pins 3, 4, and 5,
divide the inverted output by factors of 10, 100, and 1000, respectively, across connector 5.
By referring to Figure 4, when switch 4 is ONN at minimum frequency, the connection
between connector A (output from IC2) and connector A1 (output from IC3) reveals that both
square wave signals possess the same amplitude magnitude. However, the signal from IC3 is
distinguished by its inverted nature, as depicted by the blue line in the diagram.

+7.88 V (Red Line)

-7.88 V (Blue Line)

Figure 5:
2: Inverted Signal from IC3 (When Switch 4 "ONN")

Next the different amplitude of each circuit are pictured and classified below. The circuit
diagram shows different amplitudes for each pin (pin 3, 4, 5) due to the presence of resistive
dividers. The resistive dividers are responsible for dividing the inverted output by factors of
10, 100, and 1000 across connectors 5 for pins 3, 4, and 5, respectively. These resistor values
result in varying amplitudes for each pin. However, despite the differences in amplitude, the
frequencies remain similar when the respective switches are closed. This is because the
frequency is primarily determined by the timing components and the NE555 timer itself,
rather than the amplitude of the signal. The amplitude shown as below :

Table 2: Amplitude at oscilloscope 1

Switch fmin fmax

S1

S2

S3

S4
S5
Switc fmin fmax
h

S1

S2

S3

S4
S5